George Minoso2025-02-14T15:26:23-06:00

In Their Own Voices: Factors Effecting Collegiate Hockey Player Use and Perception of Mental Skills

George Minoso2025-02-14T15:26:23-06:00March 21st, 2025|Sport Training, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|

Author: Elia Burbidge

Author: ¹ Elia Burbidge

Elia Burbidge is a Doctoral Student in Sport and Exercise Psychology at Springfield College. Springfield, MA.

ABSTRACT 

Mental skills use and perceptions of their effectiveness in collegiate level athletes have been studied extensively in sport psychology. The usage of mental skills has been deemed effective overall and in collegiate settings. That said, little research has investigated hockey players’ perceptions of mental performance. Due in part to the unique culture of hockey there is a need to study hockey players’ perceptions of, and influences on the use of, mental skills. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the perceptions and usage of mental skills in collegiate hockey players, along with perceptions of how hockey culture impacts these beliefs through interviews with current college hockey players. Semi-structured interviews of six collegiate hockey players took place. Findings from these interviews suggest that level of play, exposure, and hockey culture largely impact how participants use and perceive mental training. These findings also suggest that some collegiate hockey players may be using psychological strategies without having been deliberately taught these strategies. 

Key Words: psychological strategies, hockey culture, college athletics 

INTRODUCTION 

The effectiveness of mental training has consistently been shown in both research and applied settings (6, 10, 21, 23, 26, 33, 34).  A recent meta-analysis by Lochbaum et al. (26) indicated that using mental skills positively impacts performance, with mindfulness, task cohesion, and self-efficacy having the largest positive mean effect sizes.    

Despite evidence that mental skills training and mental health interventions increase performance, athletes often neglect the development of psychological skills (12, 19). Athletes are hesitant to work with a sport psychology professional in part due to common misperceptions related to masculine stigmas, lack of knowledge about sport psychology, and the tangibility of results (5, 10, 16, 19, 27, 40).  Findings indicate that hesitancy can stem from past experiences with sport psychology professionals (SPPs), demographics (gender, age), and participation in a masculine or more physical sport where injury is common, and where the social role of a male athlete is stigmatized (27, 16). This supports previously found conclusions that reflect a greater hesitancy from male athletes to seek help from an SPP than female athletes (27, 28). Furthermore, personal openness, playing a team versus individual sport, and preferences of a consultant based on the same or similar cultural background contribute to overall perceptions of working with an SPP and using mental skills (5, 14, 20, 27, 28, 39). Additionally, Fortin-Guichard et al. (14) found that athletes’ perceptions and understanding of sport psychology or SPPs are often confused with the role of a psychiatrist or therapist, with the perception of offered services rooted in clinical psychology.  

Research has also indicated that NCAA athletes are often likely to view the benefits of a psychological skills training (PST) program as negative and have low confidence in the process and its benefits (28). Furthermore, the perceptions of SPPs can be positively impacted based on the SPPs actions of involving coaching staff, serving as a player-coach liaison, and earning trust through social and environmental involvement (40). Lastly, research indicates that the coaching staff’s perceptions of using an SPP vary. Although becoming more positive (43), the staff’s perceptions of and willingness to use an SPP is also a factor influencing athlete’s perceptions and use of mental skills (5, 15, 37, 2010).   

MENTAL SKILLS USE IN HOCKEY  

Research focused on hockey players’ perception and use of mental skills originated from Anderson et al. (4), who implemented a PST program in a collegiate hockey team throughout two seasons to help improve body checking in games. Body checking is seen as a beneficial asset in being successful against a team’s opponent and can often be used to defend, gain possession of the puck, and even intimidate. To date, body checking is only allowed in men’s hockey after a certain age and is penalized in women’s hockey. The use of body checking was assessed pre and post goal setting, feedback, and active praise interventions. It was found that hitting rates increased more with feedback over goal setting and praise. Furthermore, a study of junior-level Finnish hockey players found that using different methods of goal setting (e.g., task, approach) was highly correlated with enjoyment and perceived sporting ability (22). Most recently, after implementation of a PST program with a collegiate hockey team, players showed significant increases in their ability to cope with adversity, goal setting, peaking under pressure, and freedom from worry. Overall, this intervention positively influenced the mindfulness, resiliency, and coping skills in the personal and athletic lives of collegiate hockey players (42). These results highlight the continued importance of psychological skills training for hockey players. Research on mental skills of hockey goalies as their own unique group has also been done. A recent review of mental training effectiveness in hockey found that the majority of mental skills training (MST) programs have a cognitive control focus, specifically using attention, thought, and emotional control exercises (29). Common mental techniques used by goalies have been identified by both Monnich (29) and Gelinas and Munroe-Chandler (17), including mindfulness, imagery, goal setting, focused breathing, and self-talk.   

UNDERSTANDING HOCKEY CULTURE   

To better understand mental skills perception and use in hockey players, it is critical to analyse the hyper-masculine culture of hockey. Hockey has been culturally accepted as a tough, physical, and aggressive sport played by predominately white, middle to upper-class, heterosexual males (1, 3, 7, 18). Interviews with former and current Canadian Hockey League (CHL) players found that players attributed much of the masculine ideologies that describe how hockey should be played (3). Players also discussed how locker room culture is an environment that heavily enforces and upholds masculine ideals. Finally, participants expressed concern about how the media plays a role in suppressing traits that are not deemed as masculine (e.g., finesse style of play, not fighting, being vulnerable) (3). Using current NHL player Sidney Crosby as an example, Allain (2) showed how the media often called him ‘wimpy’ and a ‘complainer’, or during substantial concussion-based injuries as ‘weak’ (2). In addition, Lefebvre et al. (24) specifically addressed the stigmas surrounding mental health in junior hockey players. The researchers described how athletes often avoid seeking mental health counselling for fear of being seen as weak or unable to compete, a finding more prominent in male athletes (14, 24).  

Research on hockey culture also focuses on the challenges female players face (1, 18). Interviews with female hockey players in Sweden indicated their perceived femininity is deemed “at risk”, as opposed to the male athletes who are perceived as going through hockey as a rite of passage into manhood (18). Furthermore, women in hockey are deemed to have a ‘masculine’ image (muscular, tough) but are also required to prove their worth in ability and strength to compete in the men’s game. The participants also expressed how they are often viewed as inferior and that it is very difficult to challenge these norms and ideologies (18).  

Adams and Leavitt (2018) interviewed the staff of varying Alberta youth hockey associations. Participants heavily discussed the lack of female representation across positions within the organizations and poor refereeing due to the misunderstanding of body checking or lack thereof in the women’s game (1). Overall concluding that there is often a romanticization of female athletes, and how their journeys are portrayed as positive, but are often dampened by discrimination, accessibility issues, suppressed opportunity, and gender ideologies (1).  

PURPOSE  

Based on past research, it seems hockey players can benefit from working with an SPP, however few players are using this service, perhaps in part due to hockey culture. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to address the following research questions:   

1. Develop an understanding of the usage of mental skills in collegiate hockey players.  

2. Develop an understanding of the perceptions of mental skills held by hockey players.  

3. Better understand the impact if any of how hockey culture on the above beliefs. 

METHODS 

Participants 

Participants consisted of three collegiate athletes that competed in men’s hockey (participants four – six) and three collegiate athletes that competed in women’s hockey (participants one – three). Three of the six participants competed at the highest level of collegiate hockey, NCAA Division I, while two competed at ACHA DI, the highest level below NCAA, and one participant competed at the ACHA DII level.  

Procedures 

A semi-structured interview guide was developed for this study to increase the consistency of the interviews and give a framework for the interviewer to follow. Although there were set questions, the guide allowed for follow-up and engagement based on the clients’ answers, allowing for flexibility and opportunities for openness for the participants (35).   

The interview guide was comprised of three sections. The first section focused on the participants’ demographics and general sport experience. This section aimed to give the participants a chance to get comfortable with the interviewer and to develop a relationship between interviewer and interviewee. The second section of the interview guide was focused on understanding the athlete’s experiences with mental training, both formal and informal in the past, as well as on their perceptions of mental training. Example questions included “Would you be open to learning more about mental skills? Why or why not?” and “Have you used or do you use mental skills?”  The third and final section focused on the participants view of hockey culture and how if at all they felt it impacted their or others use of mental skills. Example questions included “If someone asked you to explain the culture of hockey, what would you say?” and “Do you think this culture influences your views on: the use of mental skills, seeking help from a sport psychologist, and what people think about you?” “Questions in each section of the interview guide were based on prior research stemming from the previously conducted literature review. The broader themes of topics found (i.e., body checking, how players might have been using mental skills) were used to guide the development of open-ended questions for the current study to satisfy a potential gap or recommendation suggested within the previous literature.” At any point during the interview process the participant wanted to expand or discuss ideas not included in the original questions, they were encouraged to do so freely, and this information was included as part of their experience and responses.   

IRB approval was obtained for this study. Once approval was obtained participants were recruited via convenience sampling. Specifically, as the primary researcher of this study was part of the collegiate hockey community, they reached out to coaches they knew to ask that they send a recruitment email to their athletes. Additionally, posts were made on social media via the primary and secondary researchers’ university and personal pages. Once participants emailed the research team indicating that they were interested in participating they were scheduled for a Zoom interview. Participants were interviewed until saturation was met.  “Saturation is defined as “when no new data or information is being produced, was believed to have occurred within the six participants (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Saunders et al., 2018).  

At the beginning of the interview, participants were sent a link to follow that included the research notification and an opportunity for them to consent to participation in the study. Zoom was chosen as it allowed for interviews with participants in a large geographical location and served to increase the convenience of participation for the participants.  Interviews were conducted by the first and second author of the study and lasted between 25-45 minutes.  Although every participant was asked the same questions from the interview guide, in the same way, the order with which they were asked and the extent of the follow up conversation was guided by the participant themselves, in an attempt to build open communication with the participants. Elaboration language such as “Can you tell me more about that?” or “Why do you think that is the case?” were used to give more detail and paint a fuller picture of the participants experiences (35). Interviews were recorded and transcribed using Yuja programming. Transcripts were then checked by the primary author for accuracy and any changes necessary were made. 

Data Analyses  

Coding and analysis were done using Braun and Clarke’s guide for reflexive thematic analysis (8, 9). Specifically, the aim was to follow an inductive, semantic, and realist approach to data analysis in the pursuit of finding meaning in the data. This method allowed the primary author, to identify, analyze, and assess patterns or themes within the transcripts. Using this method of data analysis also allowed for greater flexibility in theme extraction. At each stage she documented my work to help ensure the development of themes was clear and could be followed by the secondary author and a second coder who has brought in to increase trustworthiness at a later stage of the data analysis process. This was a six-phase approach in which she first became familiar with the data set by reading through the transcribed interviews multiple times, noting any initial thoughts or ideas. She then began to code initial thoughts, making sure to re- read the transcripts as thoughts and emerging themes were being identified, followed by a more in-depth analysis of the transcribed data by defining themes with the matching data.  Although she tried to not have her experiences impact coding, to allow for an inductive approach to the coding, it was noted that as a former hockey player and coach she likely had biases that she was bringing to the coding. Therefore, a researcher who was not part of the study design or implementation also independently coded the data using the same methodology. We then analyzed the codes against the data to make sure they were representative of the data. Once we had both developed our themes, we discussed any differences and came to a consensus. This led to a set of themes and where appropriate subthemes created to help explain the experiences of the participants. Finally, by writing down the analysis process the primary researcher was able to notice patterns and connect the themes to past research, as is desired in the final step of thematic analysis (9). 

To increase the trustworthiness of this study, credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability were assessed (25, 32). Specifically, as a previous hockey player and sport psychology professional, the primary researcher recognized the biases she possessed and the potential impact it would have on the study. Therefore, not only was a second coder brought in, as noted above, but peer debriefing, with the second author of the study serving in the role, was used to challenge her assumptions and analyze the data collection and data analysis of both her and the outside coder (establishing credibility). After the two coders had met to go over their codes and came to agreement, an external auditor also reviewed both the process and the results (establishing dependability and transferability). Finally, a thick description of both the research process and the participants’ interviews are included in this manuscript to increase transferability and confirmability.   

RESULTS 

Four themes emerged that impacted if and how the players used mental training skills, their perceptions of mental training, and their perceptions of sport psychology professionals. The major themes that emerged were level of competition, exposure, and hockey culture. Furthermore, players indicated using several mental training strategies which was a final theme related to hockey players mental training use. Each theme also had sub themes, for a full list see Table 1 with further description and illustrative quotations below. 

Table 1   

Theme Chart  

Theme	Subtheme
Level of Competition	Length of season  Intensity of the game
Exposure	Organizational support – access to SPC    Coaching staff  Peers and teammates   Classes   Lack of exposure
Hockey Culture	How others view hockey players and hockey culture  Participants’ views of hockey culture
Mental Strategies Used	Skills development  Strategy development

Level of Competition  

The level of competition theme included two subthemes. The first subtheme was length of season, with three participants noting the length of the season being a reason to use mental training. As stated by Participant 1 “Hockey is a long season too … so I think it could take a toll on your mental, but yeah.”  The second subtheme was the level of intensity present at the collegiate level where participants expressed using mental skills were more important at higher levels. For example, Participant 3 noted “College hockey is kind of a lot, it takes like a mental toll on you. I definitely am experiencing it right now. As fun as hockey is, like, it gets pretty tough.” Participant 5 who competes in the NCAA DI level, stated  

“I think it’s [mental training] super important, especially as you get older. As you climb the ranks of hockey through high school and junior hockey to college, it becomes more and more important…. Everyone’s really good hockey players when you get to this point. So, you’ve got to find an edge somewhere. So that’s when you realize you got to start doing a different mental preparation thing.”   

In contrast, Participant 4 who competes at the ACHA DI level, discussed how they recognized mental skills use but “I just wanted to train really hard, but I’ve never really wanted to train my mind … it’s just we’re there to have fun, right.” It is important to note that this was in part in comparison to many people he played with in Canada currently playing at what he perceived to be higher levels of play, “I’m just here to have fun … I got to play hockey through my whole career at school and stuff like that. That’s kinda where I’m happy. These guys [people he played with as a youth] are getting paid to play, so I’m paying to play.” (Participant 4).  The differences in the athletes’ views of the levels they competed at highlight the importance of athletes’ perception of their experiences.   

Exposure   

The theme of exposure relates to the experiences participants had about how their environment and how those within it influence their usage and perceptions of mental skills. Within this theme, five subthemes were identified: organizational support, coaching staff, peers and teammates, classes, and lack of exposure.    

For the subtheme of organization support four of the six participants expressed how they would use services provided by a SPP if this resource was available to them at the organizational level but that they did not have access with their current team (contracted by the athletic department). As expressed by Participant 5   

Yeah, I think if it [mental training] was available, I think if we had one at school right now, I think if that was available to the team, I definitely be talking to him or her. But unfortunately, it’s not something we have here. But if the opportunity presents itself, I definitely think I would see them. 

For the second subtheme of coaching staff, all six participants explained how their coaching staff influences their use and perceptions of mental skills. Three participants indicated that their coaches often offered support, emphasis on proper preparation, and suggested mental training books. Participant 6 explained their coach’s emphasis on preparation, “… [talks] about preparation stuff… like not going out the night before games, gotta get prepared. Like to make sure to stay in shape, don’t be eating like shit.” While other participants expressed how their coaching staff neglect or do not encourage mental skills use. As Participant 4 described “He mentioned them, but he just yells at us. He pretty much just tells us we’re not mentally strong … He knows like your mentality is very important, but he doesn’t know how to like build your confidence.” Further explained by Participant 2 “We’re always told growing up that hockey is 90% mental and 10% physical… they didn’t put emphasis on the mental part, but they still tried to get people to think about that too.”   

Peers and teammates were the third subtheme identified in the exposure theme. Four participants discussed the impact of peers and teammates. For instance, Participant 4 stated   

Through my coach or through my peers. I think like if my buddies were saying, yeah, like I’m using this guy and he’s awesome. Or if my coach said, here we brought this guy in there, and hear them talk and see if you like them, then I’d be more willing to try stuff like that.  

For the subtheme of classes, two participants explained how they were exposed to mental skills use through taking Sport Psychology classes as part of earning their degree. Participant 2 described where they learned to use visualization techniques “I had been doing it [visualization] already, but I learned it in school,” and Participant 4 stated “I feel like school helped me more to understand my mental skills.”   

Lastly, the lack of exposure subtheme. Of the six participants four of them discussed using mental training skills, however, none of the participants had experience with or exposure to a SPP. There was also a general misunderstanding of mental skills use. Three of the six participants asked for clarification on what mental skills are or an example of mental skills use after being asked if they use mental skills. “Like what does that entail?” (Participant 1). Misunderstanding mental training and mental health was a common trend when these participants were asked about working with a SPP. “I don’t think I need to, but if it was diagnosed that I did, then yeah, I’d be open to it,” (Participant 6).   

Hockey Culture  

A prominent discussion point was that of hockey culture and its influence on mental skills use and perceptions. Two subthemes emerged from these conversations, how others view hockey players and hockey culture, and participants’ views of hockey culture.    

The first subtheme of how others view hockey players and hockey culture was described in the following ways. For example, Participant 3 described “I would have always chosen hockey over every sport just because of the people that I’ve met and the experiences that I’ve had, like I wouldn’t change any of that.” Male participants spoke to how male hockey players are seen as ‘red flags’ or ‘a**holes’.  Participant 6 said  

Yeah, so common beliefs for hockey players, definitely like not great guys, scum bags. Like think they’re better than everyone else. I think those are typical stereotypes for sure. Don’t think those are all true … the perception of hockey players all the time isn’t great.  

When discussing perceptions of hockey players and common stereotypes, the female participants explained how people perceive them in a masculine nature. “People do see that I’m hockey player, they kinda like take a step back because normally people are like field hockey or like they don’t think of like ice hockey because that’s normally just a guy sport,” (Participant 1). Within the conversation of differences between men’s and women’s hockey were comments related to body checking. The female participants expressed how the disallowance of body checking in women’s hockey supports the common stereotypes and perceptions about women’s hockey. “They come to our games, and we don’t do that (body check) and then they think it’s boring, or they think that we’re not good or something like that … because we’re women and more fragile and we can’t get hit because we will cry,” (Participant 2). In terms of influencing mental skills use and perceptions, Participant 2 also explained how the masculine stigmas of toughness associated with mental health would prevent male players or teams to work with a sport psychology professional,   

Because men are taught from a very young age that emotion, that they’re not supposed to show emotion and they’re not supposed to be vulnerable. So that would be putting them in a state of vulnerability. And then playing hockey in the first place is their spot to get out all that stuff on the ice and in an aggressive way.  

The second subtheme was participants’ views of hockey culture and their experiences within it. Three participants discussed how being mentally tough and being perceived as tough is important in hockey and impacted their use or lack of use of mental training strategies and/or seeing a sport psychology professional. Participant 1 noted “…I think just like the overall mental toughness and needing to have thick skin and like on and off the ice. And that if you can work on that, then it’s going to make you a better player.” Despite this, two participants alluded to their perceived importance of mental toughness in different way, like disregarding the need for SPP use or mental skills because they felt like support from their teammates was enough to help them, or vice versa, in that their teammates would support them in bettering themselves. As Participant 1 described “Yeah, I think if you’re not in a good culture, then definitely I would have to seek help, but being in a good culture, I don’t think you’d need to get help if you’re in a good environment.”   

