General – The Sport Journal

An examination of studies related to Brazilian jiu-jitsu in enhancing mental and physical health among veterans and first responders: A scoping review

Authors: Richard O. Segovia PhD, EdD¹, Alexander Buelna, PhD², and Brian Sunderman, MA³

¹School of Education, Liberty University, Lynchburg, VA, USA
²College of Social and Behavioral Health, Walden University, Minneapolis, MN, USA
³School of Security and Global Studies, American Military University, Charles Town, WV, USA

Corresponding Author:

Richard O. Segovia, PhD, EdD

1971 University Blvd

Lynchburg VA, 24515

Rsegovia1@liberty.edu

737-330-6288

Richard O. Segovia, PhD, EdD, is an adjunct professor and dissertation chair at Liberty University in Lynchburg, VA, and an academic evaluator at Western Governors University in Salt Lake City, Utah. Dr. Segovia’s research interests focus on learning and teaching, combat sports, law enforcement practices, and educational leadership.

Alexander Buelna, PhD, is currently a deputy associate commissioner with Texas Health and Human Services. Dr. Buelna’s areas of research interest includes post-traumatic stress’s impact on veterans and efficient business processes.

Brian Sunderman, MA, is the officer in charge of the Texas Department of Public Safety’s Arrest and Control Tactics Unit. Lieutenant Sunderman’s research interests include the utility of Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu in law enforcement as a law enforcement force option

An examination of studies related to Brazilian jiu-jitsu in enhancing mental and physical health among veterans and first responders: A scoping review

ABSTRACT

Purpose: This scoping review explores the many benefits of Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu (BJJ) on veterans and first responders, focusing on physical health improvements, psychological benefits, and social integration. The purpose is to synthesize existing literature to identify research gaps and suggest directions for future studies. By examining both qualitative and quantitative research, this review seeks to show the utility of BJJ as a therapeutic modality option and propose it as a comprehensive intervention for enhancing the overall well-being of veterans and first responders. Methods: PubMed and Google Scholar searches were conducted to capture a broad range of studies involving BJJ with veterans or first responders. This review adheres to the PRISMA-ScR guidelines, focusing on studies discussing physical, mental, and social outcomes. Results: The initial search yielded numerous qualitative and quantitative studies. This review categorizes the findings into themes of physical health improvements, psychological benefits, and social integration, highlighting the variability and scope of the existing literature. Conclusions: The review highlights the need for well-structured research to substantiate BJJ’s therapeutic benefits. It recommends areas for in-depth exploration in future systematic reviews or primary studies, especially longitudinal studies on BJJ’s effects and specific therapeutic contributions. Application in Sport: For coaches and trainers, integrating BJJ into programs for veterans and first responders enhances physical fitness and mental health. BJJ improves cardiovascular health, strength, and endurance and reduces PTSD, depression, and anxiety symptoms. BJJ supports mental resilience and provides a supportive community, helping in social integration and reducing isolation. Incorporating BJJ can holistically enhance the recovery and effectiveness of veterans and first responders.

Key Words: Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu, veteran rehabilitation, PTSD management, therapeutic exercise, community integration

INTRODUCTION

In examining the multi-layered impacts of Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu (BJJ) on enhancing veterans’ and first responders’ mental and physical health, this scoping review examines a significant, emergent area of therapeutic practices. BJJ, a martial art known for its detailed focus on ground fighting and submission holds, offers more than physical training. It is a dynamic intervention that promotes psychological resilience and aids in social reintegration. By synthesizing various studies [6, 13], this review illuminates how BJJ improves physical mobility and mental health outcomes and facilitates the reintegration of veterans into civilian life. Through structured training sessions, BJJ fosters a supportive community environment, addressing the complex rehabilitation needs of veterans and first responders by bridging physical exertion and focus with mental health support. This review explores BJJ’s profound benefits across rehabilitative settings, substantiating its therapeutic value with empirical evidence and detailed analysis.

Although primarily a fighting style and a sport, many are beginning to embrace BJJ as a powerful therapeutic intervention for various purposes. Current research confirms potential scientific benefits from the use of BJJ in physical rehabilitation, psychological resilience, and social integration for populations experiencing high levels of stress – specifically, veterans and first responders. This review is essential at a historical moment when BJJ seems to have a place in therapeutic settings, yet anecdotal evidence essentially underpins current practice. At the same time, an emerging body of empirical literature supports its effectiveness as a sport and work of art. Drawing from qualitative and quantitative research metrics, this scoping review intends to synthesize and expand on the current understanding of BJJ’s multifaceted benefits. This review is relevant because the populations best served by BJJ’s transformative power experience complex physical, mental, and social challenges. These challenges significantly affect vulnerable populations, such as veterans and first responders, due to the cumulative (and sometimes unique) occupational stressors in their working environments.

The purpose of this scoping review is (1) to consider BJJ’s effect on physical health, (2) to assess the psychological benefits of BJJ, (3) to assess BJJ’s social integration utility, and (4) to identify research gaps and potential future studies as it applies to veterans and first responders.

Literature Review

As BJJ gains recognition not only as a martial art but also as a valuable tool for rehabilitation and recovery, it is important to critically examine the breadth and depth of its impact through scholarly research. This review examines the role of BJJ in enhancing the mental and physical health of veterans and first responders, drawing on a rich array of literature that spans clinical studies, systematic reviews, and observational research. This review aims to bridge the gap between theoretical approaches and practical applications in BJJ by synthesizing evidence from diverse academic sources, highlighting its efficacy in fostering physical resilience and psychological and social well-being. The literature discusses how BJJ contributes to rehabilitation processes, supports mental health recovery, and facilitates community reintegration, offering a comprehensive analysis of its benefits.

Rehabilitation and Recovery for Veterans

Rehabilitation and Recovery for Veterans

In recent years, BJJ has emerged as a pivotal intervention for enhancing veterans’ and first responders’ mental and physical well-being. As previously mentioned, this martial art is known for its emphasis on ground fighting and submission. It offers more than just physical training; it provides a structured environment that fosters psychological resilience and social reintegration. For example, studies [3, 16] have documented the significant benefits BJJ offers in rehabilitating soldiers and aiding veterans with PTSD, highlighting improvements in both physical mobility and mental health outcomes. Furthermore, a separate study [5] discusses BJJ’s role in easing veterans’ transition into civilian life, leveraging the discipline’s community-centric nature to combat isolation and build lasting social networks. These collective findings underscore BJJ’s unique position as a therapeutic modality capable of addressing the complex spectrum of veterans’ needs by bridging rigorous physical challenges with psychological and social support.

Physical Rehabilitation and Psychological Recovery

An article on the benefits of BJJ for solider rehabilitation [6] discusses the significant role of BJJ in soldiers’ physical rehabilitation and mental recovery. BJJ’s comprehensive approach helps improve physical mobility and flexibility, often compromised during active-duty service. Engaging in BJJ aids in building both strength and endurance, which is critical for the comprehensive recovery of injured soldiers. Moreover, the mental aspects of BJJ, such as focus and discipline, contribute significantly to psychological resilience, helping soldiers overcome trauma and stress-related challenges.

Additionally, BJJ provides a supportive community for soldiers, fostering a sense of belonging and mutual understanding among peers, which is vital during rehabilitation. This social support, combined with physical training, makes BJJ an effective rehabilitation tool, addressing recovering soldiers’ physical and psychological needs. By participating in BJJ, soldiers work on their physical rehabilitation and gain confidence and mental strength, which are vital for their successful reintegration into everyday life.

PTSD Management and Community Integration

BJJ provides veterans a therapeutic environment that fosters mental discipline and builds a strong community. Engaging in BJJ allows veterans to experience controlled physical interactions, which can be crucial for regaining trust in their bodily responses and reducing hyperarousal associated with PTSD [8]. The structured setting of BJJ classes offers a predictable and safe environment where veterans can learn new skills in a supportive atmosphere. This aspect of predictability and control is essential for helping veterans manage PTSD symptoms effectively.

In addition, the communal aspect of BJJ encourages veterans to form supportive relationships with peers who may share similar experiences. These social connections are invaluable as they help combat the isolation often felt after leaving military service [12]. Through regular training, veterans develop physical strength and emotional resilience, bolstered by the camaraderie found in BJJ gyms [12]. Participants frequently cite this community support as critical to their recovery and civilian life adjustment.

Sustained PTSD Relief

A study on BJJ training as a possible therapeutic modality [13] explored the specific benefits of BJJ for service members and veterans who have PTSD. The research [13] shows significant improvements in PTSD symptoms among participants attributed to the physical exertion and mental focus required in BJJ training. The study highlights how BJJ helps in developing coping strategies for stress and trauma, which are critical for long-term mental health recovery. The repetitive nature of drills and the controlled physical engagements provide a therapeutic outlet for aggression and pent-up emotions.

The study also emphasizes the sense of accomplishment and increased self-esteem from progressing in BJJ. These psychological benefits are crucial for veterans and service members who often struggle with self-worth after leaving service. Training in BJJ offers a structured environment to measure growth through skill levels, providing a tangible sense of progression usually needed after military service.

Reintegration and Social Reconnection

BJJ has also been studied [5] as a powerful tool for veterans’ reintegration into civilian life. The study [5] suggests that BJJ’s disciplined environment helps veterans transition by providing a structured routine similar to that experienced in the military. This similarity helps mitigate the culture shock many veterans experience post-service. Additionally, the physical demands of BJJ provide a healthy outlet for stress and aggression, which are common challenges for veterans adjusting to civilian life.

Furthermore, BJJ fosters a sense of community and brotherhood among its practitioners, which mirrors the camaraderie found in the military. This aspect of social support is crucial for veterans who may feel isolated after their service [5]. The shared experiences in training can lead to lasting friendships and a support network that assists with reintegration, making BJJ an influential social and psychological tool for veterans.

Enhancing Law Enforcement Capabilities

BJJ is also proving to be a transformative tool for law enforcement, offering a multifaceted approach to officer training that extends beyond physical tactics to include significant mental and emotional benefits. BJJ training enhances mental acuity, decision-making under pressure, and interpersonal skills, which are essential in the high-stress context of law enforcement work [9]. These skills help officers manage stressful encounters more effectively, promoting a mindset geared toward de-escalation and controlled responses rather than aggression.

