1Davidson School of Chemical Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, 47907, United States
Corresponding Author:
Vilas G. Pol
Purdue University
Davidson School of Chemical Engineering
West Lafayette, Indiana 47906
vpol@purdue.edu
Acknowledgments
We would like to express our sincere gratitude to Sunkalp Vilas Pol for his valuable contribution to this research. His assistance in this article is greatly appreciated and played an important role in the development of this paper. We commend his dedication and enthusiasm for learning.
Selection and Performance Rationale of Wood vs. Aluminum Baseball Bats
ABSTRACT
USA Youth Baseball approves metal/alloy, composite, and wood (or a combination) bats for use in baseball games. However, players, parents, and coaches often face a dilemma when selecting a superior baseball bat, as bat quality depends on material, durability, performance, sensation, player preference, and balance. The purpose of this experimental investigation is to understand the maximum exit velocity of a baseball and overall performance of maple wood vs. aluminum bats. This is accomplished by hitting a stationary ball on a tee as well as with two different pitch speeds (30 and 40 MPH from a roller pitching machine), measured by a speed radar (accuracy ±1 MPH) in a controlled environment. It is hypothesized that when the material of the baseball bat changes, the exit velocity of the ball would change due to the trampoline effect (compression of the solid metal barrel) when hitting with the metal/aluminum bat compared to the solid wood bat. Apart from similar barrel size, length, and weight of the bats, it is observed that the metallic aluminum bat is slightly superior (2-3%) because of the trampoline effect when the balls were hit off the tee and with the machine at 30 MPH speed. Interestingly, for the 40 MPH automatic pitching machine test, the wood bat was 3-4% superior to the aluminum bat, possibly due to high impact speeds with less than 1 ms impact duration and minimum energy losses in the bat, or even due to the strength of the batter. The data were collected by a 12U youth baseball player in three different sessions for better accuracy and reproducibility. In fact, high-quality (hence expensive) wood or aluminum bats could lead to analogous outcomes (±1-2% variations) when used in a controlled environment, not significantly contributing to winning the baseball game.
Baseball is a popular American game played between two teams of nine members with a bat, a ball, and gloves on a diamond-shaped field with alternating batters (offense) and fielders (defense). The batter’s goal is to hit the ball hard enough, putting it out of reach of the fielding team to make a complete circuit around the bases to obtain a ‘run,’ with the team scoring the highest number of runs winning the game. This is typically made of either of wood or a lightweight metal such as aluminum. Now the mystery question is which bat (wood or aluminum) should be selected for such an important task.
During the last century, there has been significant research and development in the baseball field including selection of bats, barrel diameter, shape, length, and composition. Naturally, wood and aluminum bats are considered based on their performance, affordability, and safety. Typically, the more expensive bats use higher quality materials, hence better properties such as lightweight materials leading to longer distances and more power while producing minimal vibrations.
Due to lots of discussion in the open literature arguing which material bats are superior, this study particularly focuses on the experimental investigation of the exit velocity of most common aluminum and wood bats. It was hypothesized that using a maple wood bat versus an aluminum baseball bat of the same length, barrel size, weight, and producers used to strike the ball might create a different exit velocity because of varied physical properties of bat materials, including the commonly known trampoline effect (barrel compresses and expands) while using the hollow aluminum bat compared to the solid wood bat.
In 2022, Sherwood et al. studied five aluminum and wood baseball bats and observed that the field performance of these bats strongly correlated with the ball–bat coefficient of restitution COR. They predicted the relationship between wood baseball bat profile and durability based on finite element modelling of 15 profiles used from 15 MLB players (1). Russell described the effect of cylindrical barrel and flexural bending vibrations (2) on softball and baseball bats with respect to their performance including understanding the sweet spot and the origin of the ping (3) sound. Shenoy et al. predicted a model for the performance of solid wood and hollow metal bats with an experimental agreement for the impact speed, ball types, bat models, and impact locations (4). It is observed that the energy dissipation between the bat and the ball happens through ball deformation, elastic bat vibration and contact friction (4). In 2002, Sherwood et al. investigated the durability of the wooden bat based on the slope of grain impact and impact location, with statistical analysis and finite element modeling. In other study they predicted the relationship between wood baseball bat profile and durability (5). In 2003, Drane and Sherwood described the effect of moisture content on the wooden bat, increasing the velocity by a maximum of 1% (6). In 2002, Penna et al. described that the exit velocity can depend on the skill level of the player or a higher performing bat (7). The systematic literature review created a knowledge gap to investigate the dilemma in selecting the most effective bat that would contribute in winning the baseball game.
This article methodically answers that question with experimental evidence through carefully measuring and comparing the average exit velocities of an aluminum and a wood bat with reproducibility. Though both bats had similar speeds, exit velocity measurements show that the aluminum bat is 2-3% superior because of the hypothesized trampoline effect when the balls were hit off of the tee and against 30 MPH pitches from the ball roller pitching machine. Surprisingly, for the 40 MPH automatic pitching machine test wood bat was 3-4% superior to the aluminum bat possibly due to less than 1 ms impact duration with the minimum energy losses in the bat or even the strength of the batter. This article provides experimental evidence for 12U youth baseball players that high quality wood or aluminum bats could lead to the analogous outcomes with 1-2% variations when used in a controlled environment.
Methods
A standard pitching machine manufactured by Junior Hack Attack was utilized to set up the velocity of the ball being pitched. The speed radar was purchased from Bushnell with an accuracy of ±1 MPH. The velocity gun was calibrated utilizing the set speed of the pitching machine and reading of the radar to a 1 MPH accuracy. The aluminum bat with a length of 31 inches, 23 ounces, and a barrel size of 2 ¾ inches was purchased from Marucci. The maple wood bat with a length of 31 inches, and a barrel size of 2 ¾ inches was purchased from Victus Nox (The brand Marucci owns Victus Nox). A bucket of standard baseballs was purchased from Wilson. A standard batting tee manufactured by Tanners Tees was utilized for the tee tests. An indoor baseball and softball facility (Lifelong Sports, Lafayette, Indiana, USA) was used for these experiments. Figure 1 depicts all used baseball accessories.
Two different velocities of =30 and 40 MPH were set by adjusting left, bottom, and right knobs of a standard pitching machine (Figure 1). The balls were loaded into the pitching machine by a person with approximately 15 second intervals between the pitched balls. The batter wore the requisite safety equipment (helmet, arm guard, leg guard, and batting gloves) while hitting the balls as they were pitched. The speed radar was set up approximately 4 feet behind the batter and the exit velocity was measured after the bat had contacted the ball. Ten balls were set on the batting tee (one at a time) and hit within 15 second intervals. The handheld speed gun was used behind the batter and pointed at approximately where the ball would be headed. Three trial runs were carried out before the final experiment to find errors in the experiment and to correct them. After hitting ten balls with the aluminum bat, the wood bat was used to hit the next ten balls to minimize the error, assuming that the batter’s strength is similar between tests conducted sequentially. Within each set of experimental conditions, the exit velocity of the balls was categorized and reported as the highest (Hi), lowest (Low) and average (Avg) speeds. In some cases, the aluminum bat’s sound frequencies affected the speed gun measurements. These experiments and speed measurements were repeated. Newly purchased baseball balls were used for the measurements to minimize the error. Please note some of the concerns in wood versus aluminum bats are i) the wood bat breaking could happen due to the ball hitting around the handle area or the end, ii) the wood bat could hurt players’ hands due to high impact speeds and vibrations, and iii) the aluminum bat cracking could occur as the metal shrinks in the cold with unsafe storage.
Results
Typically, commercial baseball pitching machines are arm type (stores balls on sides in an arm shape, which automatically dispenses balls) or roller type (person must manually put balls into the machine). Both machines can dispense different pitches (8) such as fastball, curveball, screwball, slider, etc. To carry out the experiments in a controlled air, moisture, and temperature environment for better accuracy, we used roller type dispenser at LifeLong Sports, Lafayette, Indiana, USA.
Fig. 2 depicts the exit velocity data from 10 balls that were hit off of the tee with maple wood and aluminum bats. The highest exit velocity for the balls that were hit by the wood bat ranges from 57 to 62 MPH, while more consistent 61 MPH for the aluminum bat. The lower velocity and average exit velocity data demonstrate that the effect of using either wood or aluminum bat is negligible when the balls were hit off the tee.
In Fig. 3, 10 balls were pitched at 30 MPH and the exit velocity data was collected for maple wood and aluminum bats. The highest exit velocity for the balls that were hit by aluminum bat ranges from 61 to 63 MPH, while being 55 to 61 MPH for the wood bat. The lowest exit velocity for the balls that were hit by wood bat ranges from 40 to 43 MPH, while 50 to 51 MPH for the aluminum bat. Overall, 2-3% superior performance of the metal bat was observed due to hollow vibrating wall of the bat (similar to a drum upon impact), producing a loud ping sound (9).The exit velocity of the balls was almost double the velocity of balls impacting to the bat. In fact, the wall bends slightly in an inner direction retaining some of the vibrational energy and then coils back after impacting on the bat. The low frequency ping sound (1,000 Hz) indicates softer, thinner wall thickness of metal bat while high frequency (2,000 Hz) ping sound indicates bat wall is thicker, hence stiffer (9). The trampoline effect on the metal bat helps gain a little more speed compared to the wooden bat (9).
At high pitch speeds of the incoming balls (40 MPH), the obtained data show a slightly different trend, as seen in Fig. 4. The highest exit velocity for the balls that were hit by the aluminum bat ranges from 51 to 53 MPH, while being 57 to 58 MPH for the wood bat. The low exit velocity for the balls that were hit by the aluminum bat ranges from 40-41 MPH, while being 41-45 MPH for the wood bat. Namely, the wood bat showed a slightly superior exit velocity compared to the metal bat. This could be due to high impact speeds with less than 1 ms impact duration with the minimum energy percolation in the bat (9). As baseballs from the same batch were used for both the 30 MPH and 40 MPH pitch tests, these differences can be attributed to differences in the bat material rather than the baseballs themselves. In these conditions, a solid wood bat could perform better than the thin-walled metal bat because of minimized trampoline effect. The wood bat does not ping as loud as metal meaning that it imparts most of the stored elastic energy to the ball with less energy left in the wall of the bat to vibrate (9). Other possible reasons the wood bat was better with enhanced exit velocity are hitting with the harder grain or the shape of the balls (possibly deformed on the harder wood bat), and differences in manufacturing of the bats. These reasons also support why the wood bat performed superior in the 40 MPH test. When 10 balls were hit on both bats with 30 MPH and 40 MPH pitches, the measured exit velocity ranged from 40-63 MPH at low, medium and highest velocities confirming that most of the stored energy is returned to the ball without significant dissipation.
Discussion
The trampoline effect describes noticeable elasticity in objects impacting at high speeds with applicability to sports such as baseball (the ball and bat), golf (the ball and club), and tennis (the ball and racquet) such that they act like a spring analogous to when we jump on the trampoline and get bounced back. In baseball, the elasticity of a bat upon the impact of baseball is different for wood and aluminum bats. Typically, when the baseball hits a wood bat, the ball compresses losing more than half of its energy, but when using a hollow aluminum bat, the bat compresses rather than the ball.
The fundamental physics understanding of the trampoline effect in baseball and softball bats was documented by Nathan et al. two decades ago (10) who identified that upon the high-speed impact between a bat and baseball, the original center-of-mass kinetic energy is transformed into compressional energy. Certain energy is stowed in vibrational modes (hoop modes), providing this stored energy to the baseball with minimum dissipation of energy with larger ball exit velocity due to the trampoline effect (10). In other words, the elasticity of a bat upon the impact of baseball determines the magnitude of the resultant trampoline effect (Fig. 5). Typically, when the ball impacts on the aluminum bat, because of its hollow nature the bat barrel compresses to lose energy and returns it to the ball soon after. On the wood bat, the ball compresses and loses up to 75% of energy in frictional forces (10). Typically, during the bat-ball collision, the exit velocity of the ball would be dependent on the effective mass/weight of the bat. However, this is a negligible effect in the experiments reported in this work as both bats possess similar masses. The exit velocity is at its peak at the place on the bat where maximum power was applied on the surface of ball, storing more elastic energy, and subsequently imparting it back to the ball (9).
Conclusions
Controlling for the barrel size, length, and weight of the bat, it is experimentally measured and observed that aluminum bat is 2-3% superior when balls were hit off of the tee and against 30 MPH machine-pitched balls because of the trampoline effect. Remarkably, for the 40 MPH automatic pitching machine test, the wood bat was 3-4 % superior to the aluminum bat possibly due to high impact speeds with less than 1 ms impact duration with the minimum energy losses in the wood bat or even the strength of the young batter. Even though both bats had similar speeds, exit velocity measurements were measurably different. Therefore, it can be concluded that high quality wood and aluminum bats could lead to analogous outcomes when used in a controlled environment.
Application in Sport
The outstanding performance of a baseball player can be highly dependent on the selection of a metal or wood baseball bat, its balance, durability and feel in addition to the player’s capabilities. In general, metal bats are known to provide enhanced power, durability, and a broader sweet spot while wood bats provide a traditional feel, tailoring options, and a smaller sweet spot. This article offers insight into the rationale behind selecting a bat with peace of mind for the player, parent, and coach corroborating that high quality (hence expensive) wood or aluminum bats could lead to analogous outcomes with 1-2% variations when used in a controlled environment. Eventually, use of a metal or wood baseball bat is a personal choice, guided by player strength and abilities.
References
Patrick Drane, Joshua Fortin-Smith, James Sherwood, and David Kretschmann, Predict the relationship between wood baseball bat profile and durability, Procedia Engineering, 2016, 147, 425–430.
Alan M. Nathan, J. J. Crisco, R. M. Greenwald, D. A. Russell, Lloyd V. Smith, A Comparative study of baseball bat performance, Sports Engineering, 2011, 13, 153-162.
Daniel A. Russell, Acoustics and vibration of baseball and softball bats, Acoustics Today, 2017, 13(4), 35.
Mahesh M Shenoy, Lloyd V Smith, John T Axtell, Performance assessment of wood, metal and composite baseball bats, Structures, 2001, 397-404.
Blake Campshure, Patrick Drane and James A. Sherwood, An investigation of wood baseball bat durability as a function of bat profile and slope of grain using finite element modeling and statistical analysis, Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 3494.
P. J. Drane & J.A. Sherwood, The effects of moisture content and work hardening on baseball bat performance, Materials Science, 2003, 1-7 (Corpus ID: 44456022).
J. J. Crisco, R. M. Greenwald, J. D. Blume, and L. H. Penna, Batting performance of wood and metal baseball bats. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc., 2002, 34, 10, 1675–1684.
R. Cross, Physics of Baseball & Softball, Springer Science Business Media, LLC 2011, Chapter 13, 221- 234.
Nathan, D. A. Russell, L. V. Smith, The physics of the trampoline effect in baseball and softball bats, Physics, 2004, Corpus ID: 6993139.
George Minoso2024-09-26T07:03:33-05:00September 28th, 2024|Sport Training, Sports Studies|Comments Off on Selection and Performance Rationale of Wood vs. Aluminum Baseball Bats
Authors: Richard O. Segovia PhD, EdD1, Alexander Buelna, PhD2, and Brian Sunderman, MA3
1School of Education, Liberty University, Lynchburg, VA, USA 2College of Social and Behavioral Health, Walden University, Minneapolis, MN, USA 3School of Security and Global Studies, American Military University, Charles Town, WV, USA
Corresponding Author:
Richard O. Segovia, PhD, EdD
1971 University Blvd
Lynchburg VA, 24515
Rsegovia1@liberty.edu
737-330-6288
Richard O. Segovia, PhD, EdD, is an adjunct professor and dissertation chair at Liberty University in Lynchburg, VA, and an academic evaluator at Western Governors University in Salt Lake City, Utah. Dr. Segovia’s research interests focus on learning and teaching, combat sports, law enforcement practices, and educational leadership.
Alexander Buelna, PhD, is currently a deputy associate commissioner with Texas Health and Human Services. Dr. Buelna’s areas of research interest includes post-traumatic stress’s impact on veterans and efficient business processes.
Brian Sunderman, MA, is the officer in charge of the Texas Department of Public Safety’s Arrest and Control Tactics Unit. Lieutenant Sunderman’s research interests include the utility of Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu in law enforcement as a law enforcement force option
An examination of studies related to Brazilian jiu-jitsu in enhancing mental and physical health among veterans and first responders: A scoping review
ABSTRACT
Purpose: This scoping review explores the many benefits of Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu (BJJ) on veterans and first responders, focusing on physical health improvements, psychological benefits, and social integration. The purpose is to synthesize existing literature to identify research gaps and suggest directions for future studies. By examining both qualitative and quantitative research, this review seeks to show the utility of BJJ as a therapeutic modality option and propose it as a comprehensive intervention for enhancing the overall well-being of veterans and first responders. Methods: PubMed and Google Scholar searches were conducted to capture a broad range of studies involving BJJ with veterans or first responders. This review adheres to the PRISMA-ScR guidelines, focusing on studies discussing physical, mental, and social outcomes. Results: The initial search yielded numerous qualitative and quantitative studies. This review categorizes the findings into themes of physical health improvements, psychological benefits, and social integration, highlighting the variability and scope of the existing literature. Conclusions: The review highlights the need for well-structured research to substantiate BJJ’s therapeutic benefits. It recommends areas for in-depth exploration in future systematic reviews or primary studies, especially longitudinal studies on BJJ’s effects and specific therapeutic contributions. Application in Sport: For coaches and trainers, integrating BJJ into programs for veterans and first responders enhances physical fitness and mental health. BJJ improves cardiovascular health, strength, and endurance and reduces PTSD, depression, and anxiety symptoms. BJJ supports mental resilience and provides a supportive community, helping in social integration and reducing isolation. Incorporating BJJ can holistically enhance the recovery and effectiveness of veterans and first responders.