Mental Skills Strategies Used   

Two subthemes, skill development and strategy use were identified within this theme. Mental skills used included staying focused and managing emotions. Participant 2 described   

“I don’t know, try, and keep all of my emotions down. Like I don’t get, I get very invested into the game and I get very emotional like as the game progresses and calming that down so I can focus on just playing instead of dealing with all this emotion plus having to play as well.” Participant 1 also noted “I think it’s a good way to talk to yourself and you don’t have to bring it out on other people. It’s more just between you and yourself.”  

The subtheme of mental strategies included breathing exercises, visualization, and preparation-based routines. Participant 6 highlighted the importance of their pregame routine and using visualization to help them prepare for their game, despite misunderstanding mental skills use previously,  

I usually put my AirPods in and just go I get ready like pretty, fairly early. I get dressed little early put my AirPods in and then go sit on the bench and just like look at the clean ice like after the Zamboni is done and just kind of visualize like what I’m gonna do out there.  

Participant 2 said “Yeah I like to visualize… I think it gives me a little bit more confidence, especially if it’s a big game and I’m nervous and it gives me the confidence that I could do the little things right.” Participant 5 stated   

I think visualization is a big mental skill that I use. Being a goalie, I think it’s a big part of the game… I like to spend the night if I know I’m playing the night before, I’d like to, before I go to bed, close my eyes and imagine game scenarios against who were playing and their players and fix myself in different situations so it can be best prepared for whatever is thrown at me during the game.  

DISCUSSION 

The purpose of this study was to investigate the perceptions and usage of mental skills in collegiate hockey players, along with perceptions of how hockey culture impacts these beliefs through interviews with current college hockey players. Interviews with six collegiate hockey players led to the following four themes emerging: Level of Competition, Exposure, Hockey Culture, and Mental Strategies Used. Within Level of Competition, two subthemes were identified: length of season and intensity of the game. Five subthemes were identified within Exposure: organizational support and access, coaching staff, peers and teammates, classes, and lack of exposure. Within Hockey Culture, two subthemes were found: others’ view of hockey culture and participants’ views of hockey culture. Lastly, two themes emerged from Mental Strategies Used: skills development and strategy development.   

When assessing the participants’ views on level of play and intensity, participants at the highest collegiate level found mental skills use to be more important than participants at lower levels, with one participant even noting that he did not use mental training strategies since he did not see the reason to for his lower level of play. Players noting level of play and intensity of the game as reasons to use or not use mental training highlights the need for more education on how mental training can be beneficial at all levels of the game.   

 The fact that none of the participants had worked with a SPP or had a coach who advocated or taught mental training strategies adds to this view.  Despite this, four participants still used a variety of mental strategies, most commonly imagery and breathing exercises. Given that these participants have had no experience in working with a SPP, nor encouragement from those around them to do so, it is of interest to determine where hockey players may be learning these strategies and if they are using them in an effective way. Future research should consider addressing this question via quantitative research that can better understand how mental strategies are being learned and implemented by athletes.  

Participants all noted not having access to an SPP, but that they would be willing to work with an SPP if they had access. Research conducted by Wrisberg et al. (41) at the NCAA DI level suggests that this may be due to lack of funds and differing perceptions athletic departments hold that prevent them from adding an SPP to their staff as an available resource to their student-athletes. Earlier research conducted by Wilson et al. (38) on athletic directors’ perceptions of SPPs show that higher value was placed on support staff that focused on physical wellbeing of student athletes (athletic trainers, strength and conditioning coaches) rather than consultation services provided by an SPP. This highlights the importance of the organization when it comes to athletes’ mental skills use. These findings support past research that indicated leadership was an important aspect of influencing the beliefs and values of those within a sporting organization’s culture. (14, 36). This also lends support to the current recommendations by the NCAA that athletics departments focus on athlete mental well-being in their hiring practices, including hiring those who specialize in sport psychology (30, 31).  

Coaches and peers were also shown to be important stakeholders when it came to athletes’ use and perception of mental training. The role of the coach as an influence on athletes is well established in the literature with Chu and Tang (11) noting coaches are the most important social agent of influence on an athlete’s autonomy. Furthermore, this finding supports past research that has indicated that a coaching staff’s perception of an SPP or mental skills use is crucial in how their athletes perceive them as well (5, 15, 37, 40, 43). In this study, participants noted that their coaches heavily encouraged mental toughness but none of the participants were taught about mental training or what exactly their coach meant, or ways to achieve mental toughness. This lack of support for mental training while expecting athletes to be “mentally tough” indicates athletes are being asked to achieve a psychological level of performance without the necessary support. As we would never expect athletes to “just get fit” without giving them resources to do so, this highlights the need for applied sport psychology to be more accessible to athletes. With this in mind, it is important for both future researchers and applied professionals to focus on how to get the important stakeholders within sport to advocate and promote sport psychology use. Furthermore, these results highlight the lack of access players had and the role this plays in athletes lacking an understanding of what mental training entails and how they could use psychological skills training for their sport performance.    

Hockey culture was a prevalent theme within these interviews. All six participants addressed how much they enjoyed hockey culture, how unique it was to be a part of a hockey team, and that their team was a family. The tight knit community of a hockey team indicates a need for the SPP to be embedded with the team to have the greatest impact. Workshops conducted by Eubank et al. (13) at the 2013 CESP Conference discussed the importance of an SPP fully understanding and being engaged within the team’s culture as a monumental aspect of success. Participants all commented on hockey being seen as a ‘guys sport’, using words like “masculine” and “macho” to describe how they believe the sport is perceived by others.  They noted the stigmas of toughness and hypermasculine culture as being a deterrent to using mental training or seeing an SPP; this supports past research (1-3, 7, 14, 18) that found hypermasculinity as a large component of hockey culture is still prevalent today. Interestingly, female participants discussed the same stigmas, but they were less likely to be a deterrent to using sport psychology services for them, instead noting that these stereotypes and perceptions of others, and those within hockey were more likely to lead to perceptions of female players being seen as masculine, or less feminine. Not the area of focus for this study, but future research should investigate how these perceptions lead to female players continuing in the game and their perceptions of themselves as both hockey players and women.   

Interestingly two of the participants noted they were Canadian, and in both cases, they discussed the culture of hockey being different in America. As we did not explicitly ask questions related to country differences impacting hockey culture for all participants, we did not include it in our results, however it may be an area for future researchers to consider.   

As is the case with all research it is important to note potential limitations in these findings.  First, there was a lack of representation across all divisions among the sample. Furthermore, participants were all competing in Midwest or Eastern regions of the United States indicating that this sample was limited in its breadth across different levels and areas across the United States. 

APPLICATIONS IN SPORT AND FUTURE RESEARCH 

The themes that emerged indicate players lack of knowledge about mental training in hockey could be impacting both the use and perception of mental training.  The interviews made it apparent that the players feel a deep sense of attachment to their view of hockey as a unique culture, and it being a family. Therefore, SPPs interested in working with hockey teams should make sure to be aware of the need to be an immersed part of this family when it comes to getting buy-in with athletes. Additionally, SPP’s will also need to be aware of the lack of education or inaccurate education hockey players may have about PST and how they can be an asset to the players’ experiences. 

 An SPP should become familiar with the unique culture of hockey, including differences in the men’s and women’s game, as well as lack of exposure to mental training that their players have had when beginning a PST program with a team or individual.  Notably, the culture of hockey upholds specific behaviours that may challenge an SPP. Specific language and routines may take time to understand in terms of application of SPP workshops and skills, SPPs should be cognizant of this adjustment period and the significance of these cultural pillars present within hockey and its participants. Additionally, there are meaningful differences between that of men’s hockey and women’s hockey. SPPs need to understand the processes associated with each and with highlighted importance of the expectations and stereotypes that may be present and affect both men’s and women’s hockey players. In addition, the course of career play differs significantly between the two. Men’s hockey has varying paths and opportunities available, with the recent updates between the NCAA and CHL that supports the playing of male players in both of these leagues. However, the opportunities for female hockey players is slowly changing. SPPs should become familiar with the emergence of the Professional Women’s Hockey League (PWHL) and the significance this holds for many aspiring female players and the development of women’s hockey. Lastly, as many participants stated within the current study, not all hockey players may have had exposure to or experience working with a SPP. In that, SPPs need to approach the instruction of mental skills work and provisions of resources that support a breadth of existing knowledge present within the population they are working with. Specifically, in that the understanding of a niche and protected culture of hockey, coupled with a potential lack of experience, may mean that the SPP needs to continuously assess for knowledge and experience while planning specific programming for hockey teams and players.  

Future research should consider interviewing hockey players from other areas and levels. Specifically, since the sample of participants in this study was those in the Midwest and Eastern Regions of the United States, expanding to different geographic regions or countries would potentially lead to additional information. Finally, given the findings of this study, interview questions for future research might explore topics such as the specific mental skills participants use or find valuable, ask for further clarification or examples of hockey culture norms and perspectives.  

CONCLUSIONS 

The purpose of this study was to qualitatively investigate how collegiate hockey players use and perceive mental skills and determine the influence of hockey culture on these perceptions. The findings suggest that level of play, exposure, and hockey culture all play a heavy role in how collegiate hockey players use and perceive mental training. Participants described psychological strategies such as imagery, breathing exercises, and preparation routines. These findings are crucial for sport psychology professionals in understanding how to work effectively within the niche sporting culture of hockey. The uniqueness of hockey culture makes it important to study this group specifically, without making assumptions about their experiences with psychological skills training based on research in other sports.    

REFERENCES 

George Minoso2025-02-14T14:46:42-06:00

The correlation between weight divisions and methods used by winning mixed martial arts athletes

George Minoso2025-02-14T14:46:42-06:00March 7th, 2025|Sport Training, Sports Health & Fitness|

Authors: Chenghao Ma¹

The correlation between weight divisions and methods used by winning mixed martial arts athletes

ABSTRACT

This study analyzes the correlation between weight divisions and the methods used by 174 top-ranking Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC) elite athletes to victory, thus providing valuable information to help coaches and athletes formulate their training plans and competition strategies. It uses descriptive statistical analysis to present essential data in answer to a number of research questions. A Mann-Whitney U test was conducted to test the difference between male and female athletes within the same weight divisions, with a Kruskal-Wallis test revealing differences among weight divisions for each sex. Spearman’s correlation and Linear Regression tests were then used to analyze the relationship between these weight divisions and the methods used by winning athletes. The results indicated the following ratios for success: Knockout (KO)/Technical Knockout (TKO) (40.21%±22.27), Decision (36.78%±20.88), and Submission (23.01%±18.36). Spearman’s rho bivariate correlation test showed that the weight divisions for male athletes had a positive correlation with KO/TKO and a negative correlation with Decision and Submission regarding the methods leading to their success. However, there was no correlation between weight divisions for female athletes and their winning methods. Linear regression test results indicated linear correlations between the independent and dependent variables and created regression models for the correlation between the weight divisions of male athletes and their methods. The present study aims to provide coaches and athletes with valuable reference points concerning weight divisions and victory, thus enabling them to optimize training plans and competition strategies and change weight divisions to secure competitive advantages. Sports fans would also be able to make more logical predictions concerning the possible victory methods of their favorite athletes.

Key Words: combat sports; UFC; athletic performance; training plan; competition strategy

INTRODUCTION

Mixed Martial Arts (MMA) is a fast-growing sport worldwide. Mixed martial artists usually come from a variety of martial arts disciplines, such as boxing, karate, Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu, Muay Thai, kickboxing, and wrestling (16, 20), and athletes can use different techniques in MMA competitions, such as striking (using hands, elbows, knees, and feet) and grappling (takedown, chokes and joint locks) (4, 6, 15, 18). Most MMA competitions are held in octagonal cages, with the fights being divided into three or five rounds of five minutes with a one-minute interval to rest (9). The wide range of techniques allows athletes to show their unique fighting skills, making competitions entertaining spectacles (13).

From time immemorial, human beings have used fighting techniques to protect themselves from beasts and invaders to survive. One could say, therefore, that fighting has evolved along with human society, with different martial arts being formed in different regions and countries. The origin of MMA can be traced back to 648 BC when at the 33rd Olympic Games, Ancient Greek athletes competed in an arena with their bare hands in what was called Pankration (1). In Pankration, the rules made it difficult to win by mastering only one fighting technique, so the participants were usually proficient in multiple techniques, such as boxing, wrestling, and ground fighting.

Since the 1990s, along with the rapid development of MMA, organizations promoting it have also emerged worldwide. The Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC) is, in fact, the most influential organization, with its first-ever event in the United States held in 1993 (11). Mixed martial arts is now becoming a mainstream sport, and the UFC has since become the leading organizer of MMA events (29). The UFC adopted the Unified Rules of Mixed Martial Arts in November 2000 to ensure the safety of athletes and fair competition (32). These rules are intended to provide a clear set of regulations governing professional MMA competitions consistent across different athletic commissions and other regulatory bodies. The framework for these rules was proposed and agreed upon by the various athletic commissions and adopted unanimously by the Association of Boxing Commissions (ABC) in July 2009 (32). The establishment and adoption of the Unified Rules of MMA mark the beginning of MMA as a sport accepted by both governing bodies and the public alike and have played an essential role in developing and promoting mixed martial arts. The commercial growth and international expansion have attracted athletes from other fighting categories to join the sport and compete in the UFC. A study on top-ranking UFC athletes is therefore thought to be both valuable and meaningful.

Mixed martial arts fights occur within specific weight divisions, with athletes winning a contest by Knockout, Technical Knockout, Submission, or the Referee’s Decision (21, 27). Divisions are based on body mass, and the athletes are then paired according to weight to prevent heavier athletes from scoring an obvious advantage, just as in other combat sports (8). The weight divisions stipulated by the UFC include eight weight classes for male athletes (Flyweight, Bantamweight, Featherweight, Lightweight, Welterweight, Middleweight, Lightweight Heavyweight, and Heavyweight) and three weight classes for female athletes (Strawweight, Flyweight, and Bantamweight), with the Flyweight division for females having been added (31). MMA athletes are grouped into different weight classes determined by their weight and measured around 24 to 32 hours before the competitions (7). Body mass manipulation through rapid weight gain and rapid weight loss is common among MMA athletes to ensure qualification for the weight class in which the athlete wants to compete (3, 5, 19). Therefore, weight classes are usually a matter of concern for coaches, athletes, and even MMA fans and are a prerequisite for fair competition (22).

UFC fights are governed by the Unified Rules of Mixed Martial Arts in which the fighter wins the fight in the following ways (2, 24, 30): First, for a victory to be secured through KO (Knockout), the referee stops the fight because the athlete cannot defend himself consciously because of striking techniques. The second is the TKO (Technical Knockout), where the referee, doctor, or the athlete’s corner stops the fight because the athlete cannot defend himself or herself if continuing the fight will put the athlete’s health at risk. The third is the Referee’s Decision, in which the referee scores the winner through a ten-point must system. The fourth is won by Submission, in which the athlete controls his opponent through submission techniques, causing that opponent to signal that he cannot continue the fight (10, 23). The diversity of winning styles makes the outcome of MMA fights unpredictable. The unique methods used to secure a win displayed by the different weight classes can provide coaches and athletes with a deeper understanding of their particular weight division and how a move to a new weight class might affect their methods. Thus, coaches and athletes can adjust training plans and competition strategies (25, 26).

The main research questions of this study are: What is the ratio of winning methods used by top-ranking UFC mixed martial artists regarding different gender groups and weight divisions? Secondly, is there a correlation between weight divisions and these winning methods? This study hypothesizes that as the weight divisions increase, there is a greater likelihood for the athletes to win by KO/TKO and a lower chance of winning by Decision and Submission. There is thus a significant positive correlation between weight division and KO/TKO and a significant negative correlation between weight division and Decision or Submission. This study analyzes the methods used to win and the correlation between these weight divisions and approaches to provide valuable information for martial arts coaches, athletes, and fans.

METHODS

Sample

Data concerning weight divisions and the methods used by male and female MMA athletes participating in the UFC to secure a victory (KO/TKO, Decision, and Submission) were collected from publicly available sources. Data were also collected from the official UFC ranking website (https://www.ufc.com/rankings) (31). A total of 174 athletes (male: 127; female: 47) who are champions and rank in the top 15 were involved in the sample data. MMA athletes were divided by gender and weight groups (Strawweight: up to and including 115 lbs, Flyweight: over 115 to 125 lbs, Bantamweight: over 125 to 135 lbs, Featherweight: over 135 to 145 lbs, Lightweight: over 145 to 155 lbs, Welterweight: over 165 to 170 lbs, Middleweight: over 175 to 185 lbs, Lightweight Heavyweight: over 195 to 205 lbs, and Heavyweight: over 225 to 265 lbs).

Archived databases from public access websites have in the past been employed for studies similar to the present research, without ethical issues in the investigation and interpretation of the data, as they were gathered in a secondary form and not developed experimentally (12, 14, 15, 17). The personal identification of individual data has also been avoided in this study, thus ensuring anonymity and confidentiality.

Statistical Analysis

First, a descriptive statistical analysis was conducted using SPSS 24 software. Data were provided as mean, minimum, maximum, and standard deviations. The Mann-Whitney U test was applied to test the difference between male and female athletes within the same weight divisions (Flyweight and Bantamweight), and a Kruskal-Wallis test showed the difference between weight divisions in each gender group. Spearman’s correlation and Linear Regression tests were then used to analyze the relationship between these weight divisions and the methods used by winning athletes within each gender group.

RESULTS

As shown in Table 1, male athletes who won were as follows: by KO/TKO: 43.75%±22.98; Decision: 33.35%±20.75, and Submission: 22.92%±18.70. Female athletes who won were as follows: by KO/TKO: 30.64%±17.04; Decision: 46.04%±18:43, and Submission: 23.23%±17.61. The total for athletes who won was as follows: by KO/TKO: 40.21%±22.27; Decision: 36.78%±20.88, and Submission: 23.01%±18.36. Table 2 shows a descriptive analysis of the methods used to win within different weight divisions for male and female athletes.

