Wei Qian Lim1, MS, David Smith2, Eric D. Magrum2, PhD, The George Washington University1, Washington, DC James Madison University2, Harrisonburg, Virginia
Editor’s Note: Table 1 was incorrectly published. This has been corrected. Tables 2 and 3 were reformatted during the revision process.
Abstract Purpose: This study examines the validity and reliability of a commercially available velocity-based training device, GymAware, when measuring barbell velocity during submaximal power cleans. While GymAware has been validated for slower movements, limited research has assessed its accuracy at higher velocities, particularly in Olympic weightlifting derivatives. Methods: Ten resistance-trained participants completed two sets of five repetitions at 40%, 50%, and 60% of their perceived one-repetition maximum in the power clean. Mean and peak barbell velocity were recorded using GymAware and compared to a motion capture system as the criterion measure. Data were analyzed for reliability using intraclass correlation coefficients and validity through correlation and regression analysis.
Results: Mean velocity measurements from GymAware demonstrated strong agreement with motion capture across all loads, with correlations exceeding 0.85 and an intraclass correlation coefficient of 0.85, indicating good reliability. However, peak velocity measurements exhibited greater variability, with a systematic overestimation of 0.37 m/s and a lower reliability coefficient (0.31). Linear regression models confirmed that GymAware accounted for 88% of the variance in mean velocity but only 44% in peak velocity, suggesting less precision in high-velocity movements.
Conclusion: GymAware provides reliable and valid measurements of mean barbell velocity but has limitations in accurately assessing peak velocity during rapid weightlifting movements. Coaches and practitioners should prioritize mean velocity when utilizing velocity-based training for performance monitoring.
Application in Sports: Velocity-based training offers an efficient method for tracking performance and adjusting training loads. GymAware’s ability to measure mean velocity reliably makes it a useful tool for monitoring training adaptations and providing immediate feedback to athletes. However, practitioners should be cautious when interpreting peak velocity data, particularly in high-velocity Olympic weightlifting derivatives, and consider alternative methods for precise assessment.
Introduction Resistance training is a well-documented modality for improving force production, power, lean body mass, and overall athletic performance (10-11,13,20,27). For these reasons resistance training has become synonymous with athlete preparation. Before the technological renaissance, tracking athletes’ progress and assessing program effectiveness was almost entirely comprised of assessing progressive overload via number of repetitions completed or through the manipulation of external load lifted (15,19,22). However, these more traditional methods come with several challenges, making it difficult to assess program effectiveness. Specifically, athlete’s perceived exertion, range of motion, and different pacing strategies can confound practitioners’ ability to assess meaningful changes as it relates to physiological adaptations resultant resulting from training (12,18,19,22). Because of this, numerous efforts have been made to leverage technological tools to enhance the assessment of training efficacy.
Recent technological advancements have popularized the tracking of barbell velocity, termed velocity-based training (VBT), and highlighted its usefulness in gauging training efficacy. VBT is utilized for a multitude of reasons, including but not limited to predicting 1 repetition maximum (1RM) without the accumulation of excessive fatigue and increased risk of injury, monitoring training performance and neuromuscular fatigue, and providing immediate kinematic feedback potentially leading to enhanced training outcomes (1,3,-4,7,-8,10-11,18,23,24,26,28). As with any technological tool, measures of validity and reliability are paramount to assess the meaningfulness of the data provided. Providing reliable data is important for coaches and athletes alike, to accurately assess the physiological changes associated with training programs, as well as make appropriate alterations when needed.
For over 20 years, GymAware (GYM) has been considered the gold standard of linear positional transducers (LPT). LPT’s function by measuring displacement of a barbell as well as the time taken to complete said displacement. By using this data, the LPT computes several variations of barbell velocity and power (average, peak, etc.) (17). Previous research suggests that the GYM is both highly valid and reliable at slow velocities (0.3-0.7 m/s) . (3-5,7-9,14,15,21). However, few studies have examined the reliability and validity of the GYM during low load, high velocity weightlifting or plyometric movements (0.7+ m/s). Studies that have investigated GYM at these velocities report that the GYM system typically underreports peak velocity and power outputs at lower loads and higher velocity (2,6,14).
Askow et al. (2) examined the reliability and validity of GYM software at both 60 and 80% of 1RM back squats. They found that GYM tends to underestimate peak velocity by 11.6% and software is not the most accurate measure of barbell velocity during high velocity movements. Despite this, Askow and his team of researchers still reported high levels of reliability at high velocities (2). Orange et al. (17) reported excellent reliability for both peak and mean velocity measurements at a range of different percentages of 1RM in the back squat and bench press with interclass correlations (ICCs) ranging from 0.96 to 0.99. Lorenzetti et al. (14) found that GYM was both reliable and valid at tracking bar velocity at 70% of 1RM and during a ballistic jump squats; however, they found much higher reliability and validity at lower velocities when compared to the high velocity jump squat plyometrics. A systematic review of LPTs and linear velocity transducers (LVT) corroborated these findings and reported that LPTs, including the GYM, were valid and reliable in measuring velocity during powerlifting and weightlifting movements . (25). Another review on the subject highlights the need for independent investigations of velocity-based sensors to examine higher velocity lifts such as Olympic weightlifting derivatives (1.2-1.6 m/s) (16). Due to their unique utility and force-velocity characteristics, weightlifting movements , such as the snatch, clean and jerk, are routinely utilized in sport performance settings around the globe. An essential element of these lifts is how fast the weight moves. Few studies have compared such devices to a criterion measure, namely motion capture (25). However, existing research on devices like the GYM Power Tool suggests high validity and reliability when measuring velocity during high-velocity barbell movements. Orange et al. (17) reported excellent reliability of GYM for back squats and bench presses, with ICCs ranging from 0.96 to 0.99 for velocity, suggesting that it could similarly perform well in more dynamic lifts. There is limited research on the reliability and validity of LPDT when measuring velocity during Olympic lift derivatives. Thus, the current study will address the gap in the literature and extend our understanding of the validity and reliability of VBT devices at higher velocities. Specifically, the purpose of this study is to examine the reliability and validity of GYM compared to Qualisys Motion Capture during the power clean.
Methods The study was carried out with 10 participants (Table 1). Participants had at least one year of prior experience strength training, defined as an average of two training sessions per week. Subjects were between the ages of 18-40, technically proficient in the clean, not pregnant, free of known cardiovascular, metabolic, or renal disease, and free of injuries. After giving written consent, technical proficiency in the clean was determined during a familiarization session prior to data collection.
Table 1. Participant Characteristics
Sex
Age (years) (mean ± SD)
Height (m) (mean ± SD)
Weight (kg) (mean ± SD)
Predicted 1RM (kg) (mean ± SD)
Male (n=5)
23.4 ± 4.4
1.74 ± 0.06
83.3 ± 9.8
106.6 ± 24.5
Female (n=5)
22.0 ± 0.7
1.62 ± 0.06
72.6 ± 22.6
61.2 ± 17.0
Total (n=10)
22.7 ± 3.1
1.68 ± 0.09
78.0 ± 17.4
83.9 ± 31.1
For a clean, participants had to lift the barbell in one smooth move from the floor, catching the barbell in a front rack position. Feet were to be shoulder width apart or just outside shoulder width at the catch. The participants were cued to move the weight as quickly as possible while staying under control. Participants with working weights lighter than what could be provided with bumper plates, the lift began from a hang at mid-shin height.
During the familiarization session participants were asked to complete a health history questionnaire before height and weight were taken. After a general warm up that consisted of 50 jumping jacks, 10 bodyweight squats, 5 jump squats and 5 cleans with the empty barbell, the participants provided a perceived 1RM (ex. 200 lbs.). 50% of the participants’ perceived 1RM was loaded onto the barbell (ex. 50% of 200 lbs. = 100 lbs.). The participant was then asked to perform 1 set of 5 repetitions, at which point the research team determined if technical proficiency was sufficient (binary yes or no).
Participants who met the inclusion criteria and demonstrated proficiency in the clean were invited back for a lifting session. The session began with the same general warm-up detailed above. Participants whose schedules permitted both sessions to be completed consecutively (familiarization + lifting) were not asked to perform the warmup prior to the lifting session. In total, participants completed six sets: two sets of five repetitions at 40%, 50%, and 60% of perceived 1RM (ex. 200lbs 1RM: 40% = 80lbs, 50% = 100 lbs., and 60% = 120lbs). Each set began with the signal “You may begin your lift.” Participants were instructed to fully stop and/or set down the bar at the end of each repetition for at least a one count to prevent the use of momentum and allow for a distinct ending to each repetition. This was reinforced with a count of “one” between each repetition. Participants were given three minutes to rest between each set. Qualisys motion capture system was used as a gold standard/criterion reference. The motion capture set-up consisted of six cameras: three from the Miqus M3 series and three from the Oqus series. Six reflective markers were attached to the barbell. Two markers were attached to either end of the bar, while four markers were attached in square configuration on the collar of the barbell (Figures 1 and 2). The data were recorded with the software QTM 2020-2 Build 5710, with a frequency of 100 Hz. The limits for standard deviation for wand length calibration were 0.3 and 0.5 mm.
The GYM RS, placed on the ground between the pad and platform, was tethered to the shaft of the barbell close to the four reflective markers (see Figures 1 and 3). The GYM RS device was connected via Bluetooth to the free version of the GYM iOS application (Version 4.0.1). GYM RS records at 50 Hz. Peak and mean velocity (m/s) for each repetition were hand recorded from the application into a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet.
Velocity data were exported from the Qualisys Track Manager (QTM) software to Microsoft Excel. The beginning of the lift was determined by the inflection of barbell velocity denoted by an increase of 0.01 m/s for three consecutive frames. The end of the concentric portion of the lift was determined by the first maximum velocity value or crest of velocity curve. Corresponding with GYM, mean concentric velocity (m/s) was determined by averaging marker velocities over the entire concentric portion of the lift. Peak concentric velocity (m/s) was calculated by averaging the individual velocities of each marker over a sample period of 20 milliseconds immediately preceding peak velocity.
Participants stood on a wooden platform with the barbell resting on black foam pads on either side of the platform. Unless the participant’s working weight utilized change plates or the empty bar, the clean started from the black foam pads. If not, the clean started from a hang at mid-shin height. The materials were a 20 kg bar, Rouge change plates between 0.5 and 5 kg, 2.5 and 5 lb. plates, as well as 25 and 45 lb. bumper plates. Working weights for each participant were calculated to get as close to 40%, 50%, and 60% of perceived 1RM.
Results Data was collected for 10 participants during a single data collection session. Subjects completed six sets: two sets of five repetitions at 40%, 50%, and 60% of perceived 1RM. Mean and peak velocity was recorded using GYM and Qualisys motion capture software for each repetition. There was a total of 60 data points per participant, resulting in 600 total data points. 3.1 Validity
Figure 4. Scatter plots expressing the peak and mean bar velocities at 40, 50, and 60% of one repetition maximum as measured by GYM and Qualisys motion capture systems. Error is defined as the difference between the GYM measurements and Qualisys measurements, with cooler colors representing less error and hotter colors representing more error. Dashed line represents a perfect linear fit that assumes no variance between the two devices. All correlations were statistically significant with a p<0.05
Scatter plots for peak velocity at each percentage of 1RM showed varied levels of correlation between GYM and Qualisys. At 40% of 1RM r=0.706, at 50% r=0.512, and at 60% r=0.703. Each of the aforementioned correlations reached statistical significance at the 0.05 level and indicate a moderate correlation between the GYM and Qualisys measurements of bar velocity. 50% of 1RM demonstrated the highest variability (Figure 4).
The mean velocity measurements between the two systems demonstrated stronger correlations across all load percentages. At 40% r=0.958, at 50% r=0.938, and at 60% r=0.871. All correlations were statistically significant (p<0.05) and indicate a consistent, strong relationship between GYM and Qualisys when assessing mean bar velocity (Figure 4). GYM software tended to overpredict peak barbell velocities at all intensities by 0.37 m/s on average, while only over predicting mean barbell velocity by 0.09 m/s (Figure 5).
Table 2. Comparison of Linear Regression Model Results for GYM and Qualisys Motion Capture System at Different Percentages of Perceived One Repetition Max
Load (%1RM)
R2
F-statistic
Mean Velocity (MV)
Peak Velocity (PV)
Mean Velocity (MV)
Peak Velocity (PV)
40%
0.92
0.50
1073.66
97.15
50%
0.88
0.26
723.49
34.83
60%
0.76
0.51
301.48
101.32
All data
0.88
0.44
2086.1
234.72
*All data was significant with a p-value<0.001.
A linear regression model indicated a significant relationship between mean and peak bar velocity as reported by the GYM when compared to Qualisys tracking software. Mean velocity linear regression: F (1,293) = 2086.61, p<0.001, R2 = 0.88. Peak velocity linear regression: F (1,293) = 97.15, p < 0.001, R2 = 0.44. This model indicates that across all percentages of 1RM tested, GYM software was able to account for 88% of the variance in mean bar velocity and only 44% of peak bar velocity. When parsed out and compared by loads, the data highlights a closer relationship between mean velocity measures as compared to peak velocity measures (Table 2.) At 40% 1RM: Mean velocity: F (1,293) = 1073.66, p < 0.001, R² = 0.92; Peak velocity: F (1,293) = 97.15, p < 0.001, R² = 0.50. At 50% 1RM: Mean velocity: F (1,293) = 723.49, p < 0.001, R² = 0.88; Peak velocity: F (1,293) = 34.83, p < 0.001, R² = 0.26. At 60% 1RM: Mean velocity: F (1,293) = 301.48, p < 0.001, R² = 0.76; Peak velocity: F (1,293) = 101.32, p < 0.001, R² = 0.51. 3.2 Reliability
Table 3. Intraclass Correlation Coefficients for mean and peak barbell velocity measurements.
Mean Barbell Velocity
Peak Barbell Velocity
ICC (95% CI)
0.848 (0.341-0.941)
0.306 (-0.092-0.632)
F-statistic
23.6
4.8
p-value
0.00261
0.128
The ICCs were calculated to assess the reliability of mean and peak barbell velocity measurements. A two-way random-effects model with absolute agreement (ICC (A,1)) was used for both metrics. Mean barbell velocity had an ICC of 0.848 (0.341–0.941), with an associated F-test indicating statistical significance (F (296, 4.22) = 23.6, p = 0.00261). These calculations indicate good reliability. Peak barbell velocity had an ICC of 0.306 (-0.092–0.632), with a non-significant F-test (F (299, 2.69) = 4.8, p = 0.128). This ICC value indicates poor reliability. The coefficients of variation (CV) were calculated to assess the relative variability in mean and peak values for both GYM and Qualisys datasets. For the mean values, the CV was 17.06% for GYM and 20.46% for Qualisys. For the peak values, the CV was 10.75% for GYM and 15.37% for Qualisys, with GYM showing the lowest relative variability among all measures.