Furthermore, another study [7] highlights the practical impacts of BJJ on use of force protocols, showing how these techniques help maintain calm and control during confrontations, reducing the likelihood of unreasonable or excessive force. This aspect of BJJ training not only improves officer safety but also the safety of the community by minimizing potentially harmful physical interactions. Meanwhile, positive changes in the Marietta Police Department, where BJJ training has reduced injuries and complaints regarding force use, demonstrate BJJ’s potential to enhance team morale and effectiveness [10].

Mental Acuity and Interpersonal Skills Improvement

Research [9] shows the extensive benefits of BJJ, emphasizing its impact beyond just physical techniques to include mental and emotional enhancements. BJJ training can significantly improve mental acuity and decision-making under pressure in law enforcement, where officers often encounter high-stress situations. The practice also fosters resilience and patience, skills that are beneficial in both personal and professional settings. BJJ’s focus on mindfulness and present-moment awareness helps officers handle stressful encounters more calmly and with greater understanding.

Furthermore, the training enhances interpersonal skills, essential for officers who must de-escalate tense situations without resorting to excessive force. BJJ teaches control and restraint, promoting a mindset of protection rather than aggression. Officers trained in BJJ are often better equipped to maintain their safety and that of others while minimizing harm and managing physical confrontations effectively [7]. This holistic approach to training makes BJJ an invaluable tool for law enforcement agencies.

Police Use of Force

An article on the impact of BJJ training on improving use-of-force protocols within law enforcement concluded that training helps officers maintain calm and control in high-stress situations, reducing the likelihood of excessive force [7]. BJJ provides officers with effective yet non-lethal techniques, crucial in safely managing physical confrontations. Additionally, the discipline and mental focus developed through consistent BJJ practice enhance officers’ decision-making abilities, allowing them to assess situations more accurately and respond appropriately. The article suggests that BJJ improves individual officer performance and fosters greater trust and cooperation between law enforcement and the communities they serve, ultimately contributing to safer and more effective policing practices.

The article also discusses the psychological benefits of BJJ training, such as increased confidence and reduced anxiety, which can significantly affect how officers perceive and respond to threats. The enhanced decision-making skills and better judgment officers develop through BJJ training can lead to more positive outcomes in policing encounters, promoting safer community interactions.

Improved Outcomes in Law Enforcement

Research [10] reports on successfully implementing a BJJ program in the Marietta Police Department. The program has led to measurable improvements in officer outcomes, including reduced injuries and fewer complaints regarding the use of force. The training emphasizes skill over strength, equipping officers with the knowledge to control situations effectively without escalating violence.

Furthermore, the program has been instrumental in building team morale and solidarity among officers. The shared experience of training and improving together has strengthened the department’s internal community, which translates into more effective teamwork in the field. This solidarity is crucial for maintaining high standards of police work and ensuring the safety of both officers and the community they serve.

Injury Prevention and Safety Enhancement

The 2021 BJJ Training Data Documents a Reduction in Injuries report from the Marietta (GA) Police Department (MPD), highlighting the tangible benefits of BJJ training in reducing injuries among police officers. The MPD report concludes that comprehensive physical training enhances flexibility, strength, and overall body awareness, leading to this reduction [10]. Officers trained in BJJ are better prepared to handle physical confrontations safely and efficiently, protecting themselves and the individuals with whom they interact. The skills learned in BJJ allow officers to apply force in a controlled manner, significantly lowering the risk of injury.

The data from MPD [3] also underscores the potential for BJJ training to transform standard police training protocols. By incorporating BJJ, departments can ensure that their officers are not only physically capable but also mentally prepared to handle the stresses of law enforcement. This proactive approach to training can reduce workers’ compensation claims, decrease sick leaves due to injuries, and improve overall morale within the department.

Enhancing Physical Fitness and Mental Health

BJJ is a profound physical discipline and a significant enhancer of mental health and community building [1]. This unique martial art offers physiological benefits and underscores how regular BJJ training improves cardiovascular health, muscular strength, and endurance [1]. The mental advantages, such as increased focus and stress reduction, are pivotal in making BJJ a holistic practice for personal health and fitness.

Further insights from the benefits of BJJ in managing PTSD [12] and BJJ as a form of social and psychological therapy [4] deepen our understanding of BJJ’s impact. One longitudinal study demonstrates the sustained effectiveness of BJJ in managing PTSD symptoms, offering a potential therapeutic pathway for veterans and others suffering from chronic stress disorders [12]. Parallelly, a review of BJJ’s social and psychological benefits emphasizes its role in forging strong community ties and enhancing cognitive functions through strategy formulation and problem-solving challenges [4]. Together, these studies [12, 4] present a compelling case for integrating BJJ into wellness and therapy programs to bolster physical robustness and foster a supportive social environment.

Physiological and Psychological Benefits

One systematic review [1] of the extensive physical and physiological demands placed on individuals who practice Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu suggests that BJJ is effective in enhancing cardiovascular health, muscular strength, and endurance. The review also notes the mental benefits of regular, intense physical activity, such as improved focus and stress reduction. The comprehensive nature of BJJ training makes it an excellent form of exercise for improving overall fitness and health.

Furthermore, the review discusses how BJJ athletes develop unique physiological adaptations that enhance their performance. These include increased aerobic capacity, better body composition, and superior muscular endurance. The insights provided by this review suggest that BJJ could be beneficial in cross-training for various activities due to its all-encompassing physical demands and the mental toughness it develops.

Longitudinal Insights

Research provides compelling evidence through a longitudinal study that BJJ has sustained benefits in managing PTSD among veterans [12]. This longitudinal study followed participants over a period, noting significant and lasting decreases in PTSD symptoms among those who regularly engage in BJJ. The work suggests that the combination of physical activity, mental focus, and social interaction inherent in BJJ practice contributes to these positive outcomes.

In addition, the study also highlights how the repetitive and immersive nature of BJJ training can serve as a form of exposure therapy, where participants gradually face and gain control over stress triggers in a controlled environment. Although the work focused on PTSD management among veterans, PTSD is not exclusive only to that group (e.g., law enforcement officers or others who have PTSD after a traumatic event). This method of coping can lead to profound changes in how individuals who suffer from PTSD process and react to stress, potentially providing a blueprint for integrating BJJ into broader PTSD treatment programs.

Building Resilience and Community

In a systematic review, a researcher examined the role of BJJ as both a social and psychological therapy [4]. The review consolidates findings from multiple studies, illustrating how BJJ aids in building strong community ties, which is essential for mental health. The physical closeness and mutual trust required in BJJ training create a unique social dynamic that fosters interpersonal relationships and a supportive network, offering a sense of belonging and community that is often therapeutic. Moreover, the review details how the mental challenges presented in BJJ—such as strategy formulation and problem-solving—enhance cognitive functions and contribute to psychological resilience. These mental benefits complement the physical aspects of BJJ, creating a holistic therapy modality that addresses multiple facets of psychological health.

METHODS

A scoping review of the literature was appropriate to meet the objectives of this study and answer the research question: What benefits does Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu (BJJ) training provide for veterans and first responders in terms of physical, mental, and social health?

This study’s protocol was developed using the scoping review methodological framework [2]. The draft protocol for this review was analyzed by research colleagues and implemented. The protocol consisted of a series of five stages, details of the search strategy and steps of the review process included:

Identifying and collecting relevant studies: Literature searches were conducted across four electronic bibliographic databases: PubMed and Google Scholar. An initial search using the search terms “Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu,” “veterans,” “first responders,” “rehabilitation,” “physical health,” “mental health,” and “community integration” was conducted. This search established salient parameters and eight key search terms to conduct additional searches across the four databases. Those eight critical terms included: (i) Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu and veterans; (ii) Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu and first responders; (iii) BJJ and PTSD; (iv) BJJ for physical rehabilitation; (v) BJJ and conflict resolution; (vi) mental health benefits of BJJ; (vii) physical health benefits of BJJ; and (viii) social integration through BJJ. The collected literature was then screened for relevance to the research question. After removing duplicates, studies were assessed for eligibility. Reference lists of eligible studies were further screened for additional relevant studies.

Study selection: Inclusion and exclusion criteria were established to filter and guide searches for relevant literature. To be included, literature from searches had to meet four inclusion criteria: (i) be from a peer-reviewed journal, a conference presentation, or a published thesis; (ii) published in the English language; (iii) include documented interventions or analysis related to BJJ; and (iv) be quantitative or qualitative. The literature was not restricted by time frame, study population, geographical publication, or type/design of journal article. Collected literature that did not meet all criteria was excluded. However, two colleagues analyzed conflicting literature to reach a consensus for inclusion. By applying the eligibility criteria, two reviewers screened the articles for selection. Blinding was applied at this stage to ensure no bias between reviewers in the selection process. All conflicts between the two reviewers, generated through screening, were discussed to reach a consensus. When conflict remained, the opinion of a third reviewer was sought to reach a consensus. Initially, articles were selected from the title and abstract screening. A second, more in-depth selection was then conducted through full-text screening. December 3, 2023, was the last date that the search was executed.

Charting the data: Once included articles were selected, data was extracted and charted according to author, title, journal, publication year, geographical location, purpose, sample size and type, methodology, intervention type, outcomes, key findings, and barriers. One author extracted and grouped the data, and another validated the data to ensure accuracy. Data were organized and grouped into subtopics according to the identified study purposes: (i) physical health benefits of BJJ; (ii) mental health benefits of BJJ; (iii) social integration through BJJ; (iv) PTSD and BJJ; (v) conflict resolution skills through BJJ; and (vi) physical rehabilitation through BJJ.

Summarizing and synthesizing the results: Authors collectively compared and discussed the charted data. Descriptive statistics were performed to characterize the research literature and to identify the breadth and gaps. Trends across geographic locations and decades of publication of included studies were evaluated. The study results were examined and discussed within each thematic area to determine trends and commonalities. Barriers and gaps were identified within the literature to suggest future areas of study. A consensus between all three authors regarding the critical information generated from the review was reached.

In addition to the scoping review methodological framework proposed by leading scholars in the scoping review methodologies [2]. The researchers for this review followed the PRISMA Extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) checklist [11]. No risk of bias assessment, summary measures, or additional analyses were conducted in this scoping review following the PRISMA-ScR [11]. No formal review protocol exists.

Figure 1. PRISMA 2020 Flow Diagram.

Physical Health Benefits

The studies reviewed consistently demonstrated that BJJ training significantly enhances physical fitness, mobility, and injury rehabilitation. According to one study [1], participants showed marked improvements in cardiovascular health, muscular strength, and endurance. These findings align with the report from MPD, which documented a reduction in injuries among law enforcement officers engaged in BJJ, attributing these benefits to the increased physical conditioning that BJJ provides [3]. This comprehensive approach to physical health not only aids in immediate injury recovery but also contributes to long-term physical wellness.