Table 1

Analysis of Methods Used to Win

Sex		KO/TKO (%)	Decision (%)	Submission (%)
Male	N	127	127	127
	Mean	43.75	33.35	22.92
	Std. Deviation	22.98	20.75	18.70
	Minimum	.00	.00	.00
	Maximum	93.00	95.00	81.00
Female	N	47	47	47
	Mean	30.64	46.04	23.23
	Std. Deviation	17.04	18.43	17.61
	Minimum	.00	17.00	.00
	Maximum	67.00	85.00	76.00
Total	N	174	174	174
	Mean	40.21	36.78	23.01
	Std. Deviation	22.27	20.88	18.36
	Minimum	.00	.00	.00
	Maximum	93.00	95.00	81.00

Table 2

Descriptive Analysis of the Methods Used to Win Within Different Weight Divisions (Percent)

Sex			N	Mean	Std. Deviation	Std. Error	Minimum	Maximum
Male	KO/TKO	Flyweight	16	32.25	20.03	5.01	4.00	81.00
		Bantamweight	16	33.00	18.21	4.55	2.00	73.00
		Featherweight	16	36.56	16.09	4.02	.00	64.00
		Lightweight	15	44.60	25.72	6.64	6.00	86.00
		Welterweight	16	33.50	18.06	4.52	.00	57.00
		Middleweight	16	48.50	23.50	5.87	8.00	85.00
		Light Heavyweight	16	55.00	19.19	4.80	19.00	86.00
		Heavyweight	16	66.63	20.76	5.19	32.00	93.00
		Total	127	43.75	22.98	2.04	.00	93.00
	Decision	Flyweight	16	30.31	20.45	5.11	6.00	88.00
		Bantamweight	16	49.19	18.79	4.70	20.00	86.00
		Featherweight	16	38.56	12.13	3.03	8.00	53.00
		Lightweight	15	31.47	24.83	6.41	.00	83.00
		Welterweight	16	45.31	24.61	6.15	.00	95.00
		Middleweight	16	31.81	18.11	4.53	.00	63.00
		Light Heavyweight	16	20.63	13.96	3.49	.00	44.00
		Heavyweight	16	19.38	12.16	3.04	.00	37.00
		Total	127	33.35	20.75	1.84	.00	95.00
	Submission	Flyweight	16	37.44	17.79	4.45	6.00	64.00
		Bantamweight	16	17.69	12.86	3.21	3.00	50.00
		Featherweight	16	24.81	19.26	4.82	.00	60.00
		Lightweight	15	23.73	17.69	4.57	4.00	64.00
		Welterweight	16	21.38	17.60	4.40	3.00	61.00
		Middleweight	16	19.75	16.29	4.07	.00	56.00
		Light Heavyweight	16	24.44	24.03	6.01	.00	81.00
		Heavyweight	16	14.19	16.87	4.22	.00	56.00
		Total	127	22.92	18.70	1.66	.00	81.00
Female	KO/TKO	Strawweight	16	27.69	16.26	4.07	.00	58.00
		Flyweight	15	31.53	15.86	4.09	11.00	55.00
		Bantamweight	16	32.75	19.39	4.85	.00	67.00
		Total	47	30.64	17.04	2.49	.00	67.00
	Decision	Strawweight	16	40.75	19.63	4.91	17.00	85.00
		Flyweight	15	50.67	18.12	4.68	27.00	83.00
		Bantamweight	16	47.00	17.25	4.31	22.00	81.00
		Total	47	46.04	18.43	2.69	17.00	85.00
	Submission	Strawweight	16	31.56	22.36	5.59	.00	76.00
		Flyweight	15	17.67	11.51	2.97	.00	38.00
		Bantamweight	16	20.13	14.56	3.64	.00	50.00
		Total	47	23.23	17.61	2.57	.00	76.00

Table 3 shows that U=490, W=1018, and Z=-0.083 for KO/TKO, corresponding to a significant probability of p=0.934>0.05, with the null hypothesis being accepted, showing that there is no significant difference between the KO/TKO rates for men and women within the same two weight divisions (Flyweight and Bantamweight). For the Decision method, U=371, W=867, and Z=-1.720 corresponded to a significant probability of p=0.043<0.05. The null hypothesis is therefore rejected, showing a significant difference in wins by Decision between men and women. For Submission, U=371, W=867, and Z=-1.720 corresponded to a significant probability of p=0.085>0.05, so the null hypothesis was accepted, showing no significant difference between men and women in this respect.

Table 3

The difference within Same Weight Divisions (Male and Female) in Terms of the Methods Used to Win

	KO/TKO	Decision	Submission
Mann-Whitney U	490.000	349.000	371.000
Wilcoxon W	1018.000	877.000	867.000
Z	-0.083	-2.022	-1.720
Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)	0.934	0.043	0.085

Table 4 shows that the chi-square values for male athletes were: KO/TKO=30.117, Decision=33.209, and Submission=15.815. The corresponding probabilities were: p<0.01 (KO/TKO), p<0.01 (Decision), and p=0.027<0.05 (Submission), showing that there was a significant difference in the methods used by winning male athletes across weight classes. The chi-square values for female athletes were: KO/TKO=0.646, Decision=2.705, Submission=3.552. The corresponding probabilities were: p=0.724>0.05 (KO/TKO), p=0.259>0.05 (Decision), and p=0.169>0.05 (Submission), showing that there was no significant difference in the way female athletes won in different weight classes.

Table 4

Kruskal-Wallis Test to Determine the Approaches Used by Winning Athletes Across Weight Divisions

Sex		KO/TKO	Decision	Submission
Male	Chi-Square	30.117	33.209	15.815
	df	7	7	7
	Asymp.Sig.	0.000	0.000	0.027
Female	Chi-Square	0.646	2.705	3.552
	df	2	2	2
	Asymp. Sig.	0.724	0.259	0.169

 

As shown in Table 5, the results of the Spearman’s rho bivariate correlation test for male athletes were as follows: KO/TKO (r=0.446, p<0.01), Decision (r=-0.311, p<0.01), and Submission (r=-0.255, p=0.004<0.01). These results show that the weight class for male athletes had a positive correlation with KO/TKO and negative correlations with Decision and Submission. The Spearman’s rho bivariate correlation test for female athletes was as follows: KO/TKO (r=0.109, p=0.464>0.05), Decision (r=0.171, p=0.250>0.05), and Submission (r=-0.209, p=0.160>0.05). These results show no significant correlation between the weight classes of female athletes and the three approaches to winning.

Table 5

Spearman’s rho Correlation Test Between Weight Divisions and Winning Methods

Sex		KO/TKO	Decision	Submission
Male	Correlation Coefficient	0.446	-0.311	-0.255
	p (2-tailed)	0.000	0.000	0.004
Female	Correlation Coefficient	0.109	0.171	-0.209
	p (2-tailed)	0.464	0.250	0.160

Because the male athletes showed a correlation between weight class and the methods they used to win, a further linear regression analysis was performed based on the weight (Pounds) and the methods used by male athletes to win. Table 6 shows statistical tests for the linear regression model. The correlation coefficient was R=0.482, R²=0.232, adjusted R²=0.226, and the estimated standard error was 20.21593. The results show a linear correlation between the independent variable weight (Pounds) and the dependent variable KO/TKO.

Table 6

Statistical Tests of Linear Regression Model (KO/TKO)

Model	R	R Square	Adjusted R Square	Std. Error of the Estimate	Change Statistics					Durbin-Watson
					R Square Change	F Change	df1	df2	Sig. F Change
1	.482a	.232	.226	20.21593	.232	37.840	1	125	.000	1.990
a. Predictors: (Constant), Pounds
b. Dependent Variable: KOTKO

Table 7 shows the results of the variance test of the regression statistics, such as the variance, sum of squares, degrees of freedom, mean square value, the value of the statistic F, and its probability of significance for the model. The results show that F=37.840 with a probability of P<0.01, indicating that the regression effect is significant in this case.

Table 7

ANOVA Test (KO/TKO)

Model		Sum of Squares	df	Mean Square	F	Sig.
1	Regression	15464.466	1	15464.466	37.840	.000b
	Residual	51085.471	125	408.684
	Total	66549.937	126
a. Dependent Variable: KOTKO
b. Predictors: (Constant), Pounds

Table 8 shows the test of regression coefficients. The coefficient of the independent variable weight (Pounds) is 0.278, with a companion probability of p<0.01, indicating that the independent variable had a regression coefficient; therefore, there is a linear correlation between the independent and dependent variables. The regression equation is thus: Ŷ = -4.150 + 0.278X.

Table 8

Regression Coefficient Test (KO/TKO)

Model		Unstandardized Coefficients		Standardized Coefficients	t	Sig.
		B	Std. Error	Beta
1	(Constant)	-4.150	7.991		-.519	.604
	Pounds	.278	.045	.482	6.151	.000
a. Dependent Variable: KO/TKO

Table 9 shows the statistical test table of the linear regression model as follows: the correlation coefficient was R=0.329, R²=0.109, adjusted R²=0.101, and the estimated standard error was 19.66908. The results show a linear correlation between the independent and dependent variables.

Table 9

Statistical Tests of Linear Regression Model (Decision)

Model	R	R Square	Adjusted R Square	Std. Error of the Estimate	Change Statistics					Durbin-Watson
					R Square Change	F Change	df1	df2	Sig. F Change
1	.329a	.109	.101	19.66908	.109	15.224	1	125	.000	2.011
a. Predictors: (Constant), Pounds
b. Dependent Variable: Decision

Table 10 shows the results of the variance test of the regression statistics, such as the sum of squares, degrees of freedom, mean square value, and the value of the statistic F and its probability of significance for the model. The results show that F=15.224 with a probability of p<0.01, indicating that the regression effect is significant in this case.

Table 10

ANOVA Test (Decision)

Model		Sum of Squares	df	Mean Square	F	Sig.
1	Regression	5889.677	1	5889.677	15.224	.000b
	Residual	48359.078	125	386.873
	Total	54248.756	126
a. Dependent Variable: Decision
b. Predictors: (Constant), Pounds

Table 11 show the test for regression coefficients. The coefficient of the independent variable weight (Pounds) is -0.172 with a probability of p<0.01, indicating a significant regression coefficient for the independent variable; therefore, linear correlation between the independent and the dependent variables. The regression equation is thus Ŷ = 62.906-0.172X.

Table 11

Regression Coefficient Test (Decision)

Model		Unstandardized Coefficients		Standardized Coefficients	t	Sig.
		B	Std. Error	Beta
1	(Constant)	62.906	7.774		8.091	.000
	Pounds	-.172	.044	-.329	-3.902	.000
a. Dependent Variable: Decision

Table 12 shows the statistical test table for the linear regression model. The correlation coefficient was R=0.222, R²=0.049, adjusted R²=0.042, and the estimated standard error was 18.30691. The results show a linear correlation between the independent and dependent variables.

Table 12

Statistical Tests of Linear Regression Model (Submission)

Model	R	R Square	Adjusted R Square	Std. Error of the Estimate	Change Statistics					Durbin-Watson
					R Square Change	F Change	df1	df2	Sig. F Change
1	.222a	.049	.042	18.30691	.049	6.488	1	125	.012	2.017
a. Predictors: (Constant), Pounds
b. Dependent Variable: Submission

Table 13 shows the results of the variance test of the regression statistics, such as the sum of squares, degrees of freedom, mean square value, and the value of the statistic F and its probability of significance for the model. The results show that F=6.488 with a probability of P=0.012<0.05, indicating that the regression effect is significant in this case.

Table 13

ANOVA Test (Submission)

Model		Sum of Squares	df	Mean Square	F	Sig.
1	Regression	2174.356	1	2174.356	6.488	.012b
	Residual	41892.857	125	335.143
	Total	44067.213	126
a. Dependent Variable: Submission
b. Predictors: (Constant), Pounds

Table 14 shows the test of regression coefficients. The coefficient of the independent variable weight was -0.104 with a probability of p=0.012<0.05, indicating that the regression coefficient of the independent variable was significant; there is a linear correlation between the independent and the dependent variables. The regression equation is thus Ŷ = 40.882-0.104X.

Table 14

Regression Coefficient Test (Submission)

Model		Unstandardized Coefficients		Standardized Coefficients	t	Sig.
		B	Std. Error	Beta
1	(Constant)	40.882	7.236		5.650	.000
	Pounds	-.104	.041	-.222	-2.547	.012
a. Dependent Variable: Submission

DISCUSSION

A comparison of the data shows that the athletes winning by KO/TKO were 40.21%±22.27, Decision was 36.78%±20.88, and Submission was 23.01%±18.36. The percentage of the approaches used by male athletes to win in descending order was: KO/TKO 43.75%±22.98, Decision 33.35%±20.75, and Submission 22.92%±18.70. The rate of female athletes in descending order by the method they used to win was: Decision 46.04%±18:43, KO/TKO 30.64%±17.04, and Submission 23.23%±17.61. The comparison of two typical levels of Flyweight and Bantamweight for both men and women indicated that there was no significant difference between KO/TKO (p=0.934>0.05) and Submission (p=0.085>0.05), but there was a significant difference for Decision (p=0.043>0.05).

The results showed that the most common method used by male athletes to win was KO/TKO, then Decision, and finally Submission. In contrast, the most common method for female athletes was Decision, then KO/TKO, and finally Submission. Since there are only two equal-weight divisions for both male and female athletes, the comparison shows that there is only a significant difference between the Decision wins, with no significant difference between the other two.

The Kruskal-Wallis test showed that there was a significant difference in the styles used by male athletes to win across weight divisions, with p<0.01 (KO/TKO), p<0.01 (Decision), and p=0.027<0.05 (Submission). However, there was no significant difference in the way female athletes won across the different weight divisions, with p=0.724>0.05 (KO/TKO), p=0.259>0.05 (Decision), and p=0.169>0.05 (Submission). The data analysis showed significant differences in the methods used by male athletes to win in each weight class, while there were no significant differences in those employed by female athletes.

The Spearman’s rho bivariate correlation test showed that, for male athletes, the weight class had a significant positive correlation with KO/TKO wins (r=0.446, P<0.01), a significant negative correlation with Decision wins (r=-0.311, P<0.01), and a significant negative correlation with Submission wins (r=-0.255, P=0.004<0.05). Data analysis showed that the higher the weight divisions of the male athletes, the greater the chance of KO/TKO wins and the smaller the chance of Decision and Submission wins. In contrast, the results indicated no significant correlation between the female athletes’ weight divisions and their winning methods. Although there appears to be no significant correlation between weight class and the methods female athletes use to win, this assumption was based on contexts in which there are only three weight class data for female athletes. It is worth noting that data on fewer weight classes for female athletes are likely to influence correlation and that further research is needed to test the association.

Based on the results of the correlation analysis between weight classes and the approaches used to win, a linear regression analysis of the weight and methods of male athletes was conducted in this study. The results indicated a significant linear correlation between the independent variable (weight: pounds) and the dependent variable (KO/TKO, Decision, and Submission). The regression analysis may provide a specific approach for more precise predictions of the correlation effects between weight divisions and the methods used by elite MMA athletes to win. For example, assuming that a male athlete weighs 180 pounds, that brings into the equation Ŷ = -4.150 + 0.278X (KO/TKO), Ŷ = 62.906-0.172X (Decision), Ŷ = 40.882-0.104X (Submission), which corresponds to a KO/TKO probability of winning of about 45.89%, a Decision win probability of approximately 31.95%, and a Submission win probability of roughly 22.16%. It is worth noting here that this linear regression model is not intended to provide coaches or athletes with precise predictions of successful methods in particular weight divisions but rather to provide a reference that must be used in practice, taking other factors into account in the overall judgment.

This paper is not a study of who will win a fight but a projection of the most likely means used by an athlete to win a competition within different weight classes. Its key role is to provide coaches and athletes with additional information to optimize their training programs and competition strategies (28). Neither does this study provide an analysis of other influencing factors. Hence, coaches and athletes need to consider other factors when preparing for a specific competition, for example, the technical and tactical characteristics of the athlete and the opponent, and the particular environment of the competition, instead of considering this as a single constant factor.

Coaches train athletes at different levels of competition, and this study can inform coaches’ training programs for athletes in different weight classes. For example, elite heavyweight MMA fighters are most likely to win by KO/TKO and less likely to win by Decision and Submission. Coaches should consider this factor when scheduling training programs and preparing competitive strategies. MMA athletes should consider their weight divisions as a factor in their training strategies, allowing for more effective training plans. In addition, combat sports athletes will many times move up or down in weight classes to secure a competitive advantage, and coaches and athletes should consider the probability of methods used to win within different weight classes when planning whether to move up or down, thereby increasing the likelihood of success. In addition, MMA fans can also make more reasonable predictions about competition outcomes and the methods used by their favorite athletes to win based on the results of the present study.

The present study has several limitations. The first is that data on the athletes were collected from a single MMA organization, the UFC, even though it is, in fact, the leading organization in promoting the sport. Secondly, this study has only analyzed the factors of weight division with limited R² results,which might limit the linear regression model’s implementations. Therefore, the influence of other factors should also be considered according to the characteristic of mixed martial arts’ diverse techniques and tactics. A more comprehensive analysis will enable effective techniques and tactics to enhance an athlete’s overall performance. Finally, the fact that only three levels of data were available for female athletes’ weight divisions led to no significant correlation between weight classes and the methods used by athletes to secure victory. 

Future studies might therefore be conducted with data for the fourth division for female athletes being added or as more relevant data from other organizations are obtained. In order to examine the generalizations made in the present study or potential trends within the sport itself, future research into other MMA organizations and athletes – for example, amateur organizations and athletes – could be based on similar methods or by observing the same organization at different periods.

CONCLUSIONS

This study investigated the correlation between weight divisions and the methods used by top-ranking UFC mixed martial arts athletes to win. Results provided the following ratios for these methods: KO/TKO (40.21%±22.27), Decision (36.78%±20.88), and Submission (23.01%±18.36). The Mann-Whitney U test results used in the study showed no difference in KO/TKO and Submission as methods used by male and female athletes to secure a victory within the same weight divisions, compared with a difference in Decision. The Kruskal-Wallis test showed a difference in the methods used by winning male athletes across different weight divisions and no difference in those employed by female athletes.

Spearman’s rho bivariate correlation test showed that the weight division of male athletes had a positive correlation with KO/TKO and a negative correlation with Decision and Submission, and no correlation between female athletes’ weight divisions and how they won. Linear regression test results showed linear correlations between male athletes’ independent and dependent variables.

APPLICATIONS IN SPORT

This study may provide coaches and athletes with a valuable reference for the relationship between weight divisions and the methods used by winning athletes when optimizing training plans and competition strategies. Coaches and athletes should also consider the probability of different methods within different weight divisions when planning to move up or down weight classes to secure a competitive advantage. Sports fans may also use this study in order to predict competitive outcomes.

REFERENCES

George Minoso2025-02-14T14:29:38-06:00

Pilot study of the efficacy of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) intervention for injured Division I student-athletes

George Minoso2025-02-14T14:29:38-06:00February 21st, 2025|Research, Sports Health & Fitness|

Authors: Jay Trenhaile¹.  Thayer Trenhaile², and Thayne Munce

Pilot study of the efficacy of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) intervention for injured Division I student-athletes 

ABSTRACT 

Four NCAA Division I student-athletes, who had previously been injured, volunteered to participate in Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing therapy (EMDR) and completed both pre and post test measures. The sessions ranged from five to eight treatments and results on the Profile of Mood States 2nd Edition – Adult Short (POMS 2-A Short) indicated notable decreases on Total Mood Disturbance and Tension/Anxiety scales. Increases were found on the Vigor/Activity scale (Positive Mood State). The student-athletes who participated in the study achieved “personal records” in 11 of the 17 potential areas of measure for a “personal record” in their sport. In addition, some student-athletes achieved multiple “personal records” in some of their events. Utilizing EMDR therapy with student-athletes who are experiencing distress or declining performance should receive notable consideration by mental health clinicians who are providing therapeutic services to collegiate student-athletes.     