Discussion The findings of this study offer valuable insight into the reliability and validity of GYM as a VBT tool. While GYM demonstrated strong validity in tracking mean barbell velocity across all intensities, it was substantially less accurate when assessing peak barbell velocity. These results highlight important considerations for practitioners when using GYM as a training tool. There was a strong correlation observed between GYM and Qualisys for mean velocity measurements, highlighting the reliability of GYM. The ICC for mean velocity (0.848) reflects good reliability, supporting its use by coaches and athletes where consistent data is essential for assessing training adaptations and adjusting programs accordingly. This finding demonstrates that GYM’s mean velocity measure is capable of providing practitioners with insightful data that can reliably indicate changes in athletes’ performance capabilities. For example, this means that a positive change of 0.15 m/s in an athletes mean clean velocity at a given load is likely due to changes in the athletes’ performance capabilities, as opposed to the measurement error associated with the VBT tool. This is rather important when competitive success has such slim margins and even more important when resistance training programs are dictated by real time data collected by VBT tools. These findings are consistent with prior research that has identified GYM as a reliable tool for monitoring barbell velocity during traditional resistance training exercises (17). Importantly, this examination focused on high velocity movements, hence the loads of 40-60%, and extended the range of velocities studied within the literature. Despite this, GYM had a moderate correlation and systematically overestimated barbell velocity limiting its application. GYM had a mean bias of +0.37 m/s when assessing peak velocity suggesting that GYM may not offer the precision required for accurately evaluating peak velocity during rapid, explosive movements. What is perhaps more concerning is the poor ICC for peak velocity (0.306), indicating low reliability for this metric.. For example, if an athlete were to improve peak barbell velocity by 0.15 m/s, the same amount as with their mean velocity, we wouldn’t be able to confidently attribute this change to a performance improvement due to the low reliability.
These findings agree with previous research that has identified similar discrepancies in GYM’s accuracy. In Lorenzetti et al. (14), the GYM device showed a higher root mean square error (RMSE) of 0.06 m/s when assessing peak barbell velocity during ballistic jump squats compared to slower squat movements. This higher RMSE suggests that the device was less accurate in measuring peak velocity during higher velocity, explosive jumps. The study found the mean difference between GYM and the reference method (motion capture) to be -0.05 m/s, further indicating potential measurement errors in high-velocity movements. These results highlight that peak velocity measurements may be prone to greater variability in ballistic exercises. Additionally in Askow et al. (2), the GYM device consistently underestimated peak barbell velocities by 11.6% (or -0.13 m/s) when compared to a more accurate criterion measure. This bias was particularly evident during high-velocity movements, indicating that the device may not be as precise for measuring peak velocity in such contexts. The underestimation suggests a systematic error that could limit the utility of GYM for tracking performance improvements in peak velocity during explosive lifts. These values along with our data showcase that GYM may not be an effective tool at assessing peak barbell velocity at lower loads/higher barbell velocities.
This study also reinforces the importance of context when interpreting data from VBT devices. Contrary to our ICC data, the coefficients of variation (CV) highlight the consistency of GYM for both mean velocity (17.06%) and peak velocity (10.75%). Interestingly, this statistic suggests that peak velocity is more reliable when compared to mean velocity; however, this is likely due to the systematic overestimation of both peak and mean barbell velocity by GYM. Utilizing both ICC and CV’s the data supports the notion that GYM has strong reliability for mean velocity, however peak velocity measures capture by GYM leave something to be desired. These data suggest that practitioners should use mean barbell velocity measurements to achieve the best results, especially when utilizing VBT to monitor fatigue, track progress, and adjust training intensity in real time. Should practitioners have a penchant for peak velocity measures, the authors strongly encourage practitioners to run in-house statistics to understand what constitutes a meaningful change as compared to a change within the VBT’s measurement error. Findings align with the broader literature discussing VBT devices and explore a gap in the literature by examining high-velocity movements while highlighting aspects that have practical significance. Future investigations should explore GYM’s performance with other high velocity movements such as the snatch or jerk, to better understand its broader applications. Importantly, while these results contribute to the growing body of evidence, it is important to situate the use of VBT within the broader training context and provide guidance to practitioners.
Application in Sport The authors contend that reliable VBT tools can be leveraged by practitioners. First, VBT tools provide a cost-effective and time efficient avenue to collect data and highlight changes as a result of the training prescription. VBT data may be leveraged as biofeedback and a load modulation technique but only in synchrony with more traditional loading prescription (% of 1RM/% of set/rep best). Important to note, these strategies utilize VBT tools as a secondary data stream to inform when load changes may be needed and not as a primary load prescriber. Coaches must retain load prescription responsibilities, while utilizing their eyes and ears (in addition to VBT tools) to skillfully make load adjustments when needed. Practitioners must also bear in mind that VBT tools are inaccurate when estimating 1RM, therefore other methods for estimating are necessary. Perhaps the most compelling reason for utilizing VBT tools resides in their ability to potentiate participant performance. The presence of VBT devices may improve athlete motivation and training intent, which is paramount for optimal training. While VBT tools generally provide a positive return on investment, the practitioners’ eyes and ears should remain the primary data source which guide training decisions while VBT tools serve a supportive role. Based on available data, it would be shortsighted to rely solely on VBT tools to make real-time training decisions.
In conclusion, this study demonstrates that GYM provides reliable and valid measurements for mean barbell velocity during submaximal power cleans. As a result, practitioners may leverage GYM’s strengths, particularly its ability to provide immediate feedback and monitor mean velocity, while remaining cognizant of its limitations for high-velocity movements. This approach may allow for the effective integration of VBT tools to enhance training decisions, outcomes and athletic performance.
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“The authors have no conflict of interest to report.”
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study is to investigate the effects of role satisfaction, personal achievement, and extrinsic rewards on volunteer satisfaction and subsequent retention in a mega sporting event. An online survey of 2,127 volunteers from the 2018 PyeongChang Winter Olympics was conducted, and structural equation modeling was used to examine direct and indirect effects among the latent variables. Results revealed that role satisfaction, personal achievement, and extrinsic rewards significantly predicted overall satisfaction. Furthermore, overall satisfaction positively influences volunteer retention. Mediation analysis confirmed that overall satisfaction mediated the effect of extrinsic rewards on retention, but not for role satisfaction or personal achievement. These findings underscore the importance of satisfying extrinsic rewards (e.g., material incentives, logistical support) in cultivating volunteer retention. While this study was situated within a mega-event, implications extend to volunteer coordination across various sporting environments that rely on unpaid contributors.
Volunteerism plays a vital role in the successful execution of large-scale events and in reducing operational costs (Pestereva, 2015), making volunteer retention a key concern for both organizers and researchers (Ahn, 2018). This involves an organization’s ability to maintain the involvement of individuals who contribute their time, skills, and effort without financial compensation (Merrilees et al., 2020), using strategies that promote positive experiences, reduce turnover, and build a loyal volunteer base to ensure event success, operational efficiency, cost savings, and community engagement (Gaber et al., 2022; Ahn, 2018). Importantly, volunteer retention emerges as a cost-effective and essential strategy for non-profit and private organizations engaged in hosting mega sports (Kim et al., 2007). Despite volunteers’ significant contributions (e.g., saving costs and providing quality service), there has been a decline in volunteerism attributed to poor retention rates (Do Good Institute, 2018). Given the infrequent occurrence of mega sports events, host countries are presented with challenges in retaining volunteers due to the limitations associated with low event frequency and the rotational selection of host cities (Fourie & Santana-Gallego, 2011). Compared to professional sports operating matches in the same venues, mega sporting events tend to have difficulty retaining volunteers due to restrictions such as low frequency and rotation of host cities. In the detailed examination of volunteer retention within mega sporting events, the integration of Self-Determination Theory (SDT) plays a crucial role, providing valuable insight into the complex dynamics that shape retention, influenced by factors like volunteer role satisfaction, personal achievement, and extrinsic rewards. Thus, this empirical study had two primary objectives: 1) to explore how these three factors significantly impact volunteers’ overall satisfaction and volunteer retention, and 2) to identify the factors that drive volunteer retention when overall satisfaction mediates their retention in a mega sports event. This paper begins by reviewing relevant literature on role satisfaction, personal achievement, and extrinsic rewards. It then outlines the research method, followed by a presentation and discussion of the results. The paper concludes with applications for volunteer management in the sport context.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Self-determination Theory
Self-determination theory (SDT), crafted by Deci and Ryan (1985), stands as a foundational psychological framework delving into the intricate motivations steering human behavior. SDT posits that individuals have three innate psychological needs that, when satisfied, contribute to a sense of well-being and sustained motivation: i) Autonomy which refers to the desire for volition and self-endorsement in one’s actions, ii) Competence which involves the need to feel effective in one’s interactions with the environment, iii) Relatedness pertains to the need to connect with others and experience a sense of belonging (Deci & Ryan, 1985). Furthermore, SDT proposes the importance of the harmonious use of intrinsic (which involves engaging in activities for inherent satisfaction) and extrinsic (which involves engaging in activities for external rewards) motivations in role satisfaction (Ryan & Deci, 2000). In the nuanced exploration of volunteer retention within mega sporting events, the incorporation of SDT emerges as a pivotal factor, offering a profound insight into the intricate dynamics influencing how retention is shaped by factors such as volunteer role satisfaction, personal achievement, and extrinsic rewards. Thus, this study proposes extrinsic motivation (i.e., role satisfaction and extrinsic rewards) and intrinsic motivation (i.e., personal achievement) to explore volunteer retention in a mega sporting event.
Role Satisfaction
Role satisfaction is the extent to which one’s psychological needs are met in an intrinsically valuable role (Malhotra et al., 2014). In volunteerism, role satisfaction is crucial in overall volunteer satisfaction, bolstering volunteer retention. SDT posits that role satisfaction can be influenced by intrinsic and extrinsic factors (Ryan & Deci, 2000), meaning that individuals may find satisfaction in their roles through fulfillment or external rewards. SDT further suggests that when an individual’s psychological and physical needs are met in a role, satisfaction occurs, thereby contributing to retention (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Role satisfaction, therefore, serves as a significant component of overall volunteer satisfaction and a predictor of volunteer retention. Consequently, this study postulated that role satisfaction can occur when individuals are motivated intrinsically or extrinsically, leading to enhanced overall volunteer satisfaction.
Personal Achievement
In volunteering, the achievement motive serves as a determinant of intrinsic motivation, and it involves striving for excellence and competing with one’s or others’ standards (Malhotra et al., 2014). It implies that personal achievement in a volunteer role enhances intrinsic motivation, aligning with SDT to reinforce role satisfaction and overall volunteer satisfaction. Ahn (2018) also highlighted that involvement in volunteerism provides individuals with opportunities for self-achievement. This was further expounded on by Guerrero and Seguin (2012), who illustrated that high achievement motives increase motivation as personal tasks and organizational goals are met, which leads to increased satisfaction.
Extrinsic Rewards
Rewards refer to tangible or intangible benefits for recognized activities (Jung, 2011). Rewards play a critical role in volunteering, as recruiting and retaining qualified volunteers without incentives can be challenging (Ahn, 2018). As such, rewards can become one’s motivation to either participate or continue to engage in volunteering activities. Rewards can be categorized into two types: intrinsic and extrinsic rewards. Intrinsic rewards are psychologically driven and encompass positive feelings derived from performing a meaningful job and a sense of contributing to a worthy cause (Wymer & Starnes, 2001). More importantly in this study, extrinsic rewards refer to economic recognition and tangible items such as discount coupons, accommodations, uniforms, cash, and gifts (Jung, 2011). Prior studies have proposed that extrinsic rewards are driving factors that allow for competence needs, which are essential determinants of volunteer satisfaction (Baard et al., 2004), such as recognition of efforts, tangible rewards, and incentives (Ahn, 2018).
Volunteer Retention
The concept of intention to volunteer has been a central focus in volunteer research, emerging as a pivotal predictor for the prospective retention of volunteers. This prominence is exemplified by the findings of Clary et al. (1998), who underscored the significance of the intention to volunteer as a crucial factor influencing both the recruitment and subsequent retention of volunteers. Volunteer retention refers to the actions, decisions, and patterns of engagement exhibited by individuals who choose to sustain their involvement in volunteer activities (Clary et al., 1998). It encompasses the dynamics that contribute to volunteers choosing to stay committed and engaged in their roles (Hustinx & Lammertyn, 2003). For instance, individuals who consistently participate in volunteer activities over time, take on additional responsibilities, attend scheduled training events, speak positively about their experiences, and invest their resources serve as a few examples of characteristics of volunteer retention (Hustinx & Lammertyn, 2003).
The Mediating Role of Overall Volunteer Satisfaction
Overall volunteer satisfaction refers to the comprehensive evaluation of volunteers’ contentment, fulfillment, and positive experiences across various aspects of their engagement with a volunteer program or organization (Clary et al., 1998). As volunteers are more likely to continue their engagement if they derive overall satisfaction from their work (Warner et al., 2011), overall satisfaction is immensely important as it predicts retention and decreased turnover rates (Galindo-Kuhn & Guzley, 2001). Satisfied volunteers are more likely to continue their service and even inspire and recruit others to volunteer (Coyne & Coyne, 2001). Moreover, overall satisfaction with a specific volunteer episode fosters positive perceptions of volunteering, highlighting its significance in driving retention (Coyne & Coyne, 2001). The concept of volunteer overall satisfaction has been extensively studied, and existing literature has consistently suggested that it is a predictor of the time spent volunteering, the longevity of volunteer service, and the intention to continue volunteering (Costa et al., 2006). Thus, it is theoretically assumed that volunteers’ perceptions of role satisfaction, personal achievement, and extrinsic rewards collectively influence their overall satisfaction, subsequently impacting volunteer retention. Therefore, the following hypotheses were proposed:
H1. Role satisfaction has a positive effect on overall volunteer satisfaction.
H2. Personal achievement has a positive effect on overall volunteer satisfaction.