In one example, the graph below adapted data from a study of physical and physiological profiles of BJJ athletes [1] and shows the peak and mean power values for those who train in BJJ, highlighting its intense physical demands.

The graph displays anaerobic power values from two distinct studies. The study of physical and physiological profiles of BJJ athletes [1] dataset provides measurements for both peak power and mean power:

Peak Power: This represents the highest instantaneous power output achieved by the athletes during the test.

Mean Power: Reflects the average power maintained throughout the Wingate test, typically 30 seconds.

The colors differentiate the types of power measured:

Red Bars: Peak power values from two studies.

Green Bars: Mean power values from the same studies.

The graph highlights variations between studies, underscoring the need for consistent testing methodologies to compare anaerobic capacity accurately across different research. However, the researcher concluded that BJJ athletes possess considerable anaerobic capacity, with peak power outputs exceeding 10 W/kg and mean power outputs close to 10 W/kg. These values demonstrate the athletes’ proficiency in generating and sustaining high levels of power, essential during competitive grappling engagements, such as executing takedowns, resisting submissions, or applying forceful maneuvers.

In another example, the chart below adapted data from MPD. It showed three distinct bars, each representing the percentage reduction in incidents due to BJJ training within the Marietta Police Department in 2020.

The first bar shows a 48% reduction in injuries to officers who used force, indicating significant safety improvements for the officers involved.

The second bar illustrates a 53% reduction in injuries to persons who required force during arrest, highlighting the training’s role in protecting the officers and those they encounter.

The third bar indicates a 23% reduction in Taser use, demonstrating a shift towards less reliance on electronic control devices, which can be critical in high-tension situations.

Mental Health Benefits

The mental health improvements associated with BJJ are particularly significant. Researchers who explored BJJ training for U.S. service members and veterans with symptoms of PTSD found substantial reductions in PTSD symptoms among veterans participating in BJJ, with benefits extending to decreased levels of depression and anxiety [13]. Interestingly, researchers who studied BJJ benefits in managing PTSD further supported these findings in their longitudinal study [12], which noted lasting mental health benefits from regular BJJ practice. The mental discipline and focus required in BJJ training foster an environment conducive to psychological healing and emotional stability, making it a valuable tool in mental health therapy.

For example, this review adapted data from research on BJJ training for U.S. service members and veterans with symptoms of PTSD [13] and graphs the effect sizes calculated from PCL-5 assessments for veterans participating in BJJ training. The graph illustrates the effect sizes at two key intervals of their study: pre-treatment to mid-treatment and pre-treatment to post-treatment. To assess the impact of BJJ on PTSD symptoms among veterans and first responders, researchers measured changes in PTSD symptomatology using the PTSD Checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5) and concluded decreased levels of depression and anxiety.

Effect Sizes and Confidence Intervals

The graph depicts effect sizes (Cohen’s d) and their corresponding 95% confidence intervals to illustrate the magnitude and precision of changes in PTSD symptoms from pre-treatment to mid-treatment and from pre-treatment to post-treatment.

Statistical Significance

The p-values associated with these findings underscore the statistical significance of the observed improvements, suggesting that the effects are attributable to the BJJ intervention.

Social and Community Aspects

The findings illustrated BJJ’s role in enhancing social interactions and building community ties. For example, one researcher examined BJJ as a possible social and psychological therapeutic modality and underscored how BJJ promotes camaraderie and supports systems among participants, creating a sense of belonging and mutual trust [4]. This community aspect is crucial, especially for veterans and first responders, who often experience isolation in their professional roles. The shared experience of BJJ training fosters solid interpersonal relationships and provides a supportive network that enhances the social well-being of its members.

These results collectively illustrate BJJ’s comprehensive benefits, affirming its effectiveness across physical, mental, and social domains. Integrating BJJ into therapeutic and training programs offers a holistic approach to health and wellness, supporting individuals’ physical conditioning and psychological and social rehabilitation.

For instance, this work adapted data from a study on BJJ as social and psychological therapy [4] and crafted a thematic map to illustrate the complex relationships between various aspects of BJJ and their outcomes.

Reduces Negative Behaviors

he thematic map distinguishes between direct benefits and the pathways that facilitate these benefits, using color coding to enhance readability and understanding. It effectively encapsulates how BJJ is a multifaceted enhancer of psychosocial health. By detailing both the outcomes and the mechanisms, the map serves as a tool for understanding BJJ’s broad and nuanced impacts beyond the mat, supporting its integration into psychological and social rehabilitation programs.

THEMES

Multiple themes emerged from the outcomes assessed in the literature. One researcher with expertise in BJJ identified and categorized these themes, and studies were grouped into key categories inspired by different domains related to veterans and first responders. Most studies evaluated one specific theme within the context of BJJ while acknowledging others to a lesser degree; however, some overlap of themes emerged in studies. Table 1 groups all studies by theme, variable, citation, and geographical region.

Table 1. Summary of all themes, the variable(s) assessed in each theme, and the studies that assessed the variable(s).

Theme	Variable(s) Assessed	Studies	Geographical Region
Physical Health Benefits	Cardiovascular health, muscular strength, endurance	[1]	Brazil
Mental Health Benefits	PTSD symptom reduction, depression, anxiety	[12, 13]	USA
Social Integration	Community participation, support networks	[4]	Sweden
PTSD Management	PTSD symptomatology	[13]	USA
Conflict Resolution Skills	De-escalation techniques, stress management	[7, 9]	USA
Physical Rehabilitation	Mobility, injury recovery	[6]	USA
Law Enforcement Training	Use of force, injury reduction	[10]	USA
Psychological Resilience	Mental focus, emotional stability	[4, 12]	USA, Sweden
Community Building and Support Systems	Camaraderie, mutual trust	[4]	Sweden
Implementation Strategies	Integration into therapy programs	Various	Various

From the included literature: (1) physical health benefits of BJJ; (2) mental health benefits of BJJ; (3) social integration through BJJ; (4) BJJ’s role in PTSD management; (5) BJJ for conflict resolution skills; and (6) BJJ for physical rehabilitation, all occupied the primary purpose of the greatest number of studies. Other pertinent topics included: (7) BJJ’s impact on law enforcement training; (8) psychological resilience through BJJ; (9) community building and support systems through BJJ; and (10) strategies for implementing BJJ in therapeutic settings, which were the secondary focus of some studies and integrated into studies with another primary focus.

DISCUSSION

This scoping review aimed to define and evaluate the quantitative and qualitative data regarding the effects of BJJ on veterans and first responders. It was conducted through standard methods outlined by leading scholars in the field [2] to identify, select, and synthesize the findings from 11 studies. The current knowledge of BJJ was documented by analyzing the geographic scope of studies, the year of publication, and the specific themes that emerged from the literature. Provided below are significant results of this review that can be relevant for future researchers, practitioners, and BJJ instructors.

The included studies revealed evidence of BJJ’s physical health benefits. Participants showed marked improvements in cardiovascular health, muscular strength, and endurance [1]. These physical health benefits were consistent across different populations and settings, highlighting BJJ’s utility in enhancing overall fitness and aiding injury rehabilitation [10]. Despite these positive findings, further research is needed to establish standardized protocols for measuring these benefits across diverse groups.

The literature also prominently discussed BJJ’s mental health benefits. Substantial reductions in PTSD symptoms, depression, and anxiety were reported among veterans participating in BJJ [12, 13] These findings suggest that BJJ provides a supportive environment conducive to psychological healing and emotional stability. The mental discipline and focus required in BJJ training foster an environment that encourages mindfulness and stress reduction. However, the mechanisms underlying these mental health benefits are not fully understood and warrant further investigation.

Social integration emerged as a significant theme, with BJJ promoting camaraderie and support systems among participants. Studies highlighted how BJJ fosters a sense of belonging and mutual trust, crucial for veterans and first responders who often experience isolation in their professional roles [4]. The communal aspect of BJJ training helps build strong interpersonal relationships and provides a supportive network that enhances social well-being. Future research should explore how these social benefits can be optimized further to support the reintegration of veterans into civilian life.

BJJ’s role in enhancing law enforcement capabilities was another key finding. BJJ training improves mental acuity, decision-making under pressure, and interpersonal skills, which are essential in the high-stress context of law enforcement work [7, 9]. The practical impacts of BJJ as a response to resistance option were also noted, with reduced injuries and complaints regarding the use of force in departments that implemented BJJ training programs [10]. These findings underscore the importance of incorporating BJJ into law enforcement training to enhance officer safety and effectiveness.

Technological advancements in BJJ training were less frequently discussed but are becoming increasingly relevant. Integrating AI and other technologies to enhance training and performance tracking could revolutionize how BJJ practitioners train and improve [12]. Future research should explore the potential of these technologies in providing more precise and individualized training programs.

Comparisons across gender and skill levels revealed essential insights into how different populations benefit from BJJ training. Differences in physical and psychological responses to BJJ were noted, suggesting that tailored training programs may be necessary to optimize benefits for diverse groups [1]. Future studies should continue to explore these differences to develop more inclusive and effective training methodologies.

The inclusion of wheelchair BJJ and adaptive training for individuals with disabilities was minimal but highlighted the need for more inclusive research. Studies focused on the biomechanics of BJJ for wheelchair users and its potential benefits in promoting physical and mental health [6]. Expanding research in this area could lead to better support and training for individuals with disabilities.

Future Research

Understanding the many benefits of BJJ for veterans and first responders is unquestionable. Continued research should aim to standardize measurement protocols and explore the long-term impacts of BJJ training. Future studies should also consider integrating technological advancements and developing adaptive training programs to support diverse populations. By expanding the scope of research to include mixed-double formats and other variations of BJJ, researchers can develop a more comprehensive understanding of its benefits and applications.

Strengths and Limitations of this Scoping Review

This scoping review applied a systematic and rigorous search strategy to retrieve a comprehensive range of articles addressing the benefits of BJJ for veterans and first responders. Considering both peer-reviewed journal articles and grey literature, the review captured a broad spectrum of knowledge, including unpublished theses and conference presentations. However, some studies were unintentionally omitted due to limited access, and the exclusion of non-English language studies may have skewed the geographic analysis of the literature. Additionally, the reliance on self-reported data in many studies introduces potential biases that should be addressed in future research.