In examining the multi-layered impacts of Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu (BJJ) on enhancing veterans’ and first responders’ mental and physical health, this scoping review examines a significant, emergent area of therapeutic practices. BJJ, a martial art known for its detailed focus on ground fighting and submission holds, offers more than physical training. It is a dynamic intervention that promotes psychological resilience and aids in social reintegration. By synthesizing various studies [6, 13], this review illuminates how BJJ improves physical mobility and mental health outcomes and facilitates the reintegration of veterans into civilian life. Through structured training sessions, BJJ fosters a supportive community environment, addressing the complex rehabilitation needs of veterans and first responders by bridging physical exertion and focus with mental health support. This review explores BJJ’s profound benefits across rehabilitative settings, substantiating its therapeutic value with empirical evidence and detailed analysis.
Although primarily a fighting style and a sport, many are beginning to embrace BJJ as a powerful therapeutic intervention for various purposes. Current research confirms potential scientific benefits from the use of BJJ in physical rehabilitation, psychological resilience, and social integration for populations experiencing high levels of stress – specifically, veterans and first responders. This review is essential at a historical moment when BJJ seems to have a place in therapeutic settings, yet anecdotal evidence essentially underpins current practice. At the same time, an emerging body of empirical literature supports its effectiveness as a sport and work of art. Drawing from qualitative and quantitative research metrics, this scoping review intends to synthesize and expand on the current understanding of BJJ’s multifaceted benefits. This review is relevant because the populations best served by BJJ’s transformative power experience complex physical, mental, and social challenges. These challenges significantly affect vulnerable populations, such as veterans and first responders, due to the cumulative (and sometimes unique) occupational stressors in their working environments.
The purpose of this scoping review is (1) to consider BJJ’s effect on physical health, (2) to assess the psychological benefits of BJJ, (3) to assess BJJ’s social integration utility, and (4) to identify research gaps and potential future studies as it applies to veterans and first responders.
Literature Review
As BJJ gains recognition not only as a martial art but also as a valuable tool for rehabilitation and recovery, it is important to critically examine the breadth and depth of its impact through scholarly research. This review examines the role of BJJ in enhancing the mental and physical health of veterans and first responders, drawing on a rich array of literature that spans clinical studies, systematic reviews, and observational research. This review aims to bridge the gap between theoretical approaches and practical applications in BJJ by synthesizing evidence from diverse academic sources, highlighting its efficacy in fostering physical resilience and psychological and social well-being. The literature discusses how BJJ contributes to rehabilitation processes, supports mental health recovery, and facilitates community reintegration, offering a comprehensive analysis of its benefits.
Rehabilitation and Recovery for Veterans
Rehabilitation and Recovery for Veterans
In recent years, BJJ has emerged as a pivotal intervention for enhancing veterans’ and first responders’ mental and physical well-being. As previously mentioned, this martial art is known for its emphasis on ground fighting and submission. It offers more than just physical training; it provides a structured environment that fosters psychological resilience and social reintegration. For example, studies [3, 16] have documented the significant benefits BJJ offers in rehabilitating soldiers and aiding veterans with PTSD, highlighting improvements in both physical mobility and mental health outcomes. Furthermore, a separate study [5] discusses BJJ’s role in easing veterans’ transition into civilian life, leveraging the discipline’s community-centric nature to combat isolation and build lasting social networks. These collective findings underscore BJJ’s unique position as a therapeutic modality capable of addressing the complex spectrum of veterans’ needs by bridging rigorous physical challenges with psychological and social support.
Physical Rehabilitation and Psychological Recovery
An article on the benefits of BJJ for solider rehabilitation [6] discusses the significant role of BJJ in soldiers’ physical rehabilitation and mental recovery. BJJ’s comprehensive approach helps improve physical mobility and flexibility, often compromised during active-duty service. Engaging in BJJ aids in building both strength and endurance, which is critical for the comprehensive recovery of injured soldiers. Moreover, the mental aspects of BJJ, such as focus and discipline, contribute significantly to psychological resilience, helping soldiers overcome trauma and stress-related challenges.
Additionally, BJJ provides a supportive community for soldiers, fostering a sense of belonging and mutual understanding among peers, which is vital during rehabilitation. This social support, combined with physical training, makes BJJ an effective rehabilitation tool, addressing recovering soldiers’ physical and psychological needs. By participating in BJJ, soldiers work on their physical rehabilitation and gain confidence and mental strength, which are vital for their successful reintegration into everyday life.
PTSD Management and Community Integration
BJJ provides veterans a therapeutic environment that fosters mental discipline and builds a strong community. Engaging in BJJ allows veterans to experience controlled physical interactions, which can be crucial for regaining trust in their bodily responses and reducing hyperarousal associated with PTSD [8]. The structured setting of BJJ classes offers a predictable and safe environment where veterans can learn new skills in a supportive atmosphere. This aspect of predictability and control is essential for helping veterans manage PTSD symptoms effectively.
In addition, the communal aspect of BJJ encourages veterans to form supportive relationships with peers who may share similar experiences. These social connections are invaluable as they help combat the isolation often felt after leaving military service [12]. Through regular training, veterans develop physical strength and emotional resilience, bolstered by the camaraderie found in BJJ gyms [12]. Participants frequently cite this community support as critical to their recovery and civilian life adjustment.
Sustained PTSD Relief
A study on BJJ training as a possible therapeutic modality [13] explored the specific benefits of BJJ for service members and veterans who have PTSD. The research [13] shows significant improvements in PTSD symptoms among participants attributed to the physical exertion and mental focus required in BJJ training. The study highlights how BJJ helps in developing coping strategies for stress and trauma, which are critical for long-term mental health recovery. The repetitive nature of drills and the controlled physical engagements provide a therapeutic outlet for aggression and pent-up emotions.
The study also emphasizes the sense of accomplishment and increased self-esteem from progressing in BJJ. These psychological benefits are crucial for veterans and service members who often struggle with self-worth after leaving service. Training in BJJ offers a structured environment to measure growth through skill levels, providing a tangible sense of progression usually needed after military service.
Reintegration and Social Reconnection
BJJ has also been studied [5] as a powerful tool for veterans’ reintegration into civilian life. The study [5] suggests that BJJ’s disciplined environment helps veterans transition by providing a structured routine similar to that experienced in the military. This similarity helps mitigate the culture shock many veterans experience post-service. Additionally, the physical demands of BJJ provide a healthy outlet for stress and aggression, which are common challenges for veterans adjusting to civilian life.
Furthermore, BJJ fosters a sense of community and brotherhood among its practitioners, which mirrors the camaraderie found in the military. This aspect of social support is crucial for veterans who may feel isolated after their service [5]. The shared experiences in training can lead to lasting friendships and a support network that assists with reintegration, making BJJ an influential social and psychological tool for veterans.
Enhancing Law Enforcement Capabilities
BJJ is also proving to be a transformative tool for law enforcement, offering a multifaceted approach to officer training that extends beyond physical tactics to include significant mental and emotional benefits. BJJ training enhances mental acuity, decision-making under pressure, and interpersonal skills, which are essential in the high-stress context of law enforcement work [9]. These skills help officers manage stressful encounters more effectively, promoting a mindset geared toward de-escalation and controlled responses rather than aggression.
Furthermore, another study [7] highlights the practical impacts of BJJ on use of force protocols, showing how these techniques help maintain calm and control during confrontations, reducing the likelihood of unreasonable or excessive force. This aspect of BJJ training not only improves officer safety but also the safety of the community by minimizing potentially harmful physical interactions. Meanwhile, positive changes in the Marietta Police Department, where BJJ training has reduced injuries and complaints regarding force use, demonstrate BJJ’s potential to enhance team morale and effectiveness [10].
Mental Acuity and Interpersonal Skills Improvement
Research [9] shows the extensive benefits of BJJ, emphasizing its impact beyond just physical techniques to include mental and emotional enhancements. BJJ training can significantly improve mental acuity and decision-making under pressure in law enforcement, where officers often encounter high-stress situations. The practice also fosters resilience and patience, skills that are beneficial in both personal and professional settings. BJJ’s focus on mindfulness and present-moment awareness helps officers handle stressful encounters more calmly and with greater understanding.
Furthermore, the training enhances interpersonal skills, essential for officers who must de-escalate tense situations without resorting to excessive force. BJJ teaches control and restraint, promoting a mindset of protection rather than aggression. Officers trained in BJJ are often better equipped to maintain their safety and that of others while minimizing harm and managing physical confrontations effectively [7]. This holistic approach to training makes BJJ an invaluable tool for law enforcement agencies.
Police Use of Force
An article on the impact of BJJ training on improving use-of-force protocols within law enforcement concluded that training helps officers maintain calm and control in high-stress situations, reducing the likelihood of excessive force [7]. BJJ provides officers with effective yet non-lethal techniques, crucial in safely managing physical confrontations. Additionally, the discipline and mental focus developed through consistent BJJ practice enhance officers’ decision-making abilities, allowing them to assess situations more accurately and respond appropriately. The article suggests that BJJ improves individual officer performance and fosters greater trust and cooperation between law enforcement and the communities they serve, ultimately contributing to safer and more effective policing practices.
The article also discusses the psychological benefits of BJJ training, such as increased confidence and reduced anxiety, which can significantly affect how officers perceive and respond to threats. The enhanced decision-making skills and better judgment officers develop through BJJ training can lead to more positive outcomes in policing encounters, promoting safer community interactions.
Improved Outcomes in Law Enforcement
Research [10] reports on successfully implementing a BJJ program in the Marietta Police Department. The program has led to measurable improvements in officer outcomes, including reduced injuries and fewer complaints regarding the use of force. The training emphasizes skill over strength, equipping officers with the knowledge to control situations effectively without escalating violence.
Furthermore, the program has been instrumental in building team morale and solidarity among officers. The shared experience of training and improving together has strengthened the department’s internal community, which translates into more effective teamwork in the field. This solidarity is crucial for maintaining high standards of police work and ensuring the safety of both officers and the community they serve.
Injury Prevention and Safety Enhancement
The 2021 BJJ Training Data Documents a Reduction in Injuries report from the Marietta (GA) Police Department (MPD), highlighting the tangible benefits of BJJ training in reducing injuries among police officers. The MPD report concludes that comprehensive physical training enhances flexibility, strength, and overall body awareness, leading to this reduction [10]. Officers trained in BJJ are better prepared to handle physical confrontations safely and efficiently, protecting themselves and the individuals with whom they interact. The skills learned in BJJ allow officers to apply force in a controlled manner, significantly lowering the risk of injury.
The data from MPD [3] also underscores the potential for BJJ training to transform standard police training protocols. By incorporating BJJ, departments can ensure that their officers are not only physically capable but also mentally prepared to handle the stresses of law enforcement. This proactive approach to training can reduce workers’ compensation claims, decrease sick leaves due to injuries, and improve overall morale within the department.
Enhancing Physical Fitness and Mental Health
BJJ is a profound physical discipline and a significant enhancer of mental health and community building [1]. This unique martial art offers physiological benefits and underscores how regular BJJ training improves cardiovascular health, muscular strength, and endurance [1]. The mental advantages, such as increased focus and stress reduction, are pivotal in making BJJ a holistic practice for personal health and fitness.
Further insights from the benefits of BJJ in managing PTSD [12] and BJJ as a form of social and psychological therapy [4] deepen our understanding of BJJ’s impact. One longitudinal study demonstrates the sustained effectiveness of BJJ in managing PTSD symptoms, offering a potential therapeutic pathway for veterans and others suffering from chronic stress disorders [12]. Parallelly, a review of BJJ’s social and psychological benefits emphasizes its role in forging strong community ties and enhancing cognitive functions through strategy formulation and problem-solving challenges [4]. Together, these studies [12, 4] present a compelling case for integrating BJJ into wellness and therapy programs to bolster physical robustness and foster a supportive social environment.
Physiological and Psychological Benefits
One systematic review [1] of the extensive physical and physiological demands placed on individuals who practice Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu suggests that BJJ is effective in enhancing cardiovascular health, muscular strength, and endurance. The review also notes the mental benefits of regular, intense physical activity, such as improved focus and stress reduction. The comprehensive nature of BJJ training makes it an excellent form of exercise for improving overall fitness and health.
Furthermore, the review discusses how BJJ athletes develop unique physiological adaptations that enhance their performance. These include increased aerobic capacity, better body composition, and superior muscular endurance. The insights provided by this review suggest that BJJ could be beneficial in cross-training for various activities due to its all-encompassing physical demands and the mental toughness it develops.
Longitudinal Insights
Research provides compelling evidence through a longitudinal study that BJJ has sustained benefits in managing PTSD among veterans [12]. This longitudinal study followed participants over a period, noting significant and lasting decreases in PTSD symptoms among those who regularly engage in BJJ. The work suggests that the combination of physical activity, mental focus, and social interaction inherent in BJJ practice contributes to these positive outcomes.
In addition, the study also highlights how the repetitive and immersive nature of BJJ training can serve as a form of exposure therapy, where participants gradually face and gain control over stress triggers in a controlled environment. Although the work focused on PTSD management among veterans, PTSD is not exclusive only to that group (e.g., law enforcement officers or others who have PTSD after a traumatic event). This method of coping can lead to profound changes in how individuals who suffer from PTSD process and react to stress, potentially providing a blueprint for integrating BJJ into broader PTSD treatment programs.
Building Resilience and Community
In a systematic review, a researcher examined the role of BJJ as both a social and psychological therapy [4]. The review consolidates findings from multiple studies, illustrating how BJJ aids in building strong community ties, which is essential for mental health. The physical closeness and mutual trust required in BJJ training create a unique social dynamic that fosters interpersonal relationships and a supportive network, offering a sense of belonging and community that is often therapeutic. Moreover, the review details how the mental challenges presented in BJJ—such as strategy formulation and problem-solving—enhance cognitive functions and contribute to psychological resilience. These mental benefits complement the physical aspects of BJJ, creating a holistic therapy modality that addresses multiple facets of psychological health.
METHODS
A scoping review of the literature was appropriate to meet the objectives of this study and answer the research question: What benefits does Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu (BJJ) training provide for veterans and first responders in terms of physical, mental, and social health?
This study’s protocol was developed using the scoping review methodological framework [2]. The draft protocol for this review was analyzed by research colleagues and implemented. The protocol consisted of a series of five stages, details of the search strategy and steps of the review process included:
Identifying and collecting relevant studies: Literature searches were conducted across four electronic bibliographic databases: PubMed and Google Scholar. An initial search using the search terms “Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu,” “veterans,” “first responders,” “rehabilitation,” “physical health,” “mental health,” and “community integration” was conducted. This search established salient parameters and eight key search terms to conduct additional searches across the four databases. Those eight critical terms included: (i) Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu and veterans; (ii) Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu and first responders; (iii) BJJ and PTSD; (iv) BJJ for physical rehabilitation; (v) BJJ and conflict resolution; (vi) mental health benefits of BJJ; (vii) physical health benefits of BJJ; and (viii) social integration through BJJ. The collected literature was then screened for relevance to the research question. After removing duplicates, studies were assessed for eligibility. Reference lists of eligible studies were further screened for additional relevant studies.
Study selection: Inclusion and exclusion criteria were established to filter and guide searches for relevant literature. To be included, literature from searches had to meet four inclusion criteria: (i) be from a peer-reviewed journal, a conference presentation, or a published thesis; (ii) published in the English language; (iii) include documented interventions or analysis related to BJJ; and (iv) be quantitative or qualitative. The literature was not restricted by time frame, study population, geographical publication, or type/design of journal article. Collected literature that did not meet all criteria was excluded. However, two colleagues analyzed conflicting literature to reach a consensus for inclusion. By applying the eligibility criteria, two reviewers screened the articles for selection. Blinding was applied at this stage to ensure no bias between reviewers in the selection process. All conflicts between the two reviewers, generated through screening, were discussed to reach a consensus. When conflict remained, the opinion of a third reviewer was sought to reach a consensus. Initially, articles were selected from the title and abstract screening. A second, more in-depth selection was then conducted through full-text screening. December 3, 2023, was the last date that the search was executed.
Charting the data: Once included articles were selected, data was extracted and charted according to author, title, journal, publication year, geographical location, purpose, sample size and type, methodology, intervention type, outcomes, key findings, and barriers. One author extracted and grouped the data, and another validated the data to ensure accuracy. Data were organized and grouped into subtopics according to the identified study purposes: (i) physical health benefits of BJJ; (ii) mental health benefits of BJJ; (iii) social integration through BJJ; (iv) PTSD and BJJ; (v) conflict resolution skills through BJJ; and (vi) physical rehabilitation through BJJ.