H3. Extrinsic rewards have a positive effect on overall volunteer satisfaction.
H4. Overall volunteer satisfaction will positively impact volunteer retention.
H5a. Overall volunteer satisfaction mediates the positive relationship between role satisfaction and actual retention.
H5b. Overall volunteer satisfaction mediates the positive relationship between personal achievement and actual retention.
H5c. Overall volunteer satisfaction mediates the positive relationship between extrinsic rewards and actual retention.
METHOD
Data Collection and Participants
Data were collected from volunteers who participated in the 2018 PyeongChang Winter Olympics, with the valuable contribution of secondary data made available by the PyeongChang Winter Olympics Organizing Committee. An online survey link was sent to actual event volunteers, and the survey link was available during the entire Olympic Games event, from February 7th to 25th in 2018. A total of 2,500 volunteers initially completed the online survey. During the data screening process, 344 incomplete questionnaires were eliminated, resulting in 2,156 usable questionnaires. An additional 29 questionnaires were removed since all items were recorded in the same number. A final sample of 2,127 questionnaires was used for analysis, with 734 males (34.5%) and 1,393 females (65.5%), the majority being single (86.1%) and holding a bachelor’s degree (77.2%), and the largest age group being 20 to 29 years (82.1%).
Instrument and Data Analysis
A total of 20 items were used to measure the four constructs: six items for role satisfaction, eight items for personal achievement, three items for extrinsic rewards, and three items for overall satisfaction. Each measure was found to be internally consistent since composite reliability values ranged from .77 to .85 in this study. All items were anchored on a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (Strongly Disagree) to 5 (Strongly Agree). To identify the participants who were repeat volunteers to a mega event, the respondents were screened to report whether they had returned to the event and had previous experience volunteering at the mega sporting event. Volunteer retention was used as the binary dependent variable, with the number of volunteer retention variables dichotomized into 0 = non-retention volunteers and 1 = retention volunteers.
Descriptive analysis was calculated, and a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was performed using Mplus 8.8 to assess the psychometric properties of the measurement. Furthermore, structural equation modeling (SEM) was conducted to estimate the direct and indirect effects of the measured latent variables on the dichotomous dependent variable, volunteer retention. As this is a logistic regression in SEM, χ2 was unavailable (Arlinghaus et al., 2012). Instead, the Akaike Information Criterion (AIC) and the Bayesian Information Criterion (BIC) were used as the only fit indicators to assess model fit for the logistic regression model in SEM, so these two fit indicators were generally utilized in such models (Arlinghaus et al., 2012). This model was designed to predict volunteers’ retention from 557 participants who returned to volunteer at a mega sporting event. However, an estimation of weighted least squares (WSLMV), which was available in Mplus 8.8, allowed researchers to estimate binomial regression models that provide traditional model fit indices, such as the comparative fit index (CFI ≥ 0.90), the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA ≤ 0.08), the Tucker-Lewis index (TLI ≥ 0.90), and the standardized root mean squared residual (SRMR ≤ 0.08). Thus, the WSLMV estimation method was used for our model. A significant level of 0.05 was used to determine statistical significance.
RESULTS
Descriptive Statistics
In terms of descriptive statistics, the mean scores of all factors related to volunteering, including volunteer role satisfaction, personal achievement, and extrinsic rewards, were above the mid-point. Among the three factors, personal achievement was rated as the highest mean score (M = 3.59, SD = 1.63), followed by volunteer role satisfaction (M = 3.40, SD = 1.87) and extrinsic rewards (M = 3.05, SD = 1.45). In addition, the mean score of overall satisfaction was 3.40 (SD = 1.69). As shown in Table 1, the relationships between variables were all less than .85, thereby demonstrating the absence of multicollinearity (Kline, 2005).
Model Comparison
The original model in this study was partially mediated. Any covariance structural models had alternative models that are identical to the original model regarding goodness of fit to data (MacCallum et al., 1993). To deal with this potential issue, the existence of such equivalent models can be compared with the original model. Besides our original model, we identified a fully mediated model, which omitted paths from volunteers’ personal achievement, role satisfaction, and extrinsic rewards to volunteer retention. The model comparison was performed between the hypothesized structural model and a model using overall model fit (Morgan & Hunt, 1994). SEM was performed for both models (i.e., the partially mediated model vs the fully mediated model). Accordingly, the partially mediated model revealed an acceptable model fit (CFI = .909, RMSEA = .062, TLI = .893, SRMR = .043). Also, all the paths were significant at the level of .05. However, the fully mediated model showed superior model fit compared to the partially mediated model (CFI = .913, RMSEA = .060, TLI = .898, SRMR = .043). Hence, we decided to use the more parsimonious model that excludes the paths from volunteers’ personal achievement, role satisfaction, and extrinsic rewards to volunteer retention.
Measurement Validation
The psychometric properties of the measurement were assessed by performing CFA. The initial process revealed that one item in volunteer role satisfaction and one item in personal achievement were deleted due to low factor loadings (i.e., < .40; Hair et al., 2010). Afterward, the results of CFA demonstrated that the remaining items demonstrated high factor loadings, ranging from .653 to .907. Additionally, composite reliability (C.R.) coefficients ranged from .77 to .88, exceeding the suggested criteria of .70 (Hair et al., 2010). The values of average variance extracted (AVE) were mostly above the cut-off criteria (.50; Bagozzi & Yi, 1988), except for personal achievement (.48) and extrinsic rewards (.47). Fornell and Larcker (1981) mentioned that AVE values of 0.4 can be accepted when its values of C.R. were above the acceptable level of .70. Based on the results of AVE and C.R., convergent validity was established. Discriminant validity was confirmed by comparing the square roots of AVE values with construct correlations (Fornell & Larcker, 1981). All the square roots of AVE values were greater than the values of construct correlations, indicating the presence of discriminant validity. Finally, model fit indices indicated a good fit to the data (CFI = .963, RMSEA = .043, TLI = .953, SRMR = .035).
Logistic Model in SEM
The results of the logistic model in SEM indicated a good fit of the data to the model (CFI = .913, RMSEA = .060, TLI = .898, SRMR = .043). All the path coefficients for the hypotheses were positively significant, supporting H1 to H4 (see Table 3 and Figure 1). H1 was supported since the relationship between volunteer role satisfaction and overall satisfaction was positively significant (𝛽 = .29, p < .001). Also, significant positive relationships were identified between personal achievement and overall satisfaction (𝛽 = .31, p < .001) and extrinsic rewards and overall satisfaction (𝛽 = .52, p < .001), thus supporting H2 and H3. In addition, H4 was supported in that overall satisfaction positively impacted volunteer retention (𝛽 = .05, p < .05). Regarding the latent variable of overall satisfaction, a total of 90.7% of the variance in overall satisfaction was explained by volunteer role satisfaction, personal achievement, and extrinsic rewards.
To test H5, a post-hoc mediation analysis using 5,000 bootstrap samples was conducted to examine if overall satisfaction mediated the relationship between three factors (i.e., role satisfaction, personal achievement, and extrinsic rewards) and volunteer retention. Table 4 shows the results of the indirect effects. The mediation effect of extrinsic rewards on volunteer retention via overall satisfaction was significant at the level of .05, and the confidence interval did not include zero. Besides the mediating effects of extrinsic rewards, no other significant mediators were identified. Thus, H5a and H5b were not supported, but H5c was supported.
DISCUSSION
The current study investigated the impact of three underlying factors of volunteering (i.e., role satisfaction, personal achievement, and extrinsic rewards) and overall satisfaction as the drivers that promote volunteer retention in a mega sporting event. The findings demonstrated that all three factors positively influenced overall satisfaction, with extrinsic rewards playing a significant role in predicting volunteer retention.
Volunteer retention remains a significant challenge for human resource management in sports organizations. This study confirmed a positive relationship between overall satisfaction and volunteer retention (H4). Various factors, including volunteer roles, personal achievement, and extrinsic rewards, were found to influence overall satisfaction. Additionally, satisfaction with the volunteering experience positively affected both retention and recruitment efforts. Enhancing overall satisfaction improves volunteer performance and retention while fostering continued engagement and commitment in future mega sporting events through positive experiences.
The current study predicted a fully mediating effect of extrinsic rewards on volunteers’ future intentions through overall satisfaction (H5c). Previous research demonstrated intrinsic rewards as the primary motivator for volunteers, stemming from positive emotional states developed by satisfactory performance and a sense of worthiness (Wymer & Starnes, 2001). However, this study suggests the significance of extrinsic rewards in securing existing volunteers and maintaining professional relationships with them. Although volunteers provide their services without monetary compensation, the expectation of tangible rewards, complimentary services, or products (e.g., apparel, equipment, and souvenirs) is prevalent.
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE RESEARCH
This study provides compelling evidence on the importance of volunteer satisfaction in driving retention at mega sporting events, particularly highlighting the pivotal role of extrinsic rewards. Among the factors (i.e., role satisfaction, personal achievement, and extrinsic rewards), tangible incentives such as apparel, transportation, and discounts emerged as the most influential in enhancing volunteers’ overall satisfaction and future participation intentions. The findings also confirm that while intrinsic motivations are meaningful, it is the concrete, rewarding experiences that most effectively translate satisfaction into long-term commitment. These insights offer valuable guidance for event organizers and volunteer managers in designing volunteer programs that strategically balance motivational drivers. By prioritizing volunteer needs, recognizing contributions, and offering supportive and rewarding environments, sports organizations can cultivate a reliable and engaged volunteer base. Future research should expand on these findings by exploring variations across event types, cultural contexts, and demographic profiles to refine retention strategies and support the sustainability of volunteer engagement in sport.
APPLICATIONS IN SPORT
The current study suggests a practical insight into volunteering that sports organizations, volunteer managers, and event organizers can develop volunteer programs by incorporating a balanced mixture of intrinsic and extrinsic motivations. Sports organizations could focus on identifying various methods to improve overall satisfaction to ensure the retention of existing volunteers for upcoming events. Volunteer managers can continue offering high-quality onboarding services to improve overall satisfaction before, during, and after sports events. The onboarding process helps volunteers familiarize themselves with the organization’s mission and vision, and volunteers can also be informed about the training, support, and resources to fulfill their role more successfully (Gunn, 2023). For instance, before events, sports organizations could implement well-organized recruitment online systems, training sessions for designated roles, and detailed information about volunteer schedules (Angosto et al., 2021). During events, volunteer managers could actively listen to volunteers’ feedback and address any concerns to provide a better work environment. After events, sports organizations can express gratitude through appreciation emails to all volunteers and conduct satisfaction surveys to further enhance their retention behavior. Volunteer feedback helps figure out how to make the volunteer program better including its improvement, understanding of volunteer experiences, and communication with volunteers (Wang, 2023).
Sports organizations may seek to augment volunteer recruitment and satisfaction by implementing strategies to elevate individual volunteer achievements. In promoting volunteer programs for sports events or organizations, hiring managers can accentuate potential achievements, such as leadership, communication skills, language acquisition, and networking. For example, volunteering can provide opportunities to practice essential skills used in the workplace or community, incorporating teamwork, communication, problem-solving, and task management (Segal & Robinson, 2013). Our findings also imply that sports organizations can provide a better quality of products or services to enhance overall satisfaction for volunteers, such as uniforms, shoes, and equipment. Additionally, sports event organizations can utilize volunteer-specific gear or clothing brands and products as extrinsic rewards to boost engagement and morale among volunteers in general sport settings (Volunteer Hub, n.d.). In essence, leveraging our findings and practical implications holds the potential to significantly enhance volunteer retention at mega sporting events through strategic and targeted interventions.
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George Minoso2025-05-22T15:02:58-05:00October 3rd, 2025|General, Research, Sports Studies|Comments Off on What drives volunteer retention in a mega sporting event? An analysis of behavioral influences.
Career Decision-Making Self-Efficacy at Super Bowl LIII
Abstract
The present study surveyed sport management students who volunteered at Super Bowl LIII to examine the effects of mega-event volunteering on career decision-making self-efficacy (CDSE). Results suggest that volunteering at mega-events such as the Super Bowl, increased CDSE and that upper-class students and females self-reported greater CDSE than under-class students and males, respectively. Thus, program directors and sport management staff at major sport organizations should consider collaborating to enhance student involvement in order to more effectively prepare the next generation of sport management professionals.
Keywords: mega-event volunteering; career decision-making self-efficacy; professional development; Super Bowl
Introduction
While mega-event volunteers have many different motives, Ledford, Mitchell, and Scheadler (2018) noted that sport management students were mostly motivated to volunteer at Super Bowl LII for professional development (PD). It is important to explore, then, if mega-event volunteering satisfies this motivation. Thus, the purpose of the study was to examine the effects of mega-event volunteering on career decision-making self-efficacy (CDSE) and will likely be useful for sport management internship supervisors and program directors.
Greater CDSE, the belief in one’s capabilities to make career-related decisions (Hackett & Betz, 1981), improves grades, persistence, and perceived career options (Lent, Brown, & Larkin, 1986) and self-esteem, goal-setting, problem-solving, planning, and self-appraisal (Gianakos, 2001). These skills strengthen CDSE and may be fostered by internship and volunteer experiences. Internships/volunteer experiences boost critical thinking skills and commitment to one’s chosen career path (Assante, Huffman, & Harp, 2010), expand social networks (Tse, 2010), improve problem-solving skills (Busby & Gibson, 2010), and enhance autonomy (McManus & Feinstein, 2014). Similarly, Lee and Chao (2013) and Wang, Chiang, and Lee (2014) discovered that internships provide a more thorough understanding of sport management careers, making it easier for them to adjust to related careers post-graduation.
Badura’s Self-Efficacy Theory (1977, 1986, 1997) explained that CDSE can be increased by focusing on performance accomplishments, which are identified via previous successes and then can be generalized to other related current and future scenarios to make one more comfortable with the current task, thus enhancing CDSE.
Due to the popularity and short-lived nature of mega-event volunteering, sport management students may have more positive attitudes and experience more enjoyment when they volunteer at mega-events when compared to their lesser-known internships. Therefore, mega-events may also foster performance accomplishments. Specifically, mega-events have a unique opportunity to provide students with an example of a performance accomplishment, especially since such events are popular in mainstream media. This may satisfy the motivation to use a mega-event for PD. In addition, it is likely that, as one nears graduation, one is more likely to contemplate future careers and become more motivated to seek out PD opportunities. Therefore, the following hypotheses were formulated:
H1: Volunteering at Super Bowl LIII will increase CDSE in sport management students.