CONCLUSIONS

This study sought to review the literature on the benefits of BJJ for veterans and first responders, focusing on physical, mental, and social health outcomes. It answers this study’s research question and presents the current knowledge for each identified theme, providing opportunities for future research. This scoping review will aid in building a more comprehensive understanding of BJJ’s therapeutic mechanisms and significantly contribute to optimizing its application in rehabilitative and therapeutic settings. A growing body of research is being conducted globally on BJJ’s benefits. The current literature reveals substantial evidence of BJJ’s positive impact on physical fitness, mental health, and social integration. However, the varying methodologies and outcomes of the included studies indicate that more rigorous research is needed to elucidate BJJ’s mechanisms of action fully. This scoping review provides an impetus for further research on BJJ’s effects on specific populations, including adaptive training for individuals with disabilities and integrating technological advancements in training. Studies included in this scoping review only scratched the surface of these variables and their impact on the well-being of veterans and first responders. Future research should aim to expand on these findings to develop a more comprehensive understanding of BJJ’s potential as a therapeutic tool.

APPLICATIONS IN SPORT

Integrating BJJ into training programs for veterans and first responders provides a versatile approach to enhancing their physical, mental, and social well-being. Coaches and trainers can leverage BJJ to significantly improve cardiovascular health, muscular strength, and endurance, which are essential for the physically demanding roles of these professionals. The mental health benefits of BJJ are particularly noteworthy; the studies in this review show it reduces symptoms of PTSD, depression, and anxiety, thereby promoting emotional resilience and effective stress management. Furthermore, BJJ’s structured and strategic nature supports mental acuity and decision-making under pressure, which are necessary skills for operational effectiveness. Socially, BJJ offers a sense of community and mutual support, aiding in the social integration of veterans and first responders and mitigating feelings of isolation. By incorporating BJJ into their training regimes, coaches and trainers can deliver a holistic program that enhances physical fitness and supports psychological health and social connectivity, ultimately improving the overall recovery, resilience, and operational readiness of veterans and first responders. This comprehensive approach underscores BJJ’s value as a therapeutic intervention in sports training programs for these populations.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors confirm that all the research in this work has met ethical guidelines and adhered to the legal requirements of the United States of America. In addition, the principal investigator is compliant with the Collaborative Institutional Training Initiative (CITI) Program on social and behavioral researchers and social and behavioral responsible conduct of research training. Furthermore, this work was not funded, the authors declare no conflict of interest, and it did not contain studies with human participants or animals performed by the principal investigator.

References

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²Arksey, H., & O’malley, L. (2005). Scoping studies: towards a methodological framework. International journal of social research methodology, 8(1), 19-32.

³BJJ training data documents a reduction in injuries. (2021). Marietta, GA. https://www.mariettaga.gov/CivicAlerts.aspx?AID=3116#:~:text=MPD%20officers%20participating%20in%20Brazilian,arrested%20when%20force%20was%20required

⁴Blomqvist Mickelsson, T. (2021). Brazilian jiu-jitsu as social and psychological therapy: a systematic review. Journal of Physical Education and Sport, 21(3), 1544-1552.

⁵Collura, G. L. (2018). Brazilian Jiu Jitsu: A tool for veteran reassimilation. University of South Florida.

⁶Fender, R. (2024). Benefits of Brazilian jiu-jitsu for soldier rehabilitation. www.army.mil. https://www.army.mil/article/273135/benefits_of_brazilian_jiu_jitsu_for_soldier_rehabilitation

⁷Howard, R. (2022). Improving Use of Force Training for Officers. Florida Department of Law Enforcement. https://www.fdle.state.fl.us/FCJEI/Programs/SLP/Documents/Full-Text/Howard,-Rocky-paper.aspx

⁸Jiu-jitsu supporting veterans with PTSD. (n.d.). Mad Science Judo & Jiu-Jitsu. https://madsciencejudoandjiujitsu.com/blog/142261/Jiu-Jitsu-Supporting-Veterans-with-PTSD

⁹Kilby, T. (2022). The benefits of jiu-jitsu beyond technique. Police1. https://www.police1.com/health-wellness/articles/the-benefits-of-jiu-jitsu-beyond-technique-WaVZI8zAQXh9Gx5S/

¹⁰Rogers, K., Jones, P., & Burne, K. (2021). Marietta Police Department measurably improves officer outcomes with the BJJ program. Jitsmagazine.com. https://jitsmagazine.com/marietta-police-department-measurably-improves-officer-outcomes-with-bjj-program/.

¹¹Tricco, A. C., Lillie, E., Zarin, W., O’Brien, K. K., Colquhoun, H., Levac, D., … & Straus, S. E. (2018). PRISMA extension for scoping reviews (PRISMA-ScR): checklist and explanation. Annals of internal medicine, 169(7), 467-473.

¹²Weinberger, K., & Burraston, T. (2021). Benefits of Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu in Managing Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder: A Longitudinal Study. Journal of Community Engagement & Scholarship, 13(4).

¹³Willing, A. E., Girling, S., Deichert, R., Wood-Deichert, R., Gonzalez, J., Hernandez, D., Foran, E., Sanberg, P. R., & Kip, K. E. (2019). Brazilian jiu-jitsu training for us service members and veterans with symptoms of PTSD. Military Medicine, 184(11-12), e626–e631. https://doi.org/10.1093/milmed/usz074

George Minoso2024-08-27T15:53:24-05:00August 30th, 2024|General, Sport Training, Sports Exercise Science|Comments Off

Navigating Darkness: College Athlete Suicide, Support Systems, and Shadows of Depression

Authors: Matt Moore, Ph. D, MSW ¹, Anne M. W. Kelly, Ph. D ², Lana Loken, Ed. D. ATC ², Mastano N. Dzimbiri, MS ¹, Payton Bennett, student

Corresponding Author:

Matt Moore, Ph. D, MSW
Chair and Faculty, Family Science and Social Work Department
Miami University
501 E. High Street
Email: moorem28@miamioh.edu

Coaches’ Perspectives of the Influence of Safe Sport-Related Education

ABSTRACT

Purpose: An increase in mental health concerns and suicide among young adults led to a sharpened research focus on suicide and college athletes. In this study, we investigated the relationship between college athletes’ risk of depression, suicidality, and their support system and whether preventing suicide deaths requires identification of commonly cited risk factors. Methods: Voluntary college athletes aged 18-years-old or older and attending an NAIA member institution participated in the study (n = 361). They completed a web-based instrument that consisted of the following: (1) demographic questionnaire, (2) Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9), (3) Berlin Social Support Scale, and (4) Columbia Suicide Severity Rating Scale. Results: Between 5-18% of college athletes responded affirmatively to one of the questions asking about suicidality. There was a significant moderate negative correlation between the suicide predictor and the PHQ-9 score and significant weak positive correlations between the suicide predictor and perceived emotional support and between the suicide predictor and perceived instrumental support. Conclusion: This study identified findings that might be useful to practitioners and opened new lines for future research. Applications in Sport: College athletic programs and university counseling centers are poised to enhance our understanding of student-athletes’ suicidal distress and how to respond by making use of qualitative research methods. We strongly recommend adopting this strategy to address depression and suicidal ideation.

Keywords: prevention, student-athletes, mental health, risk factors

Introduction
Despite growing openness about mental health struggles, a disparity still exists between physical and mental health (Gorczynski et al., 2023; Moore et al., 2022), fostering stigma and hindering help-seeking behavior (Moore, 2017), particularly among college students (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2021). While mental health diagnoses in the college student population is a longstanding challenge, the COVID-19 pandemic increased stressors placed on the college student population leading to increased risks (Gupta & Agrawal, 2021; MacDonald & Neville, 2023).

According to the CDC (2021), mental health concerns and suicidal thoughts are increasing for youth and young adults. Forty percent of those surveyed showed signs and symptoms of depression and 20% said they had thoughts of suicide. These trends are similar to studies on college student mental health and suicidality (Barclay et al., 2023; Schmiedehaus et al., 2023). According to the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA, 2017) individuals aged 18-25 reported a 3% increase in major depressive episodes from 2015-2017. Additionally,18.9% of individuals 18 and above reported experiencing a mental illness in the past year, with 7.5% reporting a serious mental health illness (SAMHSA, 2017). A second SAMHSA (2021) study found 33.7% of individuals aged 18-25 reported a mental illness and 11.4% reported a serious mental illness.
In addition to concerns about serious mental health illness, SAMHSA (2021) found an increase in rates of suicidal behavior. Specifically, 10.5% reported having serious thoughts of suicide, 3.7% created a suicide plan, and 1.9% attempted suicide. Research by Rosenthal et al. (2023) found higher rates with 13.7% of college students reporting suicide ideation, 7.6% making a suicide plan, and 3.2% reporting at least one suicide attempt. In 2021 suicide became the leading cause of death for those aged 20-24 (CDC, 2023).
One subset of the college student population is college athletes. Recently, discussion of their mental health increased. Researchers attempted to explore the intersectional identity of student athletes and the effect that this role strain may have on mental health (Gorczynski et al., 2023; Moore et al., 2022). Quantifying mental health and suicide risk in this group is challenging, with conflicting results on the link between depression, support systems, and suicide. Many researchers see sport participation as a protective factor for mental health risk due to the social support provided by the team (Hui et al., 2023; Sullivan et al., 2020). But additional pressures like failure to successfully compete or live up to expectations, loss of social structure due to injury or retirement from sport, or time demands of the sport in addition to being a college student can increase the risk (Moore, 2017; Moore et al., 2022). This study builds upon existing research by looking more closely at the relationship between a college athletes’ risk of depression, suicidality, and their support system.

College Athletes and Depression
According to the American Psychological Association (2020), depression is one of the most common mental health disorders in the United States. Depression might include emotional, cognitive, physical, and/or behavioral symptoms and is best understood on a continuum of severity, rather than either present or not present. Findings amongst college athletes demonstrate that depression rates align with rates of the general population of college students (hovering around 25%) (Prinz et al., 2016; Wolanin et al., 2016), and some revealed that athletes have higher rates of depression (over 30%) than the general population (Cox, 2015). While many studies find similar rates between college athletes and their non-athlete peers, others show participation in college athletics can decrease one’s risk for depression (Banu, 2019; Salehioan et al., 2012).
Although some research shows athletic participation may protect against mental illness, there is still reason for concern for college athletes. A current study by the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA, 2022) surveyed almost 10,000 NCAA athletes from all three competitive division levels. Results showed athletes of all competition levels demonstrated elevated levels of mental exhaustion, anxiety, and depression. These levels were nearly two times higher than pre-pandemic levels. The top three factors negatively affecting mental health were academic worries (44%), planning for the future (37%), and financial worries (26%). Only 50% of college athletes believed mental health was a priority for their athletic department, 33% of college athletes did not know where to go to seek mental health services, and as many as 17% of college athletes reported feeling hopeless.