Summarizing and synthesizing the results: Authors collectively compared and discussed the charted data. Descriptive statistics were performed to characterize the research literature and to identify the breadth and gaps. Trends across geographic locations and decades of publication of included studies were evaluated. The study results were examined and discussed within each thematic area to determine trends and commonalities. Barriers and gaps were identified within the literature to suggest future areas of study. A consensus between all three authors regarding the critical information generated from the review was reached.
In addition to the scoping review methodological framework proposed by leading scholars in the scoping review methodologies [2]. The researchers for this review followed the PRISMA Extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) checklist [11]. No risk of bias assessment, summary measures, or additional analyses were conducted in this scoping review following the PRISMA-ScR [11]. No formal review protocol exists.
Figure 1. PRISMA 2020 Flow Diagram.
Physical Health Benefits
The studies reviewed consistently demonstrated that BJJ training significantly enhances physical fitness, mobility, and injury rehabilitation. According to one study [1], participants showed marked improvements in cardiovascular health, muscular strength, and endurance. These findings align with the report from MPD, which documented a reduction in injuries among law enforcement officers engaged in BJJ, attributing these benefits to the increased physical conditioning that BJJ provides [3]. This comprehensive approach to physical health not only aids in immediate injury recovery but also contributes to long-term physical wellness.
In one example, the graph below adapted data from a study of physical and physiological profiles of BJJ athletes [1] and shows the peak and mean power values for those who train in BJJ, highlighting its intense physical demands.
The graph displays anaerobic power values from two distinct studies. The study of physical and physiological profiles of BJJ athletes [1] dataset provides measurements for both peak power and mean power:
Peak Power: This represents the highest instantaneous power output achieved by the athletes during the test.
Mean Power: Reflects the average power maintained throughout the Wingate test, typically 30 seconds.
The colors differentiate the types of power measured:
Red Bars: Peak power values from two studies.
Green Bars: Mean power values from the same studies.
The graph highlights variations between studies, underscoring the need for consistent testing methodologies to compare anaerobic capacity accurately across different research. However, the researcher concluded that BJJ athletes possess considerable anaerobic capacity, with peak power outputs exceeding 10 W/kg and mean power outputs close to 10 W/kg. These values demonstrate the athletes’ proficiency in generating and sustaining high levels of power, essential during competitive grappling engagements, such as executing takedowns, resisting submissions, or applying forceful maneuvers.
In another example, the chart below adapted data from MPD. It showed three distinct bars, each representing the percentage reduction in incidents due to BJJ training within the Marietta Police Department in 2020.
The first bar shows a 48% reduction in injuries to officers who used force, indicating significant safety improvements for the officers involved.
The second bar illustrates a 53% reduction in injuries to persons who required force during arrest, highlighting the training’s role in protecting the officers and those they encounter.
The third bar indicates a 23% reduction in Taser use, demonstrating a shift towards less reliance on electronic control devices, which can be critical in high-tension situations.
Mental Health Benefits
The mental health improvements associated with BJJ are particularly significant. Researchers who explored BJJ training for U.S. service members and veterans with symptoms of PTSD found substantial reductions in PTSD symptoms among veterans participating in BJJ, with benefits extending to decreased levels of depression and anxiety [13]. Interestingly, researchers who studied BJJ benefits in managing PTSD further supported these findings in their longitudinal study [12], which noted lasting mental health benefits from regular BJJ practice. The mental discipline and focus required in BJJ training foster an environment conducive to psychological healing and emotional stability, making it a valuable tool in mental health therapy.
For example, this review adapted data from research on BJJ training for U.S. service members and veterans with symptoms of PTSD [13] and graphs the effect sizes calculated from PCL-5 assessments for veterans participating in BJJ training. The graph illustrates the effect sizes at two key intervals of their study: pre-treatment to mid-treatment and pre-treatment to post-treatment. To assess the impact of BJJ on PTSD symptoms among veterans and first responders, researchers measured changes in PTSD symptomatology using the PTSD Checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5) and concluded decreased levels of depression and anxiety.
Effect Sizes and Confidence Intervals
The graph depicts effect sizes (Cohen’s d) and their corresponding 95% confidence intervals to illustrate the magnitude and precision of changes in PTSD symptoms from pre-treatment to mid-treatment and from pre-treatment to post-treatment.
Statistical Significance
The p-values associated with these findings underscore the statistical significance of the observed improvements, suggesting that the effects are attributable to the BJJ intervention.
Social and Community Aspects
The findings illustrated BJJ’s role in enhancing social interactions and building community ties. For example, one researcher examined BJJ as a possible social and psychological therapeutic modality and underscored how BJJ promotes camaraderie and supports systems among participants, creating a sense of belonging and mutual trust [4]. This community aspect is crucial, especially for veterans and first responders, who often experience isolation in their professional roles. The shared experience of BJJ training fosters solid interpersonal relationships and provides a supportive network that enhances the social well-being of its members.
These results collectively illustrate BJJ’s comprehensive benefits, affirming its effectiveness across physical, mental, and social domains. Integrating BJJ into therapeutic and training programs offers a holistic approach to health and wellness, supporting individuals’ physical conditioning and psychological and social rehabilitation.
For instance, this work adapted data from a study on BJJ as social and psychological therapy [4] and crafted a thematic map to illustrate the complex relationships between various aspects of BJJ and their outcomes.
Reduces Negative Behaviors
he thematic map distinguishes between direct benefits and the pathways that facilitate these benefits, using color coding to enhance readability and understanding. It effectively encapsulates how BJJ is a multifaceted enhancer of psychosocial health. By detailing both the outcomes and the mechanisms, the map serves as a tool for understanding BJJ’s broad and nuanced impacts beyond the mat, supporting its integration into psychological and social rehabilitation programs.
THEMES
Multiple themes emerged from the outcomes assessed in the literature. One researcher with expertise in BJJ identified and categorized these themes, and studies were grouped into key categories inspired by different domains related to veterans and first responders. Most studies evaluated one specific theme within the context of BJJ while acknowledging others to a lesser degree; however, some overlap of themes emerged in studies. Table 1 groups all studies by theme, variable, citation, and geographical region.
Table 1. Summary of all themes, the variable(s) assessed in each theme, and the studies that assessed the variable(s).
From the included literature: (1) physical health benefits of BJJ; (2) mental health benefits of BJJ; (3) social integration through BJJ; (4) BJJ’s role in PTSD management; (5) BJJ for conflict resolution skills; and (6) BJJ for physical rehabilitation, all occupied the primary purpose of the greatest number of studies. Other pertinent topics included: (7) BJJ’s impact on law enforcement training; (8) psychological resilience through BJJ; (9) community building and support systems through BJJ; and (10) strategies for implementing BJJ in therapeutic settings, which were the secondary focus of some studies and integrated into studies with another primary focus.
DISCUSSION
This scoping review aimed to define and evaluate the quantitative and qualitative data regarding the effects of BJJ on veterans and first responders. It was conducted through standard methods outlined by leading scholars in the field [2] to identify, select, and synthesize the findings from 11 studies. The current knowledge of BJJ was documented by analyzing the geographic scope of studies, the year of publication, and the specific themes that emerged from the literature. Provided below are significant results of this review that can be relevant for future researchers, practitioners, and BJJ instructors.
The included studies revealed evidence of BJJ’s physical health benefits. Participants showed marked improvements in cardiovascular health, muscular strength, and endurance [1]. These physical health benefits were consistent across different populations and settings, highlighting BJJ’s utility in enhancing overall fitness and aiding injury rehabilitation [10]. Despite these positive findings, further research is needed to establish standardized protocols for measuring these benefits across diverse groups.
The literature also prominently discussed BJJ’s mental health benefits. Substantial reductions in PTSD symptoms, depression, and anxiety were reported among veterans participating in BJJ [12, 13] These findings suggest that BJJ provides a supportive environment conducive to psychological healing and emotional stability. The mental discipline and focus required in BJJ training foster an environment that encourages mindfulness and stress reduction. However, the mechanisms underlying these mental health benefits are not fully understood and warrant further investigation.
Social integration emerged as a significant theme, with BJJ promoting camaraderie and support systems among participants. Studies highlighted how BJJ fosters a sense of belonging and mutual trust, crucial for veterans and first responders who often experience isolation in their professional roles [4]. The communal aspect of BJJ training helps build strong interpersonal relationships and provides a supportive network that enhances social well-being. Future research should explore how these social benefits can be optimized further to support the reintegration of veterans into civilian life.
BJJ’s role in enhancing law enforcement capabilities was another key finding. BJJ training improves mental acuity, decision-making under pressure, and interpersonal skills, which are essential in the high-stress context of law enforcement work [7, 9]. The practical impacts of BJJ as a response to resistance option were also noted, with reduced injuries and complaints regarding the use of force in departments that implemented BJJ training programs [10]. These findings underscore the importance of incorporating BJJ into law enforcement training to enhance officer safety and effectiveness.
Technological advancements in BJJ training were less frequently discussed but are becoming increasingly relevant. Integrating AI and other technologies to enhance training and performance tracking could revolutionize how BJJ practitioners train and improve [12]. Future research should explore the potential of these technologies in providing more precise and individualized training programs.
Comparisons across gender and skill levels revealed essential insights into how different populations benefit from BJJ training. Differences in physical and psychological responses to BJJ were noted, suggesting that tailored training programs may be necessary to optimize benefits for diverse groups [1]. Future studies should continue to explore these differences to develop more inclusive and effective training methodologies.
The inclusion of wheelchair BJJ and adaptive training for individuals with disabilities was minimal but highlighted the need for more inclusive research. Studies focused on the biomechanics of BJJ for wheelchair users and its potential benefits in promoting physical and mental health [6]. Expanding research in this area could lead to better support and training for individuals with disabilities.
Future Research
Understanding the many benefits of BJJ for veterans and first responders is unquestionable. Continued research should aim to standardize measurement protocols and explore the long-term impacts of BJJ training. Future studies should also consider integrating technological advancements and developing adaptive training programs to support diverse populations. By expanding the scope of research to include mixed-double formats and other variations of BJJ, researchers can develop a more comprehensive understanding of its benefits and applications.
Strengths and Limitations of this Scoping Review
This scoping review applied a systematic and rigorous search strategy to retrieve a comprehensive range of articles addressing the benefits of BJJ for veterans and first responders. Considering both peer-reviewed journal articles and grey literature, the review captured a broad spectrum of knowledge, including unpublished theses and conference presentations. However, some studies were unintentionally omitted due to limited access, and the exclusion of non-English language studies may have skewed the geographic analysis of the literature. Additionally, the reliance on self-reported data in many studies introduces potential biases that should be addressed in future research.
CONCLUSIONS
This study sought to review the literature on the benefits of BJJ for veterans and first responders, focusing on physical, mental, and social health outcomes. It answers this study’s research question and presents the current knowledge for each identified theme, providing opportunities for future research. This scoping review will aid in building a more comprehensive understanding of BJJ’s therapeutic mechanisms and significantly contribute to optimizing its application in rehabilitative and therapeutic settings. A growing body of research is being conducted globally on BJJ’s benefits. The current literature reveals substantial evidence of BJJ’s positive impact on physical fitness, mental health, and social integration. However, the varying methodologies and outcomes of the included studies indicate that more rigorous research is needed to elucidate BJJ’s mechanisms of action fully. This scoping review provides an impetus for further research on BJJ’s effects on specific populations, including adaptive training for individuals with disabilities and integrating technological advancements in training. Studies included in this scoping review only scratched the surface of these variables and their impact on the well-being of veterans and first responders. Future research should aim to expand on these findings to develop a more comprehensive understanding of BJJ’s potential as a therapeutic tool.
APPLICATIONS IN SPORT
Integrating BJJ into training programs for veterans and first responders provides a versatile approach to enhancing their physical, mental, and social well-being. Coaches and trainers can leverage BJJ to significantly improve cardiovascular health, muscular strength, and endurance, which are essential for the physically demanding roles of these professionals. The mental health benefits of BJJ are particularly noteworthy; the studies in this review show it reduces symptoms of PTSD, depression, and anxiety, thereby promoting emotional resilience and effective stress management. Furthermore, BJJ’s structured and strategic nature supports mental acuity and decision-making under pressure, which are necessary skills for operational effectiveness. Socially, BJJ offers a sense of community and mutual support, aiding in the social integration of veterans and first responders and mitigating feelings of isolation. By incorporating BJJ into their training regimes, coaches and trainers can deliver a holistic program that enhances physical fitness and supports psychological health and social connectivity, ultimately improving the overall recovery, resilience, and operational readiness of veterans and first responders. This comprehensive approach underscores BJJ’s value as a therapeutic intervention in sports training programs for these populations.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors confirm that all the research in this work has met ethical guidelines and adhered to the legal requirements of the United States of America. In addition, the principal investigator is compliant with the Collaborative Institutional Training Initiative (CITI) Program on social and behavioral researchers and social and behavioral responsible conduct of research training. Furthermore, this work was not funded, the authors declare no conflict of interest, and it did not contain studies with human participants or animals performed by the principal investigator.
References
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2Arksey, H., & O’malley, L. (2005). Scoping studies: towards a methodological framework. International journal of social research methodology, 8(1), 19-32.
3BJJ training data documents a reduction in injuries. (2021). Marietta, GA. https://www.mariettaga.gov/CivicAlerts.aspx?AID=3116#:~:text=MPD%20officers%20participating%20in%20Brazilian,arrested%20when%20force%20was%20required
4Blomqvist Mickelsson, T. (2021). Brazilian jiu-jitsu as social and psychological therapy: a systematic review. Journal of Physical Education and Sport, 21(3), 1544-1552.
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6Fender, R. (2024). Benefits of Brazilian jiu-jitsu for soldier rehabilitation. www.army.mil. https://www.army.mil/article/273135/benefits_of_brazilian_jiu_jitsu_for_soldier_rehabilitation
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10Rogers, K., Jones, P., & Burne, K. (2021). Marietta Police Department measurably improves officer outcomes with the BJJ program. Jitsmagazine.com. https://jitsmagazine.com/marietta-police-department-measurably-improves-officer-outcomes-with-bjj-program/.
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George Minoso2024-08-27T15:53:24-05:00August 30th, 2024|General, Sport Training, Sports Exercise Science|Comments Off on An examination of studies related to Brazilian jiu-jitsu in enhancing mental and physical health among veterans and first responders: A scoping review
Authors: Lindsay Ross-Stewart1, Landon Braun2, & Victoria Hardcastle3
1Department of Applied Health, Southern Illinois University Edwardsville 2College of Health Professions and Sciences, University of Wisconsin Milwaukee 3Department of Intercollegiate Athletics, Savannah State University
Corresponding Author: Dr. Lindsay Ross-Stewart Campus Box 1126 Southern Illinois University Edwardsville Edwardsville, IL, 62026 lrossst@siue.edu (618) 650-2410
Lindsay Ross-Stewart, PhD is an Associate Professor in the Department of Applied Health at Southern Illinois University Edwardsville. Dr. Ross-Stewart is a CMPC® and a Canadian Sport Psychology Association Mental Performance Consultant (MPC).
Landon Braun, M.S., is a Doctoral Student at the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee in the College of Health Professions & Sciences. At UWM Landon works as a Teaching Assistant in the School of Rehabilitation Sciences & Technology where he teaches courses related sport and performance psychology to both undergraduate and graduate students.
Victoria Hardcastle, M.S., is an Assistant Softball Coach at Savannah State University.
Effective use of Imagery Assisted Virtual Reality in Pitch Recognition and Sport Imagery Ability Development
ABSTRACT
Abstract: Imagery can be described as experience that mimics real world experiences through the combination of using different sensory modalities in the absence of actual perceptions (43). One uses visual, auditory, kinesthetic (touch), smell, and taste to create a picture simulating real world environments and scenarios. Imagery can be used to enhance various aspects of performance by mentally preparing someone for an upcoming competition or helping an athlete focus specifically on a task (19). Virtual reality, understood in this study as a first-person filmed, computer presented, immersive simulation of a real environment (32), has become increasingly more utilized in sport performance settings (7, 37, 44). Combing these two elements, the purpose of this study was to investigate an applied Imagery Assisted Virtual Reality (IAVR) intervention on imagery ability and pitch recognition in a sample of eleven National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division One softball players at a Midwestern University. This study’s results indicated a significant increase in global imagery ability as well as in four of the five functions of imagery (CS, CG, MG-A, MG-A) and in pitch type recognition. Practically, the results from this study suggest that the IAVR intervention can create an impactful experience to assist athletes in improving their performance and psychological skills.
Keywords: Psychological Skills, Pitching Ability, Softball, Virtual Reality, Collegiate Sport
Virtual reality technology has become an increasingly common tool used in sport (e.g., 3 – 4, 7, 14, 17, 24, 26; 28, 31, 37, 44) with application in areas such as injury rehabilitation (31), and performance enhancement (2, 27, Wood et al., 2020). In fact, virtual reality has been labeled the next step forward for athletic training (47) and has been the subject of several states of the field (e.g., 7, 26).