H2: Upper-class students (i.e., juniors and seniors) will self-report greater CDSE than under-class students (i.e., freshmen and sophomores).
H3: Students that volunteer more hours will self-report greater CDSE.
Methods
The sample in the current study consisted of 28 student volunteers (M = 21; F = 7) from a small liberal arts college in southwestern Ohio and included freshmen (n = 8), sophomores (n = 9), juniors (n = 4), and seniors (n = 7). However, only 24 students (M = 19; F = 5) completed the post-assessment in addition to the pre-assessment and included freshmen (n = 5), sophomores (n = 8), juniors (n = 4), and seniors (n = 7). The students involved in this study volunteered at the National Football League (NFL) Experience located at the Georgia World Congress Center, which provided patrons NFL-themed games and activities. This is a regular experience for students at this institution and many students choose to participate in multiple experiences during their time as students. For this specific event, students volunteered at interactive games such as youth clinics, a current NFL player or retiree autograph station, punt/pass/kick event, hail-mary event, the 40-year dash, field goal kick event, and Lombardi trophy photograph station. Some students worked as line security, other students worked the interactive games, while other students checked in fans to participate in the interactive games. Moreover, students worked Super Bowl LIII game day as wayfinders by greeting fans at parties and provided information and directions to patrons.
Student volunteers completed a questionnaire prior to reporting to shifts at the NFL Experience. One of the researchers administered and collected questionnaires at the NFL Experience volunteer meeting, minimizing the chance of a low return rate. Participants also completed identical post-event surveys to assess the changes in CDSE.
Participants completed the Career Decision Self-Efficacy Scale-Short Form (CDSES-SF; Buyukgoze-Kavas, 2014). The CDSES-SF consists of 18 items (e.g., “how much confidence do you have that you could determine the steps you need to take to successfully complete your chosen major?”) measured on a 5-point Likert-type scale (1 = No Confidence at All; 5 = Complete Confidence). It is worth noting, though, that the original CDSES-SF consists of 25 items, but was shortened to 18-items due to the irrelevancy of seven items to the present study. For example, the participants were all sport management majors and, thus, did not need to be questioned on the ability to select a major.
In addition to the CDSE, participants also reported how much they have volunteered (in hours) in the last 12 months. Options included 0, 1-10, 11-20, 21-30, 31-40, and 50 or more hours. The question did not however, investigate the types of events at which the volunteer hours were spent.
Results
The internal consistency reliability (Cronbach’s alpha) of the questionnaire was α = 0.907, well above the 0.70 commonly accepted threshold for reliability (Nunnally, 1978). The data were summarized and analyzed using independent sample t-tests. Post-hoc analysis was also used to analyze differences amongst the classes.
H1, which predicted that CDSE would be higher in post-assessments (M = 3.99 SD = 0.68) than in pre-assessments (M = 3.86; SD = 1.06), was supported, t = 2.14, p < 0.05. In other words, CDSE increased after volunteering at Super Bowl LIII.
H2 predicted upper-class students (M = 4.34; SD = 0.47) would have higher CDSE than under-class students (M = 3.75; SD = 1.23). H2 was also supported, t = -7.054, p < 0.001. Post hoc Tukey analysis showed significant variations within each of the classes and not just between upper- and under-class students.
While the mean CDSE for freshman (M = 3.82, SD = 1.14) was not significantly different from sophomores (M = 3.73, SD = 0.28), t = 1.75 p = 0.33, it was significantly lower than the mean CDSE for juniors (M = 4.06, SD = 0.74), t = -3.37, p = 0.01 and for seniors (M = 4.25, SD = 0.78), t = -4.62, p < .001.
In addition, the mean CDSE for sophomores was statistically different from juniors t = -6.91, p < 0.001 and seniors, t = -8.50, p < 0.001. And finally, juniors and seniors had statistically different CDSEs, t = -1.274, p < 0.05. Taken together, these results suggest that class rank impacts CDSE.
The final hypothesis, H3, predicted that the number of hours volunteered would have a positive impact on CDSE. To run a t-test, we compared participants who completed at least 30 volunteer hours in the last 12 months (M = 3.98, SD = 0.09) with participants who completed less than 30 volunteer hours in the last 12 months (M = 3.82, SD = 0.035). Students that had volunteered at least 30 hours reported greater CDSE than those volunteering less than 30 hours, t = -2.38, p < 0.01. Therefore, H3 was supported.
Also, further analysis revealed gender as a significant factor contributing to CDSE. Females (M = 4.20) had greater CDSE when compared to males (M = 3.85), t = 5.51, p < 0.001.
Discussion
The purpose of the present study was to explore how volunteering at Super Bowl LIII affects CDSE. Ledford et al. (2018) found that sport management students were primarily motivated to volunteer at Super Bowl LIII because of the unique opportunity for PD. The present study provides initial evidence that students who volunteer at a mega-event satisfy their motivation to volunteer at the mega-event.
First, the present study revealed that CDSE increased after volunteering at Super Bowl LIII. Perhaps, as could be argued with Self-Efficacy Theory (Bandura, 1986), experience at a mega-event provides students with a perceived performance accomplishment. More specifically, volunteering at a mega-event may inflate one’s beliefs in one’s own skills and knowledge because they have now participated at one of the most elite stages in sport. In other words, students might think that if they have what it takes to participate at a mega-event, then they can be successful in the field of sport management.
Similarly, upper-class students may have more experience in sport management considering they have been in the program longer, and thus, completed more sport management-related coursework and internship hours. Therefore, because upper-class students likely have more sport management experiences, they likely have more successful sport management experiences, providing them with a longer history of performance accomplishments to boost CDSE. For the same reason, those who commit to more hours of volunteering may have greater CDSE because they may have more experiences, which would explain why students with a greater number of hours spent volunteering had higher CDSE than students who volunteered less.
It is also noteworthy to recognize that the present study did find gender differences in CDSE—female volunteers self-reported greater levels of CDSE than their male counterparts. This is really interesting considering the sport industry is dominated by men (e.g., Burton & Leberman, 2017). It may be easy for women to feel undervalued in sport (e.g., Burton, Grappendort, & Henderson, 2011; Kanter, 1977), which would likely decrease one’s CDSE; however, the women in this study experienced greater CDSE. Perhaps, women in this study experienced heightened empowerment because they not only gained a perceived performance accomplishment, but also because they did so when they were a minority. In other words, breaking through more barriers allowed women to experience peak CDSE.
Limitations & Suggestions
Although the present study provides insights into best practices for sport management programs, it does not come without its limitations. First, we must acknowledge the small sample size. Unfortunately, only few students volunteer at mega-events such as Super Bowl LIII, making it difficult to expand this study to more participants. Previous mega-event experience was not factored into the study. Students at this institution have multiple opportunities to volunteer at mega-events and many choose to volunteer at several. The results from this sample could have been impacted if participants had previously volunteered at a mega-event. Moreover, the present study deleted seven items from the CDSE-SF prior to data collection. Although the items may not have been relevant to the current sample, inclusion of these items might have altered results. Nonetheless, the internal consistency reliability of the CDSE-SF was above the common threshold (Nunnally, 1978) and was similar to the internal consistency reliability reported by Buyukgoze-Kavas (2014; α = .92). The present study also did not include a control group. Therefore, the increases in CDSE could have been due to the natural growth and continued education of the participants. Nevertheless, the results provide preliminary evidence towards the effectiveness of volunteering at mega-events. Future studies, therefore, should compare the experimental group with a control group. Finally, more research needs to be conducted to explore and explain the gender differences for CDSE.
Practical Applications
It is important to study CDSE as an outcome of volunteering at a mega-event to analyze the effectiveness of the mega-event at providing a PD opportunity. The present study offers support in favor of promoting student engagement at mega-events by providing prefatory evidence that volunteering at a mega-event boosts CDSE.
In turn, CDSE is important to focus on because, as Gianakos (2001) indicated, it strengthens self-esteem, goal-setting, problem-solving, planning, and self-appraisal, which are all necessary skills that facilitate goal accomplishment. Moreover, internship and volunteer experiences bolster critical thinking skills (Assante et al., 2010), problem-solving skills (Busby & Gibson, 2010), autonomy (McManus & Feinstein, 2014), and knowledge of and preparation for sport management careers (Lee & Chao, 2013; Wang et al., 2014). In addition, according to Koo, Diacin, Khojasteh, and Dixon (2016), since the need for PD is seemingly being met, these participants may be more likely to challenge themselves to achieve greater educational and career goals.
Sport management professionals, therefore, should develop more opportunities for sport management students to gain experience at mega-events. Program directors should facilitate networking between students and professionals who work for major sport organizations. Also, program directors and sport management staff at major sport organizations (e.g., NFL) should develop a greater focus on collaborative projects aimed towards the inclusion of students. Finally, because the present study suggests that mega-event volunteering is especially helpful for women, collaborative efforts should also emphasize the inclusion of women and other minorities.
References
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George Minoso2025-05-21T12:33:38-05:00September 19th, 2025|General, Sports Management|Comments Off on Career Decision-Making Self-Efficacy at Super Bowl LIII
Richard O. Segovia, PhD, EdD, is an adjunct professor and dissertation chair at Liberty University in Lynchburg, VA, and an academic evaluator at Western Governors University in Salt Lake City, Utah. Dr. Segovia’s research interests focus on learning and teaching, combat sports, law enforcement practices, and educational leadership
LAW ENFORCEMENT USE OF FORCE: A NARRATIVE REVIEW ON THE UTILITY OF MARTIAL ARTS IN AMERICAN POLICING
ABSTRACT
Problem: The lack of real-life fight training can yield inappropriate physical and psychological stress responses that result in unreasonable use of force by law enforcement officers. Purpose: This narrative review synthesizes the peer-reviewed literature on police assaults, use of force, law enforcement training, and martial arts in law enforcement with some focus on Brazilian jiu-jitsu (BJJ) training and the literature’s methodological issues to provide evidence on the potential utility of martial arts training as a critical force options component mitigator of risk and liability. Method: A qualitative narrative review was appropriate and implemented for this study. Results: This narrative review examines Brizin and Kernspecht’s general theory of combat, which is principally concerned with utilizing various strategies and tactics to achieve desired outcomes, and analyzes law enforcement training, martial arts in law enforcement, and methodological issues found in the literature. In addition, assaults on law enforcement officers and unreasonable use of force are discussed in detail, including culturally relevant examples from recent police use of force encounters. Conclusion: Robust and rigorous force options training, particularly martial arts training, can play a significant role in giving officers confidence when dealing with high-stress situations and could reduce the amount of inappropriate application of force by a police officer, which often results in injury or death of a suspect, or severe liability to the officer’s employer. Application in Sport: For coaches and those who train police officers in the philosophical and physical benefits of martial arts, integrating martial arts, such as Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu as a force option, may improve their defense and restraint skills and decision-making involving force use.
Key Words: Brazilian jiu-jitsu, police officer training, general theory of combat, feedback, dialogue
OVERVIEW
This narrative review explores the potential utility of martial arts, specifically Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu (BJJ), as a force option for law enforcement officers. Law enforcement agencies face increasing pressure to reduce excessive use of force, particularly in encounters with violent subjects. Previous studies have shown that officers often lack the necessary hand-to-hand combat skills to safely de-escalate situations without resorting to lethal methods (Torres, 2020; Renden et al., 2015). In these high-stress and violent encounters, effective conflict-resolution skills are critical for protecting both officers and suspects.
Despite the increasing incorporation of martial arts into police training programs, gaps remain in the literature regarding its long-term benefits. Research indicates that martial arts training can build confidence and improve decision-making under pressure. Yet, the full potential of such training is still underexplored in the context of law enforcement (Renden et al., 2015). This review aims to bridge that gap by analyzing the role martial arts, particularly BJJ, can play in improving officer safety, restraint techniques, and decision-making processes.
The general theory of combat logic suggests that successful conflict resolution occurs when there is alignment between the engagement’s purpose and the combatant’s resources or characteristics (Brizin & Kernspecht, 2014). This principle underpins martial arts training, which equips officers with the necessary physical and mental skills to navigate confrontations swiftly and effectively. By synthesizing the existing literature, this review provides an overview of key areas, including:
Assaults on Police Officers and Unreasonable Uses of Force: Examining notable cases and the impact of inadequate training.
Combat Training and the Use of Force Continuum: Discussing current practices and historical evolution.
Martial Arts Training in Law Enforcement: Assessing police officer preparation and development
Current Status of Martial Arts Training in Law Enforcement: Assessing the current status and impact
Research Involving Martial Arts Training in Law Enforcement: Current studies related to the topic
Martial Arts Training Specifically for Police Officers: Analysis of current police officer training
Recommendations for Future Research: Identifying gaps and challenges in the existing literature.
The database searches were conducted using Google Scholar, Criminal Justice Database (ProQuest), and Criminal Justice Abstracts, selected for their relevance to criminal justice, education, and law enforcement. This review provides evidence-based recommendations for integrating martial arts into law enforcement training to enhance safety and minimize the unnecessary use of force.
Methods
A narrative review was selected as the appropriate methodology for this study, which aims to address the research question: How does martial arts training impact law enforcement officers in terms of use-of-force decision-making, officer safety, and overall effectiveness in American policing?
The initial search was conducted using three electronic databases: Google Scholar, Criminal Justice Database (ProQuest), and Criminal Justice Abstracts. A total of 193 articles and books were identified through this search, which included the key terms: “Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu,” “law enforcement training,” “use of force,” “force options,” and “martial arts.” After removing duplicates and screening for relevance, the pool of sources was narrowed to 88 studies that specifically addressed martial arts training in law enforcement. These studies were retrieved and reviewed in detail, and their reference lists were further screened for additional relevant sources, though no new sources were identified.
Full-text access was obtained for all 73 records that met the inclusion criteria, and after a comprehensive screening of titles and abstracts, these studies were included in the final review. The studies examined in this review cover general martial arts training for law enforcement, with many focusing on applying BJJ in the field. Key topics included the regulation of chokeholds, improvements in officer mental health, training, conditioning, and psychological and cognitive benefits for law enforcement officers.