Key Words: Recovery from injury; Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing; Mental Health;  Sport Performance; Student-Athlete Performance;  Trauma 

INTRODUCTION 

INTRODUCTION 

Every year there are an estimated seven million sport and recreation-related injuries (17). This includes a number of students and student athletes at colleges and universities who suffer from injuries, such as torn ligaments, broken bones, concussions, etc. Sometimes these incidents result in surgeries and/or require extended physical therapies or related treatments.   

In addition to the physical injury, student-athletes may experience Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and other trauma-related/mental health disorders (1). PTSD can be the result of direct physical injury, witnessing a traumatic event (i.e. injury to a teammate) or relationship dynamics within the sport (i.e. coaches, teammates). Aron (1) also found student-athletes experienced PTSD at a 13-25% higher rate than the general population. Similarly, Houston (6) found that college student-athletes experienced lower levels of health-related quality of life (HRQOL) after injury, but injured athletes who were able to participate had a higher HRQOL than those who were injured and unable to participate.    

After an injury, another common psychological reaction is reinjury anxiety (16). In fact, reinjury anxiety is reported as the most common reason for athlete’s inability to return to a sport after anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) surgery (12).   

A well-known, effective psychotherapy designed to treat anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder, and similarly stressful situations is Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR) (14). The main focus of the EMDR approach is to efficiently alter distressing memories from the past into something useful (14). The effectiveness of the EMDR approach is predominately due to its adaptability and applicability to other therapeutic approaches. EMDR is considered to be complex and consists of multiple phases that incorporate eye movement into a well-rounded approach (11). 

Incorporated within the EMDR treatment are bilateral stimulations (15). These important parts of the intervention process include eye movements, tactile taps, and/or auditory tones. Due to its adaptability and applicability, the EMDR approach can be effectively used to treat a wide variety of distressing and traumatic symptoms. This was illustrated in a meta-analysis completed by Chen (2), which found that EMDR significantly reduced the symptoms of PTSD, depression, anxiety, and subjective distress.    

Limited EMDR research with subjects experiencing concussions and brain trauma (10) has noted a significant positive impact on clinical conditions, such as scores on the Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale for DSM-5 (CAPS-5). Improvement on the positron emission tomography (PET) and electroencephalography (EEG) assessments also indicated favorable metabolic and electrophysiological changes accompanying EMDR.  

Depression, fatigue, irritability, confusion, and general mood disturbance are frequently reported after cerebral concussion necessitating more thorough examination of post-concussive emotional disturbances empirically, and clinically (8). On a positive note, research conducted by Gil-Jardine (5) found that persistent symptoms after concussion (PSaC) can be prevented in up to 75% of patients with a brief, early EMDR treatment session. Given that 10 – 20 % of individuals who experience a concussion develop PSaC, including emotional symptoms, treatments such as EMDR that can decrease the negative disturbances should be studied more and evaluated for clinical utility.  

Research supporting the use of EMDR in a variety of scenarios continues to grow and provides support for using this therapy with recovering collegiate student-athletes experiencing distress and/or declining performance post injury. This pilot-study with four student-athletes provides initial support for further study and utility of this therapy with collegiate student-athletes and supports findings of Reynoso-Sánchez (13) and Curdt (3) (4) who used EMDR as a treatment to reduce anxiety and increase self-confidence in athletes.    

METHODS 

Study Design 

The primary researcher was trained through EMDR Consulting, which is an EMDR International Association (EMDRIA) Approved training entity. This researcher completed half of the training face-to-face and the other half was completed virtually.  

Participants 

Student-athletes at an NCAA Division I institution with a previous injury were solicited to participate in the research study. In order to protect research participant anonymity, limited demographic information is presented in this article.   

Participants were recruited through flyers placed in the main athletic training facility and the academic study room. Athletic academic advisors and athletic trainers served as referral sources for the research study as well. Another referral source was graduate students within the academic Counseling and Human Resource Development program on campus.        

Two of the student-athlete participants had experienced chronic lower leg injuries, which was shared in their initial meeting with the researcher and cited as the primary reason for volunteering to be in the research study. Two other participants had experienced concussions within the previous 12 months prior to enrollment in the study and cited those experiences as the majority of motivation for participation. Another participant had been experiencing shortness of breath episodes that had been limiting their ability to complete practice and accompanying workouts, but was unable to be included in the final results because the mood disturbance questionnaire was not completed at the treatment conclusion. And, one participant dropped out of the study after the initial meeting. No student-athlete was denied participation in the research study and all participants were traditional college-age student-athletes with three being at least 21 years of age and academically meeting the criteria as an upper class student (i.e. junior or senior).  

Measures 

The Profile of Mood States 2^nd Edition – Adult Short (POMS 2-A Short) was utilized to provide self-report information identifying levels of mood disturbance and positive mood states (7). The POMS 2-A Short provides a scale score on Negative Mood States and includes individual scales for Anger-Hostility, Confusion-Bewilderment, Depression/Ejection, Fatigue-Inertia, and Tension-Anxiety. Positive Mood States provide a scale score, which includes Vigor-Activity. An affective state scale of Friendliness is also provided as a measure of adaptability and quality of life. The pre-test was completed during the initial research meeting with the individual student-athlete and researcher. A post-test administration of the POMS 2-A Short was requested of the participants after they had completed the EMDR therapeutic interventions (see below for additional details).    

Results from the participants’ sports competitions during the semester they received the EMDR therapy was reviewed to provide performance indicators of the research participants. Specifically, the number of times the student-athlete achieved a “personal record”, as reported in the official news releases from the sports information department, was tabulated.  

Intervention and Procedure 

  The EMDR protocol that EMDR Consulting used in their trainings served as the therapeutic intervention. After a standard intake questionnaire was completed, the student-athletes completed Shapiro’s Calm/Beautiful Place activity along with some other tools such as Four-Square Breathing, 4-7-8 Breathing, and the 5-4-3-2-1 grounding technique (9). Grounding techniques and other resourcing tools provided the student-athlete completing the EMDR therapy with skills and techniques to manage strong emotions or traumatic memories related to the injury. The student-athletes were strongly encouraged to practice these interventions prior to their second visit (i.e. approximately one week after the initial meeting). During the second meeting, the presenting complaint was reviewed along with the negative core beliefs as well as the positive core beliefs. Unrestricted processing was utilized after the researcher was confident of the student-athletes’ resourcing ability (i.e. use of calm place or breathing interventions).     

RESULTS 

Pre-, Post-, and Follow-Up Measures 

Four of the participants completed both pre and post POMS-2A Short surveys. In addition to the individual scale scores provided for each student-athlete, percent change, and the average score for the participants was provided. Percentages were rounded to the nearest tenth. Results on the Total Mood Disturbance found the average of the participants decreasing from a score of 60.3 to a score of 43.5. Two of the participants’ ratings dropped from a classification of “elevated” to a classification of “low”. Complete results are identified in Table 1 including the percent change. 

Table 1 

 POMS 2-A Short Total Mood Disturbance Pre and Post Test Results 

STUDENT-ATHLETE	Total Mood Disturbance  (Pre Test)	Total Mood Disturbance(Post Test)	Change (%)
1	67	56	-16.4
2	44	40	-9.1
3	61	39	-36.1
4	69	39	-43.5
Total	241	174	-27.9
Average	60.3	43.5	-27.9

Results on the individual scales of Anger-Hostility and Confusion-Bewilderment all found mean decreases with the largest decrease in Anger-Hostility, which decreased an average of 16.75 points. Table 2 provides the breakdown of the results including percent change. 

Table 2 

 POMS 2-A Short Anger-Hostility; Confusion-Bewilderment; Pre and Post Test Results  

STUDENT-ATHLETE	Anger – Hostility (Pre Test)	Anger – Hostility (Post Test)	Change (%)	Confusion- Bewilderment (Pre Test)	Confusion – Bewilderment (Post Test)	Change (%)
1	60	51	-15	55	50	-9.9
2	40	40	0	40	38	-5.0
3	51	40	-22.6	62	40	-35.5
4	53	40	-24.6	62	42	-32.3
Total	204	171	-16.2	219	170	-22.4
Average	51	42.8	-16.2	54.8	42.5	-22.4

The Depression-Dejection and Fatigue-Inertia scales provided similar decreases as noted in the other scales on the POMS 2-A Short, with the largest mean decrease in Fatigue-Inertia, which decreased 22 points on average.  Results from these two scales are provided in Table 3.   

Table 3 

POMS 2-A Short Depression- Dejection; Fatigue-Inertia; Pre and Post Test Results  

STUDENT-ATHLETE	Depression-Dejection (Pre Test)	Depression- Dejection (Post Test)	Change (%)	Fatigue – Inertia  (Pre Test)	Fatigue – Inertia  (Post Test)	Change (%)
1	53	53	-0	67	59	-12.0
2	41	43	0.5	46	44	-4.4
3	43	41	-10.9	50	34	-32.0
4	60	46	-23.4	59	36	-39.0
Total	200	183	-8.5	222	173	-22.1
Average	50	45.8	-8.5	55.5	43.3	-22.1

 

The Tension-Anxiety scale had the largest decrease of any scale on the instrument as the mean decreased 26 points.  Results from the Tension-Anxiety scale are shown in Table 4 

Table 4  

POMS 2-A Short Tension-Anxiety; Pre and Post Test Results 

STUDENT-ATHLETE	Tension – Anxiety  (Pre Test)	Tension – Anxiety   (Post Test)	Change (%)
1	61	48	-21.4
2	51	43	-15.7
3	61	46	-24.6
4	71	43	-39.5
Total	244	180	-26.3
Average	61	45	-26.3

In the Positive Mood Disturbance, scores in the Vigor-Activity area increased after the intervention. However, scores on the Friendliness scale were generally unchanged. Table 5 provides the breakdown of those scales including the percent change.   

Table 5 

POMS 2-A Short Vigor-Activity; Friendliness; Pre and Post Test Results 

STUDENT-ATHLETE	Vigor – Activity  (Pre Test)	Vigor – Activity (Post Test)	Change (%)	Friendliness (Pre Test)	Friendliness      (Post Test)	Change (%)
1	49	56	14.2	45	50	11.1
2	54	61	12.9	61	58	-5.0
3	44	56	27.2	42	47	11.9
4	49	61	24.4	50	50	0
Total	196	234	19.3	198	205	3.5
Average	49	58.5	19.3	49.5	51.3	3.5

An analysis of the news releases from the sports information department during and after the study found reports of “personal records” for all four of the student-athletes who completed the pre and posttests in the study. In addition, the results from the student-athlete who participated in the study but didn’t complete the post-test were reviewed. Of the 17 potential areas of measure for a “personal record”, the student-athletes who participated in the study achieved “personal records” in 11 of those areas. Some student-athletes achieved multiple “personal records” in some of their events.   

Student-Athlete # 1  

This student-athlete reported multiple concussions as a participant in a different sport and was beginning participation in a new collegiate sport. After four sessions, notable decreases were identified in Total Mood Disturbance and Anger/Hostility and Tension/Anxiety on the POMS-2. Being considered somewhat of a beginner in their new sport, they were identified in news and press releases with nine “personal records” in five different events during or after completing EMDR treatment. However, this individual’s novice status needs to be taken into account, as being new to a sport provides more opportunities for improvement and thus, new “personal records”.  

Student-Athlete # 2  

Student # 2 was experiencing chronic lower extremity pain and had minor changes on the Total Mood Disturbance scale at the conclusion of EMDR treatment. A total of eight sessions were completed and scores in Vigor/Activity (Positive Mood State) did increase from the “average state” to “elevated”. News and press releases cited this student-athlete with two “personal records” in their sport out of five events/activities possible.  

Subjective Units of Distress (SUD), which is used in EMDR therapy to serve as a measure of the disturbance of negative emotional thoughts related to the traumatic experience, were described by this student-athlete as a “weight on my shoulders….the weight feels like the opinions of others….I’m waiting for something bad to happen…”. These descriptive emotional thoughts were also reported in academic activities at times as well as during athletics.  

Student-Athlete # 3  

This student-athlete reported a chronic lower extremity injury along with difficulty with reoccurring thoughts regarding the injury. After treatment, notable decreases were found on the Total Mood Disturbance scale of the POMS-2 along with lower scores in the Confusion/Bewilderment and Tension/Anxiety scales. Student-athlete # 3 completed eight sessions as part of their EMDR treatment process and achieved “personal records” in three different events/activities as noted in press releases or the news. They participated in four events/activities in their sport.  

When describing the SUD, this student-athlete’s comments ranged from “I feel anxious just thinking about it” to “I’m feeling more in control of my thoughts and how they make me feel”. The Validity of Cognition (VOC) is used in EMDR therapy as a measure of belief in the process of establishment of positive memory related to the events/situations. When processing the Validity of Cognition (VOC), this student-athlete described more positive thoughts as they progressed from, “I’m feeling a bit tense” to “I’m excited…my shoulders feel better…”.   

Student-Athlete # 4 

Student # 4 described a general lack of confidence after experiencing a bout of depression and a concussion within the previous 12 months. Scores on the POMS-2 scales of Total Mood Disturbance, Confusion/Bewilderment, and Tension/Anxiety decreased a substantial amount, while the Positive Mood State scale (Vigor/Activity) increased at a notable level. This student-athlete had a “personal record” reported in news or press releases for one event out of a potential two events/activities.  

When asked to respond to the SUD as part of the EMDR treatment protocol, this student-athlete began by reporting, “I can remember that feeling” to, “I’m starting to think…why did I think that in the first place…”. Strengthening of the VOC was noted after an initial response similar to “I thought a lot about the feeling of success…”.  Comments related to a higher level of the VOC toward the latter stages of the EMDR treatment included, “I’m picturing myself being successful…I feel athletic…I’m feeling relief and confidence when I’m successful…”.  

DISCUSSION 

The results of the study present positive preliminary data demonstrating an association between EMDR and improvements in mood state and athletic performance for injured student-athletes. The study builds on research conducted by Reynoso-Sánchez (13) who found athletes reporting decreases in anxiety and somatic symptoms after a single-session of EMDR and groundwork by Curdt (3) (4) who used EMDR to decrease anxiety and increase self-confidence in professional golfers with traumatic athlete memories. While many athletes define “successful return” to sport after injury as competing and training at pre-injury levels and standards, improvement on pre-injury levels is often not identified as a goal (12). Based on the promising research with EMDR and realistic goals of post-injury performance, a definitive need for additional research exists to examine the impact of EMDR on injured and recovering student-athletes.  

Given the high levels of Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and related mental health disorders among student-athletes as found by Aron (1), the use of EMDR therapy has notable implications. Further, based on research by Houston (6), supporting a return to competition after injury will likely result in a higher health-related quality of life (HRQQL).  

As noted in the results section, both the categories of tension-anxiety and anger-hostility were quite high among the participants at the initial stages of therapy, but returned to the average or low range at the conclusion of therapy. The initial stages of EMDR therapy coincide with “resource training”, including grounding technique, 4-7-8 breathing, etc. It is certainly possible that the impact of the “resource training” made a significant impact without the full complement of the EMDR therapy. Especially since it is not uncommon for those resources to be used alone, outside of EMDR treatment.    

Limitations 

This study was limited by sample size and necessitated the results being reported as a pilot study. More participants and the inclusion of a control group would be beneficial to confirm the efficacy of EMDR as a regular treatment intervention for student-athletes after an injury, surgery, or similar experience. Additionally, the use of additional outcome measures and instruments could elucidate broader health domains that may be positively influenced by EDMR.   

CONCLUSIONS 

The results from this study provided strong supporting evidence for the need to continue studying the utility of EMDR therapy for injured and recovering student-athletes. Future studies with a greater number of participants and more researchers are needed to provide supporting evidence for the utility of EMDR as a therapeutic intervention and potential to be integrated into a standard protocol for post-injury treatments.      

APPLICATIONS IN SPORT 

Coaches, parents, and athletic trainers need to acknowledge the psychological impact of injuries and how they can negatively impact mental health and student-athlete performance. Recommending appropriate treatment and referrals to a mental health provider trained in EMDR therapy with a sport background and knowledge in the area should strongly be considered by those who work with collegiate student-athletes. Not only can positive treatment decrease distress, but it can improve overall mood, quality of life, and sport performance.  

Acknowledgments 

This study was funded in part by Sanford Health, Sioux Falls, South Dakota. Special thanks to Shea Campbell for helping recruit volunteer participants and in telling the story of the project.     

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Jay Trenhaile, Counseling and Human Development, South Dakota State University, Thompson Center, Brookings, SD 57007.  Email:  [email protected]  

Declaration of conflicting interests 

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.  

REFERENCES 

George Minoso2025-02-11T06:43:56-06:00

Adapting to Win: Churchill Downs Incorporated and the New Era of Entertainment and Betting

George Minoso2025-02-11T06:43:56-06:00February 7th, 2025|General|

Authors: Mahesh Gupta¹, William G. Ferko², and Thomas E. Lambert³ 

¹Department of Information Systems, Analytics, and Operations, College of Business, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY, USA 

²Department of Equine Administration, College of Business, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY, USA  

³Departments of Equine Administration and Economics, College of Business, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY, USA 

Mahesh Gupta is a professor in the Department of Information Systems, Analytics, & Operations, University of Louisville. Dr. Gupta’s areas of expertise and interest include evaluation and improving the organizational performance by using management philosophies such as Theory of Constraints, Lean and Six Sigma. Dr. Gupta has worked extensively with local companies and published his work in numerous journals including Journal of Operations Management, Decision Science Journal, International Journal of Operations and Production Management, International Journal of Production Research, and European Journal of Operational Research, Journal of Operational Research Society 

William G. Ferko is a lecturer in Equine Finance and a section leader for the Online MBA Contemporary Financial Management Course at the University of Louisville College of Business. He received the UofL Gustafson Adjunct Teaching award for teaching excellence.  He serves as a board member for public and not nonprofit organizations.  He served as a finance leader, CFO and consultant for large publicly traded and private equity sponsored industrial and financial services companies.  He has led over 80 merger and acquisition transactions with a focus on creating stakeholder value from synergies and productivity improvements.   

Thomas E. Lambert is an associate professor of practice of equine administration and economics for the Departments of Equine Administration and Economics in the College of Business at the University of Louisville. His research interests include the areas of the business of gambling, the tax and fiscal issues of gambling, public policy and gambling, and economic history

ABSTRACT

This paper provides a comprehensive analysis of Churchill Downs Incorporated (CDI), a cornerstone of the Thoroughbred racing industry and the distinguished host of the Kentucky Derby™.  Situated at a critical juncture in the rapidly evolving spheres of gambling and entertainment, CDI faces unique challenges and opportunities to maintain its preeminence and adapt to new market demands.  Through the lens of the Service Triangle framework, this study not only explores CDI’s strategic responses but also aims to contribute to broader theoretical discussions in sport management, particularly regarding how traditional sport organizations can innovate and evolve in the face of modern competitive pressures.  CDI has been able to adapt successfully to competitive threats posed by the expansion of gambling in the US since the 1980s due to renovating and upgrading facilities and customer service experience and by expanding into other forms of gambling besides horseracing such as historical horse racing machines and sports gambling.  The paper concludes with pragmatic recommendations aimed at reinforcing CDI’s market leadership, enhancing customer satisfaction, and ensuring financial stability.  With horseracing facing a shrinking market, this case analysis offers suggestions on how many tracks can stay competitive and thrive.