Virtual reality was originally defined as a computer-generated, artificial, or simulated environment created by technological software (38). Within sport, it has been defined as instances when individuals are engaged in a sport that is represented in a computer-simulated environment which aims to induce a sense of being mentally or physically present and enables interactivity with the environment (28). One important aspect that virtual reality training is lacking is a focus on how virtual reality can assist in increasing an athlete’s psychological skill development (32). While virtual reality can impressively replicate environments and simulate real-world reactions; it still lacks the ability to capture an emotional response to the environment (32). As we know that how one feels and their perceptions of the sporting environment are necessary for performance, past research has shown this to be a challenge in traditional VR interventions (11) Research on the incorporation of imagery into a virtual reality training program has shown it to be a promising way to gain the advantages of VR and to overcome this potential challenge (32, 33; 34).
In the context of sport, White and Hardy (45) defined mental imagery as: an experience that mimics real experience. We can be aware of “seeing” an image, feeling movements as an image, or experiencing an image of smell, tastes, or sounds without actually experiencing the real thing (23). One approach to the application of imagery in sport is the revised applied model of imagery, which states that athletes may use it to achieve different outcomes (10). To achieve desired outcomes, imagery type, what athlete’s images and imagery function, the why or the purpose of an athlete’s image should be considered (29). Imagery type is split into two categories, cognitive and motivational, with each operating at specific and general levels (43). Cognitive refers to performance enhancement while motivational focuses on confidence enhancement (5). Imagery types and functions have been defined as: Cognitive specific (CS) helps an athlete to work on skill learning, development, and execution. Cognitive general (CG) affords the athlete the ability to image different strategies and routines. Motivational specific (MS) imagery focuses on enhancing motivation through goal setting and goal achievement. Motivational general arousal (MGA) imagery focuses on somatic and emotional experiences such as regulating stress and arousal. Motivational general mastery (MGM) imagery concentrates on coping, gaining, and maintaining self-confidence, and staying focused (10, 18) identify. Athletes might use each of the imagery types alone or in combination with one another, depending on the meaning an athlete applies to the image (29). For example, an athlete can use cognitive specific imagery (CS type) to image themselves executing a skill successfully (CS function), but this image may also increase their confidence, which would be for the function type MG-M (10).
Focusing on the way in which Imagery and Virtual Reality could be used together, Ross-Stewart and colleagues developed Imagery Assisted Virtual Reality (IAVR), a training protocol that involves an immersive virtual reality experience for users in which kinesthetic awareness is incorporated with users being able to see a first-person simulated scenario coupled with an individualized imagery script aimed at enhancing psychological skills and performance (32). IAVR entailed a first-person filmed batting environment from an on-deck position all the way up to batting and taking swings. This video was then followed by a blank screen with an individualized guided imagery script tailored to each individual player that was either audio recorded in the video itself or written down. In their initial study they found that participants who completed an IAVR intervention increased their skills imagery (CS), goal imagery (MS) and mastery imagery (MG-M) as measured by the Sport Imagery Ability Questionnaire (SIAQ; 43). Furthermore, results suggested an increase in overall imagery use, positive self-talk and automaticity in both practice and competition through the length of the study. Additionally, negative thinking during competition decreased, as measured by the Test of Performance Strategies (TOPS; 39). The finding that imagery and virtual reality used together can impact psychological constructs was supported by Frank et al (2022) who found self-efficacy to increase in a physical activity task using imagery and virtual reality. Furthering the support for IAVR, a recent study on the impact of VR on imagery ability and emotional affect found that VR can “induce emotional arousal and affect the mental imagery skills and positive affect of athletes” (46).
Baseball hall of famer Ted Williams referred to batting as “the hardest thing to do in sports” (35). If a softball pitcher throws a 60-mph fastball, it will reach Homeplate in .45 seconds. However, if she throws a changeup at 50 mph, it will reach Homeplate in .55 seconds. Batters have a brief window of opportunity in which they must recognize the pitch and decide to swing or not swing (20). Pitch recognition is the batter’s ability to recognize which way the seams on the ball are spinning/rotating and the trajectory of the ball (20). These two components can be categorized by pitch type (fastball, change-up, drop ball, rise ball) and prediction of eventual location of the pitch (strike, ball, inside, outside) (13). Being able to recognize pitches is an essential aspect of batting. However, there exists little agreement on what the skill of pitch recognition consists of and how to improve it (13). Each pitch is comprised of different combinations of velocity, rotation, and trajectory cues. Outside of rotation and trajectory cues, there are other sources of information a batter might be receiving information from without being aware of it. These cues include knowledge of the pitcher, game situation, and batter’s count (20). A batter’s ability to recognize which pitch is being thrown will allow them to conduct their swing accordingly and increase performance. This recognition will allow a batter to make more solid hits and recognize the difference between a ball and strike. This recognition will also allow them to either look for pitches they want to hit or draw more walks. Therefore, pitch recognition is a pivotal skill for softball players to obtain if they want to achieve top performance.
The use of VR has been shown to be an effective tool for the increase of strike zone and pitch recognition (16). Virtual reality training has also been shown to lead to a greater sensitivity to visual information provided by the ball trajectory, seam rotation, and improved ability to use monocular cues to determine whether a pitch would cross the plate in the strike zone or not (16). Furthermore, Ranganathan and Carlton (30) found that VR was effective when baseball players had visual information of an entire pitch in their VR environment and ball trajectory yielded a higher prediction accuracy.
Based on both past research in VR and IAVR, merging imagery and virtual reality may enhance the psychological skill and strategy development of athletes more than if they are used alone. Taken with recent suggestions for more research on the effectiveness of VR on both skill acquisition and psychological change in sport (e.g., 7 17, 26, 28 31, 41), specifically, Cotterill’s assertion that “there is also a need for more applied case studies that outline the procedures adopted and reflect on the outcomes obtained using VR in sport psychology–relevant ways”(7, p.22). The purpose of this paper is to highlight an applied Imagery Assisted Virtual Reality intervention that was used with a National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I softball team. Specifically, hitters were given the opportunity to participate in an intervention that designed individualized imagery assisted virtual reality video for them and then they were assessed to see how it impacted their imagery ability, and pitch recognition. Based on past research, it was hypothesized that both global imagery ability and pitch recognition would increase from baseline to post intervention. Furthermore, based on past research on IAVR (32) it was hypothesized that CS, CG, and MG-M imagery would significantly increase from baseline to post intervention. No hypothesis was made related to MS and MG-A imagery due to lack of past research, at the time of data collection, supporting the use of this imagery increasing using IAVR.
Materials and Methods
Methods
Participants Participants were 11 NCAA Division One female softball players at a Midwestern University. Of the 11 participants five were right-handed batters and six were left-handed batters. Their ages ranged from 18-24 years old.
Measures Sport Imagery Ability Questionnaire (43; SIAQ): The SIAQ was designed to measure an athlete’s ability to image different content (i.e., strategies, skills, feelings, and goals) and the frequency that an athlete images. The questionnaire has 15 questions rated from 1 (very hard to image) to 7 (very easy to image). The questions are divided into five different subscales; skill imagery ability (e.g., defining a specific skill), strategy imagery ability (e.g., making/executing strategies), goal imagery ability (e.g., winning the game), affect imagery ability (e.g., positive emotions connected with the sport), and mastery imagery ability (e.g., positive outlook when things are not going well). An overall sport imagery ability score and all subscales were calculated separately. To score each of the five subscales, questions for the subscale were summed and divided by the number of questions for each source. The SIAQ has been found to have good validity and reliability (43)
Pitch recognition test: A Pitch Recognition test was designed for this study to assess a participant’s ability to recognize a pitch type (fastball. change-up, etc.) and pitch location (strike/ball). Participants viewed twelve pitches via GoPro film from a pitcher. The film the participants viewed was from the same film they viewed in their IAVR. There were five seconds between each pitch allowing for the participants to circle both the pitch type and pitch location of the previously viewed pitch. The pitch recognition test had twelve different pitches for the baseline testing and the post intervention testing. The number of pitches they correctly identified for both type and location divided by twelve was their total pitch recognition scores. Both pitch type and pitch location were scored as subscale.
Procedure Institution IRB was obtained. Players were recruited from an NCAA (National Collegiate Athletic Association) Division I softball team. Eleven players signed up to participate in the intervention. Participants who gave consent were assigned a time to film their first-person VR film. Filming was done both on the players’ field and in their indoor hitting facility to make sure it properly mimicked where they were currently practicing. During filming, participants wore dual mounted GoPro headsets on top of their batting helmets to gain first person filming perspectives. Participants were instructed to go through their whole routine starting with preparation for the on-deck circle by stepping into the batter’s box. Filming was also done to gain a third person perspective using a dual mounted GoPro headset strapped to a tripod and placed in the batter’s box. For this film day, three pitchers from the same team, who volunteered to help with the study were filmed pitching from the mound (one left-handed, two right-handed). All three of the pitchers threw their pitches (fastball, change-up, rise ball, etc.) for both right-handed batter and left-handed batter viewpoints. Ninety-six pitches were filmed to allow for a variety of options for the pitching videos. After the filming was complete the research team used Shotcut to edit the film into two pitch recognition videos, and an individualized VR video for each participant. Videos of the pitches were made to assess pitch recognition at baseline and time 2. To make these videos, the third-person video was edited by clipping each pitcher’s pitch into its own. This allowed the researchers to integrate all three pitchers’ pitches into a specific order. Researchers then went through and selected twelve pitches out of the right-handed batter’s film and a separate twelve out of the left-handed batter’s film. These clips were arranged to simulate two full at bats, with a five second black screen between each pitch. This method was replicated to make the pitch recognition video that would be used for the post test.
To make the IAVR videos, first-person perspective film was edited to start when participants start their pre-at bat routine. The clip ended when the batter received a pitch from the pitcher while they were in the batter’s box. In these videos pitch clips were aligned to simulate a real world at bat, including timing between bats. To develop the guided imagery scripts that would be recorded as audio into the Virtual Reality videos, participants individually met with the research team to discuss their experiences at bat. The imagery scripts were written according to the guidelines suggested by (42) making sure to incorporate both stimulus and response propositions (8, 22) to the imagery scripts. The imagery scripts were broken down and recorded into two audio files. The first recording consisted of each participant’s rituals and routines starting when they are “in the hole” all the way to being in the batter’s box. This included getting equipment on (batting gloves, elbow guard, etc.), walking to the on-deck circle, on deck circle rituals, walking to the batter’s box, and pre at bat rituals. Some participants opted to have their walk-up song playing in the background during their imagery script when walking from the on-deck circle to the batter’s box.
The second recording started when each participant was in the batter’s box. Depending on how the participant wanted their imagery script written, they might receive a ball or strike first. Then, hitting to a designated spot of their choosing. Participants then had a choice of running through first, running to second, or sliding into second. The scenarios and cues they picked up from the first base coach were all individualized to each participant. These individual imagery scripts were turned into audio files and then embedded into the participants corresponding virtual reality film to make the Imagery Assisted Virtual Reality interventions for each participant. The IAVR was set up as the following: imagery script of preparation for an at bat, 3rd person pitch film, first person film from the dugout to the batter’s box, and then imagery script of hitting the ball and making it to a base safe. Before being given their IAVR film, participants watched the baseline pitch recognition video and marked the pitch type and location of each video. Each player was provided with a pair of virtual reality goggles and a locked cell phone loaded with their individualized video. Instructions were also provided to participants on how to download the videos onto their personal phone if they preferred to have it on their own phone. Participants were instructed to watch their IAVR video at least once a day using virtual reality goggles. Participants were also informed that if they requested any changes to their IAVR (i.e., imagery speed, tone, pitch order) the research team would make the changes at any time during the intervention. After participants had the IAVR video for six weeks they completed a post intervention pitch recognition test where they watched the second pitching video that had been made and once again recorded what type and location, they believed they saw for each pitch. They also completed the SIAQ at this time.
Results Review of the data indicated that two participants had missed one question each. The means for each question were used as a replacement so the participants data could still be used in the analysis, as deemed appropriate in inferential statistics (21). Next descriptive statistics for baseline and post intervention were calculated for each of the five imagery ability subscales and global imagery ability score, as well as total pitch recognition, pitch type and pitch location. Paired samples t-tests were run to assess mean changes from baseline to post intervention for all imagery ability subscales and total imagery score as well as for the three pitch assessments. As the data were expected to increase from baseline to post intervention across all variables a one tailed test was employed with an alpha level of 0.05. Cohens d were calculated for all pairs with 0.21 – 0.59 considered a small effect .60 – .79 a medium effect and 0.80 to 100 a large effect (6).
Imagery Participants’ global imagery ability was higher at post-testing (m = 5.69, sd = 0.79) as opposed to baseline (m = 5.02, sd = 0.69), which was found to be a statistically significant difference, t(10) = -2.70, p = .01, d = 0.91). Skill imagery ability change from baseline to post intervention was also significant (t(10) = -2.51, p = 0.02, d = 0.73), indicating that the participants increased their skill imagery ability from baseline (m = 4.79, sd = 1.12) to post intervention (m = 5.63, sd = 1.20). Strategy imagery ability was found to have a statistically significant change (t(10) = -2.05, p = .03, d = 0.63). Means indicated an increase from 4.73 (sd =0.94) at baseline to 5.30 (sd =0.88) at post intervention. The affect imagery ability increase was statistically significant (t(10) = -2.07 p = 0.03, d = 0.81). Means indicated a change from 5.55 (sd = 0.83) at baseline to 6.22 at post intervention (sd = 0.79). Mastery imagery ability from baseline (m = 4.88, sd = 0.86) to post test (m = 5.60, sd = 0.79) was also statistically significant (t(10) = -2.05, p = 0.02, d = 0.88). Goal imagery did not have a statistically significant change from baseline (m = 5.15, sd = 1.02) to post intervention (m = 5.70, sd = 1.03, (p = 0.07, d = 0.53).
Pitch Statistics Pitch type recognition was found to be statistically significant from baseline (m = 6.60, sd = 3.13) to post intervention (m = 9.10, sd = 2.08), t(10) = -2.28, p = .04) with a large effect size (d = 0.94). Pitch location recognition and total pitch recognition both increased, however neither were statistically significant changes (p >0.05). Percentage change was also recorded for pitch type as that is the common way to assess these statistics in applied softball scenarios. See Table 1 for full statistics for Pitch.
Table 1. Average Number and percentage of pitches accurately identified at baseline and Post Intervention
Discussion This study investigated the effect of an applied Imagery Assisted Virtual Reality intervention on NCAA Division I softball players’ imagery ability and pitch recognition. This study hypothesized an increase in global imagery ability, pitch recognition as well as increases in skill (CS), strategy (CG), and Confidence (MG-M) imagery. Overall, the hypotheses were supported by the findings of this study.
This study’s results indicated a significant increase in the participants’ global imagery ability with this change indicating a large effect size. Furthermore, of the five imagery subscales all showed increases from baseline to post intervention, with Skill, Strategy, Mastery and Affect imagery ability increasing from baseline to post intervention. The increase in global imagery ability and subscale increases equates to the athlete’s ability to image being easier in real sport situations (49). This is of applied significance as this increase in global imagery could assist athletes in mental preparation before engaging in sport specific performance endeavors. It is also of importance as we have few studies demonstrating how to increase imagery ability even though we know the ability to image is important for athletes who want to use imagery to increase their sport performance. As imagery has been shown over and over again to increase sport performance (e.g., 9), knowing how to increase imagery ability is an important step in pursuit of maximizing the benefits of this psychological strategy. This study demonstrates how virtual reality can assist a person’s imagery ability when showing real world video in correlation to their imagery script. We can postulate that global imagery ability increased in part due to the IAVR increasing the functional equivalency of the intervention (32). These results align with research on functional equivalence (22 and the PETTLEP model of imagery which states that all senses need to be engaged to be fully immersed in an imagery script (e.g., 1, 19; 36, 40).
The results indicated significant increases in confidence (MG-M) and affect (MG-A) imagery ability which equates to an athlete’s ability to image and be in control and cope during difficult sporting situations, and image positive content withing their sport (43). It may be that these motivational imagery subscales had a significant increase due to cue words (e.g., calm, focus, confidently) that were inserted into each participants imagery script to stimulate an emotional response. These cue words, chosen by each participant, were combined with repeated phrases such as “take a deep breath,” “feel yourself,” and “you are confident” were also used to stimulate an emotional response from participants. Some participants also opted to have their walk-up song play during their imagery assisted virtual reality. This auditory connection between virtual reality film and real-world stimulus may have allowed participants to emotionally connect to the IAVR and use it to regulate arousal. It should be noted that although it was not hypothesized that affect imagery (MG-A) would increase due to lack of research at the time of study, this finding is supported by recent research that has come out since data was collected for this study (46). The increase in MG-A imagery ability indicates that athletes experienced some type of realistic emotion within the imagery experience. This finding coincides with previous research (25, 27) that posits increases in affect imagery within virtual reality films may be attributed to social presence within these virtual reality films. Lee and colleagues (25) believed that responses to social presence within virtual environments may be due to the players’ expectations of interactions during an actual game. Within this study, social presence was maintained throughout virtual reality film by incorporating the presence of teammates in the videos. Finally, there were significant increases in skill (CS), and strategy (CG) imagery ability, which supported the hypothesis and is in line with past research (32). This makes sense as the IAVR gave the players extra opportunities to see themselves engaging in the skill of hitting and through imagery incorporated their individual strategies for how they were going to hit the ball.