This study’s protocol followed a structured methodological framework, which consisted of the following stages:
Identifying and Collecting Relevant Studies: Literature searches were performed using three databases: Google Scholar, Criminal Justice Database (ProQuest), and Criminal Justice Abstracts. The initial search terms, such as “Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu,” “law enforcement training,” and “use of force,” were established to conduct further searches across the databases. The collected studies were then screened for relevance to the research question, focusing specifically on martial arts training in law enforcement. After duplicates were removed, studies were assessed based on their eligibility criteria. Reference lists were further examined for additional sources, although no new studies were added.
Study Selection: Inclusion and exclusion criteria were defined to filter relevant literature. To qualify, studies had to: (i) be from a peer-reviewed journal, a conference presentation, or a published thesis; (ii) be published in English; (iii) include documented analysis related to police use of force, officer lived experiences, martial arts training, law enforcement practices, stress mitigation, and sports performance; and (iv) be either quantitative or qualitative in nature. No restrictions were placed on the time frame, geographical location within the United States, or study population. Conflicting literature was analyzed by a colleague to reach a consensus for inclusion. After the initial title and abstract screening, a more in-depth selection occurred through full-text screening.
Charting the Data: Once selected, data were extracted and charted according to various categories such as author, title, journal, publication year, geographical location, purpose, sample size, methodology, intervention type, outcomes, key findings, and barriers. These data points were organized, grouped into subtopics, and validated for accuracy. The studies were categorized based on the following subtopics: (i) assaults on police officers and unreasonable uses of force, (ii) combat training and the use of force continuum, (iii) martial arts training in law enforcement, (iv) current status of martial arts training in law enforcement, (v) research involving martial arts training in law enforcement, and (vi) martial arts training specifically for police officers.
Summarizing and Synthesizing the Results: A thematic analysis was conducted to describe the reviewed literature and identify areas that have been well-researched and areas that require further exploration. Patterns and trends were analyzed across geographic locations within the United States and decades of publication. Results were categorized into themes to identify similarities, and barriers and gaps in the literature were highlighted. Based on these findings, recommendations for future research were provided.
Narrative Review
The historical beginning points of police departments’ preparation in the utilization of less lethal force can be followed to the 19th century, precisely when the London city police launched the practice of outfitting their law enforcement officers with truncheons, commonly known as “Billy clubs” (Clede & Parson, 1987). The club served as a customary implement utilized by law enforcement officers in both the United Kingdom and the United States during the 19th and 20th centuries. During the 1960s, the civil rights movement in the United States witnessed extensive demonstrations that were frequently met with resistance from local law enforcement agencies, resulting in the dissemination of graphic depictions of police excessive force (Kaminski & Martin, 2000). In the early 1970s, there was an increase in preference for employing nonviolent methods of subject control instead of relying on physical force like clubbing to subdue suspects (Torres, 2020). Policymakers held the perspective that this particular approach would serve as a more favorable means of enhancing the rapport between the community and law enforcement, with a focus on public perception.
The new programs caused enhancements in several crucial domains. The policing landscape in the United States is characterized by a wide range of agencies, including many municipal, county, and state entities and federal organizations like the FBI, DEA, ATF, and Secret Service. The decentralized structure of policing in the United States has several consequences, including overlapping responsibilities, diverse funding sources, and varied training programs (Kaminski & Martin, 2000). Police departments exhibit various needs and possess varying financial resources to address these requirements. Consequently, there was a need to enhance the scope, funding, and duration of the physical defense training programs initiated during the 1970s. It should be noted that the initial programs suffered from a notable deficiency in the level of proficiency exhibited by the trainers. These trainers derived from martial arts backgrounds founded on Aikido, Karate, or Judo philosophies. According to Kaminski and Martin (2000), although these systems showed efficacy within gymnasiums and dojos, their effectiveness in real-world scenarios was frequently lacking. In addition, the growing accessibility of non-lethal resources such as pepper spray, tasers, and batons has led to a tendency among officers to rely on these tools instead of prioritizing comprehensive hand-to-hand combat training (Bowen, 2018). Ultimately, the initial fervor surrounding martial arts training frequently diminished, leading to the discontinuation of programs that necessitated consistent practice for optimal results, primarily due to financial limitations.
During the 1990s, martial arts training saw a remarkable spike in interest. According to Reaves (2013), during the decade’s initial years, 2% to 20% of police academies incorporated unarmed martial arts training into their curriculum for cadets. According to Reaves (2013), as of 2013, the percentage stood at 99%, with individuals dedicating an average of 60 hours to training. Torres (2020) reported that nearly all individuals, 94%, have learned ground fighting, while approximately half, 49%, have been schooled in pressure point techniques. In addition to receiving hand-to-hand defensive training in police academies, it is common for officers to engage in ongoing training either through department-provided programs or personal initiatives. According to a study conducted by Morin et al. (2017), nearly half of employed law enforcement officers underwent training within the previous 12-month period.
Inadequate defensive and offensive combat training has historically posed significant physical risks for officers and suspects. This issue began to be addressed more systematically in the mid-1970s with the development of the use of force continuum, which aimed to mitigate these risks (Desmedt & Marsh, 1990; Graves & Connor, 1992). This section synthesizes the literature on this issue. Key themes from the literature include use of force decision-making, officer safety, mental health and well-being, and community relations.
Cases of Assaults on Police Officers and Unreasonable Use of Force
The evolution of the problem associated with the physical risks that can occur stemming from a lack of effective combat training is perhaps best reflected in notable cases of police being injured or killed in the line of duty while amid a physical altercation, as well as those involving suspects being victimized by poor restraint and combat skills on the part of officers that led to their injury or death. Not all such cases reach national recognition, though several examples have emerged in the past several decades that highlight gaps in the tactical training of law enforcement officers (Aborisade & Oni, 2021; Akinyetun, 2021; O’Brien et al., 2019). Lyons (2017) systematically reviewed the literature on injury profiles of law enforcement officers involved in such physical altercations in North America. The authors were particularly concerned with high-risk areas in the body where officers sustained injuries, which could be used to understand better how to train them to defend themselves during conflicts effectively. Results from a synthesis of 16 studies demonstrated that the most injured areas occurred in the upper extremities and involved soft-tissue strains and sprains.
Cases involving the unreasonable use of force by police officers also reflect gaps in current approaches to the defensive tactics training of law enforcement officers in the United States. While these cases are numerous and exhaustive and often are either not reported or do not gain national media attention, some have been more culturally relevant in recent years and illustrate the negative outcomes that can occur when police are either not equipped to defend themselves without harming a suspect or are assaulted due to a lack of defensive tactics training skills (Akinyetun, 2021; Bowleg et al., 2022; Sosoo et al., 2022). The cases of Rodney King, Edward Bronstein, and George Floyd each represent some deficit in the training of a law enforcement officer when faced with a less-than-compliant individual (Bowleg et al., 2022; Maltsev et al., 2020; Sosoo et al., 2022). Though such cases also contain racial and sociocultural connotations, they reveal areas in which martial arts training might have potentially protected the person police were dealing with.
Combat Training and Use of Force Decision-Making
How police officers were trained to approach and manage physical altercations on duty has also evolved since the mid-1970s (Desmedt & Marsh, 1990; Graves & Connor, 1992). During their attendance in a police academy, cadets are trained in the use of force and de-escalation tactics (Torres, 2020). Concerning the latter, officers are provided with psychological and communicative skills and tools to help reduce the severity or tension of a conflict without using physical force (Akinyetun, 2021). In most circumstances, de-escalation is a preliminary step to prevent a physical altercation and protect the officer and the suspect (Ivanovski & Nedev, 2022). When de-escalation is ineffective, officers are trained to use an appropriate amount and mode of force (Ivanovski & Nedev, 2022). In police training, force is considered to be the amount of effort necessary to warrant compliance on the part of a subject (Heusler & Sutter, 2020). The subjectivity of the concept of force and what constitutes an appropriate amount is one factor that has led to physical injury and police excessive force in many cases.
Some concepts involving force and tactical training among police cadets are similar to Eastern martial arts principles. For example, officers are taught to balance the needs of security with the ethical rights and well-being of a suspect and to avoid inflicting physical harm unless necessary (Vera Jimenez et al., 2019). Additionally, officers are taught to use physical force as a means of self-defense primarily and as a means of restraint secondarily (Ivanovski & Nedev, 2022). The history of using force dates back to the emergence of established law enforcement in the United States, which has essentially existed since its conception (Aborisade & Oni, 2021). However, the use of force and the physical training of officers did not stem from the aim of protecting officers but, instead, from the fear that officers would abuse their power (Vera Jimenez et al., 2019). Therefore, the history and evolution of the tactical training of officers have been grounded in the ethical use of force, self-defense, and de-escalation.
The use of force continuum dates back to the late 19th century to help officers determine the amount of force to apply based on the level of risk present in a given situation. Over time, this continuum has evolved considerably due to the development of new threats and risks to officers and civilians, such as the more widespread availability of firearms and the emergence of modern technologies and weapons that can potentially cause harm or death (Staller et al., 2019; Torres, 2020). There is no universal or standard model of the use of force continuum, and debates have existed in the literature regarding the effectiveness of policies surrounding this concept (Terrill & Paoline III, 2013). For example, Terrill and Paoline III examined the less lethal use of force policy that emerged following the high-profile Graham v. Connor case that reached the Supreme Court and involved the reasonableness of using force during an arrest. Terrill and Paoline III (2013) revealed that one in five law enforcement agencies do not have or implement a use-of-force continuum or a robust policy, and there is considerable variance in force tactics that are used between different agencies and what is considered to be an appropriate amount of force based on the level of risk that is present. This lack of consistency is one factor that may lead to cases of unreasonable use of force by police officers and also represents the necessity for implementing a tactical force model that protects both officers and suspects.
Researchers have recently been concerned with re-examining the use of force continuum following numerous nationally relevant cases in which either suspects or police officers have been severely injured or died during a physical altercation (Staller et al., 2019; Torres, 2020). McLean et al. (2022) conducted a recent investigation on this topic, in which they presented a historical and conceptual analysis of the use of force continuum and its connection to cases of police assaults or excessive force. The authors concluded that, contradictory to previous research, resistance on the part of the suspect is not the only driver of decisions involving the use of force (McLean et al., 2022; O’Brien et al., 2019; Staller et al., 2019). Instead, the perception of threat is also a significant factor that influences such decisions and one that has been neglected in both police defensive tactics training and the peer-reviewed literature. The implementation of martial arts training, such as BJJ, may help to address this limitation based on its psychological and philosophical principles that can help officers potentially identify and perceive a threat more accurately and then appropriately use force to restrain a suspect while safely defending themselves (Facinek & Kosc, 2021).
Martial Arts and Officer Safety
While tactical training has been a component of law enforcement training throughout its history, martial arts training has only recently been considered a viable element of the preparation and development of police officers. One of the major developments in the integration of martial arts and general law enforcement training occurred in 2009, when Canada’s constable, Al Arsenault, first introduced the fusion of arrest and control tactics that are standard in the training of police officers with various aspects of martial arts, such as Judo (Arsenault & Hinton, 2014). This officer had been training in the martial arts since the 1980s but first developed a formal model of integrated martial arts and standard police tactical training when he began to train police officers in Judo in the early 21st century and developed several training centers throughout Western Canada for officers seeking specialized skill development (Arsenault & Hinton, 2014). Judo is a martial art that emphasized throws and disabling suspects without harming them, as well as using maximum efficiency for the mutual welfare and benefit of both the attacker and defender (Heusler & Sutter, 2020). The training centers quickly became popular and have become a staple in Canadian law enforcement.
While martial arts training in law enforcement has become more popularized in recent years, there have been limited peer-reviewed studies examining its impact on outcomes like the safety of police officers, the safety of suspects, and the impact such training has on deterring physical altercations between the two. However, some studies have indirectly evaluated the utility and feasibility of martial arts training for police officers (Renden et al., 2015; Staller et al., 2019; Vera Jimenez et al., 2019). For example, Renden et al. (2015) sought to determine whether officers who had training in martial arts performed more effectively in self-defense and arrest scenarios when experiencing low and high anxiety levels than those who did not. A sample of officers who were and were not trained in martial arts took part in a weekly intervention in which they were taught self-defense and arrest skills based on Karate, BJJ, and Krav Maga principles. Results demonstrated that officers who had additional experience beyond the training program demonstrated the highest levels of performance under high anxiety conditions. However, the intervention significantly improved the self-defense and arrest skills of both groups. These findings illustrate the effectiveness of holistic interventions that combine principles of multiple martial arts in officers’ self-defense and arrest skills and the potential applicability of such a training program to applied scenarios involving actual suspects.
While these findings demonstrate the benefits of martial arts training for police officers, including interventions that contain elements of BJJ, there have been some limitations of such interventions in the literature. For example, results from the Renden et al. (2015) study demonstrated that their martial arts intervention did not significantly prevent participants from performing worse under high anxiety conditions compared to low anxiety conditions. The presence of anxiety within a potential physical altercation or circumstance that has escalated appears to have a universally negative impact on police officers, regardless of their martial arts experience (O’Brien et al., 2019). The negative impact of anxiety on performance has been documented widely in the literature across numerous disciplines and contexts (Khatsaiuk et al., 2021; O’Neill et al., 2019; Staller et al., 2019). This impact reflects the need to prepare officers more effectively to negotiate high-tension situations in the line of duty, and the integration of principles of martial arts within standard police training may help address this limitation (Staller et al., 2019).
Interplay Between Martial Arts and Improved Community Relations
Implementing widespread and standardized martial arts training can potentially improve the strained relationship between the public and law enforcement (Parks, 2022). The implementation of enhanced training programs has been found to have a positive impact on the likelihood of reducing fatal encounters between law enforcement officers and suspects, consequently resulting in a decrease in mortality rates and an improvement in the overall sense of safety and self-confidence among police personnel (Parks, 2022; Renden et al., 2015). According to Parks (2022), enhancing the efficacy, accountability, and self-assurance of the police force can contribute to a greater level of public confidence, thereby reinforcing the prevailing perception of law enforcement.
Considering some of the altercations with racial subtext that have gained national attention in recent years, researchers have also sought to investigate the extent to which martial arts training may effectively remedy police interactions involving people of color that occur in the field. Parks (2022) presented a review and conceptual paper documenting the need and potential advantages of martial arts training to mitigate violence caused by perceived or actual racial bias by or toward law enforcement personnel. The author noted the disproportionate number of cases that involve White officers and African-American suspects, which appears to be indicative of at least one of two factors, including racial bias in the perception of a threat on the part of law enforcement personnel and/or an increased real threat of violence on the part of African-American suspects (Parks, 2022). Due to the ability of martial arts to integrate psychosocial training and reduce stress and anxiety during physical altercations, martial arts training may help improve decision-making on the part of officers and more accurately perceive the threat level.