Keywords: Horseracing, Gambling, Positioning

Introduction
Churchill Downs Incorporated (CDI) has been a cornerstone of the Thoroughbred racing industry for over a century and a half, not merely serving as an institution but actively shaping the sport’s very fabric. Since its establishment in 1875, Churchill Downs Racetrack (originally known as the Louisville Jockey Club), celebrated for the iconic Kentucky Derby™, has transformed from its modest beginnings into the most revered venue in horse racing. The Kentucky Derby, known as the prestigious first jewel of the Triple Crown, has evolved from a national contest to a globally recognized event, attracting international attention and admiration. This historic racetrack has been the stage for the triumphs and challenges of the finest Thoroughbreds in history, becoming a dynamic archive of the sport’s most unforgettable achievements.

In examining Churchill Downs Inc. (CDI), this study addresses significant gaps in sport management theory, particularly concerning the adaptation and strategic innovation within traditional sports organizations facing modern competitive pressures. While existing literature extensively covers the operational strategies of various sport entities, there is a paucity of research focusing on the integration of advanced technological solutions and diversification strategies within historic sport institutions. By applying the Service Triangle framework to CDI, this paper provides novel insights into how a venerable organization can leverage its rich heritage while simultaneously adopting cutting-edge innovations to remain competitive. This dual approach not only preserves the historical value of the institution but also positions it advantageously within the rapidly evolving gambling and entertainment landscape, thus contributing to a more comprehensive understanding of strategic adaptation in sport management.

The choice of CDI as a case study is grounded in its unique position at the intersection of tradition and innovation within the sport management field. CDI’s longstanding history and cultural significance, epitomized by the Kentucky Derby, present a rare opportunity to explore how historic sport organizations can navigate and thrive amidst contemporary challenges. The case of CDI is particularly relevant as it illustrates broader industry trends such as digital transformation, market diversification, and the integration of new entertainment forms within traditional sport settings. This study contributes to theoretical discussions on how sport organizations can balance heritage preservation with modern strategic imperatives, offering valuable insights for similar entities facing analogous challenges.

In the forthcoming sections of this paper, we embark on a comprehensive journey through the operational dynamics and strategic positioning of CDI, illuminated by the Service Triangle framework. More specifically, first we will discuss CDI’s historical perspective and background and then, we will dissect the company’s strategic approaches to service delivery, customer engagement, and market competition, revealing how these strategies are manifested through its systems and the pivotal role of its people—both employees and customers—in shaping the service experience. Subsequent analyses will scrutinize the alignment between CDI’s strategic ambitions and operational realities, evaluating the effectiveness of its service systems in executing these strategies and the impact of its human resources in realizing organizational goals. We will also explore the intricate relationships between the company’s core (customer/market) and the elements of strategy, systems, and people, identifying areas of strength and opportunities for improvement. This exploration culminates in actionable recommendations designed to bolster CDI’s competitive edge, enhance customer satisfaction, and secure its financial future. Through this detailed inquiry, readers can anticipate a deep dive into the operational intricacies and strategic complexities of CDI, providing valuable insights into how the company can continue to thrive in the rapidly evolving landscape of the gambling and entertainment industries.

Background and Historical Perspective
The significance of Churchill Downs Incorporated (CDI) transcends the racetrack; it embodies the transformation of the gambling and entertainment sectors in the United States. In an era where horse racing was the sole legal gambling avenue, Churchill Downs Racetrack emerged as a beacon of American culture. Through times of war, economic downturns, and societal shifts, it has proven to be a symbol of resilience and innovation. Despite excelling within the Thoroughbred industry, largely due to flagship events like the Kentucky Oaks and Kentucky Derby, the institution faces challenges such as a gradual decline in attendance and inflation-adjusted gambling revenues, a trend common across the sector. In response, CDI has embarked on strategic diversifications over the past 25 years to enhance its appeal and reach a broader audience.

Noteworthy among these strategies is the “Hold and Convert” customer service approach, leveraging friendly, courteous staff to elevate the customer experience. Operational upgrades such as improved simulcasting facilities, family-oriented offerings, and reduced concession prices have been implemented following insights from a 1996 customer survey, addressing key areas of dissatisfaction. Simultaneously, Churchill Downs Racetrack has expanded its offerings to include whole card simulcasting, and dining options ranging from fine to casual, cultivating a venue that is as much a social hub as it is a haven for racing aficionados. In response to the 21st century’s rapidly changing entertainment landscape, marked by digital advancements and shifting consumer preferences, CDI has adeptly transitioned from a traditional racetrack owner/operator into a diverse entertainment conglomerate. This evolution highlights CDI’s dedication to innovation, particularly through its foray into historical horse racing machines and the development of online betting platforms like TwinSpires.

At CDI’s flagship track at 4th and Central, attendance has been declining gradually over the years along with inflation adjusted gambling revenues, which has been the case with almost all tracks across the country (Lambert, 2022a). See Figure 1 below. The introduction of the Kentucky Lottery in 1989 brought gambling competition to the racetrack (Klotter, 1989). Currently only about 20% of CDI’s total revenues now come from its main racetrack in Louisville. Casino gaming, sports gambling, charitable gaming, and lotteries, although their primary competitors, are not CDI’s only competition. It competes with all discretionary spending on entertainment, and gambling can be considered a luxury good (Lambert, 2023a). To improve their customer base and draw a more diverse crowd, CDI has implemented several business and operational strategies over the last 25 years or so. Although live Thoroughbred racing is their main product at Churchill Downs Racetrack in Louisville, Churchill has several secondary offerings such as whole card simulcasting, fine and casual dining, on premises sports wagering, and off-site gaming via slot-like machines called historical horse racing (HHR) machines. HHR machines yield outcomes based on the results of past horse races and how horses in these “historical” races have placed. Kentucky law allows such parimutuel gaming as well as sports wagering, but not regular slot machines or table games. These different entertainment venues can be as much of a social gathering place with a nostalgic atmosphere at the track as it is a gambler’s heaven with competitive, quality races (live or simulcasted), sports gambling with games often being broadcasted live, and an assortment of HHR machines. There have never been two races that are the same and variety becomes even more apparent as differences in quality among the races themselves. Additionally, CDI’s expansion into two other gaming areas (machines and sports wagering) further enables it to diversify its product portfolio as it has moved into the “racino” business model where horseracing and other forms of gambling typically seen in casinos are now under one roof (Lambert, Srinivasan, Dufrene, and Min 2010, Lambert, 2022a). This has developed as gambling operations in general are seeing mergers and consolidations and with CDI buying different operations over the years and sometimes closing declining racetracks it has purchased (Lambert, 2023b).

Figure 1: Number of Races, United States, 1989-2023 

Source: US Jockey Club, 2024a, Fact Book, https://jockeyclub.com/default.asp?section=FB&area=6. 

Figure 2: Inf Adj Total On and Off Track Handle, $ Millions, US, 1990-2023 

Source: US Jockey Club, 2024b, Fact Book, US Parimutuel Handle, https://jockeyclub.com/default.asp?section=FB&area=8. 

Fig. 3: Inf. Adj. Purse per Race, US, 1988-2023  

Source: US Jockey Club, 2024c, Factbook, https://jockeyclub.com/default.asp?section=FB&area=7. 

The HHR machines also allow purse sizes per race to stay competitive, and throughout the US, casino dollars and other sources of revenue are used to supplement winnings for runners despite overall attendance and parimutuel wagering (on and off track) falling when adjusting for inflation. Figure 2 displays how inflation adjusted on and off-track wagering has declined over the decades. However, as Figure 3 indicates, purse sizes or winnings per race to horse owners have grown over the last 14 years or so thanks to supplements to purses from casino and HHR operations (Lambert, 2023a). Despite the number of races, the number of racetracks, and wagering dramatically contracting, racetracks have endeavored to attract quality horses to races so as to keep patrons interested.

Additionally, since around the turn of this century, Churchill Downs Racetrack has been part of a state and local government tax increment financing district (TIF) which has allowed it to use tax incentives and rebates to help it renovate and upgrade its facilities in the amount of over $200 million (Lambert, 2022b). Despite overall declining attendance, the upgraded and expanded facilities have been useful in keeping the Oaks and Derby as two of the most attended, watched and betted races in the world. At one time before the pandemic, Churchill Downs had planned to build a combination gaming center with HHR machines and a hotel on its premises but then changed plans (Paulick Report Staff, 2021). Instead, a hotel has been built on the site of one of its current business holdings, Derby City Gaming (DCG), which is a few miles from the racetrack. Around 88% of parimutuel wagering in Kentucky is now done through HHR machines rather than at the racetracks, and Churchill Downs and the other tracks it owns in the state rely upon HHR revenues from gaming centers to help fund the purses of races. Gambling on races is now not enough to keep purse levels up to competitive levels. Recently, DCG opened another facility in downtown Louisville next to an entertainment complex (bars, restaurants, dance clubs, and bowling alley) called Fourth Street Live and across from Kentucky’s International Convention Center.

The market is CDI’s main constraint to bringing in more throughput. Their primary money-making output are the HHR machines. For regular races, they make money when patrons bet, but, unfortunately, they can’t put on any more live races within the course of a racing day. The best thing they can do is to increase their secondary offerings such as HHR machines and sports gambling and to improve the customer service quality of everything. CDI is doing just that and, fortunately for them, adopting a “racino” model on its main premises would help them to be even more competitive against casinos nearby or elsewhere. This has already been done at their Ellis Park and Turfway Park Racing and Gaming centers, two other tracks in Kentucky that Churchill Downs has bought over the last few years. Given the continued growth of HHR revenues in the state (these revenues now outpace regular horseracing or parimutuel wagering in the state by at least $7 to 1), machines at the track in addition to sports gambling appear in order (Kentucky Horse Racing Commission, 2023a and 2023b). The only caveat would be the possible saturation of these machines in the Louisville market since two locations of Derby City Gaming with hundreds of machines at each location already exist. In fact, HHR revenues per machine have already reached a peak according to Ky Horse Racing Commission reports.

CDI stands out in the gambling and racing industry through its innovative approaches and strategic adaptations. In comparison, companies like the New York Racing Association (NYRA) and Del Mar Thoroughbred Club have also pursued modernization efforts, but often with varying degrees of success. While NYRA has focused on enhancing live racing experiences through improved facilities and marketing, Del Mar has prioritized expanding its off-track betting and entertainment options. CDI distinguishes itself by not only upgrading its physical venues but also by embracing digital platforms like TwinSpires and historical horse racing machines, thereby creating a diversified portfolio that appeals to a broader audience. This comparative analysis underscores CDI’s leadership in blending tradition with innovation, a strategy that has proven essential in maintaining its competitive edge.

The Service Triangle Framework -Analysis
Amidst this backdrop of rich history and strategic adaptation, this paper introduces a fresh perspective for analyzing Churchill Downs Incorporated’s (CDI’s) operations strategy through the Service Triangle framework (Gronroos, 1990; 1994; Asya et al., 2023). This framework (Figure 4) presents a holistic model for understanding and enhancing service delivery by emphasizing the critical interplay among four principal elements: the company’s strategy, its employees, the system, and importantly, the customers. This framework not only illustrates the necessity of strategic alignment across these dimensions to foster customer satisfaction and operational efficiency but also serves as a blueprint for constructing a service culture that values and acts upon customer feedback, employee empowerment, and strategic clarity. In this paper, we delve into each component of the Service Triangle in the context of CDI, exploring their individual roles and importantly, mutual interdependencies. Empirical support exists that support the importance of these concepts (Anderson and Smith 2016, Anderson and Smith 2017)

Figure 4: The Service Triangle Framework for CDInc 

By examining CDIs operations through this lens, we aim to highlight identified opportunities for refinement and propose strategies and tactics to elevate operational performance, thereby ensuring the company’s sustained competitive advantage and market leadership. This approach, introduced hereafter, centers on the interconnections between the company’s service strategy, the systems that support service delivery, and the pivotal role of people—employees and customers alike—in shaping the service experience. Thus, this paper is dedicated not only to celebrating Churchill Downs’ storied past but also to outlining a strategic vision for its future, leveraging the Service Triangle Framework to navigate the complexities of today’s gambling and entertainment industries.

The Four Pillars of Excellence: Unpacking the Service Triangle
In this section we will discuss the Service Triangle’s four elements (Strategy, Systems, People and Customer) as foundational pillars that upholds the structure of organizational excellence Service and Operations Strategy: Blueprint of Excellence at Churchill Downs Incorporated

The service strategy component of the Service Triangle framework underscores the importance of designing and implementing a coherent approach that meets or exceeds customer expectations through effective service delivery. This strategy encompasses the planning, development, and execution of service offerings, aligning them with the company’s overall objectives and customer needs. In essence, the service strategy is about defining what services will be offered, how they will be delivered, and ensuring that these services are developed in a way that they can be consistently delivered at a quality level that satisfies customers.

Churchill Downs Incorporated (CDI) exhibits a comprehensive approach to its service and operations strategy, deeply rooted in the principles of the Service Triangle. This strategy showcases a harmonious integration of service objectives with operational capabilities, aiming to elevate customer experiences and achieve operational excellence. At the heart of CDI’s operational strategy lies a commitment to leveraging its rich heritage while innovatively meeting contemporary market demands. The company orchestrates a complex mix of event management, betting systems, customer service, and facility management to enrich the experience at Churchill Downs Racetrack and its affiliated properties.
In a strategic move to cater to changing consumer preferences and the evolving competitive landscape, CDI has broadened its service offerings. Beyond traditional horse racing, it now includes diverse gambling products such as HHR machines and the TwinSpires online betting platform. These initiatives are designed to attract a wider audience segment and respond proactively to market dynamics.

CDI places a strong emphasis on enhancing the customer experience through substantial investments in facility upgrades and the integration of cutting-edge technology. These efforts aim to improve seating, visibility, and accessibility, and to offer seamless digital interactions for betting and information access, ensuring memorable and engaging experiences for visitors and bettors alike.

The company’s dedication to operational excellence is evident in its meticulous event planning and resource management, which ensure the smooth execution of racing events. CDI strategically optimizes the use of its assets year-round, not just during peak seasons, to maximize revenue potential and foster ongoing customer engagement.
Furthermore, CDI recognizes the significance of community and stakeholder support, actively engaging in partnerships and collaborative initiatives that benefit both the company and its broader ecosystem. Engagements with local governments on tax incentives and participation in community development projects have bolstered CDI’s public image and solidified stakeholder relations.

Adaptability and innovation are hallmarks of CDI’s response to the competitive and regulatory challenges of the industry. The company’s innovative approaches to online betting and HHR machines not only diversify its revenue streams but also align with the shifting preferences of gamblers and racing enthusiasts. In essence, CDI’s strategic application of the Service Triangle framework underscores its unwavering commitment to customer service excellence, operational efficiency, and innovation. This strategic orientation has ensured CDI’s enduring leadership and adaptability in the Thoroughbred racing industry, navigating through the complexities of the modern entertainment and gambling landscapes.
Service Operational Systems: Execution Framework at Churchill Downs Incorporated

The Service Triangle framework’s “service operational system” component is integral to how an organization leverages procedures, technologies, and resources to cater to its customers effectively. It embodies all the necessary tools, processes, infrastructure, and technological support crucial for efficient, effective customer interactions that resonate with the company’s overarching service strategy. This foundation is pivotal for fulfilling service promises, boosting customer satisfaction, and achieving operational efficiency.
Service systems serve as the backbone of a company’s service delivery, facilitating the seamless execution of service strategies with practical, on-the-ground mechanisms. They encompass software and hardware that aid service transactions and customer interactions, workflows and procedures for consistent, quality service delivery, and the physical and organizational infrastructure supporting these services. Moreover, the human resources aspect denotes the roles and responsibilities within the organization tailored to deliver the service, backed by comprehensive training and development programs. The hallmark of effective service systems lies in their adaptability to customer needs, integration of new technologies, and sustenance of high service quality across all touchpoints.

Focusing on Churchill Downs Incorporated (CDI), the service system reveals a complex network supporting a broad spectrum of services that extend beyond traditional Thoroughbred racing. CDI’s embrace of technology, through platforms like the TwinSpires betting platform and HHR machines, marks a significant enhancement in its service offerings and customer experience. These innovations allow CDI to broaden its reach beyond the physical confines of the racetrack, offering an immersive and convenient betting experience to customers far and wide.
The operational processes at CDI are meticulously designed to cater to a wide range of customer needs, from the casual visitor to the serious bettor. The organization and execution of live racing events, the upkeep of facilities, and the management of betting systems are all geared towards operational excellence. This excellence is crucial, especially during high-profile events like the Kentucky Derby, ensuring smooth operations and high customer satisfaction.

The physical infrastructure of CDI, particularly the iconic Churchill Downs Racetrack, is a critical component of its service system. Designed to host large crowds, the facility offers various viewing experiences, from general admission to the opulence of luxury suites. Recent expansions and upgrades underscore CDIs dedication to improving the guest experience, aligning with modern expectations while preserving the venue’s historic charm.

Interaction with customers, including the provision of betting services, hospitality, and entertainment options, forms a vital part of CDI’s service system. Through various engagement strategies, CDI actively solicits customer feedback and adapts its offerings to meet evolving preferences. Initiatives like customer service programs, loyalty incentives, and marketing campaigns are instrumental in promoting the Derby and other events, fostering a deeper connection to the sport and to the sense of place offered by the racetrack.
Human Resources (People): The Heartbeat of Service at Churchill Downs Incorporated

The “Human Resource (People)” element of the Service Triangle framework is pivotal in the service delivery process, emphasizing the critical role of employees who interact directly with customers. This dimension focuses on the human aspect of service delivery, recognizing that employees are not just part of the service; they are the service. The quality of interaction between employees and customers can significantly influence customer satisfaction and perception of the brand. Therefore, investing in employee training, motivation, and satisfaction is essential for ensuring that they can deliver exceptional service.

Employees serve as the brand ambassadors of the company, and their attitudes, skills, and behaviors directly impact the customer experience. The people element stresses the importance of internal marketing efforts by the company to effectively recruit, train, and retain talented individuals who can uphold the company’s service standards. It highlights the necessity of creating a positive work environment that fosters employee engagement and satisfaction, as happy employees are more likely to make customers happy.

At Churchill Downs Incorporated (CDI), the people element plays a crucial role in delivering the unique and memorable experiences that visitors to the racetrack have come to expect. The company employs thousands of individuals across various roles, from corporate headquarters personnel and track workers to gaming center employees. The workforce includes a significant number of seasonal employees, particularly during peak events like the Kentucky Derby, when the employee count can swell to meet the demands of an influx of visitors.
CDI recognizes the importance of its people in maintaining the legendary status of the Kentucky Derby and ensuring the operational excellence of its various entertainment and gambling offerings. To this end, the company invests in extensive training programs to ensure that all employees, regardless of their role, have the knowledge and skills necessary to contribute positively to the customer experience. This includes specialized training for those in customer-facing roles, such as parimutuel clerks and concessions personnel, to ensure they can effectively engage with customers and handle any inquiries or issues that may arise.