Pitch Statistics The hypothesis that pitch recognition would increase was partially supported. Pitch type recognition was found to be significantly increased from pre to post intervention. However, although pitch location recognition and total pitch recognition both increased, neither change was statistically significant. Percentage change was also recorded for pitch type as that is the common way to assess these statistics in applied softball scenarios and gave real world application information when it came to pitch recognition change. Of particular importance in this study was the finding that pitch type recognition increased by over 20% (from recognizing 6.6/12 – 9.1/12) from baseline to post intervention. Although not statistically significant the change in total pitch recognition increased by two pitches (4.1/12 to 5.9/12, 15%) which in an applied setting is a noteworthy performance increase. As the IAVR in this study was not filmed with 360-degree cameras it may be that this affected the batter’s sense of where the pitch was over the base, leading to a lack of pitch location increase. However, the IAVR focus on first person perspective of the pitch coming at them just as it would in a real game essentially gave them more reps “reading” the pitch where they did not have to think about anything else (what they were going to do), which may be part of why their pitch type recognition increased. These findings are important for those within the softball world as we know that recognizing a pitch can predict accuracy of an at bat (e.g., 30, 16). Although it is noted that pitch recognition is an essential aspect to batting, there is little agreement on how to improve it (13). This study’s results demonstrate the effectiveness of IAVR on increasing pitch type recognition and could therefore be a low-cost tool used by teams to increase the skill of pitch recognition, and therefore batting percentages.
While this study is an important addition to the new area of Imagery Assisted Virtual Reality, there are limitations to consider. The first limitation of this study was the sample size. Although the small sample size is acknowledged as a limitation it should be noted that even with this small sample size, the effect sizes in this study were medium to high indicating that with a larger sample these findings may be even more pronounced. As this was an applied study using players who were in season, it was considered unethical to make some of them a control group. Specifically, having some players given an advantage over others, an advantage that is not shown to disappear over time, would be unfair to those in the control group, impacting both individual athletes and the team as a whole. Therefore, not having a control group, although a deliberate decision, does lead to the lack of knowledge as to whether another unexpected variable may have impacted these results.
As IAVR is a new strategy for increasing imagery ability and sport performance, there are several areas future researchers should consider. Current research on IAVR has focused on the effect of IAVR on imagery ability it may be useful to focus on imagery use (facilitative and debilitative) as the ability to image is of importance only in that it effects imagery use effectiveness (12). Therefore, future research should focus specifically on the effect of IAVR on amount of deliberate imagery use both during and after they complete the IAVR protocol. To that point, future applied research on IAVR would benefit from tracking season performance post intervention, or by athletes who use IAVR throughout a season. Additionally, the impact of IAVR on pitch recognition during in game would be a worthy pursuit. At this time, we do not know what the optimal length of an IAVR protocol would be for athlete imagery, psychological skill, or athletic performance. All these areas are ripe for future research to investigate.
Conclusion Overall, the results of this study further support the value of an Imagery Assisted Virtual Reality protocol being used in sport. Specifically, this study showed that IAVR can increase performance statistics (pitch recognition) and imagery ability.
Applications in Sport These findings have practical significance as they lend support for IAVR to be used by softball players to further both their in-game skills and psychological skills development. Furthermore, these findings add to the existing literature that indicates IAVR may be a cost effective and impactful tool for athletes in various sports.
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George Minoso2024-07-18T10:12:55-05:00August 2nd, 2024|Research, Sport Training, Sports Coaching|Comments Off on Effective use of Imagery Assisted Virtual Reality in Pitch Recognition and Sport Imagery Ability Development
1Colorado Mesa University, Grand Junction, Colorado, USA
Corresponding Author: Sean Phelps Colorado Mesa University 1100 North Avenue Grand Junction, CO 81501-3122 970.248.1158 sphelps@coloradomesa.edu
Sean Phelps, PhD, is an assistant professor of sport management at Colorado Mesa University. His research interests include organizational theory, national governing bodies, and international sports
Perceptions of the purpose and role of volunteer coaches in the emerging NCAA sport of women’s triathlon
ABSTRACT
Purpose: While the academic research into volunteer coaches in youth sports is robust and prevalent, the same cannot be said for volunteer coaches involved in intercollegiate sports. The NCAA rules/guidelines for incorporating volunteer coaches into various sports range from the previously specific, but no longer allowed, (Division I, particularly football and basketball) to the more general (Division II and III). Using the emerging NCAA sport of women’s triathlon as the case study, this project asked the coaches of the 40 institutions presently sponsoring women’s intercollegiate triathlon about their perceptions regarding volunteer coaches.
Methods: A qualitative interpretive research approach was used to allow each respondent to make sense of their individual situation. A web based open-ended questionnaire was sent to all NCAA women’s triathlon head coaches and paid assistants and selected coaches were also interviewed (representing all three NCAA divisions).
Results: Twelve (30%) coaches responded to the survey. Results indicated that four main themes were derived from the data: gratitude, caution, acceptance, and personal traits. Conclusions: The perceptions of existing NCAA coaches regarding volunteer coaches may become a gateway or a barrier. A volunteer coach might complement the head coach and fill in the gaps in other areas such as sport specific expertise, fundraising, and social functions. Implications of the study include that volunteering can serve as the apprenticeship before becoming a paid coach.
Application in Sport: USA Triathlon, as the National Governing Body for the sport, has a personal stake in creating highly trained, experienced, and specialized draft legal coaches for its juniors, developmental and Olympic programs. The NCAA emerging sport of women’s draft legal triathlon is one way in which to accomplish these goals.
Keywords: sport coach, college sport, National Governing Body, emerging sport
“There is nothing stronger than the heart of a volunteer.” Jimmy Doolittle
In January 2014, the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) approved women’s triathlon as an emerging sport (36). An emerging sport must reach 40 institutions before the NCAA recognizes the sport (and then provides funding for national championships) (14). In 2022, USA Triathlon, as the National Governing Body (NGB) of the sport, reported that 40 schools had adopted women’s triathlon and that the process for full NCAA recognition could begin (T. Yount, personal communication, 8 February 2023). USA Triathlon (USAT) is the driving force behind this initiative (both politically and financially) (36). USA Triathlon has an organizational stake in this because it needs to identify triathletes who can compete on an international level and eventually contend in the Olympic Games as well as developing future high performance coaches. USAT also offers a coaching education and certification program. Under the USA sports system, colleges and universities are often the training grounds for Olympic athletes (7). Prior to the 2014 initiative by USAT, this training ground did not exist. USAT also wanted to develop the international style of racing domestically. At the Olympic level, triathlons are draft legal, meaning during the cycle portion of the triathlon competitors are allowed to ride behind one another just like bicycle racing. This is different from a traditional non-drafting event where cyclists must be separated from one another by several meters. The NCAA draft legal format is a 750-meter swim, followed by a 20-kilometer bike and ending with a 5-kilometer run, which is the sprint distance under World Triathlon rules (59). World Triathlon is the International Federation for the sport of triathlon.
As the USA had been slow in the adoption of the draft legal format for competitors compared to other countries (38), it also is behind much of the world with triathlon coaches who have draft legal experience. So much so, that USA Triathlon started recruiting interested existing coaches in 2014 to specialize in this format of racing (55). Additionally, the NGB also is developing a mentorship program for college coaches (56). Head coaches may have come from a swimming or running background, have Ironman™ coaching certifications and/or have experience of their own as age group triathletes. Furthermore, college and university athletic departments might only want to pay for a head coach to keep overhead down until full recognition by the NCAA is obtained. Enter the volunteer coach. Volunteer coaches may allow for simple division of labor and tap into expertise or particular skill sets. They may be able to manage administrative duties such as scheduling, team uniforms and/or trouble shooting. Volunteer coaches may allow head coaches to “fill in the gaps” in terms of content expertise (i.e., swim, bike, run, organization, fundraising) as the sport works towards full NCAA recognition as well as operating under the present rules of that organization (33-35).
In November of 2021, USAT presented to the Collegiate Triathlon Coaches Association the “current state of the sport.” At that time, 70% of the institutions sponsoring women’s triathlon used at least one volunteer coach in 2021 (62). A further breakdown showed 50% of volunteer coaches assisted with the swim, 57% assisted with the bike and 47% assisted with the run. “Indicating that some volunteers help with more than one sport” (62). USAT also found that volunteer coaches also assisted “with race management, transportation, bike maintenance, physical therapy and recruiting” (62). This information provided a starting point for the project. Thus, the research question is: what are the perceptions of head coaches as to the purpose and role of volunteer coaches in the emerging NCAA sport of women’s triathlon?
College sports in the USA has long used the apprenticeship-approach to training and educating future coaches. If not a student-athlete, one becomes a manager or intern as an undergraduate, then becomes a graduate assistant, then an assistant coach and, finally, a head coach. Since triathlon is new and classified as an emerging sport, this traditional pathway does not yet formally exist. While it is a time-honored tradition to use playing experience at the beginning of a coaching career rather than specific education pertinent to coaching in general and sport specific (44), draft legal experience for existing triathlon coaches in the USA is still rare. Triathlon is not a high school sport and does not have as structured and formalized club system as USA Swimming or USA Gymnastics. The incorporation of volunteer coaches, particularly those with draft legal experience, might be one way to increase the pool of knowledgeable coaches that then possibly become available to new NCAA programs. Head coaches can be “instrumental in the career development of their head assistant coach, indirectly preparing them for future head coaching positions” (40, p. 11). Volunteering could become the apprenticeship and help train future coaches. Until more student-athletes graduate from the sport, and move into coaching through those traditional pathways, volunteer coaches may be an untapped resource.
LITERATURE REVIEW Before proceeding, it is important to provide operational definitions of the terms volunteer and perceptions. These definitions are the operational “guardrails” for the study. Volunteers are people, who for a variety of motives, decide to donate their time and, often, their money to a particular group or cause (39). Perception is the “process of integrating, organizing, and interpreting sensations” (26, p. 80) and “…the way you think about or understand someone or something” (51). According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (53), about 62.6 million people volunteered between September of 2014 and September of 2015. These same statistics showed the more education one has, the more likely that person is to volunteer. Other statistics included those volunteers provided a median of 52 hours annually and those men and women volunteered at near the same rate (52 hours vs. 50 hours, respectively). Volunteers were “most likely to volunteer for religious organizations, followed by education or youth service organizations,” and those individuals who possessed a bachelor’s degree or higher “were more likely to provide professional or management assistance or to tutor or teach than volunteers with less education” (53). Volunteers can provide an economic benefit for nonprofit organizations (4) by taking on “staff-like roles to control costs” (24, p. 201). Volunteer sports coaches through their social interactions and engagement could become “community assets” (23, p. 322).
Within the academic literature, the topic of volunteering, in general, regarding motivation, meaning, sense of community, and perceptions have been significantly studied (10, 42, 43, 49, 58). Youth sports have also been extensively study: from training (15, 22, 45), education (28), motivation (3), behavior (18, 27, 31), relationships/wellbeing (25, 46, 52) and efficacy (6, 8, 16, 50). Organizations such as the National Alliance of Youth Sports, Positive Coaching Alliance, Good Sports and TrueSport focus on youth sports, youth coaches, and parents. To coach under the auspices of the US National Governing Body system, a coaching certification program is required to include SafeSport certification (54). However, for any coach at the college/university level, there may be no certification requirements. While focusing on career and job coaching, Schimdt-Lellek and Fietze (47) could just as well have been discussing intercollegiate sport coaches as “coaching…is not protected by state laws; there is no state license and no public mandate and thus no defined monopoly for this professional activity” (p.746). Thus, there is no formal governance structure mandating certain education requirements or certifications to become a college coach.
Finally, research focused on assistant coaches is also scarce and not systematic in nature (19, 20). Rathwell et al. (40) looked at the perceptions Canadian university head football coaches had when hiring assistant coaches. Their findings showed that head coaches hired “loyal assistants who possessed extensive football knowledge that complimented their own skill sets” (p. 5). Additionally, they also discovered that head coaches looked at the experience an assistant coach had both as an athlete and as an assistant coach. These head coaches also wanted assistant coaches who “cared about their athletes’ personal growth and development” (p. 12). This finding echoes previous research regarding university head coaches (5, 12, 57).
METHOD This project is a basic interpretative qualitative study (32) in that the researcher is “interested in understanding how participants make meaning of a situation or phenomenon, this meaning is mediated through the researcher as instrument, the strategy is inductive, and the outcome is descriptive” (p. 6). The project is designed to “hear the voices of the people, analyse the themes and present a thoughtful overview of the results…[it] describes and interprets, but has no theoretical underpinnings” (48, p. 5). It is also interpretive in nature because it is: shaped by human experiences and social contexts (ontology), and is therefore best studied within its socio-historic context by reconciling the subjective interpretations of its various participants (epistemology). Because interpretive researchers view social reality as being embedded within and impossible to abstract from their social settings, they “interpret” the reality though a “sense-making” process rather than a hypothesis testing process. (41) This differs from a traditional positivist approach where theories are evaluated and verified, incorporating closed-ended questions using pre-determined approaches and involving some sort of statistical analysis (1).
Using a case study format allows for “an empirical method that investigates a contemporary phenomenon (the ‘case’) in depth and within its real-life context” (61, p. 15). A case study is a research technique “used in sport management to examine (e.g., observe, explore) certain factors of a sport industry subject (e.g., event, person, group, company, organization, system) for a certain time period” (1, p. 139). Simply put, the technique allows for a detailed analysis of a specific activity, situation, or practice (1). The case is NCAA women’s triathlon coaches’ perceptions of the purpose of volunteer coaches.
USA Triathlon has a list on its website of all the NCAA schools presently competing in women’s triathlon as an emerging sport. Each of those institutions has an athletic department website that has triathlon information available in the public domain. Additionally, the Collegiate Triathlon Coaches Association also has a list of all head coaches from these institutions as well as the assistant coaches (paid and volunteer). These two sources comprise the study’s participants. Purposive sampling is the selected technique.
A web based Qualtrics™ survey with some demographic and background questions as well as 13 open-ended questions was emailed to all subjects within the specified sample. A provisional list of 25 open-ended questions were developed by the researcher based on a review of the existing literature within youth sports and input from a representative from USA Triathlon. Questions were then reviewed by two different academics at two different institutions; one responsible for a coaching minor (and a former NCAA coach) and the other responsible for a coaching major (and involved with youth sports). The original list of 25 was reduced to 15 and then two of the questions were combined to create the final 13 questions used in the questionnaire (see Appendix A). The use of open-ended questions allows “the researcher to understand and capture the points of views of others without predetermining those points of view through prior selection of questionnaire categories” (37, p. 21).
After approval from the university’s IRB (Protocol 23-12), an email invitation to complete the qualitative survey was sent by the researcher to all NCAA triathlon coaches that included a link to the web based survey. Informed consent was presented and obtained at the beginning of the survey. Also included in the invitation was information regarding follow-up phone/video interviews. Interested respondents were invited to a phone or internet conferencing (i.e., Zoom, Teams, Skype) interview. Zoom offers an auto-transcription feature that expedites data review. Those respondents who expressed interest in participating in an interview included their email address with their submission of the survey. Additionally, USAT sent out a prompt to the coaches promoting the study. A representative from USAT who is involved with their NCAA women’s triathlon initiative was also invited to participate in the interview.
The interview followed a list of semi-structured questions derived from the original survey to allow for the interviewee to expand upon their thoughts regarding the survey (see Appendix B). A division designation replaced each respondent’s name to maintain anonymity and confidentiality (i.e., DIa, DIIa, DIIIa, NGB). A reminder email was sent six weeks after the initial invitation to the intercollegiate triathlon coaching population to increase the participation rate. For those respondents who agreed to be interviewed, a separate informed consent form was required by the university’s Internal Review Board. This form was signed by the participant and returned to the author.
Results from the surveys and the interviews were then coded by the author. Coding is taking the raw text and “moving you from a lower level to a higher (more abstract) level of understanding” of the data (2, p. 35). The next step is to further reduce the information to smaller pieces is identifying themes, or similarities in the text (2). Similar words and phrases categorize the same feelings/experiences (1). For example, “personality” or “approachability” might be traits a volunteer coach could have. Then the data is triangulated incorporating several types of data collection to focus on the case (21). In this instance, the use of an online survey and interviews were the two data collection methods combined with materials from USA Triathlon.
Finally, trustworthiness, credibility, and rigor (29) involving the researcher and the data must be addressed. The author has 42 years of experience in the sport of triathlon (including draft legal races as an age group athlete, both domestically and internationally), is a former triathlon race director, former NGB employee, former team manager and age group committee member of a foreign triathlon National Sports Federation, a former academic advisor and coach of a university club team, wrote the grant application for another institution that added intercollegiate triathlon, and, at the present time, is a volunteer coach of an NCAA women’s triathlon team.
RESULTS The survey garnered a 30% response rate (12/40) and eight coaches (one DI, two DII and three DIII) agreed to respond to the interview questions in writing rather than by phone or video. One DI and one DII coach agreed to be interviewed by video. Additionally, the representative from USA Triathlon responded to the questions in writing.