College Athletes and Suicide
Suicide risk in athletes is difficult to determine due to underreporting and misclassification of many sudden deaths. Over the past two decades the NCAA attempted to determine the risk of suicide specific to college athletes. Rao et al. (2015) reported that 7.3% of all athlete deaths were suicides, making suicide the fourth leading cause of death for college athletes. Previously, Miller and Hoffman (2009) found approximately 5% of student-athletes contemplated suicide. Much like research on college athlete depression, some research demonstrates sport protects against suicidality (Maron et al., 2014). This study’s findings highlight the importance of promoting participation in diverse sporting activities among college students given that engaging in such activities safeguards against depression and suicidal ideation by nurturing self-esteem and bolstering social support.

College Athletes and Social Support
The discrepancy in the literature may be accounted for by the supports that are available to college athletes and their willingness to seek such supports (Sullivan et al., 2020). One of the most discussed supports is the team environment. Sullivan et al. (2020) analyzed the effects of social supports on depressive symptoms in college athletes. They found emotional support from teammates, family, and friends was correlated with a decrease in depressive symptoms. Other more formal or instrumental supports that reduced depression included the availability of tutoring and health services, including mental health providers with specialization with athletes.
Social support has not been as extensively studied in the college athlete population. Studies show links between social support and burnout as well as social support and overall wellbeing in college athletes (Defreese & Smith, 2014). Research identified social support as an important component in allowing athletes to balance school and athletics (Carter-Francique, 2015). Many college athletes have strong social support networks naturally, such as relationships with teammates, coaches, medical staff, and other resources provided by the athletic department (Armstrong & Oomen-Early, 2009). They also have supportive relationships, such as family and friends, outside of athletics.
Despite knowledge of these available supports and benefits they offer college athletes, exploring the utilization of built-in athletic supports and personal supports unique to an individual athlete remains understudied. Much of the research tends to oversimplify social support. Due to its dynamic and complex nature, social support among college athletes merits further investigation. Research has not examined the differences in the type of perceived social support in collegiate athletics as it relates to levels of depressive symptoms and suicidality.

Present Study
Overall, the research on mental health issues, including depression and suicide in collegiate athletes is inconclusive. More research is needed to determine what factors put athletes at risk for severe mental health concerns and suicide. The purpose of this study was to investigate whether there is a relationship between levels of depression and suicide risk and levels of social support among National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA) college athletes. The NAIA does not have data available on connectedness between depression, social support, and suicide.

Methods

Procedures

Research Design
The current exploratory study utilized a cross-sectional, web-based survey design to gather data from NAIA college athletes. Considering the size of the NAIA student-athlete population, confidence level, confidence intervals, statistical test, and statistical power, the minimum sample for this study was 47 college athletes (Faul et al., 2007). Researchers identified athletic trainers through the NAIA database to establish contact information. Athletic trainers provided survey information to their assigned college athletes. This approach was successful in other NAIA research efforts (Moore & Abbe, 2021).

Sampling
The exploratory study utilized a stratified random sampling procedure to identify college athlete participants. Researchers divided the NAIA college athlete population into subgroups, or strata, based on sports available throughout the NAIA. This included a stratum for each of the 17 sports with separate stratum for each gender that participates in a sport. Next, researchers identified NAIA member institutions that participated in each of the 17 sports. Each institution participating in a sport received a random number. Researchers selected random numbers to identify the member institutions that would participate in the survey from each sport. This approach ensured all member institutions participating in various sports had an equal opportunity for inclusion.

Participants
Voluntary college athletes aged 18-years-old or older and attending an NAIA member institution participated in the study (n = 361). Most participants were 18-21 years old (53.5%, 46.5% indicated being over the age of 21). Survey participants were primarily juniors (30.7%, 23.8% sophomores, 23.1% first years, 22.1% seniors of graduate students). More women completed the survey (59.8%, 40.2% men). Most participants who reported race/ethnicity were White/Caucasian (55.4%, 21.9% Hispanic or Latino, 14.9% Black or African American, 6.6% multiracial, 1.2% from other groups).

Table 1.

NAIA Institutional Demographic Information

University Demographic	%
Private	20.2%
Public	79.8%
Suburban	33.3%
Urban	33.9%
Rural	32.8%
Faith Based	62.9%
Non-Faith Based	37.1%

Participants recorded which NAIA athletic team they were primarily affiliated with (20.2% baseball, 19.9% soccer, 12.5% track volleyball, 8.0% softball, 6.4% cross country, 6.1% basketball, with all other sports being under 5% each [e.g., football, bowling, cheer, dance, track and field, swimming and diving, golf, tennis, and lacrosse]). Participants were further examined regarding NAIA college/university demographics (See Table 1). Participants also responded to whether or not they receiving mental health training from their college of university before participating in sport. The largest majority (n = 229, 63.7%) indicated they did not receive such training. The other 36.3% (n= 132) indicated they did receive some form of training.
[Insert Table One]

Measures and Instruments

College athletes completed a web-based instrument that consisted of the following: (1) demographic questionnaire (see above demographics), (2) Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9; Kroenke et al., 1999), (3) Berlin Social Support Scale (BSSS; Shulz & Schwarzer, 2003), and (4) the Columbia Suicide Severity Rating Scale (C-SSRS; Posner et al., 2011).

Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9)
The PHQ-9 is a self-administered version of the PRIME-MD diagnostic instrument for common mental disorders (Kroenke et al., 2001). It is used to make criteria-based diagnoses of depressive and other mental disorders commonly encountered in primary care. This is a 9-item depression module upon which the diagnosis of Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM) depressive disorders is based. Reliability and validity of the tool have indicated it has sound psychometric properties. Internal consistency of the PHQ-9 has been shown to be high (American Psychological Association, 2020). There is precedent for using the PHQ-9 in research with college athletes (DaCosta et al., 2020; LoGalbo et al., 2022).

Berlin Social Support Scale (BSSS)
The researchers measured the degree of emotional and tangible support using the BSSS (Schulz & Schwarzer, 2003). This scale measured perceived emotional and instrumental supports, need for support, and support seeking. There are 17 items on the BSSS that are answered using a five-point Likert scale with endpoints “1 = Strongly Disagree” and “4 = Strongly Agree.” The researchers used a mean score for each of the subscales (perceived emotional support, perceived instrumental support, need for support, and support seeking). The scale has a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.83 for perceived social support, 0.63 for need for support, and 0.83 for support seeking (DiMillo et al., 2017). The scale has a prior history of use within college athletics (Sullivan et al., 2020)

Columbia Suicide Severity Rating Scale (C-SSRS)
The C-SSRS was developed by researchers from Columbia, Pennsylvania, and Pittsburgh Universities to evaluate suicidal ideation and behavior (Posner et al., 2011). The scale provides a brief assessment of severity and intensity of suicidal ideation, suicidal behavior, and lethality (Syndergaard et al., 2023). The screener version used in this study consisted of six “yes” or “no” questions. Based on participant responses to the six questions, participants were considered low, moderate, or high risk. The C-SSRS has excellent internal consistency (α = 0.95). Principal components analysis revealed a two-factor solution, accounting for 65.3% of the variance across items (Madan et al., 2016). There is limited research on the use of the C-SSRS with the athlete population (Costanza et al., 2021).

Data Collection
Researchers contacted the athletic training staff at all sampled NAIA member institutions. Athletic training staff received the list of teams from their institution for inclusion in data collection. Researchers provided athletic training staff detailed instructions for data collection and a copy of the informed consent. Athletic training staff distributed the electronic survey to their college athletes. College athletes were able to opt-out of the survey at any time. The survey took approximately 15-20 minutes to complete. Researchers recorded survey results into a statistical software program (SPSS 28) on a secure, private platform.

Data Analysis
Researchers utilized descriptive statistics to provide details about the sample and overall survey results. Researchers used inferential statistics to infer information from the sample data to the overall NAIA student-athlete population.

To investigate the first research objective, an initial correlation analysis was conducted to examine whether having any safe sport training was related to increases in coaching outcomes. The safe sport training variable was transformed so that coaches who answered “yes” to completing any of the safe sport training courses were coded as 1 and coaches who had answered “no” to completing all the safe sport training courses were coded as 0 (i.e., no SS training=0, any SS training=1). This variable was included in a correlation analysis with all coaching outcomes: knowledge & confidence, safe sport stress, stress over athlete well-being, and efficacy to support others. To investigate the second research objective, four separate linear regression models were constructed with the sum of completed safe sport training courses (range =1-12) as the independent variable, and the following coaching outcomes as respective dependent variables: knowledge & confidence, safe sport stress, stress about athlete well-being, and efficacy to support others. In all four models, the coaching context, whether training was required (0=no, 1=yes), and whether training was free (0=no, 1=yes) were included as covariates. To address the third research objective, ANOVAs were conducted with individual safe sport courses as independent variables, and the following coaching outcomes as dependent variables: knowledge & confidence, efficacy to support others, safe sport stress, stress about athlete well-being and efficacy to support others. All analyses were conducted using IBM SPSS Statistics (Version 28) (20).

Results

Results
Descriptive Statistics
College athletes answered each item from the C-SSRS. Descriptive findings from this scale indicated that 18.3% of participants wished to be dead, 18,3% had non-specific active suicidal thoughts, 13.6% had active suicidal ideation without intent to act, 6.1% had active suicidal ideation with some intent to act, and 5.0% had active suicidal ideation with a specific plan and intent to act. Of the 361 college athlete respondents, 25.8% answers “yes” to at least one of the questions on the scale.

College athletes completed the PHQ-9 as a brief screening tool for potential depressive symptoms. Results of the PHQ-9 and the percent of athletes at risk of depression for each item can be found in Table 2.