Moreover, CDI supports its employees through motivational incentives that recognize and reward superior service. These incentives not only include financial rewards but also opportunities for personal recognition within the organization. Such practices demonstrate CDI’s commitment to empowering its employees, acknowledging their contributions, and fostering a culture where everyone is motivated to deliver their best.

Management at CDI also emphasizes the decentralization of the decision-making process, allowing employees closer to the customer to make on-the-spot decisions. This approach not only speeds up response times to customer needs but also instills a sense of ownership and responsibility among employees, further enhancing their commitment to providing top-notch service.
In summary, the people element at CDI underscores the company’s understanding that its employees are central to its success. By prioritizing employee satisfaction, training, and empowerment, CDI ensures that its team is equipped and motivated to deliver the exceptional experiences that customers expect, thereby reinforcing the company’s legacy in the Thoroughbred racing industry and beyond. Anderson and Smith (2016, 2017) find that among the three components of the service triangle that employee-firm (EF) relations are the most important. Customers can sense and feel better about an organization when they believe that employee-firm relations are good.

Customer/Market Engagement: The Foundation of Churchill Downs Incorporated
At the core of the Service Triangle framework lies the customer/market element, which underscores the essential role of customer engagement, satisfaction, and service delivery within the broader business strategy. This component stresses the necessity of grasping and fulfilling customer needs, delivering high-quality services, and sustaining a dynamic feedback loop for continual improvement and adaptation. Mastery of this central aspect crucially impacts customer loyalty, the likelihood of repeat business, and the overall reputation of the brand in the marketplace.

Within the framework, the importance of the direct relationship between service providers and customers is accentuated, marking the points where service value is both perceived and evaluated by customers. This interaction spans all stages of the service journey—from the initial setting of expectations through marketing efforts, the actual service encounter, to post-service support and solicitation of feedback. An effective approach to this element requires a nuanced understanding of customer expectations, preferences, and behaviors, allowing companies to customize their services to not only meet but exceed these expectations. The strategy of engaging customers with personalized experiences, prompt support, and consistent fulfillment of service promises cultivates trust and fosters enduring relationships.

Churchill Downs Incorporated (CDI), situated in the fiercely competitive and constantly evolving sector of gambling and entertainment, has adeptly navigated the shifting sands of customer expectations. The company has unveiled a series of key strategies and initiatives aimed at effectively engaging with the market/customer component. Recognizing the varied preferences of its audience, CDI has expanded its portfolio to include not just live Thoroughbred racing but also innovative offerings like HHR machines and the TwinSpires online betting platform. These initiatives serve a dual purpose: catering to traditional racing aficionados and attracting a broader audience seeking diverse entertainment options.
CD has also made significant investments in enhancing customer experiences through facility upgrades and the incorporation of cutting-edge technologies, ensuring a spectrum of service experiences from casual to luxurious. Moreover, the company employs targeted marketing strategies to effectively communicate the unique value of its offerings, thereby broadening its reach and setting clear expectations about the entertainment and betting opportunities it provides.

A pivotal element of CDI’s strategy is its emphasis on customer feedback, which forms an essential part of its service improvement efforts. By leveraging various channels for gathering insights into customer satisfaction and preferences, CDI is poised to make informed decisions regarding service enhancements, operational adjustments, and the introduction of new offerings.

Furthermore, CDI’s proactive stance on adapting its services in response to changing customer behaviors and regulatory landscapes illustrates its commitment to maintaining both relevance and competitive edge. Through a strategic, customer-centric approach to the market/customer element of the Service Triangle, CDI is dedicated to evolving its offerings, improving customer experiences, and engaging with its customer base. This dedication is foundational to CDI’s aspirations to uphold its leadership in the gambling and entertainment industry and to ensure its sustainability and success over the long term.
Weaving the Web of Success: The Interconnected Service Triangle

In this section, we discuss the interconnections between the elements as a complex and intricate web of relationships that are essential for the holistic success of the organization. It emphasizes the synergy and interconnectedness within the service triangle, illustrating how these linkages contribute to a cohesive service strategy.

Bridging Strategy and Systems: Operationalizing Vision at CDI
The interconnection between strategy and system within the context of the Service Triangle and Churchill Downs Incorporated (CDI) illuminates the dynamic alignment of organizational goals with operational execution to optimize service delivery and customer experience. This intricate relationship is crucial for translating strategic intentions into effective and efficient customer interactions that drive satisfaction and loyalty. The interconnection between strategy and system at CDI is manifested in the way strategic objectives are operationalized through its systems. This alignment is essential for ensuring that strategic goals are not only set but are also achievable through the practical application of the company’s resources and capabilities.
Technology Integration: CDI’s strategy to embrace digital transformation and expand its betting platforms requires sophisticated systems capable of supporting online betting, mobile applications, and gaming technologies. This involves investing in IT infrastructure, cybersecurity, and user experience design, ensuring that strategic initiatives like TwinSpires are effectively implemented and aligned with customer expectations.

Customer Experience Enhancement: CDI’s strategic focus on enhancing the customer experience across its offerings necessitates systems that are customer centric. This includes training programs for staff to ensure high-quality service, feedback mechanisms to gather customer insights, and amenities that improve the overall experience at the racetrack. The system must support a culture that values customer satisfaction, aligning with the strategic aim of building a loyal customer base.
Operational Efficiency: The strategic goal of operational excellence requires systems that optimize processes, reduce inefficiencies, and ensure that services are delivered effectively. This might involve logistics planning for events, management of betting operations, and maintenance of facilities. The system’s design and execution are crucial for realizing strategic goals related to operational performance and financial sustainability.

To further enhance the connection between strategy and system at CDI, it is essential to focus on continuous improvement, innovation, and alignment with evolving customer expectations and technological advancements. The following suggestions aim to strengthen this interconnection, ensuring that CDI’s strategic objectives are effectively translated into operational excellence and superior customer experiences:

Adopt Agile Operational Models: CDI should consider adopting more agile operational models that allow for rapid response to market changes and customer feedback. This involves creating cross-functional teams that can work collaboratively on short-term projects with clear, customer-focused goals. Such an approach encourages innovation, speeds up the implementation of strategic initiatives, and ensures systems are always aligned with current strategic objectives.
Enhance Data Analytics Capabilities: Leveraging advanced data analytics and business intelligence tools can provide CDI with deeper insights into customer behavior, market trends, and operational performance. By integrating these tools into their systems, CDI can make more informed strategic decisions, identify areas for improvement, and personalize the customer experience. Data-driven strategies ensure that systems are optimized to meet the most current and relevant business objectives.
By focusing on these suggestions, CDI can further improve the interconnection between its strategy and systems, ensuring that the company remains a leader in delivering exceptional service and entertainment experiences to its customers. These efforts will not only support CDI’s strategic objectives but also contribute to its long-term sustainability and success in the evolving landscape of the gambling and entertainment industry.

Empowering People in Strategy Execution: Human Dynamics at CDI
The interconnection between strategy and people within the Service Triangle framework, particularly in the context of Churchill Downs Incorporated (CDI), exemplifies how strategic objectives and human resources align and interact to drive operational success. This relationship is crucial for CDI, a stalwart in the Thoroughbred racing industry, navigating the complexities of modern entertainment and gambling markets. By examining CDI’s approach, we can unravel the intricate ways in which strategy and people synergize to cultivate a competitive edge and foster innovation.

The interconnection between strategy and people manifests in several key areas:
Internal Marketing and Employee Empowerment: CDI’s strategy involves internal marketing efforts aimed at engaging and empowering employees. By aligning employee goals with organizational objectives, CDI ensures that its workforce is motivated, well-trained, and committed to delivering exceptional service. This includes providing employees with the necessary tools, resources, and incentives to excel in their roles, thereby directly influencing customer satisfaction and loyalty.
Culture and Communication: The strategy of fostering a customer-centric culture is communicated across all levels of the organization. By embedding this culture in its people, CDI ensures that customer satisfaction is a shared responsibility, driving employees to go above and beyond in their service delivery. Effective communication channels between management and employees facilitate feedback loops, allowing for continuous improvement in service strategies and execution.
Adaptation and Flexibility: As CDI’s strategic goals evolve in response to market dynamics, so too must its people. The ability of employees to adapt and embrace new technologies, service offerings, and customer engagement strategies is crucial. This adaptability ensures that CDI’s strategic objectives are met with agility and innovation, keeping the company at the forefront of the industry.

Training and Development: Investing in employee training and development is a strategic priority for CDI, equipping its people with the skills and knowledge needed to meet the high standards of service excellence. This investment not only enhances service delivery but also fosters a sense of loyalty and belonging among employees, further strengthening the link between strategy and people.

There are several ways CDI can further strengthen this relationship. These enhancements aim to align organizational goals more closely with employee actions and motivations, fostering an environment conducive to innovation, employee satisfaction, and exceptional customer service.

Regular Strategy Workshops and Town Halls: CDI can host periodic strategy workshops and town hall meetings where employees at all levels are briefed on strategic directions and encouraged to share their insights and feedback. This not only reinforces the strategy among the workforce but also promotes a culture of openness, where employees feel valued and heard.
Aligning Incentives with Strategy: Reviewing and aligning incentive structures, including bonuses, promotions, and non-monetary rewards, with strategic goals ensures that employee efforts are directly contributing to organizational objectives. This alignment should be transparent and communicated effectively to all employees.
Digital Platforms for Collaboration: Utilizing digital platforms to enhance collaboration across departments can help break down silos and encourage the sharing of ideas that contribute to strategic goals. These platforms can serve as a repository for strategic documents, a forum for discussion, and a tool for tracking progress towards strategic objectives.
Data-Driven Decision Making: Encouraging a data-driven culture, where decisions are made based on analytics and insights, can align employee actions with strategic priorities. Providing employees with access to relevant data and training them on data interpretation can empower them to make informed decisions that support strategic goals.
By focusing on these areas, CDI can further improve the interconnection between strategy and people, ensuring that its workforce is fully engaged and aligned with the company’s strategic objectives. This alignment is critical for maintaining CDI’s position as a leader in the Thoroughbred racing and entertainment industry, driving innovation, enhancing customer experiences, and achieving sustainable growth.

Synergizing People and Systems: The Human-System Interface at CDI
The interconnection between Service Delivery Systems and People within the context of Churchill Downs Incorporated (CDI), as illuminated by the Service Triangle framework, is a pivotal aspect of ensuring operational excellence and customer satisfaction. This relationship is intricate, as it involves the seamless integration of operational processes, technological systems, and human elements to deliver an exceptional service experience. The Interconnections and Implications can be further elaborated as:
Operational Effectiveness and Employee Empowerment: The efficiency of service systems directly impacts employee performance and satisfaction. Well-designed systems simplify tasks, reduce errors, and allow employees to focus more on enhancing customer experiences. Investing in technology and infrastructure not only streamlines operations but also empowers employees by providing them with the tools needed to excel in their roles.

Training and Development: The complexity of CDI’s service systems necessitates continuous employee training and development. By ensuring that employees are well-versed in the latest operational procedures and technologies, CDI can maintain high service standards. This includes training on the use of betting platforms, customer interaction protocols, and emergency response procedures.

Feedback Loops: Integrating feedback mechanisms into service systems allows for the continuous improvement of both systems and employee performance. Customer feedback can inform system upgrades and highlight areas where employees may need additional support or training. Similarly, employee feedback can identify system inefficiencies or technological improvements that could enhance service delivery.

Cultural Alignment: The alignment of service systems with CDI’s organizational culture and values fosters a sense of belonging and purpose among employees. When employees perceive their work as meaningful and see how their roles contribute to the company’s success, they are more likely to be engaged and motivated. This alignment enhances the customer experience, as employees are more committed to delivering services that reflect CDI’s standards of excellence.

To further strengthen the interconnection between service systems and people, CDI could consider several strategies:

Enhance System Usability and Accessibility: In the context of CDI, enhancing the usability and accessibility of systems involves refining the digital and physical interfaces that employees use to manage races, betting, customer service, and other operational tasks. Simplifying these interfaces can significantly reduce the time and effort required to perform tasks, leading to more efficient operations and an improved ability to serve customers effectively. For instance, CDI. could streamline the TwinSpires betting platform’s backend system for easier navigation and quicker resolution of customer issues. Similarly, simplifying the software used for managing dining reservations or ticket sales at the venue can enable staff to serve customers more swiftly and with fewer errors, enhancing the overall customer experience at Churchill Downs Racetrack.

Leverage Technology for Training: Leveraging technology for training involves adopting advanced tools like virtual reality (VR) and online platforms to provide immersive and interactive learning experiences for employees. For CDI, this could mean using VR simulations to train customer service staff on handling busy race days, allowing them to practice their skills in a realistic but controlled environment. Online training platforms can offer flexible learning options for employees, enabling them to access training modules and assessments at their convenience. By focusing on the symbiotic relationship between service systems and people, CDI can create a dynamic environment where operational efficiencies are maximized, employee potential is fully realized, and customers receive unparalleled service experiences.

Navigating the Nexus: Customer at the crossroads of Strategy, Systems and People
The interconnections between the core (customer/market) and the three elements of the Service Triangle (Strategy, Systems, and People) at Churchill Downs Incorporated (CDI) reveal a multifaceted approach to maintaining a leading position in the Thoroughbred racing and entertainment industry. This complex interplay is central to CDI’s efforts to adapt to changing competitive landscapes and consumer preferences, ensuring the company’s offerings remain appealing and relevant.

Strategic Alignments: Tailoring Vision to Voice
The relationship between CDI’s customer/market core and its strategy is foundational. The strategy is developed with a deep understanding of the customer base, including their evolving needs, preferences, and behaviors. For instance, recognizing the shift towards digital consumption, CDI. introduced the TwinSpires betting platform, directly responding to the market’s demand for accessible, online betting options. This strategic move not only catered to existing customers’ preferences but also opened new avenues for reaching potential customers, thus expanding CDI’s market presence.

Systemic Responses: Engineering Experiences for the Customer
The systems at Churchill Downs Incorporated (CDI) are designed and implemented with the customer/market at their core, ensuring that all operational processes enhance the customer experience. The integration of historical horse racing (HHR) machines and the development of entertainment venues like Derby City Gaming are examples of how CDI’s systems have evolved in response to customer interests and the competitive entertainment landscape. These systems are not static; they are continually refined to improve service delivery, efficiency, and customer satisfaction, demonstrating a dynamic response to market feedback and trends.

People Power: Cultivating Connections through Human Touch
The interaction between Churchill Downs Incorporated (CDI’)s employees (People) and its customers is where the company’s strategy and systems manifest in the real world. Employees are the frontline representatives of CDI, directly influencing customer perceptions and experiences. Training programs, employee empowerment initiatives, and a culture that values high-quality customer service are crucial for ensuring that every customer interaction reflects CDI’s commitment to excellence. The employees’ ability to provide exceptional service, informed by a deep understanding of the customer/market, strengthens customer loyalty and supports CDI’s strategic objectives. To further enhance these interconnections, CDI could consider several strategies:

Customer Feedback Loops: Regularly gather and analyze customer feedback to continuously refine strategies, systems, and training programs, ensuring they align with customer expectations and market trends.
Employee-Customer Interaction Training: Invest in specialized training that equips employees with the skills to better understand and anticipate customer needs, improving the personalization and quality of service.
Technology Integration: Utilize technology to create more engaging and interactive customer experiences, both online and at physical locations, ensuring that systems are responsive to customer preferences.
Market Analysis and Adaptation: Continuously monitor market trends and competitive movements to anticipate changes in customer preferences, allowing CDI to adapt its strategy and systems proactively.

By focusing on these interconnections, CDI can ensure that its strategy, systems, and people are cohesively aligned with the core customer/market, driving sustained growth and reinforcing its position as an industry leader. The application of the Service Triangle framework to CDInc reveals several novel insights and potential theoretical advancements. Strategically, CDInc exemplifies how historic sport organizations can pivot by integrating digital betting platforms and diversifying entertainment offerings, thus aligning with evolving consumer preferences. From a systems perspective, the seamless integration of technology into service delivery highlights the critical role of operational flexibility in maintaining service quality across diverse platforms. The emphasis on employee empowerment and customer engagement within the framework underscores the importance of a cohesive internal culture in driving external success. These findings suggest that the Service Triangle framework can be evolved to better account for the dynamic interplay between technological innovation and traditional service elements in sport management, offering a more robust model for other organizations in similar sectors.

Conclusions, Recommendations, and Future Research Direction

In conclusion, this paper has meticulously examined Churchill Downs Incorporated (CDI) through the innovative lens of the Service Triangle framework, shedding light on the company’s strategic navigations within the rapidly evolving gambling and entertainment sectors. Our exploration has underscored the integral role of strategy, systems, people, and the core customer/market interplay in driving CDI’s operational excellence and customer satisfaction. Through this analytical journey, we have unveiled the strategic foresight of CDI in embracing technological advancements, diversifying its entertainment portfolio, and fostering deep-rooted customer engagements to maintain its revered status in the Thoroughbred racing domain.
The analysis reveals that CDI’s ability to adapt to market dynamics, regulatory changes, and shifting consumer behaviors stands as a testament to its resilience and innovative spirit. By leveraging the Service Triangle framework, we have identified both commendable strengths and critical areas for enhancement. The strategic recommendations provided can be summarized as follows:

1. Enhance Digital Engagement (“Service and Operations Strategy”): CDI should further develop its digital platforms, such as the TwinSpires betting app, to enhance user experience, interface design, and accessibility. This would cater to the growing demand for online betting and digital engagement, especially among younger demographics. 

2. Broaden Entertainment Offerings (“Service and Operations Strategy”): Beyond racing and betting, CDI could diversify its entertainment portfolio to include concerts, cultural events, and family-friendly activities at its venues to attract a wider audience and increase year-round attendance. 

3. Implement Advanced Data Analytics (“System Element”): By leveraging big data and advanced analytics, CDI can gain deeper insights into customer behavior, preferences, and trends. This information can inform targeted marketing strategies, service improvements, and personalized customer experiences. 

4. Invest in Employee Training and Development (“People Element”): Continuous training programs designed to enhance customer service skills, technological proficiency, and operational efficiency among employees are crucial. Special emphasis should be placed on front-line staff to ensure they embody the company’s commitment to excellence in customer service. 

5. Strengthen Customer Feedback Mechanisms (“Customer/Market”): Developing more robust channels for customer feedback, including digital platforms, surveys, and direct engagement initiatives, will enable CDI to better understand and respond to customer needs and preferences. 

6. Foster a Culture of Innovation (“Linking The Circles of The Service Triangle”): Encouraging a company-wide culture that values creativity, experimentation, and innovation can drive continuous improvement and adaptation to market changes. 

7. Expand Market Reach through Strategic Partnerships (“Customer/Market”): Forming partnerships with other entertainment entities, sports teams, and cultural institutions can broaden CDI’s market reach and introduce its offerings to new audiences. 

8. Embrace Sustainability Practices (“Service and Operations Strategy”): Integrating sustainability into operations and services can appeal to environmentally conscious consumers and contribute to the company’s long-term viability and social responsibility goals. 

9. Enhance On-site Customer Experience (“System Element”): Upgrading facilities with the latest technology for betting, improving food and beverage services, and enhancing the overall ambience can enrich the on-site customer experience, making visits to CDI venues more memorable and enjoyable. 