Basic demographic information showed that seven women and five men completed the survey. Five of the women were between the ages of 35-44 and the other two were 45-54. The five men ranged from one in 35-44, three in 45-54, and one in 55-64. Five women hold master’s degrees, one holds a bachelor’s degree, and the other holds an associate degree. For the men, three hold a bachelor’s degree and two hold a master’s degree. Additional coaching certifications (i.e., USA Triathlon, USA Swimming, USA Cycling, USA Track and Field, SafeSport, National Federation of High Schools, or others), were held by all respondents. SafeSport certification is required by all NGBs for their respective coaching certifications. As a result, all individuals possessed this credential. Eight people hold at least the entry level USA Triathlon Level 1 coaching certification. Three hold a USA Swimming certification while two hold an American Swimming Coaches Association credential. Three hold a USA Cycling coaching certification and one also holds a USA Track and Field certification. Additional certifications include Ironman™, Road Runners Club of America™, certified strength and conditioning coach and a coaching certification in the sport of triathlon from another country. For their individual primary sport background, five women and four men indicated triathlon was their primary sport background while two women and one man indicated swimming. All seven women indicated they were the head coach of a program while four men did so. There was one male respondent who listed being a paid assistant coach. Finally, four NCAA DI schools were represented (two women, two men), four DII schools (two women, two men), and one DIII school (male). Three respondents did not indicate their institution’s NCAA participation level.
Four major themes were derived from the raw survey and interview data: gratitude, caution, acceptance, and personal traits. Gratitude was demonstrated by being thankful or appreciative for a volunteer’s assistance. The National Governing Body representative provided this explanation regarding volunteer coaches incorporating gratitude: I speak to hundreds of administrators and the messaging from me is that I feel many of our teams are underutilizing the volunteer coach. We have some amazing options in every NCAA collegiate community. The volunteer coach cannot only assist with practices, but they are an amazing sounding board for other discussions that coaches desire at various points during a season on so many other topics. Other times they can help administratively or with recruitment. Some are [physical therapists] and can support recovery needs. Others can speak to mental health woes and ways for athletes to combat fears in many areas. The list of ways that volunteer coaches can be leveraged is unnumerable. USAT might need to do a better job of positioning coaches with NCAA programs with those we know who are reliable and ready to support our institutions through the course of a race season.
Similar positive sentiments were provided by other coaches regarding the value of volunteer coaches. We have been fortunate to have volunteer coaches work with our athletes…and they have contributed greatly to the development and performance of our athletes. Volunteers bring an expertise to designing and overseeing some of our team training objectives. Their passion of the sport of triathlon is evident in that they are giving of their time and talents to the benefit of our team and the sport. (DIIa) DIIb added: Volunteer coaches are instrumental in the emerging sport initiative. Without their selfless dedication of time, I would not be able to have a program. They are just unpaid assistant coaches. They do all the same duties, helping out on a daily basis with practices, and on the road. They are imperative to the success of the program. DIIIb felt that volunteer coaches have “the highest value, not only does it help the athletes, but allow[s] that person an opportunity to pad their resume.” DIIIa stated “volunteers play an integral role in giving out student-athletes a better college experience…they have been a help and blessing to me and my team, throughout my coaching career.” DIIIa also incorporated a volunteer coach in all areas of the team and program:
Up to including every aspect of the team. Assisting the head coach in all areas of recruiting, coaching, practice planning and execution, travel planning, traveling, running practices, etc. The more the volunteer is willing to take on, willing to work on, willing to learn, the more I am willing to give them!
DIb added that a volunteer coach also provides camaraderie and support to the head coach, especially in these early years of the sport because there may be no coaching staff compared to existing NCAA sports. Without the volunteer coach, there might just be the head coach operating alone in an athletic department. “[Your] coaching changes when you have that much help. It literally changes.” DIIc stated: I could not have done it without the volunteer coaches. It would have been impossible [without them]…and foolish not to take advantage of [their commitment]. [Locally], I have access to a professional triathlete, a woman who is triathlete, is involved with a women’s triathlon group, and a well-respected businessperson in the community…and a faculty member with decades of experience in the sport.
DIIIa felt a sense of obligation to assist the volunteer coaches: With every volunteer I have, I ask them what area do they want to do the most? What area would they like to learn more? What areas are they interested in most?…Then I focus on those things. My way of “paying them” for their time is to help them learn about themselves and learn skills that will help them with their next position, hopefully a paid one. My point is to train them for their next move.
One survey respondent shared this outlook: Many volunteer coaches are looking for experience so that they can hopefully get a paying job (head or assistant coach) at a university…the head coach should support them in that and try to educate them and give them hands on experience in all aspects of collegiate coaching so that feel better prepared to take on a paid position. Comments from the survey were more guarded and highlighted the caution theme. One coach commented on the “lack of qualified draft legal experience” as a reason for not using volunteer coaches. Other coaches restricted the duties of a volunteer coach: “help with leading workouts and travel” and “just for bike sessions or to cover a practice if both the head coach and assistant coach are away.” A few coaches assigned only duties based on a volunteer’s experience or creating social activities for the team. One coach indicated that “I would not leave travel, budget, program writing, [or] compliance to a volunteer. That needs to be done faultlessly.” Another survey respondent replied that “none as of now” regarding incorporating a volunteer coach in their program.
Expectations can be defined as what the head coach wants from a volunteer. That can be a simple as the most identified item: “know the sport.” It can also include time commitments to the program and athletes. An example of what a coach wants is “just hands on coaching” or “mostly hands on coaching” from survey respondents. Another respondent wanted a volunteer coach to specialize in a specific discipline (swim, bike, or run). DIb said, “It’s a combination of administrative and works outs…maybe 60%/40%.” DIIc added: [The] volunteer coach serves at the discretion of the head coach….They need to support the vision, mission, and philosophy of the head coach…They need to know who we are and believe in it…Our core values are a part of everything. Everyone understands what the program is about.
Responses to the time commitment question were quite varied, ranging from 2-16 hours per week. One coached expected a “minimum of 10 hours a week” and that total would increase “based on their availability and goals as a volunteer.” Other responses were less specific with one coach replying, “just do what you say you’re going to do.” DIIIb had higher expectations: I would want the volunteer coaches to know about the sport of triathlon. First, they should be familiar with the amateur divisions and even better if they understand the junior elite model. Also, understanding the periodization aspect behind it will help to develop the tempo through the season. Secondly, a person with experience in swimming in [high school] and a robust running background would be the third option for a volunteer coach. DIIIa was adamant about one expectation, an area of the program a volunteer would not be responsible for:
Basically, team discipline and athletic department meetings. [As the head coach], I am the face of the program, and I do not want there to be any misconceptions about who is in charge, who is making the decisions, and who ultimately responsible for steering the ship. Also, for a volunteer, I do not think they need to be responsible for every aspect of the team. Adding to the “off limits” feeling, DIb revealed, “the biggest one…would be some intimate individual meetings that I have” with student-athletes. If “it’s gonna be a more intimate type of meeting, and we need to touch on some hard issues, I won’t have them sit in on those.” DIb would also not use volunteers in the recruiting process because of the turnover at that position. The head coach needs to develop that personal relationship with each recruit. DIIc stated, “[They] should not be communicating with the administration…not handling money or finances…and not be involved in any off campus recruiting.”
Personal traits were the one theme that was consistent across all respondents and interviewees. Terms such as professionalism, honesty, integrity, positivity, personality, and a willingness to learn were highlighted. One respondent stated that volunteer coaches need to be “approachable, care about the student athletes and their success” while another provided a similar comment wanting a volunteer coach to be “approachable, honest, takes time to connect with the athletes, open-minded, supports my vision and the team culture.” Knowledge, skills, and attributes came through as a component of personal traits. DIIIa said, “Obviously, the higher the knowledge and experience in the sport, the better…I do not expect them to have the greatest experience or knowledge in the sport. But a willingness to learn and help lead our student-athletes in a positive way.” Experience was emphasized by all those completing the survey. Comments such as “experience and personality are key” and “experience and understanding draft legal” are reflective of this feeling. One coach went more in-depth regarding expectations on experience: “Experience coaching swimming, biking, and/or running at any level; having at least participated in a triathlon; preferably already USAT certified but would like them to have some sort of coaching certification (swimming, biking, running).”
DISCUSSION As this project was nearing completion, the NCAA DI Council adopted the recommendations of the NCAA DI Transformation Committee to eliminate the voluntary coach designation across all sports (11). DII and DIII programs can still incorporate volunteer coaches according to information disseminated by USA Triathlon (T. Yount, personal communication, 8 February 2023), but the coach representing institution DIIIc indicated that school is not allowing volunteer coaches; “they must be paid.”
DIa felt: I do believe volunteer coaches could add great deal of value to a program. Volunteer coaches can add another set of eyes and insight into your team and specific athletes. All coaches have their own way of communicating with athletes. Sometimes when an athlete hears something in a new way it might click…Unfortunately…the use of volunteer coaches [is not]…permitted in the NCAA.
DIb replied: The volunteer [coach] was a little more challenging because they are a volunteer, and they’re doing for a specific reason, and you’re trying to give them what they are there to learn, but you need them in other ways. [Volunteers are] a little more challenging than when they are paid, because when they are paid you can be more like “these are the things I want done.”…it is a bit challenging trying to manage what they really should do that’s benefitting them and helping you. This action by the DI Council may eliminate opportunities for volunteer coaches, but with the economic constraints faced by all DII and DIII schools, chances are these institutions may appreciate the assistance. The statements made by DII and DIII coaches provide a welcoming and accepting attitude towards volunteer coaches.
LIMITATIONS With a 30% response rate (12/40) to the survey, the challenge is to draw any meaningful conclusions from the data collected. Online surveys often have lower response rates compared to other types of surveys (9, 60). However, sample sizes of less than 500 with a response rate of 20%-25% can offer some confident approximations (17). A concerning limitation is that only two coaches chose to be interviewed directly via phone or video call. All others chose only to respond to the questions in writing. This lack of one-on-one interaction eliminated the possibility of follow-up questions and gaining immediate clarifications. An additional limitation to the study, is that not all questions were answered in the survey. No one answered the Question 15 regarding what is needed to plan, lead, organize and evaluate their program. Only half the survey respondents answered Question 17 concerning what protections/services are covered by the institution for volunteer coaches (i.e., insurance, travel, tuition waivers). Those who did respond indicated they were unsure, or that nothing was provided in this area. Finally, there is a lack of additional member fact checking which can be perceived as a limitation. As there was only one researcher, there was no additional review of the raw data during the coding and thematic analysis. The interpretation of the data is based on only one person’s review. However, “interpretation means attaching significance to what was found, making sense of findings, offering explanations, drawing conclusions, extrapolating lessons, and otherwise imposing order on an unruly but patterned world” (37, p. 480). Thus, one must default back to the trustworthiness and credibility of the author. The reader should feel comfortable that the results are “balanced, fair, and conscientious in taking account of multiple perspectives, multiple interests, and multiple realities” (37, p. 575).
CONCLUSION As the National Governing Body for the sport of triathlon, USA Triathlon has a professional stake in both developing future world class triathletes and future national team coaches. Creating highly trained, experienced, and specialized draft legal coaches also impacts the junior and developmental ranks for the NGB. The NCAA emerging sport of women’s draft legal triathlon is one way in which to accomplish these goals. In addition to “the effort is part of a larger strategic initiative by the NCAA to grow female participation through its Emerging Sports for Women program” (30). The inclusion of draft legal triathlon also provides additional opportunities for female student-athletes which may help institutions with Title IX concerns. The perceptions of existing NCAA coaches regarding these volunteer coaches, therefore, become a gateway or a barrier. Thus, NCAA DII and DIII “programs need to provide infrastructures that foster and support effective volunteering” (24, p. 199). Part of that infrastructure is defining the role of a volunteer coach and providing training as well as protections such as liability insurance (13). Future research could focus on USA Triathlon’s increased involvement in educating and training coaches in draft legal racing as well as developing a post-graduate pathway for women to transition from student-athlete to coach. Additionally, what is not addressed in this project deliberately, are the motivations of volunteer coaches in the sport of NCAA women’s draft legal triathlon. That is a question for future research and as part of the larger research question about volunteer coaches in other NCAA sports.
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APPENDIX A Qualtrics survey questions
Gender
Age
Education
Please list your present coaching certifications (i.e., USA Triathlon, USA Swimming, SafeSport)
Primary Sport Background
Your Primary Role
What NCAA Division is your program?
Please answer this question if you do not presently incorporate volunteer coaches into your program. All others please go to Question #9. What reasons exist for not using volunteer coaches?
As the head coach (or as a paid assistant), what are your expectations for volunteer coaches?
What are the requirements (if any) and expectations of the institution has for volunteer coaches (i.e., NCAA certification, 1st Aid/CPR/AED, Police/FBI Background Check, SafeSport)?
How do you recruit volunteer coaches?
How do you incorporate volunteer coaches in your program (i.e., leading practices, travel arrangements, PR)?
What is the hourly / weekly commitment expected from the volunteer coach?
What qualifications do you feel are critical to the success of a volunteer coach?
What do you need to plan, lead, organize and evaluate your program?
Where do you need assistance with your program?
What protections are covered by the institution (i.e., insurance)?
What can a volunteer coach receive from the institution and still be considered volunteer (i.e., stipend, travel allowance, team attire)?
What duties are you planning to assign the volunteer coach? Administrative? Hands on coaching? Program writing?
How might the volunteer coach have a part to play in the succession planning around the program?
If there is anything else you would like to add, please feel free to do so here. We thank you for your participation.
APPENDIX A Qualtrics survey questions
Gender
Age
Education
Please list your present coaching certifications (i.e., USA Triathlon, USA Swimming, SafeSport)
Primary Sport Background
Your Primary Role
What NCAA Division is your program?
Please answer this question if you do not presently incorporate volunteer coaches into your program. All others please go to Question #9. What reasons exist for not using volunteer coaches?
As the head coach (or as a paid assistant), what are your expectations for volunteer coaches?
What are the requirements (if any) and expectations of the institution has for volunteer coaches (i.e., NCAA certification, 1st Aid/CPR/AED, Police/FBI Background Check, SafeSport)?
How do you recruit volunteer coaches?
How do you incorporate volunteer coaches in your program (i.e., leading practices, travel arrangements, PR)?
What is the hourly / weekly commitment expected from the volunteer coach?
What qualifications do you feel are critical to the success of a volunteer coach?
What do you need to plan, lead, organize and evaluate your program?
Where do you need assistance with your program?
What protections are covered by the institution (i.e., insurance)?
What can a volunteer coach receive from the institution and still be considered volunteer (i.e., stipend, travel allowance, team attire)?
What duties are you planning to assign the volunteer coach? Administrative? Hands on coaching? Program writing?
How might the volunteer coach have a part to play in the succession planning around the program?
If there is anything else you would like to add, please feel free to do so here. We thank you for your participation.
APPENDIX A Qualtrics survey questions
Gender
Age
Education
Please list your present coaching certifications (i.e., USA Triathlon, USA Swimming, SafeSport)
Primary Sport Background
Your Primary Role
What NCAA Division is your program?
Please answer this question if you do not presently incorporate volunteer coaches into your program. All others please go to Question #9. What reasons exist for not using volunteer coaches?
As the head coach (or as a paid assistant), what are your expectations for volunteer coaches?
What are the requirements (if any) and expectations of the institution has for volunteer coaches (i.e., NCAA certification, 1st Aid/CPR/AED, Police/FBI Background Check, SafeSport)?
How do you recruit volunteer coaches?
How do you incorporate volunteer coaches in your program (i.e., leading practices, travel arrangements, PR)?
What is the hourly / weekly commitment expected from the volunteer coach?
What qualifications do you feel are critical to the success of a volunteer coach?
What do you need to plan, lead, organize and evaluate your program?
Where do you need assistance with your program?
What protections are covered by the institution (i.e., insurance)?
What can a volunteer coach receive from the institution and still be considered volunteer (i.e., stipend, travel allowance, team attire)?
What duties are you planning to assign the volunteer coach? Administrative? Hands on coaching? Program writing?
How might the volunteer coach have a part to play in the succession planning around the program?
If there is anything else you would like to add, please feel free to do so here. We thank you for your participation.
APPENDIX A
Qualtrics survey questions
Gender
Age
Education
Please list your present coaching certifications (i.e., USA Triathlon, USA Swimming, SafeSport)
Primary Sport Background
Your Primary Role
What NCAA Division is your program?
Please answer this question if you do not presently incorporate volunteer coaches into your program. All others please go to Question #9. What reasons exist for not using volunteer coaches?
As the head coach (or as a paid assistant), what are your expectations for volunteer coaches?
What are the requirements (if any) and expectations of the institution has for volunteer coaches (i.e., NCAA certification, 1st Aid/CPR/AED, Police/FBI Background Check, SafeSport)?
How do you recruit volunteer coaches?
How do you incorporate volunteer coaches in your program (i.e., leading practices, travel arrangements, PR)?
What is the hourly / weekly commitment expected from the volunteer coach?
What qualifications do you feel are critical to the success of a volunteer coach?
What do you need to plan, lead, organize and evaluate your program?
Where do you need assistance with your program?
What protections are covered by the institution (i.e., insurance)?
What can a volunteer coach receive from the institution and still be considered volunteer (i.e., stipend, travel allowance, team attire)?
What duties are you planning to assign the volunteer coach? Administrative? Hands on coaching? Program writing?
How might the volunteer coach have a part to play in the succession planning around the program?