Table 2. PHQ-9 Scores for NAIA College Athletes

Question	Mean (SD) (% At Risk)
Little interest or pleasure in doing things?	1.81 (0.91) (22.1%)
Feeling down, depressed, or hopeless?	1.68 (0.81) (14.1%)
Trouble falling asleep or sleeping too much?	2.06 (1.05) (30.2%)
Feeling tired or having little energy?	2.17 (0.92) (29.1%)
Poor appetite or overeating?	1.81 (0.96) (21.3%)
Feeling bad about yourself?	1.75 (0.93) (18.6%)
Trouble concentrating on things?	1.69 (0.96) (17.2%)
Moving or speaking so slowly that people could have notice? Or more fidgety and restless than usual?	1.34 (0.69) (7.8%)
Thoughts that you would be better off dead?	1.21 (0.53) (4.1%)

Evaluation of Assumptions

College athletes also completed the BSSS. Results of the BSSS and the percent of athletes at risk of limited social support in various areas can be found in Table 3. These are only the scale items where there were significant concerns about perceived emotional support, perceived instrumental support, need for support, and support seeking.

BSSS Scores for NAIA College Athletes

Question	Mean (SD) (% At Risk)
Whenever I am not feeling well, other people show me that they are fond of me?	3.14 (0.82) (17.2%)
When everything becomes too much for me to handle, others are there to help me?	3.21 (0.83) (18.3%)
I get along best without any outside help?	2.48 (0.81) (48.7%)
In critical situations, I prefer to ask others for their advice?	3.00 (0.79) (23.0%)
Whenever I am down, I look for someone to cheer me up again?	2.51 (0.89) (49.6%)
When I am worried, I reach out to someone to talk to?	2.69 (0.93) (38.2%)
Whenever I need help, I ask for it.	2.70 (0.96) (39%)

Researchers used correlation analysis to assess the relationship between a college student-athletes predictor of suicide with their score on the PHQ-9, perceived emotional support, perceived instrumental support, level of needed support, level of support sought, and mental health training.

Prior to conducting the analysis, researchers generated several statistics and graphs to examine the tests of assumption, including level of measurement, related pairs, absence of outliers, and linearity.

Results of the Correlational Analysis
Researchers computed a Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient to assess the relationship between a college student-athletes suicide predictor and their PHQ-9 score, perceived emotional support, perceived instrumental support, level of needed support, and level of support sought. There was a significant (p < 0.001) moderate negative correlation, r = -.462, N = 361 between the suicide predictor and score on the PHQ-9. There was a significant (p < 0.001) weak positive correlation, r = .236, N = 361 between the suicide predictor and perceived emotional support. A similar significant (p < 0.001) weak positive correlation, r = .255, N = 361 between suicide predictor and perceived instrumental support. A college student-athlete’s exposure to mental health training, perceived level of needed support, and level of support sought did not appear to be suicide predictors.

Discussion

In this study, we investigated whether preventing suicide deaths requires the identification of factors that are associated with people’s risk of suicidal behavior. Commonly cited risk factors for suicidal thoughts and behaviors are depression and inadequate support. Association between major depressive disorder (MDD) and suicide attempts or ideation has been well-documented. Accordingly, depression has been considered a necessary or sufficient cause of suicidal thoughts. But much is unknown about the characteristics that increase suicide risk among people living with depression (Bradvik, 2018). Many mechanisms could play a role in suicidal behavior among people with MDD, and, although suicidal behavior occurs among people with major depressive disorder, depression is not necessarily a useful tool for understanding the complexity of suicide (Orsolini et al., 2020).

Most people with depression do not attempt suicide. Diagnosis of MDD requires a simultaneous presentation of several specific symptoms. Approximately, 17 million American adults will have symptoms of MDD each year, but only around 45,000-50,000 Americans will die by suicide during that same time. Considered independently of other risk factors, MDD may put one at greater risk, meaning that those with this disorder are more likely than those without it to die by suicide. But still very few of those with MDD will go on to die by suicide; reliance on depression to predict suicidality is inadvisable. This is supported by Ribeiro et al. (2018), who reviewed existing literature on the subject and showed that although depressive symptoms were reported to confer risk of suicidality, the effects were weaker than expected.

Melhem et al. (2019) demonstrated that the most severe depressive symptoms and variability over time were the only predictors of suicide attempt in young adults, especially when combined with other factors (e.g., childhood abuse, history of attempt, substance use disorder, and parental attempt). But prediction was marginally better than chance, perhaps because suicidal risk varies during a psychiatric illness and may be linked to other factors that appear during depressive episodes. Orsolini et al. (2020) showed that anxiety disorders co-occurring with MDD are among the main predictors of attempts. Several factors interact and contribute to suicidal behavior and death by suicide. These may include major depressive disorder, but interactions with other factors, such as genetic vulnerability, stress, psychiatric comorbidities, and social aspects need to be evaluated to improve prevention (Orsolini et al., 2020).
Results from our research showed a moderate negative correlation between the suicide predictor and score on the PHQ-9, challenging the assumption that depression is a necessary or sufficient cause of suicidal thoughts. This lends support to the idea that traditional risk factors can be problematic and that their predictive value has not improved over the past 50 years (Franklin et al., 2017; Fortune & Hetrick, 2022).

Bradvik (2018) also acknowledged that depression is related to suicidal ideation and attempt but is not a good predictor. Bradvik (2018) pointed to results from the Australian Rural Mental Health Study in which only 364 out of 1051 respondents reported life-time depression. Of those 364 respondents, 48% reported life-time suicidal ideation and 16% reported a suicide attempt. Gender, age of depression onset, and possibly psychiatric comorbidities were somewhat predictive of suicide behavior, but no other predictive factors were revealed. These results were echoed by Melhem et al. (2019).

The limits of risk factors to accurately predict suicide is further strengthened by our finding that an increase in emotional social support was weakly associated with an increase in suicide risk, contradicting earlier research that showed suicidal distress was worse when emotional social support was low (Ayub, 2015; Otsuki et al., 2019). Similarly, instrumental social support (i.e., support that helps people with practical tasks) was weakly associated with suicide risk, contradicting findings from Otsuki et al. (2019).
After a concussion, athletes experience a range of psychological symptoms, with depression and anxiety being among the most reported (Kontos et al., 2012). Symptoms can include loss of interest in activities that were once enjoyable, persistent sadness, physical and mental fatigue, and changes in sleep patterns. These negative outcomes may be more pronounced in athletes who attach a great degree of importance to the athlete’s role in relation to other activities (Brewer et al., 1993; Raedeke & Smith, 2001) and can be made worse by changes in lifestyle, the loss of social support that team members provided, and even personality traits. One such trait is maladaptive perfectionism.
Maladaptive perfectionists are overly critical of mistakes. They strive for excessively high and ultimately unobtainable goals. This usually results in failure, which can be painful, especially for athletes with maladaptive perfectionism, who may lack resilience to bounce back from stressful experiences. This unhealthy perfectionism is associated with higher levels of depressive symptoms (Egan et al., 2011; Olmedilla et al., 2022). Additionally, perfectionists can struggle with time management, not setting realistic timelines for getting things done or because they are paralyzed by the prospect of failure. Time management is one of the most difficult aspects of participating in college sports (Rothschild-Checroune et al., 2013).

Taken together, injury and concussion, personality traits (e.g., maladaptive perfectionism), and external factors (e.g., time constraints) can contribute to negative mental health outcomes among student-athletes and may increase suicidal distress. College athletic programs and university counseling centers are poised to improve our understanding of the nature of suicidal distress among student-athletes face and how to respond by making use of qualitative research methods, which we recommend. We urge university administrators to dedicate more resources to building and integrating academic and co-curricular resilience programs into their campuses and rely less on risk assessment that focuses on commonly cited factors (e.g., depression) to predict suicide.

Study Limitations
While efforts were made to decrease discomfort with the survey, it is possible college athletes felt pressure to respond in particular ways out of personal and/or athletic concerns. This study also relied upon self-reported data. Without having the ability to verify participant responses, there was no way of knowing the legitimacy or honesty of participants’ responses. The study was unable to control the multiple covariates or confounding variables that influence a college suicidality and mental health. Finally, our study lacked a detailed exploration of how specific socio-demographic characteristics, such as race, gender, and class status, might influence suicidal ideation and other risk behaviors among college athletes.

Future Research
The complex interplay between core risk factors in individuals and heightened suicide risk among athletes necessitates further exploration. Future research should focus on understanding the repercussions of escalated demands on athletes’ mental well-being, particularly the impact of significant situational factors such as career-ending injuries on their mental health and suicide vulnerability. Additionally, there is a need to delve into the connection between suicide rates, race, and gender among collegiate students for a more comprehensive understanding of these dynamics.

Conclusion
This study examined the relationship between college athletes’ risk of depression, suicidality, and their support system and whether preventing suicide deaths requires identification of commonly cited risk factor. The results are quite different from previous research findings, revealing a moderate negative correlation between the suicide predictor and scores on the PHQ-9, adding nuance to the presumption that depression is either a necessary or sufficient factor for the emergence of suicidal thoughts. College athletic programs and university counseling centers are poised to enhance our understanding of student-athletes’ suicidal distress and how to respond by making use of qualitative research methods. We strongly recommend adopting this strategy to address depression and suicidal ideation.

Applications in Sport
Studying suicide in college sports has practical applications that can help improve the well-being and safety of college athletes. By examining the factors that contribute to suicidal ideation and behavior in college sports, researchers and practitioners can develop targeted interventions and support systems to address mental health challenges. For instance, such studies may lead to the creation of tailored mental health resources for student-athletes, including counseling services and peer support networks. Furthermore, understanding the unique stressors faced by student-athletes, such as performance pressure and balancing academics with athletics, can inform the design of preventative measures such as stress management and resilience training programs. Additionally, awareness campaigns can be created to destigmatize mental health struggles in sports, encouraging athletes to seek help when needed. Overall, studying suicide in college sports can lead to a safer and more supportive environment for student-athletes, promoting their overall health and success.

References

References
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Qshequilla Parham Mitchell2024-07-03T13:38:41-05:00July 5th, 2024|General, Research, Sport Education, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|Comments Off

Coaches’ Perspectives of the Influence of Safe Sport-Related Education

Authors: Anthony Battaglia¹, Ph.D., Gretchen Kerr², Ph.D., and Stephanie Buono², Ph.D.