10. Explore New Revenue Streams (“Service and Operations Strategy”): Investigating additional revenue streams, such as virtual racing, esports betting, and digital content creation, can provide alternative income sources and engage customers beyond traditional racing and betting activities. 

An exciting avenue for future innovation at Churchill Downs Incorporated (CDI) lies in leveraging immersive technologies such as virtual reality (VR) to enhance customer experiences. For instance, the use of Apple Vision Pro headsets connected to GoPro or Cambox helmet cameras on jockeys could allow patrons to experience races from a jockey’s perspective in real-time. This immersive offering, targeted at premium clients in high-value venues like The Mansion, aligns with CDI’s focus on exclusive, high-tech experiences. Exploring the feasibility, customer reception, and operational integration of such innovations represents a promising area for future research and strategic development. 

Another intriguing direction for future research involves the application of decision-making tools, such as Goldratt’s Evaporating Clouds method introduced in *It’s Not Luck* (Goldratt, 1994). This tool can help top management systematically analyze and resolve conflicts between competing objectives, such as balancing the costs and technological challenges of immersive innovations with customer satisfaction and market differentiation. Employing such a structured decision-making framework could facilitate the exploration of complex ideas like VR integration, ensuring alignment with organizational goals and resource constraints. Investigating how decision-makers at CDI and similar organizations can effectively implement this methodology offers valuable opportunities for advancing both theoretical and practical insights.” 

APPLICATION TO SPORTS 

These recommendations aim to solidify CDI’s leadership position in the Thoroughbred racing and entertainment industry while navigating the challenges and opportunities presented by the rapidly evolving market landscape. Based on the theoretical advancements identified through the application of the Service Triangle framework to CDInc, several actionable recommendations emerge for sport organizations. Firstly, enhancing digital engagement through user-friendly online platforms can significantly broaden audience reach and improve customer satisfaction. Secondly, diversifying entertainment offerings beyond core sport events can attract new demographics and increase year-round engagement. Investing in advanced data analytics can provide deeper insights into customer behavior, informing targeted marketing and service improvements. Additionally, continuous employee training and development are essential for maintaining high service standards and fostering a customer-centric culture. By implementing these strategies, sport organizations can navigate the complexities of modern market demands while preserving their unique heritage, thus ensuring sustainable growth and competitive advantage. 

Looking ahead, CDI is positioned at a crossroads, with opportunities to further harness digital technologies, expand its market reach, and innovate within its service offerings. The implementation of the proposed recommendations could catalyze CDI’s journey towards sustained growth, market leadership, and the continued celebration of its storied legacy. However, the journey does not end here. Continuous reassessment, innovation, and adaptation to the ever-changing entertainment and gambling landscapes will be paramount for CDI to navigate future challenges and seize emerging opportunities. 

Future research directions may delve into the long-term impacts of integrating the suggested strategic initiatives, assessing their effectiveness in enhancing operational efficiencies, customer loyalty, and financial performance. Moreover, exploring the evolving consumer trends, technological advancements, and regulatory landscapes will provide further insights into CDI’s strategic adaptability and resilience. In essence, the journey of Churchill Downs Incorporated is one of enduring legacy, strategic evolution, and an unwavering commitment to excellence, setting a benchmark for others in the industry to follow. 

REFERENCES

George Minoso2024-12-16T15:26:58-06:00

International Study of Professional Development in Sports Coaching: Awareness of Neuromyths, Brain Knowledge, and Evidence-Based Practices

George Minoso2024-12-16T15:26:58-06:00January 17th, 2025|Research, Sport Training|

Authors: Kristen Betts¹ Cam Kiosoglous ² Tamara Galoyan ³ Fiona Murray ⁴ Julie Perrelli ⁵ Sara Steinman⁶ Mariette Fourie⁷ Ellana Black ⁸

International Study of Professional Development in Sports Coaching: Awareness of Neuromyths, Brain Knowledge, and Evidence-Based Practices

ABSTRACT

Purpose: Professional development is fundamental to coaching. It can expand a coach’s knowledge, skills, and practice by building upon fields such as neuroscience, psychology, and education. The purpose of this study was to (a) examine professional development attended by sports coaches, (b) compare awareness levels regarding neuromyths, general knowledge about the brain and learning, and evidence-based practices among sports coaches, and (c) identify interest levels in acquiring scientific knowledge about the brain. Methods: This study reports on the first phase of a two-year explanatory sequential mixed methods study focusing on sports coaches working in Pre-Kindergarten to 12th grade schools, higher education, and sports-related organizations. Descriptive and inferential statistics were conducted, including Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) to compare mean percentages of accurate responses between groups and factors associated with awareness. Results: While there were no statistically significant differences between the three groups of sports coaches or across demographics, the data revealed an opportunity to enhance professional development to increase levels of awareness of neuromyths, general knowledge about the brain and learning, and evidence-based practices. All three groups of sports coaches ranked onsite professional development as their preferred format followed by hybrid, online, and HyFlex. High levels of interest were found among all groups of sports coaches regarding scientific knowledge about the brain. Conclusions: Professional development provides a unique opportunity in sports coaching education to integrate research to increase awareness about the brain, learning, and evidence-based practices as well as debunk neuromyths and pseudoscientific ideas. Applications in Sports: This study contributes to sports education since it provides insightful research into professional development and identifies opportunities for enhanced awareness of neuromyths, general knowledge about the brain and learning, and evidence-based practices. Furthermore, it provides data on the types of strategies, practices, and concepts that participants are applying to their coaching, where they learned about them, and what they would like to learn more about.

Keywords: neuroscience, psychology, pseudoscientific beliefs, training

INTRODUCTION 

Professional development plays a pivotal role in coaching as it enhances a coach’s knowledge, skills, and effectiveness while supporting continued growth. Sports coaches, whether they work in Pre-Kindergarten to 12^th grade schools (PK-12 education), two or four-year higher education institutions (HEIs), or professionally in sports-related organizations, need to embrace professional development as a way to stay current and relevant in their respective domains. Coaching is a multifaceted discipline that can greatly benefit from fields such as neuroscience, psychology, and education. By integrating research advancements on how humans learn, professional development can provide opportunities for sports coaches to expand their general knowledge about the brain and learning, and evidence-based practices related to learning. Attending workshops, seminars, and training programs can expose sports coaches to new theories, concepts, and strategies that can be integrated into their coaching practices. This expanded understanding enhances cognition, metacognition, and epistemic cognition so sports coaches can gain greater insight into their own strengths and areas for further development, allowing them to become more self-aware and effective in their coaching roles. 

Sports coaching is an emerging academic discipline, drawing from other disciplines, such as psychology, education, and the sports sciences (1). Within the literature, sports coaching is often described as complex (2-5). With increasing pressure for competitive success and an ongoing search for innovative approaches to improve athletic performance, there may be increased vulnerability to pseudoscientific ideas among coaches and sports-related organizations (6-7). Therefore, sports coach education programs must become more rigorous and evidence-based (8-9). It is important for sports coaching to increase levels of professionalization to develop a more complete body of knowledge that more accurately reflects current forms of evidence-based practices (7, 9).  

Research on neuromyths and pseudoscientific ideas in sports coaching has been limited in the past, but has recently gained more attention in the literature. The existing research highlights the need for increasing the awareness of neuromyths and pseudoscientific ideas, dispelling them, and emphasizing the importance of incorporating accurate, evidence-based neuroscience-based information into training and professional development programs. 

Neuromyths are commonly held misbeliefs that come from misunderstandings or misconceptions about the brain often associated with learning and education. Research and publications on neuromyths, education and the brain, and the learning sciences date back to the 1990s and early 2000s (10-12). Many studies have investigated the belief in neuromyths, particularly the impact on educators’ understanding of neuromyths within PK-12 education (13-16) and increasingly within higher education (17-18). However, fewer studies have focused on neuromyths within sports coaching.  

Pseudoscientific ideas are beliefs or practices that claim to be scientific but lack empirical evidence or theoretical support (6, 7). Bailey et al. (7) conducted a groundbreaking study on pseudoscientific ideas and neuromyths among British and Irish sports coaches. Their research revealed a high prevalence of neuromyth beliefs, similar to previous findings among PK-12 school teachers. The results of this study also indicated sports coaches’ willingness to improve their understanding of applied neuroscience. Balagué et al. (19) expanded on these findings and recommended further research involving more diverse samples and sub-populations of sports coaches, as well as qualitative data analysis to help ensure that sports coaching is grounded in accurate and evidence-based principles that support optimal athlete growth and performance. 

The role of a sports coach is multidimensional, demanding, complex, and rewarding (20-22). The broader purpose of formal sports coach education includes, but is not limited to, certifying, educating, and developing sports coaches (23). Within the field of coaching, understanding the human learning process is important since this can impact athletic performance (24-25). Therefore, being able to discern facts about the brain and learning from pseudoscientific ideas and neuromyths within coaching is critical. Building on Bailey et al. (7) there is need to better understand the awareness of neuromyths, general knowledge about the brain and learning, and evidence-based practices among sports coaches across diverse roles. The purpose of this survey study was to address this gap by examining professional development opportunities and practices in sports coaching education, as well as sports coaches’ levels of awareness of neuromyths, general knowledge about the brain and learning, and evidence-based practices among sports coaches. The study offers new insights into the knowledge and experiences of sports coaches and contributes to the broader understanding of the complex processes and conditions involved in training them to succeed in their professional roles. 

METHODS 

Participants  

This study employed a survey design to examine the types of professional development attended by sports coaches who worked in PK-12 education, two- and four-year HEIs, and sports-related organizations. This quantitative study was part of a broader explanatory sequential mixed methods study design that integrates both quantitative and qualitative approaches to examine the research questions more comprehensively (26).  

Specifically, the study sought to identify strategies, principles, and practices applied to support coaching as well as which strategies, principles, and practices sports coaches would like to learn more about. Furthermore, the study examined sports coaches’ awareness of neuromyths, general knowledge about the brain and learning, and evidence-based practices among sports coaches as well as explored potential differences among sports coaches working in PK-12 education, higher education, and sports-related organizations. Lastly, the study sought to identify sports coaches’ level of interest among sports coaches in scientific knowledge about the brain. The data collected from this quantitative study were used to design the questions for follow-up focus groups in the second phase of this mixed methods project that explored, which explored sports coaches’ experiences with professional development attended in 2022.The broader mixed methods research study was approved by Drexel University’s Institutional Review Board. Informed consent was required to participate in the study (IRB 2106008600). 

Instruments and Procedures 

This study included a quantitative Qualtrics survey with five sections: (a) General Statements about the Brain and Learning, (b) General Statements about Coaching, Learning, and Assessment, (c) Instructional Practices, (d) Professional Development, and (e) Demographics and Professional Background. This study used convenience and snowball sampling. The participants included individuals worldwide who were coaching in PK-12 education, higher education, and sports-related organizations. Survey data was collected between October 2021 and January 2022. Members of the research team sent emails to peers inviting them to complete the online Qualtrics survey and encouraging them to share the invitation with other peers working as sports coaches in PK-12 education, higher education, and sports-related organizations. Two reminder emails were sent out by research team members to their initial invited peers. At the end of the survey, participants also had the opportunity to further volunteer to participate in a focus group on professional development in sports coaching education.  

Statistical Analysis 

Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS for Windows, version 29) was used to analyze the data collected from the survey. Descriptive data included frequencies and cross-tabulations. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to evaluate differences in the mean scores among the three professional groups (PK-12 sports coaches, higher education sports coaches, and sports-related organization coaches). For the inferential statistics, a significance criterion of α =0.05 was used. In examining the internal consistency, Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was .826 for the 27 neuromyths and general knowledge about the brain and learning items, and .784 for the 23 evidence-based practices items, indicating a high level of internal consistency. 

RESULTS 

A total of 107 individuals consented to participate in this study. Of the survey respondents, one-third were sports coaches who worked in PK-12 education (33.3%) while 42.4% worked in higher education, and 24.2% worked with sports-related organizations. Of the sports coaches who worked in higher education, 86% worked in four-year institutions and 14% worked in two-year institutions. Twenty-two percent of the sports coaches working in PK-12 education identified as teachers. Fourteen percent of the sports coaches working in higher education identified as teaching in undergraduate and graduate programs. Thirteen percent of the sports coaches were working with sports-related organizations as a consultant, an adjunct professor, head of a department, an instructor/volunteer, and with Special Olympics. 

Participants included head coaches (39.4%), assistant coaches (21.2%), athletic directors/coaches (19.2%), and coach educators/developers (8.1%). Twelve percent of the participants identified as both head coaches and assistant coaches. Approximately two-thirds of coach educators (64.3%) and athletic directors (65.2%) were full-time in their positions while less than half of the coaches (45.6%) and assistant coaches (36.2%) were full-time in their positions. One-quarter of the head coaches (25.0%) and coach educators/developers (25.0%) were part-time while 17.0% of assistant coaches and 13.0% of athletic directors were part-time. The highest percentage of volunteers were assistant coaches (46.8%) followed by head coaches (29.4%), athletic directors (21.7%), and coach educators/developers (10.7%).  

Participants represented 18 countries across five continents including North America, South America, Asia, Europe, and Africa. The majority of participants (58.3%) self-identified as male with 40.8% self-identifying as female, and 1% as non-binary. At the time of the survey, most of the participants were between the ages of 25 to 34 years old (23.9%), 35 to 44 years old (27.2%), and 45 to 54 years old (21.7%). Over half of the participants had earned a master’s degree (45.1%) or doctoral/first professional degree (10.7%), including PhD (3.9%), EdD (2.9%), and Juris Doctorate (3.9%). Table 1 includes a breakdown of participant demographics.  

Table 1 

Demographics 

	Frequency	Valid Percent
Primary Role
Head Coach	39	39.4
Assistant Coach	21	21.2
Coach Educator	8	8.1
Athletic Director/Coach	19	19.2
Head Coach & Assistant Coach	12	12.1
Total	99	100
Institution Level
PK-12 Education	33	33.3
Higher Education	42	42.4
Sports-Related Organizations	24	24.2
Total	99	100
Institutional Type
Public	44	44.0
Private	38	38.0
For-Profit	1	1.0
Other	17	17.0
Total	100	100
Gender
Male	60	58.3
Female	42	40.8
Non-Binary	1	1.0
Total	103	100
Age at Time of Survey
18 to 24 years	7	7.6
25 to 34 years	22	23.9
35 to 44 years	25	27.2
45 to 54 years	20	21.7
55 to 64 years	15	16.3
65 years or older	3	3.3
Total	92	100
Highest Degree of Completion
Associate’s Degree	3	2.9
Bachelor’s Degree	19	18.6
Completed some postgraduate	12	11.8
Master’s Degree	46	45.1
PhD — Doctor of Philosophy	4	3.9
EdD — Doctor of Education	3	2.9
JD — Juris Doctor	4	3.9
Other	11	10.8
Total	102	100
Years Since Completing  Highest Degree
Less than 1 year	8	11.3
1-4 years	20	28.2
5-9 years	9	12.7
10-14 years	11	15.5
15+ years	23	32.4
Total	71	100

Sports coaches attended different types of professional development during the pandemic. Participants were asked to identify the type(s) and number of professional development offerings related to coaching that they completed between March 1, 2020 and October 1, 2021. Across all three groups of sports coaches, the types of professional development attended most often included workshops and webinars followed by certificate programs (completion, non-credit bearing) and certificate programs (credit, degree bearing). Just over one-quarter of the participants attended 1-2 workshops, 1-2 webinars, 5+ webinars, and 1-2 certificate programs (completion, non-credit bearing). Table 2 provides a breakdown of the type of professional development attended.  

Table 2 

Types of Professional Development Related to Coaching  

	Valid Percent  Enrolled in 1- 2	Valid Percent  Enrolled in 3-4	Valid Percent  Enrolled in 5+	Valid Percent  Did not enroll
Workshops	27	10	16	47
Webinars	31	14	27	28
Certificate Program (institutional credit; undergraduate; graduate; post-baccalaureate, post-master’s)	18	7	9	66
Certificate Program (completion, attendance, no institutional credit)	25	7	10	58
MOOC	13	7	11	70

 When asked to rank their preferred format for professional development, participants across all three groups ranked onsite: PK-12 sports coaches (M = 1.80), higher education sports coaches (M = 1.81), and sports-related organization coaches (M = 1.95). Table 3 provides a breakdown of the preferred format for attending professional development by modality. 

Table 3 

Ranked Level of Preference in Modalities for Attending Professional Development 

Participant Group	Modality	Mean	Standard Deviation
PK-12 Sports Coaches	Onsite  Hybrid  Online HyFlex	1.80 2.60 2.72 2.88	1.000 0.866 1.275 1.054
Higher Education Sports Coaches	Onsite  Hybrid  HyFlex Online	1.81 2.58 2.69 2.92	1.059 0.987 0.970 1.197
Sports-Related Organization  Coaches	Onsite  Hybrid  Online HyFlex	1.95 2.42 2.63 3.00	1.079 0.961 1.212 1.054

Participants were asked to identify from a list of 23 strategies, principles, or practices from the learning sciences which ones they were currently using or previously had used as part of their coaching practice to support learning. Table 4 provides an overview of the strategies, principles, or practices identified by the participants. The five strategies, principles, and practices used most by participants included Promoting Growth Mindset (78%), Active Learning (74%), Modeling (74%), Experiential Learning (73%), and Mindfulness (70%).  It should be noted that 83% of participants indicated they were currently or had been coaching to athletes’ learning styles, and 18% of participants were currently or had been coaching to right and left brain characteristics to support learning.  

Table 4 

Currently Use or Previously Used: Strategies, Principles, and Practices to Support Learning  

	Valid Percent Currently Use or Have Used
Promoting Growth Mindset	78
Active Learning	74
Modeling	74
Experiential Learning	73
Mindfulness	70
Spaced Practice	66
Differentiated Instruction	65
Multisensory Learning	61
Elaboration	58
Low Stakes Evaluations	57
Social Emotional Learning	55
Retrieval Practice	49
Culturally Responsive Practices	44
Scaffolding	41
Metacognition	39
Creativity and Innovation Integration	38
Backward Design	32
Interleaved Practice	32
Cognitive Load Theory	29
Epistemic Cognition	19
Coaching to Athletes’ Learning Styles	83
Massed Practice	54
Coaching to Right and Left Brain Characteristics	18

Participants were asked to identify when and where they had learned about the 23 strategies, principles, or practices. Table 5 provides an overview of the responses and indicates that participants learned about many of the strategies, principles, or practices during their undergraduate and graduate degree programs as well as in professional development offered during the pandemic and through colleagues, online/internet, and books. 