Current Status of Martial Arts Training in Law Enforcement
Based on the accumulation of evidence associated with martial arts training in law enforcement, researchers have synthesized the existing literature through systematic reviews and meta-analyses to draw broader and generalized conclusions about the utility of such interventions. Duarte and Ferraz (2022) conducted one of the most recent systematic reviews on martial arts and combat sports training among law enforcement officers. The authors found just five studies across five academic databases that met the inclusion criteria. However, despite the small body of evidence on this topic, the authors found that martial arts and combat sports training were associated with significant and consistent improvements in tactical performance and reductions in injury rates, anxiety, and stress. These findings confirm studies showing the positive effects that martial arts training can have on physical performance, mental health, and the ability to manage stress and anxiety (Duarte & Ferraz, 2022; Kukić et al., 2019; Staller et al., 2019). Whether or not such training significantly enhances these outcomes among law enforcement in applied situations and outside of simulated environments warrants further investigation in the literature.
Literature from outside the United States has revealed the positive impacts of martial arts training on law enforcement personnel’s general health and well-being, irrespective of its influence on actual performance during arrest and control scenarios in the field. For example, martial arts training has been a key component of the training of police officers in many Eastern countries for centuries and has also been widely adopted throughout central European countries like Serbia (Kukić et al., 2019). Facinek and Košč (2021) documented the impacts of martial arts training on the general fitness and mental health/well-being of police officers in Slovakia, where such training has been implemented for multiple decades. According to these authors, martial arts training involving Taekwondo, Judo, and Aikido has been linked with Slovakian officers’ increased fitness and mental health (Facinek & Košč, 2021). Thus, it is probable that martial arts training is also associated with improved performance in applied circumstances, though further research is needed to understand these impacts.
Researchers have recently increased efforts to understand how martial arts training can improve law enforcement officers’ self-defense and restrain skills, psychological outcomes, and general well-being. Fully embracing a specific martial art also generally warrants the adoption of a particular philosophy and set of values that can correspond to an enhanced sense of spiritual and mental health (Heusler & Sutter, 2020). Thus, martial arts training can have many advantages besides improving combat and defense skills (Maltsev et al., 2020). These benefits appear to align with the physical requirements of police work and law enforcement in general.
Torres (2020) conducted a recent investigation of the psychological impacts of martial arts training on confidence, motivation, apprehensiveness, and use of force self-efficacy among more than 1,000 patrol officers in the United States. Results demonstrated that martial arts training significantly predicted high levels of perceived self-efficacy involving the use of force, motivation, and (low) apprehensiveness. These findings provide insight into the multidimensional benefits of martial arts training and the ability of martial arts to improve self-efficacy regarding the use of force decision-making and agree with previous research on this topic to illustrate the diverse benefits of martial arts and how they potentially are conducive to optimal police performance (Heusler & Sutter, 2020). Many of the most essential benefits are psychological.
Martial arts may offer more complete and holistic training than that currently offered in police academies (Schaeffer, 2024). There are four sources of self-efficacy: past successful experiences, physical mastery of the task, verbal persuasion, and vicarious experience (Bandura & Walters, 1977). Through martial arts training and embracing the core principles and philosophies, each of these four sources is present (Xu et al., 2020).
Recent studies have shown that teaching individual techniques within martial arts disciplines is associated with improved physical abilities needed to perform law enforcement duties effectively. For example, Khatsaiuk et al. (2021) conducted an intervention to examine the effects of a martial arts technique known as Katsumoto on the explosive force of 62 Ukrainian police officers. Results demonstrated that the technique significantly improved this outcome based on kinematic data generated from electrodes placed on officers’ bodies while they performed various defense and restrain maneuvers. These findings align with several other studies demonstrating the benefits of specialized martial arts technical training on law enforcement skills (Staller et al., 2021). Martial arts training can be integrated with typical police training at the academy level and through additional skill development opportunities throughout the career of law enforcement personnel.
A trend in the literature associated with martial arts training among law enforcement is that most programs that incorporate such training offer relatively watered-down versions of an amalgam of disciplines, such as Karate, Kung-Fu, and Judo. These programs usually take the form of additional training opportunities for officers during overtime hours, in which basic movements are taught and practiced. Therefore, while martial arts training appears to offer improvements in many physical and psychological skills, such training could potentially be more effective if a single discipline was taught and mastered instead of just physical techniques from several different forms of martial arts.
Another problem with the lack of emphasis on the psychological and philosophical aspects of martial arts training is that, in such cases, less emphasis is placed on the cognitive skills, such as awareness, how to perceive a threat, and how to manage anxiety, and this can still result in ineffective decision-making in tense and high-anxiety situations. This may be one of the reasons why studies have shown that officers with martial arts technical training implement significantly better use-of-force decisions in low anxiety conditions, but officers with and without such technical training demonstrate impaired performance in high anxiety conditions (Ermasova et al., 2020; Renden et al., 2015). A more comprehensive training focusing on just one discipline could theoretically improve officers’ physical and mental skills and more adequately prepare them for high-tension situations while on duty.
Martial Arts and the Mental Health and Well-Being of Officers
While martial arts training among American law enforcement began to emerge in the 1980s and 1990s, it was in the early 2000s that the first literature related to this topic was produced (Hect, 2016). This evidence primarily pertained to widely practiced martial arts such as karate and kung-fu techniques for self-defense or to restrain a suspect. With the emergence of BJJ in the law enforcement community, especially with the Gracie combatives program and Gracie University’s partnership with various law enforcement agencies, police seem to be shifting to grappling as their primary means of subduing a suspect. However, only recently have the first studies associated with BJJ training concepts such as neck restraints (choking) begun to appear in scholarly journals (Hickman et al., 2021).
No recent studies have been published in scholarly, peer-reviewed journals that have exclusively examined the impacts of BJJ training on law enforcement personnel. Some dissertations associated with this topic have been produced but have not yet been published in peer-reviewed journals (Harmon, 2022; Rinderer, 2022). For example, Harmon (2022) conducted a qualitative, exploratory study investigating the perceptions of law enforcement personnel concerning the feasibility of BJJ training. The twelve participants unanimously agreed that BJJ training was likely to be effective and feasible as a supplement to traditional training efforts used within police academies. Additionally, Rinderer (2022) examined the perceived feasibility of BJJ training for rehabilitating from post-traumatic stress disorder for law enforcement personnel. Once again, there was general agreement that BJJ training was perceived to be both feasible and likely beneficial in addressing issues related to post-traumatic stress disorder, such as inhibitions in engaging in physical altercations with suspects resulting from past traumatic experiences.
Several of the most essential effects of martial arts training, including BJJ, are psychological and cognitive. Based on the findings of recent studies, there is evidence showing that martial arts training is likely to be beneficial for law enforcement personnel in terms of physical and psychological outcomes. Context-specific evidence is needed based on the tendency for different areas across the United States, as well as different police departments within these areas, to have varying philosophies and policies regarding officer physical training and conditioning.
Martial arts training offers a range of physical and mental benefits and a large body of evidence that supports its efficacy among law enforcement personnel (Figueiredo et al., 2020). For example, a study highlights the therapeutic value of BJJ, noting its ability to provide hard sparring sessions with minimal physical risk, thereby offering psychological benefits and stress relief (Bueno et al., 2022). This is particularly important for police officers, who often face high-stress situations and need effective outlets for managing stress. Furthermore, limitations in previous studies that applied a conglomerate of martial arts showed that a homogenized approach lacked psychological benefits. In contrast, BJJ’s singular and evidence-based training program is particularly conducive to the mental and physical needs of police work, making it a valuable discipline for law enforcement training (Rinderer, 2022).
Martial Arts Training Specifically for Police Officers
Differences exist among law enforcement agencies, such as the United States Secret Service and the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), that warrant different physical and cognitive skills (Kukić et al., 2019). Street-level patrol officers are more likely to be engaged in physical altercations daily in the line of duty than other law enforcement officers, and the physical conditioning, defensive tactics skills, and cognitive ability to make a split-second decision regarding the use of force must perpetually be at a high level (Baldwin et al., 2019). For this reason, being trained in martial arts, including BJJ, is potentially more conducive to the skills required for a street-level police officer than other specialized areas of law enforcement.
Studies exist that have examined the impacts of martial arts training in various aspects of police work. However, many of these have combined different martial arts or have only used specific techniques taught within these arts rather than a comprehensive philosophical and psychological embracing of the martial art. For example, Gardner and Al-Shareffi (2022) examined the potential effectiveness of martial arts training to regulate decisions about chokeholds among police officers and the skill demonstrated in applying such holds. The authors discussed numerous recent cases of the incorrect application of chokeholds and other forms of restraint used by police officers, which led to the injury or death of suspects. According to Gardner and Al-Shareffi (2022), training police officers in martial arts may help improve decision-making regarding applying air and carotid chokes to subdue suspects safely while restricting their movement. However, the actual effectiveness of this training on this outcome was not tested. The authors recommended implementing a policy that requires police officers to be trained in martial arts to improve officers’ physical restraint skills and cognitive decision-making.
One of the dilemmas presented in both anecdotal evidence and documented in the literature of law enforcement and criminology scholars is the time and resource constraints within many police departments, which can prevent the ability to implement additional training for officers beyond what is currently standard. Physical fitness and conditioning requirements and standards differ by state. There is currently no universal or standardized training program for police officers, and martial arts training may offer an affordable and time-efficient means to bridge this gap. Zhang (2022) highlighted the importance of consistent physical education among police officers but documented many of the barriers that currently exist to doing so, such as police understaffing and the increased stress that is placed on already overworked officers regarding additional physical conditioning requirements. According to Zhang (2022), online physical education courses that contain martial arts skills may potentially be an effective medium to address these barriers and provide police officers with the physical training they need to meet conditioning requirements, as well as to enhance their defense and restraint skills. Zhang (2022) developed an online police physical education system containing PHP language, a widely-used open-source scripting language suited for web development, and an InitPHP (initialization hypertext processor) framework, a lightweight PHP framework designed to streamline and enhance the efficiency of web application development. The author suggested this system could optimize police conditioning and improve the mode of physical education and the current teaching mechanism used in the field. However, while this program may have many potential benefits over current strategies to train police officers, it has yet to be tested empirically or applied in a real sample of law enforcement personnel.
Researchers have recently documented the trend for theories and conceptual papers to be presented involving the use of force and the potential for techniques within martial arts to improve the physical conditioning and skills of police officers, but the lack of evidence demonstrating outcomes associated with these theories and concepts. McLean et al. (2022) examined police agencies, use of force regulations, training initiatives, approaches for disciplining problem officers, supervision, and dimensions and issues associated with potential solutions in the United States. Results showed that many promising ideas have been presented in the literature, though there have been few strategies that have been tested via empirical research or involving actual cases in the field (McLean et al., 2022). These findings align with other studies in which martial arts training has been promoted as a means of offering multidimensional physical and psychological benefits to officers, and these techniques have been researched using scientifically rigorous methodologies (Alispahic & Hadzikadunic, 2020; Bondarenko et al., 2020; Wang, 2020). Thus, the current need within the literature related to the physical training of police officers is to test the ideas and theories presented by researchers advocating for martial arts, including BJJ specifically.
One of the reasons that research related to martial arts and their impacts on the physical and cognitive skills of police officers has stalled is that little remains known regarding the actual feasibility of implementing a martial arts training program in specific police departments, or the experiences of police officers who have been trained in these disciplines. Before implementing interventions involving martial arts or changing policies to incorporate these practices in the general physical training of officers, evidence is needed regarding the experiences of officers who have trained in these disciplines and their perceptions of the feasibility of implementing martial arts training across an entire department (Anh, 2022). The evidence that is obtained from such research may lead to increased insight into the likely impacts of martial arts training on a police officer’s psychological and physical skills and ways in which to address potential barriers that are documented (Moreno et al., 2024). Therefore, research must be conducted in police departments and settings to make evidence-based recommendations for decision-makers in law enforcement.
While there have been no recently published studies involving the potential feasibility and impacts of martial arts training for police officers in the United States, there have been investigations of the effects of these forms of martial arts in other countries and the territory of Guam. For example, Farrer (2019) investigated the therapeutic effects of BJJ training for police officers in Guam who had been exposed to traumatic incidents. The researchers found that a holistic BJJ intervention was associated with improvements in the mental health and well-being of officers who had been involved in traumatic conflict situations while on duty or who had otherwise witnessed traumas, such as homicides. These findings agree with other studies involving both the mental and physical benefits of martial arts and how fully embracing the mental and physical aspects of martial arts and not just the techniques themselves are necessary to maximize the benefits (Farrer, 2019). One of the problems with previous studies involving the effects of police combative training is that they have focused strictly on the physical aspect of training while ignoring philosophical concepts, such as the intersection of power with knowledge and the integration of mind and body (Ban et al., 2021; Dworzecki & Nowicka, 2019). More evidence is needed regarding the effects of more comprehensive martial arts training, particularly for supporting the mental health of police officers, especially those who have suffered from post-traumatic stress following observing or being a part of a highly stressful situation while on duty.
Themes
Multiple themes emerged from this narrative review. The themes were identified and categorized, and studies were grouped into key law enforcement and martial arts training categories. Most studies produced one specific theme within the context of martial arts training while acknowledging others to a lesser degree; however, some overlap of themes emerged in studies. Table 1 groups all studies by theme, variable, citation, and geographical region.
Table 1. Summary of Themes, Variables Assessed, and Studies
Theme
Variable(s) Assessed
Studies
Use of Force Decision-Making
Cognitive processes, restraint techniques
Renden et al. (2015); Hickman et al. (2021); Staller & Körner (2021); McLean et al. (2022)
Farrer (2019); Bueno et al. (2022); Zavala & Chan (2021); Parks (2022)
Community Relations
Trust, corporation, minority interactions
Parks (2022); Chanin et al. (2018); Vera Jimenez et al. (2019); Gardner & Al-Shareffi (2022)
Results
This narrative review identified four main thematic areas in the literature on martial arts training for law enforcement: (i) use of force decision-making, (ii) officer safety, (iii) mental health and well-being, and (iv) community relations, (i) use of force decision-making, (ii) officer safety, (iii) mental health and well-being, and (iv) community relations.