Corresponding Author:

Anthony Battaglia, Ph.D., CMPC

Faculty of Kinesiology and Physical Education

University of Toronto

55 Harbord Street, ON, Canada, M5S 2W6

Email: anthony.battaglia@mail.utoronto.ca

Anthony Battaglia, Ph.D., CMPC is a Postdoctoral Fellow and lecturer in the Faculty of Kinesiology & Physical Education at the University of Toronto. His research interests focus on youth athletes’ sport experiences, relational dynamics in sport, athlete maltreatment, and strategies for advancing developmentally appropriate and safe sport.

Gretchen Kerr, Ph.D. is a Full Professor and Dean of the Faculty of Kinesiology and Physical Education at the University of Toronto. She is also a co-Director of E-Alliance, the Canadian Gender Equity in Sport Research Hub.

Stephanie Buono, Ph.D. is a research associate in the Faculty of Kinesiology & Physical Education at the University of Toronto and an instructor in the Department of Applied Psychology & Human Development at the University of Toronto.

Coaches’ Perspectives of the Influence of Safe Sport-Related Education

ABSTRACT

To combat growing concerns of sport being unsafe for athletes, compulsory safe sport education has been developed worldwide. Much of this education has focused on the role of the coach, largely due to their position of power, prevalence rates that highlight coaches as common perpetrators of harm, and their direct contact with athletes. However, there is a lack of research examining the impact of such education for coaching-related outcomes. The purpose of this study was to explore the influences of safe sport training on coaches’ knowledge and confidence, efficacy to support others, stress about athlete well-being, and stress related to safe sport issues. In an online survey, 1365 coaches reported completion of any of 12 possible safe sport training courses and their knowledge and confidence, efficacy to support others, stress about athlete well-being, and stress related to safe sport issues. Regression analyses indicated that completing any of the 12 safe sport-related training courses was related to perceived increased efficacy to support others. Completing a higher number of safe sport training courses was related to perceived increases in efficacy to support others and knowledge and confidence, but not stress related to safe sport or athlete well-being. All 12 courses were related to increased knowledge and confidence, and several courses were related to increased efficacy to support others and reduced safe sport stress, while one course was related to reduced stress about athlete-well-being. Future research is needed to examine whether improvements in coaching outcomes associated with safe sport training translate into practice.

Key Words: Safe Sport; Coaches; Education; Coaching Outcomes;

Over the last several years, numerous reports of concerning behaviors in sport, such as maltreatment have emerged worldwide (15, 25). Maltreatment, which refers to “volitional acts that result in or have the potential to result in physical injuries and/or psychological harm” (12, p. 3), which include psychological, sexual, physical abuse, and neglect, harassment, bullying, and discrimination. To combat such concerns, policies and educational initiatives have been developed and implemented under the term ‘safe sport’ (26). The term safe sport initially emerged in response to scandals involving sexual abuse but has since expanded to refer to participation in sport free from all forms of violence, abuse, discrimination, and harassment (21, 39). More recently, broader conceptualizations of safe sport have also considered issues of environmental and physical safety (e.g., dysfunctional equipment, performance enhancing drugs), and the optimization of the sport experience (i.e., inclusive, accessible, growth-enhancing, and rights-based participation for all) (18). To advance safe sport, compulsory education has been developed; examples of existing safe sport education programmes include Australia’s Play by the Rules, U.S. Center for SafeSport Training, and the UK’s Child Protection in Sport Unit (24, 26).

Although safe sport education is needed for all sport stakeholders, including athletes, coaches, parents, administrators, officials and support staff, to-date, education has focused largely on coach-athlete dynamics, addressing issues such as harmful coaching practices, power relations, and duty to report harm (24, 26). There is a strong rationale for safe sport training focused on coaches. Consistent across many bodies of research in sport is acknowledgement of the presence and effects of the position of power and authority held by coaches over stakeholders in the sport ecosystem, including subordinate coaches, parents, athletes, and administrators (23, 38). When used inappropriately, these positions of power leave others vulnerable to experiences of harm. For example, psychological abuse (or what some refer to as psychological violence), the most prevalent form of athlete maltreatment, is most often perpetrated by coaches (42, 45, 48). Given their direct contact with other coaches, support staff, athletes and/or teams daily, coaches also significantly impact the type of culture promoted (e.g., win-at-all-costs versus caring or athlete-centred) and the nature and quality of athletes’ experiences (32). Coaches who are provided professional development and educational opportunities regarding positive sport practices are more likely to create environments where athletes experience enjoyment, competence, meaningful relationships, learning, satisfaction, reduced anxiety, and sport maintenance (6, 16, 36).

Although growing awareness of athlete maltreatment and the role of the coach in preventing these experiences has resulted in the proliferation of safe sport education initiatives for coaches globally, little research exists on the impact of such education for coaching-related outcomes (24, 26). In 2013, McMahon (28) investigated how a narrative pedagogical approach (i.e., athletes’ stories) might help swim coaches from amateur and elite levels understand the welfare implications for athletes subjected to emotionally or physically abusive coaching practices. Findings revealed that coaches gained increased empathy and undertook a more athlete-centered approach to coaching post-education, however, dominant cultural ideologies (e.g., winning) persisted in the coaches’ thinking and practice. Likewise, in 2018, Nurse (30) examined child sexual abuse prevention training for adults who work with children in schools, churches, and athletic leagues; with regards to coaches specifically, the training improved coaches’ knowledge on the topic and increased their confidence in their ability to identify abuse. These preliminary findings highlight the potential benefits of training for coaches; however, it is important to note that the education programmes were restricted to specific populations, sports, forms of harm, small sample sizes, and the effects of long-term behavioral change remained unclear. Further research examining the impact of safe sport training for coaches is required.

In Canada, the country of interest in this study, safe sport educational modules (e.g., NCCP Make Ethical Decisions, Safe Sport Training) (7, 9) have been developed by the Coaching Association of Canada (CAC), which is responsible for certifying and educating coaches across Canada. The CAC has also promoted safe sport standards and expectations for organizations and its coaches, including the Responsible Coaching Movement- a pledge to learn and apply consistent safety principles. The pillars of the Responsible Coaching Movement include the Rule of Two, which attempts to ensure all interactions and communications are in open, observable, and justifiable settings; background screening; and ethics training (8). In the province of Ontario, the Coaches Association of Ontario- an independent, non-profit organization that supports coaches from community level to high performance across all sports in Ontario- has adopted similar safe sport efforts and developed resources, such as Safe Sport 101 and the Ontario Coaches Conference (10). The goals of such initiatives include but are not limited to improving the knowledge of coaches with respect to safe sport, increasing their confidence in enacting desirable coaching behaviors, creating positive sport climates, and facilitating the holistic development of athletes. To-date, the extent to which these educational initiatives meet these goals for Canadian coaches has not been examined.

While safe sport education for coaches has commonly focused on enhancing knowledge of harmful or prohibited conduct, enhancing confidence in using desired behaviors, and supporting stakeholders’ (e.g., athletes, coaches, support staff) development and well-being, there remains a lack of research examining the influence of safe sport training on coaching-related outcomes (24, 26). In this study, the constructs of knowledge, confidence, efficacy, and stress were of interest. Despite recognizing their influential role, many coaches admit inadequate knowledge to cultivate safe sport environments (25); as cultivating safe sport environments is also a collective effort, it remains important that coaches feel efficacious in their ability to support all participants (31). Given the prevalence of mental health challenges in sport, coaches have expressed stress related to supporting athletes’ mental well-being (1, 3). Further, in response to the public attention paid to cases of athlete maltreatment and the focus on coaches as perpetrators of harm, coaches have reportedly felt stress about potential false accusations; specifically, concerns of negative touch have been identified in research and practice, resulting in coaches and sport personnel being fearful and unsure of how to be around athletes with whom they interact (40).

The purpose of this study therefore to explore the influences of safe sport training on Ontario coaches’ knowledge and confidence, efficacy to support others, stress about athlete well-being, and stress related to safe sport issues. Specifically, the first objective was to examine whether safe sport training improved coaches’ knowledge and confidence, efficacy to support others, stress about athlete well-being, and stress related to safe sport issues. The second objective was to examine whether the effect of safe sport training on coaches increased with the number of safe sport training courses. The third objective was to examine whether certain courses were related to coaches’ knowledge and confidence, efficacy to support others, stress about athlete well-being, and stress related to safe sport issues.

Methods

Procedures

This study was conducted in partnership with the Coaches Association of Ontario (CAO). CAO is an independent, non-profit organization that supports coaches across all levels and sports in Ontario. Ontario has the largest population of all provinces in Ontario with over 15 million people and one in four Ontarians have coached in their lifetime (10). The CAO selected the safe sport-related courses of interest for evaluation (see Table 1). As such, within the context of the current study, a broad perspective of safe sport (i.e., from injuries to drug-free sport, planning appropriate practices, and maltreatment) was adopted. Upon receiving approval from the University of Toronto Health Sciences Research Ethics Board, coaches were contacted through the Coaches Association of Ontario (CAO) email listserv and social media posts (Facebook, Instagram, Twitter). Recruitment communication provided details about study eligibility/requirements, the purpose of the study, the voluntary nature of the study, confidentiality and anonymity, and the link to the online survey. The survey was administered with RED Cap electronic data capture. Participants were required to meet the following eligibility criteria to complete the online survey: 1) Ontario resident; 2) over the age of 16; and 3) had coached in the last two years. Following the confirmation of eligibility, participants were able to complete the survey, which took approximately 15-25 minutes (M=19.25) to complete.

Table 1. An overview of the Safe Sport Education modules evaluated in the current study.