Table 5 

Learned about Strategies, Principles, and Practices to Support Learning  

	Percent  During my high school education	Percent  During my undergraduate education	Percent  During my graduate education	Percent  PD prior March 1, 2020	Percent  PD between March 1,2020 and October 1, 2020	Percent  Colleagues	Percent  Online / Internet (e.g., content, blogs, podcasts, etc.)	Percent  Books	Percent  Articles	Percent  Unsure	Percent  N/A
Active Learning	11	21	24	3	10	12	15	15	10	3	3
Backward Design	4	5	12	9	5	7	7	7	5	8	8
Coaching	10	26	24	30	17	22	22	16	16	3	4
Cognitive Load Theory	4	9	8	7	4	4	7	7	6	7	12
Creativity and Innovation Integration	4	14	11	9	8	8	10	9	8	8	11
Culturally Responsive Practices	7	14	15	16	13	13	12	9	8	6	8
Differentiated Instruction	8	14	20	30	11	19	15	16	15	5	4
Elaboration	10	14	21	22	8	9	12	12	9	7	7
Epistemic Cognition	4	7	8	8	4	4	3	4	3	8	13
Experiential Learning	11	22	22	22	11	14	18	14	15	6	4
Interleaved Practice	4	9	13	11	8	8	10	6	4	8	8
Low Stakes Evaluations	8	12	14	17	10	8	14	13	10	7	5
Metacognition	6	12	17	13	6	13	14	12	11	8	6
Mindfulness	6	19	19	24	16	20	28	18	17	5	4
Modeling	11	24	23	25	9	14	11	10	11	5	3
Multisensory Learning	8	16	19	19	9	10	12	10	9	4	4
Promoting Growth Mindset	9	21	24	30	22	20	26	23	16	3	3
Retrieval Practice	17	16	14	15	6	15	16	12	12	8	8
Scaffolding	6	14	12	13	10	8	8	5	5	8	7
Social Emotional Learning	7	15	21	21	15	16	16	17	13	6	5
Spaced Practice	11	15	20	22	7	15	14	11	14	7	2
Massed Practice	15	16	17	19	8	12	11	9	9	7	4
Coaching to athletes’ Learning Styles	5	17	39	38	17	30	24	15	24	3	2
Coaching to Right and Left Brain Characteristics	5	8	9	13	2	4	5	6	5	6	10

Lastly, sports coaches were asked which of 23 practices, strategies, and principles they would like to learn more about to support learning. Below is the list of the top 10 practices, strategies, and principles selected by the participants. Approximately one-third of all participants indicated they wanted to learn more about epistemic cognition, cognitive load theory, and interleaved practice. Around one-quarter of all participants wanted to learn more about metacognition, retrieval practice, backward design, creativity and innovation, scaffolding, elaboration, low stakes evaluations.  

1. Epistemic Cognition (34.6%) 

2. Cognitive Load Theory (30.8%) 

3. Interleaved Practice (29.9%) 

4. Metacognition (28.0%) 

5. Retrieval Practice (28.0%) 

6. Backward Design (27.1%) 

7. Creativity and Innovation Integration (26.2%) 

8. Scaffolding (26.2%) 

9. Elaboration (23.4%) 

10. Low Stakes Evaluations (23.4%) 

Cross-tabulations were used to report on the percentage of accurate responses related to neuromyths, general knowledge about the brain and learning, and evidence-based practices broken down by the coaching roles (PreK-12 education, higher education, and sports-related organizations). Tables 6-8 provide the results of the cross-tabulation analysis and the answer key for each statement.  

As shown in Tables 6 and 7, when it comes to neuromyths and general knowledge about the brain and learning, the percentage of accurate responses varied greatly depending on the statement. For example, a high percentage of accurate responses by all the three groups were observed for certain statements related to the general knowledge about the brain and learning (Table 7) such as Individuals use their brains 24 hours a day (91% of PK-12 Sports Coaches, 86% of Higher Education Sports Coaches, and 88% of Sports-Related Organization Coaches), The brain shuts down during sleep (91% of PK-12 and Higher Education Sports Coaches, 83% of Sports-Related Organization Coaches), and Chronic stress can change brain structure (94% of PK-12 Sports Coaches, 88% for Higher Education Sports Coaches, and 92% of Sports-Related Organization Coaches). In contrast, a lower percentage of accurate responses were seen across the three roles for several neuromyths such as Individuals learn better when they receive information in their preferred learning styles (e.g., auditory, visual, kinesthetic) (12% of PK-12 Sports Coaches, 2% of Higher Education Sports Coaches, and 13% of Sports-Related Organization Sports Coaches), Listening to classical music increases reasoning ability (12% of PK-12 Sports Coaches, 19% of Higher Education Sports Coaches, and 4% of Sports-Related Organization Coaches), and A common sign of dyslexia is seeing letters backwards (15% of PK-12 Sports Coaches, 7% of Higher Education Sports Coaches, and 8% of Sports-Related Organization Coaches). 

Table 6 

Neuromyths 

Statement	% Accurate Responses by Role			Answer Key
	PK-12 Sports Coaches	Higher Education Sports Coaches	Sports-Related Organization Coaches
Individuals learn better when they receive information in their preferred learning styles (e.g., auditory, visual, kinesthetic)	12	2	13	Incorrect
Listening to classical music increases reasoning ability	12	19	4	Incorrect
A common sign of dyslexia is seeing letters backwards	15	7	8	Incorrect
Some individuals are “left- brained” and some are “right-brained,” and this helps explain differences in learning	39	24	21	Incorrect
Humans use 10% of their brain	42	43	25	Incorrect
It is best for children to learn their native language before a second language is learned	42	50	17	Incorrect
There are critical periods in human development after which certain skills can no longer be learned	70	67	63	Incorrect
Learning problems associated with developmental differences in brain function cannot be improved by education	70	79	71	Incorrect

Table 7 

General Knowledge about the Brain and Learning 

Statement	% Accurate Responses by Role			Answer Key
	PK-12 Sports Coaches	Higher Education Sports Coaches	Sports-Related Organization Coaches
The brain is a muscle	27	36	33	Incorrect
Learning is due to the addition of new cells to the brain	42	41	29	Incorrect
When a brain region is damaged, other parts of the brain can sometimes take up its function	52	57	63	Correct
Extended practice of some mental processes can change the shape and structure of some parts of the brain	64	69	71	Correct
The left and right hemispheres of the brain work together	64	71	91	Correct
Normal brain development involves the birth and death of brain cells	70	50	54	Correct
The brain acts as a filter to help individuals focus their attention	70	55	67	Correct
Production of new neuronal connections in the brain continues over the lifespan	79	64	83	Correct
Neuroplasticity is the brain’s ability to reorganize and rewire itself over the lifespan	79	67	79	Correct
Learning physically changes the brain	79	76	67	Correct
Brain development has finished by the time children reach puberty	79	83	63	Incorrect
Learning occurs when there are changes to the connections between brain cells	88	62	71	Correct
Individual learners show preferences for the mode in which they receive information (e.g., auditory, visual, kinesthetic)	88	76	96	Correct
Human brains are relatively as unique as fingerprints	88	81	75	Correct
Individuals use their brains 24 hours a day	91	86	88	Correct
The brain shuts down during sleep	91	91	83	Incorrect
Information is stored in networks of cells distributed throughout the brain	94	76	71	Correct
Intelligence is fixed at birth	94	81	75	Incorrect
Chronic stress can change brain structure	94	88	92	Correct

Similar to neuromyths and general knowledge about the brain and learning, the percentage of accurate responses varied greatly across different statements when it comes to the participants’ knowledge of evidence-based practices (Table 8). For instance, a high percentage of accurate responses by all the three groups were observed for statements such as Maintaining a positive sports environment helps to promote learning (100% of PK-12 and Sports-Related Organization Sports Coaches, 95% of Higher Education Sports Coaches), Emotions can affect human cognitive processes, including attention, learning and memory, reasoning, and problem solving  (100% of PK-12 Sports Coaches, 98% of Higher Education Sports Coaches, and 96% for Sports-Related Organization Coaches), and Repeated practice and rehearsal of learned material or a skill help to consolidate it in long-term memory (100% of PK-12 Sports Coaches, 91% of Higher Education Sports Coaches, and 96% of Sports-Related Organization Coaches). In contrast, a lower percentage of accurate responses were observed for several statements including Differentiated instruction is individualized instruction (39% of PK-12 Sports Coaches, 17% of Higher Education Sports Coaches, and 33% of Sports-Related Organization Coaches) and Critical thinking requires epistemic cognition (30% of PK-12 Sports Coaches, 31% of Higher Education Sports Coaches, and 38% of Sports-Related Organization Coaches). 

Table 8 

Evidenced-Based Practices 

Statement	% Accurate Responses by Role			Answer Key
	PK-12 Sports Coaches	Higher Education Sports Coaches	Sports-Related Organization Coaches
Critical thinking requires epistemic cognition	30	31	38	Correct
With respect to memory, massed instruction is superior to spaced instruction	36	55	46	Incorrect
Differentiated instruction is individualized instruction	39	17	33	Incorrect
Experts and novices approach solving problems in essentially the same way	42	69	71	Incorrect
Human memory works much like a digital recording device or video camera in that it accurately records the events individuals have experienced	52	50	42	Incorrect
Frequent, low stakes assessments do not enhance learning	58	57	67	Incorrect
Spaced practice is remembered better than massed practice of the same information	58	60	67	Correct
Multitasking increases productivity	58	62	67	Incorrect
Left-handed individuals are more creative than right-handed individuals	61	52	42	Incorrect
The human brain seeks and often quickly detects novelty	64	64	67	Correct
Focused attention is essential for learning new information	64	79	75	Correct
Metacognition plays a role in learning	73	55	75	Correct
Athletic assessment, in general, tends to detract from learning	73	71	54	Incorrect
Rereading course materials is the best strategy for learning	79	52	33	Incorrect
One is either born creative or not; creativity cannot be taught	82	71	79	Incorrect
Stress can impair the ability of the brain to encode and recall memories	91	100	83	Correct
Sleep has a vital role in memory consolidation	97	98	92	Correct
Meaningful feedback accelerates learning	97	98	96	Correct
Repeated practice and rehearsal of learned material or a skill help to consolidate it in long-term memory	100	91	96	Correct
The mind connects new information to prior knowledge	100	88	100	Correct
Explaining the purpose of a learning activity helps engage students in that activity	100	93	96	Correct
Emotions can affect human cognitive processes, including attention, learning and memory, reasoning, and problem-solving	100	98	96	Correct
Maintaining a positive sports environment helps to promote learning	100	95	100	Correct

The 27 statements for neuromyths and general knowledge about the brain and learning across groups were examined using one-way ANOVA. The analysis revealed no statistically significant differences across levels of institution (F = 1.53, df = 2, p  > .05). There were also no statistically significant differences found when examining sports coaches by primary role (F= .41, df = 4, p > .05). The related mean percentages across groups is shown in Figures 1 and  2. Additionally, there were no statistically significant differences found between awareness of neuromyths and general information about the brain and learning and institution type (public, private, for-profit), institution level, highest degree earned, time from highest degree earned, age, and gender. 

The 23 statements for evidence-based practices were examined using one-way ANOVA to compare the mean percentage of accurate responses across levels of institution. There were no statistically significant differences found across levels of institution (F= .22, df = 2, p > .05). Similarly to neuromyths and general knowledge about the brain and learning, no significant differences were found when examining sports coaches by primary role (F = 1.53, df = 4, p > .05). The related mean percentage scores are shown in Figures 1 and 2. Additionally, there were no statistically significant differences found between awareness of evidence-based practices and general information about the brain and institutional type (public, private, for-profit), institutional level, highest degree earned, time from highest degree earned, age, and gender. 

Figure 1 

Coaching Groups: Mean Percentage of Accurate Responses for Neuromyths and General Knowledge about the Brain and Learning, and Evidence-Based Practices 

Figure 2 

Coaching Roles: Mean Percentage of Accurate Responses for Neuromyths and General Knowledge about the Brain and Learning, and Evidence-Based Practices 

Participants were asked if they found scientific knowledge about the brain and its influence on learning valuable for their coaching and professional development. Additionally, participants were asked about their interest in learning more about the brain and its influence on learning. Table 9 reveals that participants perceived a high value and interest in scientific knowledge about the brain. The majority of participants agreed or strongly agreed that scientific knowledge about the brain was valuable for their coaching (96%) and professional development (97%). Comparably, 97% of the participants agreed or strongly agreed that they were interested in learning more about scientific knowledge about the brain and its influence on learning. 

Table 9 

Statements about Value of and Interest in Scientific Knowledge about the Brain 

	Valid Percent Strongly Disagree/Disagree	Valid Percent Strongly   Agree/Agree
I find scientific knowledge about the brain and its influence on learning valuable for my coaching	4	96
I find scientific knowledge about the brain and its influence on learning valuable for my professional development	3	97
I am interested in learning more about the brain and its influence on learning	3	97

Discussion 

The purpose of this study was to examine professional development in sports coaching education and levels of awareness of neuromyths, general knowledge about the brain and learning, and evidence-based practices among sports coaches. A wide variety of professional development opportunities are offered for many professionals, including sports coaches, at all levels, to engage in a different approach to professional development, especially through online platforms.  

Professional development underwent a transition during 2020 and 2021 with most offerings transitioning to online platforms due to the pandemic. This shift not only ensured the continuity of learning but also eliminated barriers such as travel time and costs, enabling wider participation and access for individuals seeking to enhance their professional skills (26). Many different options were offered to sports coaches, to explore various subjects ranging from sports-specific content to a focus on general performance improvement. While the professional development experience of sports coaches was explored more attention is required to better understand the learning that took place for sports coaches during this time (27-28). Investigating these experiences is crucial to better understand the learning processes and outcomes that occurred during the unique aspects of the pandemic period. Gaining deeper insights into the effectiveness of online professional development can identify areas for improvement and best practices that enhance coach learning, ultimately leading to better athlete support and performance. This knowledge can also inform future professional development programs, ensuring they meet the evolving needs and challenges of sports coaches in an ever-changing sports landscape. 

Similar to research conducted by Bailey et al. (7), this study found a relatively high prevalence of neuromyths. While many sports coaches provided accurate responses to certain statements about the brain and evidence-based practices, overall, there remains a significant number of sports coaches who lack knowledge in those areas. The issue might stem from the lack of opportunities for sports coaches to participate in professional development programs focused on human learning and evidence-based pedagogical practices that can enhance coaching practices. This study is significant since it helps to identify opportunities for sports leaders and program developers to find ways to increase awareness regarding neuromyths, general knowledge about the brain and learning, and evidence-based practices among sports coaches in professional development programs. Addressing neuromyths and pseudoscientific ideas through professional development reduces the risk of misinformation or unsubstantiated practices being integrated into coaching and negatively impacting athletes’ performance or epistemological beliefs. 

A key finding from this study is that, regardless of levels of engagement in professional development and awareness levels, sports coaches expressed high levels of interest in acquiring more knowledge about the brain and specific knowledge about evidence-based practices. Sports coaches acknowledged the importance of knowledge of the brain to positively impact their own effectiveness and the connection that this has to their athlete’s performance.  

Another key finding is sports coaches’ interest in diverse strategies, principles, and practices that support learning. Between one-quarter to one-third of the participants indicated they wanted to learn more about epistemic cognition, cognitive load theory, interleaved practice, metacognition, and retrieval practice as the top five selected strategies, principles, and practices. These are all critical topics related to the human learning process, the construction of knowledge, and the formation of memory. Professional development that integrates research grounded in the learning sciences can assist in debunking neuromyths and dispel pseudoscientific ideas, such as the idea that humans use 10% of their brain, that individuals are left- or right-brained, or that human memory works like a digital recording devise or video camera. Understanding neuroplasticity and the brain’s ability to change through experience and practice can be transformational to coaching. Furthermore, a deeper understanding of key topics like cognitive load theory and epistemic cognition can provide critical insight into understanding evidence-based practices such as why focused attention is essential for learning new information and why spaced practice is remembered better than massed practice of the same information.  

Sports coaches work very closely with athletes. What sports coaches share through their instruction, feedback, and encouragement directly impacts athletes’ learning, performance, and development. By imparting knowledge grounded in the learning sciences, sports coaches can enhance athletes’ acquisition and retention of complex skills. Through integrating evidence-based practices such as metacognition, retrieval practice, and interleaving, and by explaining how the brain continues to change through neuroplasticity, sports coaches can enhance athletic performance, well-being, and resilience in their athletes. Therefore, further research is required to develop a deeper understanding of sports coaches’ perceptions of the brain and learning as they relate to the complex nature of the coaching process (7, 19, 23). 

This study has several limitations. The first limitation is that the study utilized convenience and snowball sampling. Each member of the research team invited participants to be a part of the study based on their connections which may cause potential bias. The non-random nature of this recruitment method may result in a sample that is not entirely representative of the broader population and may limit the generalizability of the findings to a wider population. The second limitation is that the survey was internationally distributed. The unequal sample sizes representing different countries may introduce potential bias which may impact the generalizability of the collected data beyond the studied sample. The third limitation is a low response rate. Within one week of sending out the survey, educational institutions shut for a second time due to the pandemic. This sudden shift may have impacted the availability of participants to complete the survey. Another consideration is the limited nature of the demographic information collected and the type of analysis that could be conducted across different demographic groups. For instance, knowing the number of years participants served in their current roles and their tenure or non-tenure status would allow for additional analysis to examine the impact of the years of experience and the type and frequency of professional development on sports coaches’ knowledge, experiences, and preferences. For example, the responses from sports coaches with limited experience and exposure to professional development might have skewed the data, highlighting another potential limitation. 

Conclusions 

Findings from this study both support and build upon research by Bailey et al. (7) that examined the prevalence of neuromyths and pseudoscientific ideas in sports coaches in Ireland and the United Kingdom. Reporting similar levels of awareness of neuromyths as Bailey and colleagues (7) this study further examined knowledge about the brain and learning, as well as the use of evidence-based practices of sports coaches working within PK-12, higher education, and sports-related organizations. Future research can continue to expand on valuable insights that contribute to the development of more effective, evidence-based sport coaching practices, ultimately enhancing athlete performance and fostering a culture of continuous learning and improvement within the sports community. 

Sports coaches reported interest in scientific knowledge about the brain and its influence on learning, further supporting previous research. Exploring opportunities for collaboration between neuroscience, education, and sports coaching experts can facilitate the development of innovative, evidence-based coaching strategies that incorporate the latest research on brain science and learning. Finally, this study examined the engagement of sports coaches in professional development, identifying a preference for onsite professional development opportunities over hybrid, online, and HyFlex modalities as well as the practices, strategies, and principles they were most interested in learning about. These findings suggest both a need and an interest in addressing topics related to the brain and learning and the use of evidence-based practices through sports coach education, in order to better prepare sports coaches to recognize neuromyths and pseudoscientific ideas. Professional development opportunities may provide a variety of accessible formats to address this need. 

Applications in Sports 

Professional development is fundamental to sports coaching. It provides a unique opportunity to integrate evidence-based practices from research related to neuroscience, psychology, and education to the coaching profession, as well as to debunk scientific ideas. According to Waring (25), “The ability to conceptualize the coaching process in terms of brain functions may enhance coaching skills and practice and may also be an additional coaching competency” (p. 68). By acquiring scientific knowledge about the brain and learning, sports coaches may find more efficient ways to plan and implement practice sessions and may also find more effective ways to communicate with their athletes (19). Furthermore, sports coaches may be more readily able to apply strategies, practices, and concepts to support learning and transfer of learning. Engaging in professional development related to neuroscience, psychology, and education will not only inform sports knowledge, but also inform sports pedagogy

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