Use of Force Decision-Making: Studies showed that martial arts training, including BJJ, enhances officers’ decision-making processes regarding the use of force. For example, Renden et al. (2015) found that officers trained in BJJ demonstrated improved restraint techniques and a higher level of control in high-stress situations, potentially reducing the incidence of excessive force. Additionally, Hickman et al. (2021) suggested that martial arts training helps officers make more appropriate use-of-force decisions, leading to better outcomes during confrontations. Additional support from Staller & Körner (2021) and McLean et al. (2022) emphasized the importance of ongoing development in use-of-force training to refine decision-making capabilities in dynamic and challenging situations.
Officer Safety: Research indicated that martial arts training contributes to enhanced officer safety. Torres (2020) showed a significant reduction in injuries among officers who received martial arts training, attributing this to improved defensive skills and physical preparedness. Similarly, Facinek & Kosc (2021) found that martial arts training increased officers’ ability to manage physical altercations, safely reducing the risk of injury. Lyons et al. (2017) and Heusler and Sutter (2020) further corroborate these findings by discussing physiological and training adaptations that mitigate risks and enhance defensive capabilities in policing contexts.
Mental Health and Well-Being: Among the martial arts, BJJ training was particularly associated with positive mental health outcomes for law enforcement officers. For example, Farrer (2019) suggested that officers who participated in BJJ training reported lower levels of stress and anxiety, as well as improved overall well-being. Bueno et al. (2022) supported these findings, showing that BJJ training can serve as an effective stress management tool. Zavala & Chan (2021) and Parks (2022) provide further support that integrated training programs that include martial arts can significantly enhance psychological resilience and reduce occupational stress among police officers.
Community Relations: The influence of martial arts training on community relations was also explored in the literature. Parks (2022) concluded that martial arts training promotes more controlled and less aggressive interactions with suspects, which can help build trust and cooperation between law enforcement and the community. Chanin et al. (2018) concluded that improved officer conduct resulting from control tactics training can enhance public perception of the police and foster stronger community partnerships. Vera Jiménez et al. (2019) and Gardner and Al-Shareffi (2022) add to this discussion by showing that tactical and mindful use of force can improve public perceptions of police and foster stronger community partnerships.
The findings from this review highlight the significant impact BJJ training on law enforcement practices, particularly in terms of use of force decision-making, officer safety, mental health, and community relations. The studies reviewed indicate that martial arts training can enhance officers’ physical and cognitive skills, leading to better outcomes during confrontations and improved overall well-being.
Discussion
The findings from this narrative review highlight the potential benefits of martial arts training, especially BJJ training, in enhancing law enforcement practices across four key areas: use of force decision-making, officer safety, mental health and well-being, and community relations. This section interprets those results, discusses their implications, acknowledges limitations, and outlines directions for future research.
Use of Force Decision-Making
The results consistently demonstrate that training improves officers’ decision-making processes regarding the use of force. In high-stress situations, officers trained in BJJ displayed enhanced restraint techniques and greater control, reducing the likelihood of excessive force (Renden et al., 2015; Hickman et al., 2021). These findings suggest that integrating martial arts into law enforcement training can address conflict resolution’s physical and cognitive demands, equipping officers to make better decisions under pressure. This aligns with the growing emphasis on de-escalation techniques in policing, where officers are encouraged to control confrontations without resorting to extreme measures.
Officer Safety
Officer safety emerged as a critical theme in the reviewed studies. The research indicates that martial arts training significantly reduces injury rates among law enforcement personnel. Officers who undergo regular training are better prepared to manage physical altercations, using defensive tactics that minimize harm to both themselves and suspects (Torres, 2020; Facinek & Kosc, 2021). This underscores the importance of martial arts training, particularly BJJ training, as part of comprehensive police training programs, as it improves physical fitness and defensive capabilities, leading to safer outcomes in confrontational scenarios. By reducing injuries, BJJ training can also lower medical and legal costs associated with police use of force.
Mental Health and Well-Being
It seems the mental health benefits of BJJ are quite notable. Officers frequently experience stress, anxiety, and burnout due to the nature of their work. BJJ training has been shown to alleviate these psychological burdens, providing a valuable outlet for stress relief and emotional resilience (Farrer, 2019; Bueno et al., 2022). By incorporating martial arts training into officer wellness programs, law enforcement agencies can address their personnel’s physical and mental health. The long-term effects of BJJ on mental health are particularly promising, as they contribute to reduced stress, better decision-making, and overall well-being in high-pressure environments.
Community Relations
Martial arts’ influence on community relations is perhaps the most significant finding. The literature suggests that martial arts training fosters more controlled and less aggressive interactions between law enforcement officers and the public, improving trust and cooperation (Parks, 2022; Chanin et al., 2018). This is crucial in today’s climate, where high-profile incidents of excessive force often shape public perception of law enforcement. By promoting restraint and respect, BJJ can serve as a bridge to rebuild trust between police and communities, contributing to more effective, community-centered policing.
Implications of the Research Results
The research findings strongly indicate that integrating BJJ into law enforcement training could significantly enhance officers’ decision-making skills, physical preparedness, and mental resilience. Studies consistently show that martial arts training improves control in high-stress situations, reducing the use of excessive force (Renden et al., 2015; Torres, 2020). Given the increasing public scrutiny of law enforcement, this training could be vital in preparing officers to handle complex encounters more effectively. Additionally, regular BJJ training could foster improved officer conduct, strengthen relationships with the communities they serve, and contribute to safer policing practices overall.
Limitations of the Review
This review has several limitations. Notably, the possibility of selection bias exists, as studies were identified through specific databases and may not encompass all relevant research. The methodologies of the reviewed studies also varied, making it difficult to compare findings directly. For example, some studies relied on self-reported data, which could introduce recall and response biases, potentially affecting the reliability of the results. Also, most studies focused on law enforcement practices in the United States and Europe, which limits the generalizability of the findings to other regions with different policing contexts. Future studies should address these limitations by conducting more rigorous, geographically diverse research on the long-term effects of martial arts training in law enforcement.
Recommendations for Future Research
Based on the gaps identified in the literature, future research should explore how law enforcement personnel describe their lived experiences with BJJ and other martial arts training. Qualitative studies that capture officers’ perspectives on the efficacy and feasibility of this type of training would provide valuable insights. Harmon (2022) conducted a qualitative exploratory study on the perceived efficacy of BJJ for law enforcement, but the findings are not yet published, and the study’s design limits its generalizability. Future research should focus on context-specific investigations to understand how officers perceive martial arts training as effective and logistically feasible within their units or communities (Facal, 2022). Additionally, the lack of recent phenomenological studies on this topic highlights a gap that future researchers could address. More research is needed to understand how martial arts training impacts officers’ long-term professional and personal development, particularly in regions outside of the U.S. and Europe.
Conclusion
This narrative review highlights the critical role that martial arts training can play in improving law enforcement practices. The findings suggest that integrating martial arts into training programs enhances officers’ decision-making, physical preparedness, and mental resilience, equipping them to handle high-stress situations more effectively. By reducing the likelihood of inappropriate use of force, martial arts training addresses a significant need within law enforcement, where incidents of excessive force continue to attract public scrutiny. While BJJ was frequently mentioned in the literature, the broader implications of martial arts training—including disciplines such as judo, karate, and other grappling arts—are equally relevant. These training programs not only improve officers’ physical skills but also instill the mental discipline necessary for managing violent encounters with minimal harm. This approach reduces the risk of injury to both officers and suspects while mitigating the liability law enforcement agencies face. In addition to physical benefits, martial arts training provides psychological advantages, such as reduced stress and anxiety, contributing to better decision-making and overall officer well-being. By promoting restraint, discipline, and control, martial arts can foster improved relationships between law enforcement and their communities. These findings suggest that martial arts training should be a fundamental component of law enforcement programs, potentially improving outcomes in both officer safety and public relations.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors confirm that all the research in this work has met ethical guidelines and adhered to the legal requirements of the United States of America. In addition, the principal investigator is compliant with the Collaborative Institutional Training Initiative (CITI) Program on social and behavioral researchers and social and behavioral responsible conduct of research training. Furthermore, this work was not funded, the authors declare no conflict of interest, and it did not contain studies with human participants or animals performed by the principal investigator.
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George Minoso2025-05-16T12:49:10-05:00September 5th, 2025|General, Research, Sport Training|Comments Off on LAW ENFORCEMENT USE OF FORCE: A NARRATIVE REVIEW ON THE UTILITY OF MARTIAL ARTS IN AMERICAN POLICING
Peter Byers, MS, is a sports science researcher and adjunct professor at Nova Southeastern University. His research interests include mixed martial arts and sports science.
Antonella V. Schwarz, PhD, is an assistant professor of Sport & Exercise Science in the College of Health and Wellness at Barry University in Miami, FL. Her research interests focus on hypertrophy and sport performance.
Lauren Stern, MPH, is a second-year medical student at Nova Southeastern University Dr. Kiran C Patel College of Osteopathic Medicine in Ft. Lauderdale, FL.
Gabriel J. Sanders, PhD, is an assistant professor in the Exercise Science Department at the University of Cincinnati. His research interests focus on wearable technology, daily workloads and fatigue in athletes.
Corey A. Peacock, PhD, is a professor, chair, and program director of Health and Human Performance at Nova Southeastern University. His research focuses on mixed martial arts performance.
Comparing the differences in PlayerLoad during kickboxing and sparring in professional MMA athletes
ABSTRACT
Purpose: MMA involves the combination of grappling and striking combat sports with short, explosive movements and rapid change of direction that can be monitored through Catapult GPS units to quantify external load of MMA training. The primary aim of this study is to provide data on the differences between external load and internal load in MMA athletes using Catapult Sports Playerload and Heart Rate during MMA sparring and kickboxing sessions. Methods: Eighteen male (n=18) MMA competitors (30.6 ± 0.8 years, 180.8 ± 5.0 cm, 89.5 ± 12.8 kg) participated in the study. Subjects must have competed in 4 professional or amateur MMA bouts. Subjects participated in one MMA sparring session and one kickboxing session. Paired t-tests were performed to compare the means of ratings of perceived exertion (RPE), session duration (Duration), average heart rate (HRavg), maximum heart rate (HRmax), Player Load (au) (PL), and Player Load per Min (au/min) (PL/Min) metrics between the kickboxing and sparring sessions. Pearson correlation coefficients were calculated to explore the relationships between variables. Multiple regression analysis was used to examine the effect of age, height, and weight on internal and external training load variables (RPE, Duration, HRavg, HRmax, Player Load, PL/Min) during both practice sessions. All data was analyzed using SPSS version 29 and significance was set at p ≤ 0.05. Results: The paired t-tests revealed significant (p ≤ 0.05) differences between kickboxing and sparring for multiple variables including RPE, Duration, and Player Load Min. Player Load/Min was significantly greater during MMA sparring compared to kickboxing (p = 0.040). Conclusion: In conclusion, PL/Min is significantly higher during MMA sessions compared to kickboxing sessions alone. Understanding these differences can inform MMA trainers and sports scientists to properly adjust training regimens with their athletes. This study adds to the growing body of evidence of reliability and practical application of Catapult Sports to quantify external load in MMA athletes during MMA and kickboxing sessions. Application in Sport: Currently, there are no methods to track external workload in MMA athletes. Tracking PL for preparation of an upcoming bout may enhance the training protocols of MMA skill coaches by planning training load distribution in advance. The volume of MMA training sessions can be quantified via external workload and can be used as a baseline for MMA skill coaches and trainers to dictate future training sessions.
Tracking athletes’ external load using microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) has become commonplace in sports (13). The MEMS contain inertial sensors such as accelerometers, gyroscopes, and magnetometers in single player worn units that connect to global positioning systems (GPS) and local positioning systems (LPS) to accurately track external load in athletes (14). Catapult Sports (Catapult Innovations, Melbourne, Australia), provides wearable MEMS units with tri-axial accelerometry, tri-axial gyroscopes, and tri-axial magnetometers (1). These qualities of Catapult MEMS units help quantify the magnitude of change in acceleration. Catapult Sports proposed the idea of Playerload® (PL) an arbitrary unit (au) of external load that quantifies the sum of accelerations and magnitude of change in acceleration across the medial-lateral (X), anterior-posterior (Y), and vertical (Z) planes (1). These systems allow insight into distance and speed-oriented metrics that accumulate over a training session to quantify external load through PL. Given the accessibility of GPS and LPS to record outdoor signal, GPS-based wearable tracking devices typically assess outdoor sports and have an array of data to support their use (2, 11, 16). Previous research has reported sports that occur indoors will have difficulty recording speed and distance-oriented metrics, and that older GPS units have low inter-unit reliability across various GPS models (1, 14). However, a paper by Luteberget and colleagues (2018) set out to determine the validity of position, distance traveled, and instantaneous speed of a commercially available LPS (Catapult ClearSky T6, Catapult Sports, Australia) for indoor use. The researchers found that for indoor sports, LPS raw data compared with the gold standard reference system (infrared light-based camera system), showed measures of position, distance traveled, and instantaneous speed had low errors and can be used in pair with time-motion analysis. A paper in 2020 by Theodoropoulos et al. supports the use of GPS units for indoor sports claiming the LPS technological advancements from Catapult Sports has improved accuracy by increasing sampling rate to 100-120 Hz to become more sensitive to rapid changes in velocity and direction. With the improvements in technology of the GPS units, recording indoor in elite and professional athletes has become popular, with data on but not limited to basketball and mixed martial arts (MMA) (3-7, 16). Body worn accelerometry has been used to measure external load in multiple combat sports, including MMA, taekwondo (TKD), and submission grappling (3-7, 10, 18).