If there is anything else you would like to add, please feel free to do so here. We thank you for your participation.
APPENDIX B
Semi-structured interview questions
In general, what are your overall perceptions of the role(s) that volunteer coaches play in your program?
What specific knowledge, skills and attributes do you want your volunteer coaches to possess?
What areas do volunteer coaches cover in your program (i.e., writing workouts, supervising practices, fundraising)?
What areas do you not allow volunteer coaches in your program to be involved with?
What value do you place on having volunteer coaches?
How do you incorporate your volunteer coaches into the overall team culture?
Is there anything else you would like to add?
George Minoso2024-07-18T10:40:06-05:00July 19th, 2024|Sports Coaching|Comments Off on Perceptions of the purpose and role of volunteer coaches in the emerging NCAA sport of women’s triathlon
Authors: Anthony Battaglia1, Ph.D., Gretchen Kerr2, Ph.D., and Stephanie Buono2, Ph.D.
Corresponding Author:
Anthony Battaglia, Ph.D., CMPC
Faculty of Kinesiology and Physical Education
University of Toronto
55 Harbord Street, ON, Canada, M5S 2W6
Email: anthony.battaglia@mail.utoronto.ca
Anthony Battaglia, Ph.D., CMPC is a Postdoctoral Fellow and lecturer in the Faculty of Kinesiology & Physical Education at the University of Toronto. His research interests focus on youth athletes’ sport experiences, relational dynamics in sport, athlete maltreatment, and strategies for advancing developmentally appropriate and safe sport.
Gretchen Kerr, Ph.D. is a Full Professor and Dean of the Faculty of Kinesiology and Physical Education at the University of Toronto. She is also a co-Director of E-Alliance, the Canadian Gender Equity in Sport Research Hub.
Stephanie Buono, Ph.D. is a research associate in the Faculty of Kinesiology & Physical Education at the University of Toronto and an instructor in the Department of Applied Psychology & Human Development at the University of Toronto.
Coaches’ Perspectives of the Influence of Safe Sport-Related Education
ABSTRACT
To combat growing concerns of sport being unsafe for athletes, compulsory safe sport education has been developed worldwide. Much of this education has focused on the role of the coach, largely due to their position of power, prevalence rates that highlight coaches as common perpetrators of harm, and their direct contact with athletes. However, there is a lack of research examining the impact of such education for coaching-related outcomes. The purpose of this study was to explore the influences of safe sport training on coaches’ knowledge and confidence, efficacy to support others, stress about athlete well-being, and stress related to safe sport issues. In an online survey, 1365 coaches reported completion of any of 12 possible safe sport training courses and their knowledge and confidence, efficacy to support others, stress about athlete well-being, and stress related to safe sport issues. Regression analyses indicated that completing any of the 12 safe sport-related training courses was related to perceived increased efficacy to support others. Completing a higher number of safe sport training courses was related to perceived increases in efficacy to support others and knowledge and confidence, but not stress related to safe sport or athlete well-being. All 12 courses were related to increased knowledge and confidence, and several courses were related to increased efficacy to support others and reduced safe sport stress, while one course was related to reduced stress about athlete-well-being. Future research is needed to examine whether improvements in coaching outcomes associated with safe sport training translate into practice.
Over the last several years, numerous reports of concerning behaviors in sport, such as maltreatment have emerged worldwide (15, 25). Maltreatment, which refers to “volitional acts that result in or have the potential to result in physical injuries and/or psychological harm” (12, p. 3), which include psychological, sexual, physical abuse, and neglect, harassment, bullying, and discrimination. To combat such concerns, policies and educational initiatives have been developed and implemented under the term ‘safe sport’ (26). The term safe sport initially emerged in response to scandals involving sexual abuse but has since expanded to refer to participation in sport free from all forms of violence, abuse, discrimination, and harassment (21, 39). More recently, broader conceptualizations of safe sport have also considered issues of environmental and physical safety (e.g., dysfunctional equipment, performance enhancing drugs), and the optimization of the sport experience (i.e., inclusive, accessible, growth-enhancing, and rights-based participation for all) (18). To advance safe sport, compulsory education has been developed; examples of existing safe sport education programmes include Australia’s Play by the Rules, U.S. Center for SafeSport Training, and the UK’s Child Protection in Sport Unit (24, 26).
Although safe sport education is needed for all sport stakeholders, including athletes, coaches, parents, administrators, officials and support staff, to-date, education has focused largely on coach-athlete dynamics, addressing issues such as harmful coaching practices, power relations, and duty to report harm (24, 26). There is a strong rationale for safe sport training focused on coaches. Consistent across many bodies of research in sport is acknowledgement of the presence and effects of the position of power and authority held by coaches over stakeholders in the sport ecosystem, including subordinate coaches, parents, athletes, and administrators (23, 38). When used inappropriately, these positions of power leave others vulnerable to experiences of harm. For example, psychological abuse (or what some refer to as psychological violence), the most prevalent form of athlete maltreatment, is most often perpetrated by coaches (42, 45, 48). Given their direct contact with other coaches, support staff, athletes and/or teams daily, coaches also significantly impact the type of culture promoted (e.g., win-at-all-costs versus caring or athlete-centred) and the nature and quality of athletes’ experiences (32). Coaches who are provided professional development and educational opportunities regarding positive sport practices are more likely to create environments where athletes experience enjoyment, competence, meaningful relationships, learning, satisfaction, reduced anxiety, and sport maintenance (6, 16, 36).
Although growing awareness of athlete maltreatment and the role of the coach in preventing these experiences has resulted in the proliferation of safe sport education initiatives for coaches globally, little research exists on the impact of such education for coaching-related outcomes (24, 26). In 2013, McMahon (28) investigated how a narrative pedagogical approach (i.e., athletes’ stories) might help swim coaches from amateur and elite levels understand the welfare implications for athletes subjected to emotionally or physically abusive coaching practices. Findings revealed that coaches gained increased empathy and undertook a more athlete-centered approach to coaching post-education, however, dominant cultural ideologies (e.g., winning) persisted in the coaches’ thinking and practice. Likewise, in 2018, Nurse (30) examined child sexual abuse prevention training for adults who work with children in schools, churches, and athletic leagues; with regards to coaches specifically, the training improved coaches’ knowledge on the topic and increased their confidence in their ability to identify abuse. These preliminary findings highlight the potential benefits of training for coaches; however, it is important to note that the education programmes were restricted to specific populations, sports, forms of harm, small sample sizes, and the effects of long-term behavioral change remained unclear. Further research examining the impact of safe sport training for coaches is required.
In Canada, the country of interest in this study, safe sport educational modules (e.g., NCCP Make Ethical Decisions, Safe Sport Training) (7, 9) have been developed by the Coaching Association of Canada (CAC), which is responsible for certifying and educating coaches across Canada. The CAC has also promoted safe sport standards and expectations for organizations and its coaches, including the Responsible Coaching Movement- a pledge to learn and apply consistent safety principles. The pillars of the Responsible Coaching Movement include the Rule of Two, which attempts to ensure all interactions and communications are in open, observable, and justifiable settings; background screening; and ethics training (8). In the province of Ontario, the Coaches Association of Ontario- an independent, non-profit organization that supports coaches from community level to high performance across all sports in Ontario- has adopted similar safe sport efforts and developed resources, such as Safe Sport 101 and the Ontario Coaches Conference (10). The goals of such initiatives include but are not limited to improving the knowledge of coaches with respect to safe sport, increasing their confidence in enacting desirable coaching behaviors, creating positive sport climates, and facilitating the holistic development of athletes. To-date, the extent to which these educational initiatives meet these goals for Canadian coaches has not been examined.
While safe sport education for coaches has commonly focused on enhancing knowledge of harmful or prohibited conduct, enhancing confidence in using desired behaviors, and supporting stakeholders’ (e.g., athletes, coaches, support staff) development and well-being, there remains a lack of research examining the influence of safe sport training on coaching-related outcomes (24, 26). In this study, the constructs of knowledge, confidence, efficacy, and stress were of interest. Despite recognizing their influential role, many coaches admit inadequate knowledge to cultivate safe sport environments (25); as cultivating safe sport environments is also a collective effort, it remains important that coaches feel efficacious in their ability to support all participants (31). Given the prevalence of mental health challenges in sport, coaches have expressed stress related to supporting athletes’ mental well-being (1, 3). Further, in response to the public attention paid to cases of athlete maltreatment and the focus on coaches as perpetrators of harm, coaches have reportedly felt stress about potential false accusations; specifically, concerns of negative touch have been identified in research and practice, resulting in coaches and sport personnel being fearful and unsure of how to be around athletes with whom they interact (40).
The purpose of this study therefore to explore the influences of safe sport training on Ontario coaches’ knowledge and confidence, efficacy to support others, stress about athlete well-being, and stress related to safe sport issues. Specifically, the first objective was to examine whether safe sport training improved coaches’ knowledge and confidence, efficacy to support others, stress about athlete well-being, and stress related to safe sport issues. The second objective was to examine whether the effect of safe sport training on coaches increased with the number of safe sport training courses. The third objective was to examine whether certain courses were related to coaches’ knowledge and confidence, efficacy to support others, stress about athlete well-being, and stress related to safe sport issues.
Methods
Procedures
This study was conducted in partnership with the Coaches Association of Ontario (CAO). CAO is an independent, non-profit organization that supports coaches across all levels and sports in Ontario. Ontario has the largest population of all provinces in Ontario with over 15 million people and one in four Ontarians have coached in their lifetime (10). The CAO selected the safe sport-related courses of interest for evaluation (see Table 1). As such, within the context of the current study, a broad perspective of safe sport (i.e., from injuries to drug-free sport, planning appropriate practices, and maltreatment) was adopted. Upon receiving approval from the University of Toronto Health Sciences Research Ethics Board, coaches were contacted through the Coaches Association of Ontario (CAO) email listserv and social media posts (Facebook, Instagram, Twitter). Recruitment communication provided details about study eligibility/requirements, the purpose of the study, the voluntary nature of the study, confidentiality and anonymity, and the link to the online survey. The survey was administered with RED Cap electronic data capture. Participants were required to meet the following eligibility criteria to complete the online survey: 1) Ontario resident; 2) over the age of 16; and 3) had coached in the last two years. Following the confirmation of eligibility, participants were able to complete the survey, which took approximately 15-25 minutes (M=19.25) to complete.
Table 1. An overview of the Safe Sport Education modules evaluated in the current study.
Upon completion of this module, coaches will be able to: describe the importance of having an EAP; identify when to activate the EAP; explain the responsibilities of the charge person and call person when the EAP is activated; and create a detailed EAP that includes all required information for responding to an emergency.
Upon completion of this module, coaches will be able to: explain the importance of logistics in the development of a practice plan; establish an appropriate structure for a practice; and identify appropriate activities for each part of the practice. To receive full credit for this module, coaches must also complete NCCP Emergency Action Planning.
Upon completion of this module, coaches will understand how to: prevent concussions; recognize the signs and symptoms of a concussion; what to do when they suspect an athlete has a concussion; and ensure athletes return to play safely.
Upon completion of this module, coaches will be able to: understand and demonstrate their role in promoting drug free sport; assist athletes to recognize banned substances and the consequences as identified by the Canadian Centre for Ethics in Sport; reinforce the importance of fair play and the NCCP Code of Ethics; educate and provide support to athletes in drug testing protocols; and inform athletes on nutritional supplements.
Upon completion of this module, coaches will be able to: identify common injuries in sport, prevention and recovery strategies; design and implement programs/activities to optimize athlete training, performance and recovery; and support athletes’ return to sport through awareness and proactive leadership.
Upon completion of this module, coaches will be able to: understand and recognize child sexual abuse and the grooming process; ways in which to handle disclosures of sexual abuse; the implications of sexual abuse; how to create a child protection code of conduct; and ways in which to enhance child and youth safety in sport.
Upon completion of this module, coaches will be able to: understand and apply vital life-saving knowledge/skills essential for meeting a variety of workplace/professional requirements.
Upon completion of this module coaches will be able to: understand and develop a set of coaching tools to improve team performance and injury-prevention; and assist athletes and/or teams in achieving their full potential with performance-driven injury prevention training.
Upon completion of this module coaches will be to: analyze challenging situations and determine the moral, legal, or ethical implications; and apply the NCCP Ethical Decision-Making Model to respond in ways that are consistent with NCCP Code of Ethics.
Upon completion of this module, coaches will be able to: describe the characteristics and benefits of participant-centered coaching; explain the types of harm that may occur when a coach misuses their power; respond to suspicions or knowledge of maltreatment; and implement positive coaching strategies to foster learning, performance, and create a safe sport environment.
Upon completion of this module, coaches will be able to: understand the critical role of all stakeholders in promoting safe sport, how the misuse of power leads to maltreatment, and principles of the Universal Code of Conduct; understand types of maltreatment and how to recognize signs and symptoms; and respond when maltreatment is suspected and create a safe sport culture for all participants.
Upon completion of this module, coaches will be able to: recognize, understand, and respond to issues of bullying, abuse, harassment, and discrimination.
Note. For further detail on course descriptions and/or objectives see the corresponding webpages indicated in the table.
Participants
Participants were 1365 coaches from the Coaches Association of Ontario (CAO). Of the respondents, 61% identified as men (n=823), 38% identified as women (n=514; n=28 did not disclose), 86% identified as White (n=1087), while 4% (n=53) identified as Black, 4% (n=51) identified as East/Southeast Asian, 2% (n=31) identified as Indigenous, and less than 2% identified as Latinx (n=19), South Asian (n=18), Middle Eastern (n=16), or another race category (n=27). Coaches reported working in a variety of contexts including grassroots (e.g., recreational, community sport, house league, intramural; n=273, 22%), school sports (e.g., primary and secondary school; n=141, 11%), development (e.g. competitive, club, travel, city, all-star; n=600, 49%), post-secondary (e.g., Support, CCAA, OUA, Inter-university; n=74, 6%), provincial (e.g., Canada Games, National Championships, OHL; n=90, 7%), international (e.g., International Competitions, Worlds, Pan Am, Commonwealth, Olympics; n=36, 3%), and masters or professional (e.g., Senior, NHL, NBA, CEBL; n=20, 2%). Coaches’ tenure in their current position ranged from 1-10 years (n=804, 65%), 11-20 years (n=238, 19%), and more than 20 years (n=194, 16%). Training in safe sport was required for 78% of coaches (n=782) and provided free of cost for 51% of coaches (n=535).
Measures
Safe sport training was measured with a “yes” or “no” response from coaches to indicate whether they had taken each of the following courses: NCCP[1] Emergency Action Planning, NCCP Planning a Practice, NCCP Making Head Way, NCCP Leading Drug Free Sport, NCCP Prevention and Recovery of Injury, Commit to Kids, Standard First Aid and CPR, HeadStart, NCCP Make Ethical Decisions, NCCP Empower+ (Creating Positive Sport Environments), CAC Safe Sport Training, Respect in Sport.
Knowledge & confidence to create a safe sport environment was measured using a 3-item scale (a=.7), which asked coaches about their knowledge of safe sport concepts and their confidence in creating a safe sport environment. Example items included, “I am confident in my abilities to create a safe sport environment” and “I am familiar with the responsible coaching movement.” Coaches responded to each item on a scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).
Safe sport stress was measured using a 3-item scale (a=.68), which asked coaches about the stress they experience over creating a safe sport environment. An example item includes, “I often stress about being the subject of a harassment or abuse claims”. Coaches responded to each item on a scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).
Stress about athlete well-being was measured with 2 items (a=.59): “I often stress about my ability to manage athletes’ mental well-being”, and “I often stress about my ability to manage athletes’ physical well-being.” Coaches responded to each item on a scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).
Efficacy to support others was measured using a 5-item scale (a=.87), which asked coaches about how confident they feel in their ability to support athletes and other coaches. An example item includes “I am confident in my abilities to support my athletes with performance issues”. Coaches responded to each item on a scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).
[1] NCCP refers to the National Coaching Certification Program offered by the Coaching Association of Canada.
Safe sport stress was measured using a 3-item scale (a=.68), which asked coaches about the stress they experience over creating a safe sport environment. An example item includes, “I often stress about being the subject of a harassment or abuse claims”. Coaches responded to each item on a scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).
Stress about athlete well-being was measured with 2 items (a=.59): “I often stress about my ability to manage athletes’ mental well-being”, and “I often stress about my ability to manage athletes’ physical well-being.” Coaches responded to each item on a scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).
Efficacy to support others was measured using a 5-item scale (a=.87), which asked coaches about how confident they feel in their ability to support athletes and other coaches. An example item includes “I am confident in my abilities to support my athletes with performance issues”. Coaches responded to each item on a scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).