MMA involves the combination of grappling and striking combat sports with short, explosive movements and rapid change of direction that can be monitored through Catapult GPS units to quantify external load of MMA training (6). The reliability of Catapult GPS units appears to be satisfactory. Hurst et al. (2014) examined the intra-unit reliability of portable accelerometry using Catapult Sports and found the units could be reliable to determine the external workload (PL) of isolated MMA striking and grappling techniques. Further research has been completed in submission grapplers as well as comparing MMA sparring to isolated MMA techniques to provide intra-unit reliability data (4-5). There appears to be a gap in the literature between unit reliability and providing data for MMA coaches and practitioners to utilize PL. Del Vecchio et al. (2018) found utilization for PL in TKD athletes, providing evidence that striking martial arts can be monitored through GPS. Currently, there are minimal studies to examine PL accumulation in MMA sparring using Catapult Sports GPS units (3, 6). Kirk et al. (2020) investigated the pacing of MMA sparring with Catapult Sports accelerometers during 3 x 5-minute rounds and accumulating PL throughout each round as well as total mean PL. Blood lactate analysis and PL showed significant correlations over the 3 x 5-minute rounds, providing evidence for a relationship between PL and physiological response. In another study, Kirk et al. (2023) examined the relationship between internal and external loads of weekly MMA training. However, measuring external load and internal load in competition for MMA athletes is not feasible, and methods are needed to assess physiological responses to the demands of MMA (15). Replicating the intensity of an MMA bout is difficult, however, MMA sparring can mimic the intensity seen in the cage and is a feasible way to understand the external workload of MMA athletes. Furthermore, because MMA requires training in various disciplines, such as kickboxing, understanding the external workload differences in MMA sparring and kickboxing can enlighten sports scientistss who work with MMA athletes and trainers. Therefore, methods such as PL need to be further understood to provide practitioners with data on how to replicate the demands of MMA training and competition.
Based on previous literature on external and internal load in MMA, the primary aim of this study is to provide GPS metrics during MMA training that may be a viable option for allowing coaches to plan training load distribution in advance. The researchers hypothesize that differences will exist between external and internal load in MMA athletes using Catapult Sports PL and PL/min during MMA sparring and kickboxing sessions.
The current study investigated internal and external load metrics in MMA athletes. The researchers utilized Catapult Sports GPS accelerometers by measuring PL, PL/min, HR, and RPE to compare the differences between MMA and kickboxing training sessions. The methods section details the participants, procedures, data collection and statistical analysis used. The results of this study present statistical comparisons between MMA and kickboxing training sessions, while the discussion and application of sports section attempt to outline how MMA trainers and sports scientists may incorporate Catapult Sports GPS into MMA training sessions to enhance training protocols.
METHODS
Participants
Eighteen male MMA competitors participated in the study. Subjects’ height and weight were measured by a stadiometer. Inclusion criteria for this study includes active fighters who have taken part in at least 4 professional or amateur MMA bouts and medically cleared to fight. Exclusion criteria for this study includes fighters with 4 or fewer MMA bouts and those not medically cleared to participate. Analysis of this deidentified dataset underwent institutional review and was approved (2015-156-NSU).
Procedures
Participants wore 8-ounce MMA sparring gloves, shin pads, MMA shorts, a groin protector, and a t-shirt or rash guard for MMA sparring. For the kickboxing session, participants wore 16-ounce kickboxing gloves, shin pads, MMA shorts, a groin protector, mouthpiece and a t-shirt or rash guard. Vector S7 (Catapult Innovations, Australia) triaxial accelerometers with a sampling rate of 100 Hz provided at 1kHz were used to record external load. The accelerometers were placed in the manufacturer’s garment on the upper torso, positioning the unit at the T3-T4 vertebrae. Each unit was calibrated during the morning of data collection in line with Catapult Sports recommendations. The accelerometers were used to determine the mean total player load and the mean player load per minute for MMA and kickboxing sessions. Player Load data from the accelerometers were recorded in arbitrary units (au). Average heart rate (HRavg) and maximum heart rate (HRmax) were collected. Data collection of Player Load, HRavg, and HRmax was recorded via Openfield v1.14.0 software (Catapult, Canberra, Australia). The accelerometers are connected via Bluetooth to one Vector Receiver from Catapult. The Vector Receiver was strategically placed just outside the mats to not interfere with the participants training session. The study took place at a professional MMA gym supervised by professional MMA coaches. The duration of the kickboxing and MMA sessions were up to the MMA coach’s discretion. The researchers began recording data in the OpenField app when the coaches began the MMA and kickboxing sessions and stopped recording when the coaches ended the sessions. Participants were instructed to train as they would under normal conditions. Participants were asked their rating of perceived exertion (RPE) (1-10) of the training session and were recorded following each session.
Data Analyses
Descriptive statistics were calculated for mean and standard deviations of all the demographic variables (height, weight, age). Paired t-tests were performed to compare the means of ratings of perceived exertion (RPE), session duration (Duration), average heart rate (HRavg), maximum heart rate (HRmax), Player Load, and Player Load per Min (PL/Min) metrics between the kickboxing and sparring sessions. Pearson correlation coefficients were calculated to explore the relationships between variables. Multiple regression analysis was used to examine the effect of age, height, and weight on internal and external training load variables (RPE, Duration, HRavg, HRmax, Player Load, PL/Min) during both practice sessions. All data was analyzed using SPSS version 29 and significance was set at p ≤ 0.05.
RESULTS
Eighteen male, MMA (30.6 ± 0.8 years, 180.8 ± 5.0 cm, 89.5 ± 12.8 kg) competing professionally were used for this within-subjects design study comparing kickboxing and sparring practice sessions. The paired t-tests revealed significant (p ≤ 0.05) differences between kickboxing and sparring for multiple variables including RPE, Duration, and Player Load Min (Table 1). The RPE during MMA sparring was significantly higher than during kickboxing (p = 0.008). Player Load Min was also significantly greater during MMA sparring compared to kickboxing (p = 0.040). Interestingly, the duration for sparring was significantly shorter than for kickboxing (p = 0.002). No additional significant differences (p ≥ 0.05) were found between sessions.
Additionally, correlations were utilized to establish relationships. Correlational analysis demonstrated a strong, positive correlation between RPE and HRavg during kickboxing (r = 0.87, p < 0.01). Similarly, the analysis demonstrated a moderate, positive correlation between Player Load and HRavg during sparring (r = 0.65, p < 0.05). A non-significant weak negative correlation (r = – 0.230, p = 0.410) exists between weight and PlayerLoad kickboxing (PLkick), and between weight and PlayerLoad/min kickboxing (PL/mkick) (r = -0.213, p = 0.447). A non-significant weak negative correlation (r = -0.431, p = 0.335) exists between weight and PlayerLoad sparring (PLspar), and between weight and PlayerLoad/min sparring (PL/mspar) (r = -0.485, p = 0.270). No additional significant correlations (p ≥ 0.05) exist between variables during kickboxing or sparring. Finally, a multiple regression analysis was utilized to predict internal and external training load variables. The regression analysis indicated that age, height, and weight provided non-significant results as predictors of internal and external training loads during both kickboxing and sparring. Specifically, for player load during kickboxing, the coefficients for age, height, and weight were -10.91 (p = 0.109), 2.08 (p = 0.717), and -2.39 (p = 0.475), respectively (R² = 0.290). For Player Load during sparring, the coefficients were -2.67 (p = 0.512), 1.97 (p = 0.473), and -0.29 (p = 0.910), respectively (R² = 0.195). For PL/min during kickboxing, the coefficients were -0.24 (p = 0.205), 0.05 (p = 0.804), and -0.03 (p = 0.716), respectively (R² = 0.371). For PL/min during sparring, the coefficients were -0.16 (p = 0.236), 0.04 (p = 0.716), and -0.03 (p = 0.616), respectively (R² = 0.264). For HRavg during kickboxing, the coefficients were -1.67 (p = 0.180), -0.14 (p = 0.871), and -0.01 (p = 0.974), respectively (R² = 0.503). For HRavg during sparring, the coefficients were -0.12 (p = 0.493), 0.19 (p = 0.089), and -0.01 (p = 0.776), respectively (R² = 0.251). For HRmax during kickboxing, the coefficients were -2.33 (p = 0.127), 0.02 (p = 0.985), and 0.08 (p = 0.888), respectively (R² = 0.423). For HRmax during sparring, the coefficients were -0.49 (p = 0.662), 0.13 (p = 0.808), and 0.17 (p = 0.722), respectively (R² = 0.138).
I
DISCUSSION
As wearable devices are becoming more popular in sports science, knowledge about the reliability and application of these metrics is essential to providing recommendations to optimize MMA athlete performance. Existing research has shown that body-worn accelerometric devices are reliable in determining the external workload for a range of mixed martial arts (MMA) techniques (10). However, to the authors’ knowledge, this is the first study to provide descriptive statistics comparing wearable device data in specifically a kickboxing session and an MMA sparring session. With the use of a Catapult Sports GPS accelerometer, the current study of 18 mixed-martial arts athletes focused on comparing different metrics including RPE, duration of session, HR, and PL during the two separate sessions. Overall findings found significant differences in RPE, duration, and player load per minute between the kickboxing and sparring sessions.
Although PL did not show any significant difference between the training sessions, PL/min was significantly greater in the sparring session than during the kickboxing session (p = 0.040). During the kickboxing sessions, the average PL/min amongst the 18 athletes was 6.49 ± 1.80 while during the sparring sessions, the average PL/min was 7.23 ± 1.72. Vector magnitude (VM), a measurement of external workload and a variant of PL, was recorded in a study completed on TKD athletes. A 45-minute training session produced a mean VM accumulation of 322.7±309.5 au with a VM of 6.8±6.5 au/min (18). Similarly, the kickboxing session from the current study produced a PL/min of 6.49 ± 1.80, however, the total VM of the TKD athletes was closer to the MMA sessions producing 373.8 ± 102.5. Kirk et al. (2020) reported a single 15-minute (3 x 5-minute round) simulated MMA bout produced accumulated PL of 224.32 ± 26.59 au with round 1 accumulating PL 77.61 ± 9.92 (PL/min 15.37 ± 1.71), round 2 accumulating PL 71.48 ± 10.56 (PL/min 14.30 ± 2.11), round 3 accumulating 65.39 ± 8.61 (PL/min 13.08 ± 1.72). In the same study, Kirk and colleagues found a direct negative non-significant relationship between PL/min and blood lactate, suggesting that PL can be used to identify when a MMA athlete is fatiguing. The results of the current study found one MMA session to accumulate PL of 373.8 ± 102.5 au, while MMA training sessions (striking, grappling and MMA) has shown a mean PL of 310.6±112 au (6).
In the current study, the durations of the sparring sessions were significantly shorter compared to the kickboxing sessions, but MMA sparring was accompanied with higher PL/min. The sparring sessions were full contact MMA sparring including kickboxing, grappling, and overall, more movement compared to the kickboxing session which was solely kickboxing. While session durations were made at the discretion of the coaches, the intensity and rigor displayed during sparring sessions may explain the significant difference in duration. Furthermore, the higher PL/min in MMA sparring compared to kickboxing may be explained by the variety of movements and techniques used in MMA sparring compared to kickboxing alone (i.e. wrestling, jiu-jitsu). This notion is supported by the higher RPE observed in MMA sparring (7.6 ± 1.9) compared to the kickboxing session (6 ± 1.6). Interestingly, HRavg was higher in the kickboxing session (155 ± 3.4) compared to the MMA session (143 ± 0.7), suggesting that sparring is subjectively harder than kickboxing, even at lower heart rates. This may be explained by the array of attacks that can be used in sparring compared to kickboxing, making sparring more cognitively fatiguing. In an existing study, PL showed capability of quantifying external load of grappling-based training sessions (5). While measurements of external load are specific to the sport being studied, it is described as the physical work during a training session (8). RPE exertion in the current study was also significantly higher during sparring compared to kickboxing (p = 0.008).
Previous research has also examined PL metrics in different ways. In a study conducted by Kirk et al. (2015), amongst 8 MMA fighters, the PL was compared for over 20 specific sparring techniques, both in isolation and in a sparring bout. Results found that during the sparring bout, intensity used for punches was significantly greater than intensity used for kicks. Amongst other significant data, PL for single-leg takedowns was significantly higher compared to double-leg takedowns. Understanding the intensity of movements can be beneficial to coaches and athletes in managing fatigue and developing training protocols (4, 7).
Outside of MMA, wearable accelerometric devices have been used in a variety of other sports including rugby, soccer, and basketball (9). Semi-professional soccer players had their PL monitored over the course of 44 training sessions with an average duration of 90.4 ± 23.0 minutes per session. The researchers found a mean PL of 789.2 ± 224.9, much higher than the kickboxing or MMA sessions, although the duration of the training sessions was almost twice as long. In a study of 17 professional basketball players of different positions, PL/min data was used to compare the intensity of the players and noted specific physical demands of each position (16). The PL/min was the highest in guards (12.1 ± 2.0 au), then forwards (10.5 ± 1.5 au) and centers (10.7 ± 1.8 au). Our data adds to this growing body of research as it supports the predictive capability of PL metrics on intensity of workout and enhancing training protocols for MMA athletes.
This study comes with limitations. Recording GPS signal indoors can become obstructed as walls and corners can disturb the quality of the signal. The participants have a large discrepancy in experience in MMA bouts, with some subjects having 4 amateur bouts and other subjects having competed in 30 professional bouts. The experience difference with the small sample size makes it difficult to apply the results throughout the MMA population given the variation in performance levels. The data was also limited to only two training sessions.
CONCLUSIONS
In conclusion, Catapult Sports accelerometry can be a useful method for measuring external load in MMA athletes. MMA sparring appears to produce a greater external workload and perceived exertion compared to kickboxing sessions alone, indicating a higher intensity for the MMA training session. Previous research in mock MMA sparring bouts has found higher PL/Min than the MMA sparring and kickboxing sessions from the current study, however, TKD athletes produce similar relative external workloads compared to MMA athletes in kickboxing sessions. To our knowledge, this study was the first of its kind to compare external load during MMA and kickboxing sessions. Future research should explore tracking external load in MMA athletes over multiple training sessions or a fight camp to allow MMA skill coaches to better implement Catapult Sports into their programming.
APPLICATIONS IN SPORT
This study, as well as previous research, continues to highlight the reliability and practical applications of GPS tracking in MMA. The evidence supports the notion that GPS wearables can monitor external load in MMA sparring, kickboxing, taekwondo, and submission grappling. Determining external load normative values in MMA athletes can enhance sports scientists understanding of adequate volumes of training. Based on external load values from previous training sessions, MMA skill coaches can allocate workload volumes to the various skill development aspects of the sport. This may improve the programming of training schedules for an upcoming bout. Furthermore, the MMA athletes in the present study did not report discomfort while training with the accelerometers, pointing to the capability of GPS tracking in high-performance MMA environments.
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George Minoso2025-05-16T11:58:41-05:00August 30th, 2025|General, Research, Sport Training|Comments Off on Comparing the differences in PlayerLoad during kickboxing and sparring in professional MMA athletes