Data Analysis
To investigate the first research objective, an initial correlation analysis was conducted to examine whether having any safe sport training was related to increases in coaching outcomes. The safe sport training variable was transformed so that coaches who answered “yes” to completing any of the safe sport training courses were coded as 1 and coaches who had answered “no” to completing all the safe sport training courses were coded as 0 (i.e., no SS training=0, any SS training=1). This variable was included in a correlation analysis with all coaching outcomes: knowledge & confidence, safe sport stress, stress over athlete well-being, and efficacy to support others. To investigate the second research objective, four separate linear regression models were constructed with the sum of completed safe sport training courses (range =1-12) as the independent variable, and the following coaching outcomes as respective dependent variables: knowledge & confidence, safe sport stress, stress about athlete well-being, and efficacy to support others. In all four models, the coaching context, whether training was required (0=no, 1=yes), and whether training was free (0=no, 1=yes) were included as covariates. To address the third research objective, ANOVAs were conducted with individual safe sport courses as independent variables, and the following coaching outcomes as dependent variables: knowledge & confidence, efficacy to support others, safe sport stress, stress about athlete well-being and efficacy to support others. All analyses were conducted using IBM SPSS Statistics (Version 28) (20).
Results
Safe Sport Training & Coaching Outcomes
Range, mean, and standard deviation scores for all variables included in subsequent analyses are included in Table 2. Of the coaches in this sample, 65% (n=890) reported completing at least one of the education courses, while 35% (n=475) reported not having taken any of the education courses. Results of the correlation analysis (Table 3) demonstrate that having any safe sport training was significantly related to increases in efficacy to support others, but not knowledge and confidence, safe sport stress, or stress about athlete well-being.
Table 2. Descriptive statistics for all variables
Range
Mean
SD
Coaching Context (0=Grassroots)
0-7
1.81
1.37
Training Required (0=No)
0-1
.59
.49
Training Free (0=No)
0-1
.49
.50
Any Safe Sport Training
0-1
.6
.13
Number of Safe Sport Training
0-12
3.64
3.42
Knowledge & Confidence
-4-2
0
1
Safe sport stress
-4-2
0
1
Stress over athlete well-being
-4-2
0
1
Efficacy to Support
-4-2
0
1
n=1365
Table 3. Correlations between any safe sport training and coaching outcomes
Any Safe Sport Training
Knowledge Confidence
Safe Sport Stress
Athlete WB Stress
Efficacy to Support
Any Safe Sport Training
1.00
.06*
.04
.002
-.03
Knowledge Confidence
.06*
1.00
-.02
.00
.29**
Safe Sport Stress
.04
-.02
1.00
.34**
-.09**
Athlete WB Stress
.002
.00
.34**
1.00
-.20**
Efficacy to Support
-.03
.29**
-.09**
-.20**
1.00
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level
*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level
Number of Safe Sport Training & Coaching Outcomes
Figure 1 demonstrates the number of safe sport courses taken by coaches in this sample based on influential covariates such as coaching context, training requirement, and training accessibility (i.e., whether the training was provided free of cost). Significantly more safe sport courses were completed by coaches in Post-Secondary, Provincial, International, Masters and Professional contexts, and by coaches for whom training and education is required and free.
Initial correlation analysis (Table 4) demonstrated being a coach at a high level of competition (e.g., provincial, international) was related to taking more safe sport courses, higher knowledge and confidence, and higher efficacy to support others. Having access to free training was related to taking more safe sport courses and higher knowledge and confidence. Finally, taking more safe sport training courses was related to higher knowledge and confidence and efficacy to support others. Safe sport stress and stress about athlete well-being were not related to any of the independent variables.
Table 4. Correlations between number of safe sport training courses, covariates and outcome variables
Coaching Context
Training Required
Training Free
Safe Sport Training
Knowledge Confidence
Safe Sport Stress
Athlete WB Stress
Efficacy to Support
Coaching Context
1.00
-.04
-.03
.11**
.07**
.01
.00
.08**
Training Required
-.04
1.00
.11**
-.02
.08**
.06
.03
-.05
Training Free
-.03
.11**
1.00
.09**
.08*
.00
-.06
.01
Safe Sport Training
.11**
-.02
.09**
1.00
.26**
.05
.01
.10**
Knowledge Confidence
.07**
.08**
.08*
.26**
1.00
-.02
.00
.29**
Safe Sport Stress
.01
.06
.00
.05
-.02
1.00
.34**
-.09**
Athlete WB Stress
.00
.03
-.06
.01
.00
.34**
1.00
-.20**
Efficacy to Support
.08**
-.05
.01
.10**
.29**
-.09**
-.20**
1.00
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level
*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level
The results of the first regression analysis (Table 5) demonstrated that the number of safe sport training courses coaches completed was related to increases in knowledge and confidence and efficacy to support others, when training requirements, access to training, and context of the sport environment were held constant. The number of safe sport training courses coaches took was not related to safe sport stress or athlete well-being stress.
Table 5. Linear Regression Analyses for General Coach Training
Knowledge & Confidence
Safe Sport Stress
Athlete WB Stress
Efficacy to Support
B
SE
B
SE
B
SE
B
SE
Coaching Context
.03
.02
.01
.02
.00
.02
.08*
.02
Training Required
.09*
.07
.06
.07
.03
.07
.04
.08
Training Free
.08*
.06
.01
.06
.06
.06
.001
.06
Safe Sport Training
.31**
.01
.05
.01
.003
.01
.12**
.01
Adj. R-Square
.12
.01
.00
.03
n=1365
**Coefficient is significant at the 0.01 level
*Coefficient is significant at the 0.05 level
Individual Safe Sport Courses and Coaching Outcomes
The results of the final analysis demonstrated that all courses were significantly related to improved knowledge and confidence. NCCP Emergency Action Planning, NCCP Leading Drug Free Sport, Commit to Kids, HeadStartPRO, and NCCP Empower+ (Creating Positive Sport Environments) were significantly related to reduced safe sport stress. Commit to Kids was significantly related to reduced athlete well-being stress. Finally, NCCP Planning a Practice, NCCP Leading Drug-free Sport, NCCP Prevention and Recovery, Commit to Kids, HeadStartPRO, NCCP Empower+ (Creating Positive Sport Environments), and CAC Safe Sport were significantly related to efficacy to support others (Table 6).
Table 6. Effects of Individual Safe Sport Courses
Knowledge Confidence
Safe Sport Stress
Athlete WB Stress
Efficacy to Support Others
F
Sig.
F
Sig.
F
Sig.
F
Sig.
NCCP Emergency Action Planning
60.97
<.001
5.67
.017
1.45
.229
3.75
.053
NCCP Planning a Practice
53.82
<.001
.13
.722
.44
.509
7.23
.007
NCCP Making Head Way
64.15
<.001
.10
.754
.08
.772
.35
.557
NCCP Leading Drug-free Sport
72.82
<.001
5.65
.018
.25
.618
22.49
<.001
NCCP Prevention and Recovery
47.18
<.001
3.29
.070
.08
.777
14.21
<.001
Commit to Kids
35.88
<.001
5.16
.023
8.91
.003
11.29
<.001
Standard First Aid and CPR
17.96
<.001
.31
.580
.69
.406
9.73
.002
HeadStartPRO
7.08
.008
10.31
.002
.06
.814
9.15
.003
NCCP Making Ethical Decisions
22.26
<.001
.17
.680
.01
.931
.01
.91
NCCP Empower+ (Creating Positive Sport Environments)
15.21
<.001
7.92
.04
.315
.575
16.42
<.001
CAC Safe Sport
89.17
<.001
.16
.690
3.91
.532
8.41
.004
Respect in Sport
32.62
<.001
.07
.797
.07
.797
3.64
.056
n=1365
Discussion
The purpose of this study was to explore the influences of safe sport training on sport coaches’ knowledge and confidence, safe sport-related stress, efficacy to support others, and stress about athlete well-being. Specific focus was directed towards examining the relationship between the number of safe sport courses completed and the effects of specific safe sport courses for these coaching outcomes. The results of this study demonstrated that having any training or education was related to increased efficacy to support others. Having completed a higher number of safe sport training courses was related to increased efficacy to support others and knowledge and confidence, and all safe sport courses were related to increased knowledge and confidence.
Although a plethora of safe sport education exists to-date, a prominent criticism has been the lack of empirical evaluations examining the impact or effectiveness of such training (24, 26). The findings of the current study help to address this knowledge gap by providing preliminary, empirical evidence regarding the influence of safe sport education. According to the results, coaches in more professional contexts took more safe sport training courses, which supports the notion that at elite levels of sport, coaches may have more access to professional development opportunities and/or devote more time improving their coaching skills (11, 27). Coaches who were provided access to free training in the current study also took more safe sport courses. These findings suggest that when provided the opportunity, coaches engage in professional development, however, as issues of cost and accessibility remain prevalent barriers, the advancement and development for many coaches remains limited (19, 43. Online modalities have been advocated as a cost-effective, time efficient, and readily accessible way to educate coaches (13, 14) yet, for many coaches, online professional development opportunities still present financial demands. For example, of the twelve courses examined in the current study, only three (e.g., NCCP Emergency Action Planning, CAC Safe Sport, NCCP Making Headway) are listed as online and free for coaches; in the current study, it was not known if affiliated organizations where coaches instruct reimbursed education/training and, if so, for which courses. Access or lack thereof to safe sport-related education may impact the extent to which safe, inclusive, and welcoming spaces are promoted by all coaches (22, 47). This is particularly important for coaching at the youth sport level where the delivery of sport programmes is highly dependent on volunteers who, despite recognizing their critical role for nurturing developmentally appropriate and safe environments, often lack the requisite knowledge to do so (2, 44, 46).
The completion of more safe sport training courses and all courses examined in the current study was related to enhanced coaches’ knowledge and confidence. Exposing coaches to diverse topics which include but are not limited to safety, positive development, harmful practices, and mental health, are critical to improving coaches’ awareness and ability to create safe sport environments (6, 28, 30). The coaches also reported increased knowledge of the Rule of Two and the Responsible Coaching Movement; these safe sport efforts provide additional safety principles for Ontario and Canadian coaches more broadly on background screening, appropriate interactions, and ethics training (8). Findings may be interpreted to suggest that not only does safe sport education positively influence coaches’ knowledge and confidence to create safe environments but also facilitates greater awareness of safe sport efforts in the Canadian sport context, thus providing coaches with a more comprehensive perspective on ways to stimulate safer sport.
Nurturing athletes’ holistic development is a key responsibility of coaches; however, coaches may not have the necessary education and training to adequately support their athletes (41). The current findings indicate that the completion of more safe sport education as well as specific courses (e.g., NCCP Empower+, CAC Safe Sport) may nurture coaches’ expertise and confidence to actively support their athletes with personal and performance challenges. The extent to which athletes report positive coach-athlete dynamics and feel supported in their relationships with coaches has been known to influence whether they experience learning, growth, and safe sport environments (32). Safe sport training also influenced coaches’ confidence to support coaching peers/support staff with personal and performance issues; these findings are particularly important as learning by doing, having a coach mentor, and observing others are important sources of knowledge and development for coaches (43). Collectively, the improvements in coaches’ efficacy to support others (athletes and coaches) suggests that safe sport training may serve as an effective mechanism through which knowledge dissemination and learning amongst stakeholders is achieved.
Many coaches (uninformed on the benefits of positive touch) have adopted a risk-averse perspective when interacting with athletes (i.e., “no touching”) to avoid being accused of misconduct or having their behaviors misconstrued as harmful (33, 34). In the current study, no significant relationship resulted between the number of safe sport training courses completed and coaches’ perceived safe sport stress (e.g., fear of maltreatment allegations). Specific courses were identified as decreasing safe sport stress, however, some of the courses (e.g., NCCP Emergency Action Planning, HeadStartPro, NCCP Leading Drug-free Sport) focus on physical injury prevention and/or drug-free sport and do not necessarily provide broader content on maltreatment that might warrant the reported lower coach stress regarding potential accusations of harm or safe sport issues. Although coaches have commonly reported concerns about touching in sport (33), there has also been growing awareness of psychological harm and toxic cultures in sport (38, 48). The lack of reported stress regarding safe sport concerns may be reflective of coaches being less fearful of false accusations related to psychological forms of harm as opposed to sexual harms. As the survey questions referred to coach stress in relation to abuse and harassment claims broadly, further research attention is needed to assess whether education may impact coaches’ safe sport stress differently depending on the form of harm (e.g., sexual versus psychological).
It is also interesting that while safe sport education was related to coaches’ improved efficacy to support athletes with personal and performance issues, the number of completed courses was not significantly related to stress about managing athlete physical and mental well-being. Only one course (Commit to Kids) reduced coaches’ perceived stress for managing athlete well-being. Commit to Kids focuses exclusively on providing education on sexual harms; while education on sexual harms is needed to advance safe sport, psychological harm and neglect are reported far more frequently by athletes (25, 48) and thus coaches’ perceptions of their ability to manage athletes’ well-being may be limited in scope.
NCCP Empower+ (Creating Positive Sport Environments) was associated with enhanced knowledge and confidence, improved efficacy to support others, and lower safe sport stress, whereas CAC Safe Sport Training was linked to improved knowledge and confidence and efficacy to support others. Interestingly, Commit to Kids was the only course to positively impact all coaching outcomes, despite focusing exclusively on sexual harms. As sexual harm continues to receive the most media and research attention (4, 25), education on sexual harms may be interpreted by coaches and those in the sport community to be most relevant and important for creating safe sport. Further, in Ontario and Canada more broadly, sport organizations frequently identify course equivalents where coaches may complete different courses, including CAC Safe Sport Training, Respect in Sport, NCCP Empower+, and Commit to Kids but still satisfy the safe sport-related requirements needed to instruct. The lack of an integrated approach and the various safe sport education options available may expose coaches to different experiences and levels of learning, thus providing a plausible explanation for the reported influences on coaching outcomes in the current study. To advance safe sport,evidence-informed education for coaches and stakeholders more broadly is needed (5, 47).
Limitations and Future Directions
Although this study contributes to research and practice in safe sport by providing insights into the reported benefits of safe sport education for coaches, the findings must be interpreted within the context of the current study. Considering the CAO selected the safe sport-related courses of interest for evaluation, a broad perspective of safe sport (i.e., injuries, drug-free sport, planning appropriate practices, maltreatment) was required. The data were also collected from coaches in a specific geographic region (Ontario, Canada) and thus many of the safe sport courses evaluated were exclusive to this coaching sample. The courses evaluated in the current study should not be considered an exhaustive list of all safe-sport courses; for example, since the completion of the study, several courses (e.g., Support Through Sport, Safe Sport 101 Playbook) have been revised and/or developed. Additionally, as the sport domain has been referred to one that reinforces toxic cultures, there are several education courses in Ontario and Canada more broadly on creating positive culture and inclusive environments (e.g., NCCP Coaching Athletes with a Disability), that were not included and require future consideration regarding their impact on coaches and advancing safe sport.
The study findings highlighted a relationship between safe sport education and improvements in coach knowledge and confidence and efficacy to support others, suggesting that practitioners should explore ways to make safe sport education free of cost and accessible. However, as this study did not assess knowledge translation, future research is needed to examine if coaches’ improved knowledge, confidence and efficacy from education contributes to behavior change and the use of more developmentally appropriate and safe coaching practices. Organizational influence also remains an area of interest; for example, it would be beneficial to explore how an organization’s cultural values, priorities (e.g., win-at-all-costs vs holistic development), and support (e.g., free training), may impact coach education uptake and subsequently the effectiveness of safe sport education on coaching outcomes. Future researchers may consider a case study approach to examine the impact of safe sport education for coaches within a specific organization; for example, Likert-scales may be used to assess attitudes, beliefs, and perceptions, semi-structured interviews may help to gain deeper insights on coaches’ interpretations regarding safe sport courses, and participant observation may shed light on issues of coach behavior change resulting from safe sport education.
Conclusion
Safe sport education for coaches has been consistently advocated as a recommendation for advancing safe, inclusive, and welcoming environments, however, the influence of safe sport education remains largely unknown (24, 26). The current study contributes to the sport literature by providing an examination of the influences of safe sport training for coaches. Findings revealed a relationship between the number of safe sport training courses coaches completed and increases in their knowledge and confidence and efficacy to support others. However, the number of safe sport training courses completed was not associated with stress related to safe sport matters or athlete well-being. All safe sport courses were reportedly associated with improved coach knowledge and confidence. Several training courses were also linked to improvements in coaches’ efficacy to support others and reductions in their safe sport stress, with only one course contributing to coaches’ reduced stress related to athlete-well-being. Although the findings suggest favorable influences of safe sport training for coaches, the current study did not assess behavioral change. Future research is needed to explore whether reported improvements (e.g., knowledge and confidence) associated with safe sport education translates to coaching practice.
Applications in Sport
Safe sport education in the current study was reportedly associated with enhanced coach knowledge and confidence to create safe environments and efficacy to support athletes and other coaches/support staff. Unfortunately, as a large portion of the sport sector is run by a volunteer workforce (e.g., volunteer coaches), sport organizations remain reluctant to enforce training requirements for fear of further burdening these coaches who frequently report stress and burnout (2, 35). However, the extent to which sport organizations and their leaders prioritize and support safe sport, has been shown to impact the effectiveness of safe sport efforts (17, 37, 49). In some cases, merely having safe sport education initiatives may have little impact on creating and sustaining safer environments and appear as superficial gestures towards change, further reproducing harms (29, 31). Sport and coaching organizations are confronted with the challenge of maintaining low time and cost demands for many volunteer coaches while also providing adequate education for volunteer (and paid) coaches (19, 46).
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the coaches who participated in this study along with Coaches Association of Ontario who contributed to the design and recruitment of this study.
Declaration of conflicting interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
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