Course	Overview
NCCP Emergency Action Planning https://coach.ca/nccp-emergency-action-plan	Upon completion of this module, coaches will be able to: describe the importance of having an EAP; identify when to activate the EAP; explain the responsibilities of the charge person and call person when the EAP is activated; and create a detailed EAP that includes all required information for responding to an emergency.
NCCP Planning a Practice https://coach.ca/nccp-planning-practice	Upon completion of this module, coaches will be able to: explain the importance of logistics in the development of a practice plan; establish an appropriate structure for a practice; and identify appropriate activities for each part of the practice. To receive full credit for this module, coaches must also complete NCCP Emergency Action Planning.
NCCP Making Head Way https://coach.ca/nccp-making-head-way-sport	Upon completion of this module, coaches will understand how to: prevent concussions; recognize the signs and symptoms of a concussion; what to do when they suspect an athlete has a concussion; and ensure athletes return to play safely.
NCCP Leading Drug-Free Sport https://coach.ca/nccp-leading-drug-free-sport	Upon completion of this module, coaches will be able to: understand and demonstrate their role in promoting drug free sport; assist athletes to recognize banned substances and the consequences as identified by the Canadian Centre for Ethics in Sport; reinforce the importance of fair play and the NCCP Code of Ethics; educate and provide support to athletes in drug testing protocols; and inform athletes on nutritional supplements.
NCCP Prevention and Recovery https://coach.ca/nccp-prevention-and-recovery	Upon completion of this module, coaches will be able to: identify common injuries in sport, prevention and recovery strategies; design and implement programs/activities to optimize athlete training, performance and recovery; and support athletes’ return to sport through awareness and proactive leadership.
Commit to Kids https://protectchildren.ca/en/get-involved/online-training/commit-to-kids-for-coaches/	Upon completion of this module, coaches will be able to: understand and recognize child sexual abuse and the grooming process; ways in which to handle disclosures of sexual abuse; the implications of sexual abuse; how to create a child protection code of conduct; and ways in which to enhance child and youth safety in sport.
Standard First Aid and CPR https://www.redcross.ca/training-and-certification/course-descriptions/first-aid-at-home-courses/standard-first-aid-cpr	Upon completion of this module, coaches will be able to: understand and apply vital life-saving knowledge/skills essential for meeting a variety of workplace/professional requirements.
HeadStartPro https://headstartpro.com/coach-course/	Upon completion of this module coaches will be able to: understand and develop a set of coaching tools to improve team performance and injury-prevention; and assist athletes and/or teams in achieving their full potential with performance-driven injury prevention training.
NCCP Making Ethical Decisions https://coach.ca/nccp-make-ethical-decisions	Upon completion of this module coaches will be to: analyze challenging situations and determine the moral, legal, or ethical implications; and apply the NCCP Ethical Decision-Making Model to respond in ways that are consistent with NCCP Code of Ethics.
NCCP Empower+ (Creating Positive Sport Environments) https://coach.ca/nccp-creating-positive-sport-environment	Upon completion of this module, coaches will be able to: describe the characteristics and benefits of participant-centered coaching; explain the types of harm that may occur when a coach misuses their power; respond to suspicions or knowledge of maltreatment; and implement positive coaching strategies to foster learning, performance, and create a safe sport environment.
CAC Safe Sport https://coach.ca/safe-sport-training	Upon completion of this module, coaches will be able to: understand the critical role of all stakeholders in promoting safe sport, how the misuse of power leads to maltreatment, and principles of the Universal Code of Conduct; understand types of maltreatment and how to recognize signs and symptoms; and respond when maltreatment is suspected and create a safe sport culture for all participants.
Respect in Sport https://www.respectgroupinc.com/respect-in-sport/	Upon completion of this module, coaches will be able to: recognize, understand, and respond to issues of bullying, abuse, harassment, and discrimination.

Note. For further detail on course descriptions and/or objectives see the corresponding webpages indicated in the table.

Participants

Participants were 1365 coaches from the Coaches Association of Ontario (CAO). Of the respondents, 61% identified as men (n=823), 38% identified as women (n=514; n=28 did not disclose), 86% identified as White (n=1087), while 4% (n=53) identified as Black, 4% (n=51) identified as East/Southeast Asian, 2% (n=31) identified as Indigenous, and less than 2% identified as Latinx (n=19), South Asian (n=18), Middle Eastern (n=16), or another race category (n=27). Coaches reported working in a variety of contexts including grassroots (e.g., recreational, community sport, house league, intramural; n=273, 22%), school sports (e.g., primary and secondary school; n=141, 11%), development (e.g. competitive, club, travel, city, all-star; n=600, 49%), post-secondary (e.g., Support, CCAA, OUA, Inter-university; n=74, 6%), provincial (e.g., Canada Games, National Championships, OHL; n=90, 7%), international (e.g., International Competitions, Worlds, Pan Am, Commonwealth, Olympics; n=36, 3%), and masters or professional (e.g., Senior, NHL, NBA, CEBL; n=20, 2%). Coaches’ tenure in their current position ranged from 1-10 years (n=804, 65%), 11-20 years (n=238, 19%), and more than 20 years (n=194, 16%). Training in safe sport was required for 78% of coaches (n=782) and provided free of cost for 51% of coaches (n=535).

Measures

Safe sport training was measured with a “yes” or “no” response from coaches to indicate whether they had taken each of the following courses: NCCP[1] Emergency Action Planning, NCCP Planning a Practice, NCCP Making Head Way, NCCP Leading Drug Free Sport, NCCP Prevention and Recovery of Injury, Commit to Kids, Standard First Aid and CPR, HeadStart, NCCP Make Ethical Decisions, NCCP Empower+ (Creating Positive Sport Environments), CAC Safe Sport Training, Respect in Sport.

Knowledge & confidence to create a safe sport environment was measured using a 3-item scale (a=.7), which asked coaches about their knowledge of safe sport concepts and their confidence in creating a safe sport environment. Example items included, “I am confident in my abilities to create a safe sport environment” and “I am familiar with the responsible coaching movement.” Coaches responded to each item on a scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).

Safe sport stress was measured using a 3-item scale (a=.68), which asked coaches about the stress they experience over creating a safe sport environment. An example item includes, “I often stress about being the subject of a harassment or abuse claims”. Coaches responded to each item on a scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).

Stress about athlete well-being was measured with 2 items (a=.59): “I often stress about my ability to manage athletes’ mental well-being”, and “I often stress about my ability to manage athletes’ physical well-being.” Coaches responded to each item on a scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).

Efficacy to support others was measured using a 5-item scale (a=.87), which asked coaches about how confident they feel in their ability to support athletes and other coaches. An example item includes “I am confident in my abilities to support my athletes with performance issues”. Coaches responded to each item on a scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).

[1] NCCP refers to the National Coaching Certification Program offered by the Coaching Association of Canada.

Data Analysis

Results

Safe Sport Training & Coaching Outcomes

Range, mean, and standard deviation scores for all variables included in subsequent analyses are included in Table 2. Of the coaches in this sample, 65% (n=890) reported completing at least one of the education courses, while 35% (n=475) reported not having taken any of the education courses. Results of the correlation analysis (Table 3) demonstrate that having any safe sport training was significantly related to increases in efficacy to support others, but not knowledge and confidence, safe sport stress, or stress about athlete well-being.

Table 2. Descriptive statistics for all variables

	Range	Mean	SD
Coaching Context (0=Grassroots)	0-7	1.81	1.37
Training Required (0=No)	0-1	.59	.49
Training Free (0=No)	0-1	.49	.50
Any Safe Sport Training	0-1	.6	.13
Number of Safe Sport Training	0-12	3.64	3.42
Knowledge & Confidence	-4-2	0	1
Safe sport stress	-4-2	0	1
Stress over athlete well-being	-4-2	0	1
Efficacy to Support	-4-2	0	1
n=1365

Table 3. Correlations between any safe sport training and coaching outcomes
	Any Safe Sport Training	Knowledge Confidence	Safe Sport Stress	Athlete WB Stress	Efficacy to Support
Any Safe Sport Training	1.00	.06*	.04	.002	-.03
Knowledge Confidence	.06*	1.00	-.02	.00	.29^**
Safe Sport Stress	.04	-.02	1.00	.34^**	-.09^**
Athlete WB Stress	.002	.00	.34^**	1.00	-.20^**
Efficacy to Support	-.03	.29^**	-.09^**	-.20^**	1.00

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level

*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level

Number of Safe Sport Training & Coaching Outcomes

Figure 1 demonstrates the number of safe sport courses taken by coaches in this sample based on influential covariates such as coaching context, training requirement, and training accessibility (i.e., whether the training was provided free of cost). Significantly more safe sport courses were completed by coaches in Post-Secondary, Provincial, International, Masters and Professional contexts, and by coaches for whom training and education is required and free.

Initial correlation analysis (Table 4) demonstrated being a coach at a high level of competition (e.g., provincial, international) was related to taking more safe sport courses, higher knowledge and confidence, and higher efficacy to support others. Having access to free training was related to taking more safe sport courses and higher knowledge and confidence. Finally, taking more safe sport training courses was related to higher knowledge and confidence and efficacy to support others. Safe sport stress and stress about athlete well-being were not related to any of the independent variables.

Table 4. Correlations between number of safe sport training courses, covariates and outcome variables
	Coaching Context	Training Required	Training Free	Safe Sport Training	Knowledge Confidence	Safe Sport Stress	Athlete WB Stress	Efficacy to Support
Coaching Context	1.00	-.04	-.03	.11^**	.07^**	.01	.00	.08^**
Training Required	-.04	1.00	.11^**	-.02	.08^**	.06	.03	-.05
Training Free	-.03	.11^**	1.00	.09^**	.08^*	.00	-.06	.01
Safe Sport Training	.11^**	-.02	.09^**	1.00	.26^**	.05	.01	.10^**
Knowledge Confidence	.07^**	.08^**	.08^*	.26^**	1.00	-.02	.00	.29^**
Safe Sport Stress	.01	.06	.00	.05	-.02	1.00	.34^**	-.09^**
Athlete WB Stress	.00	.03	-.06	.01	.00	.34^**	1.00	-.20^**
Efficacy to Support	.08^**	-.05	.01	.10^**	.29^**	-.09^**	-.20^**	1.00
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level
*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level

The results of the first regression analysis (Table 5) demonstrated that the number of safe sport training courses coaches completed was related to increases in knowledge and confidence and efficacy to support others, when training requirements, access to training, and context of the sport environment were held constant. The number of safe sport training courses coaches took was not related to safe sport stress or athlete well-being stress.

Table 5. Linear Regression Analyses for General Coach Training
	Knowledge & Confidence		Safe Sport Stress		Athlete WB Stress		Efficacy to Support
	B	SE	B	SE	B	SE	B	SE
Coaching Context	.03	.02	.01	.02	.00	.02	.08^*	.02
Training Required	.09^*	.07	.06	.07	.03	.07	.04	.08
Training Free	.08^*	.06	.01	.06	.06	.06	.001	.06
Safe Sport Training	.31^**	.01	.05	.01	.003	.01	.12^**	.01

Adj. R-Square	.12		.01		.00		.03
n=1365
^**Coefficient is significant at the 0.01 level
^*Coefficient is significant at the 0.05 level

Individual Safe Sport Courses and Coaching Outcomes

The results of the final analysis demonstrated that all courses were significantly related to improved knowledge and confidence. NCCP Emergency Action Planning, NCCP Leading Drug Free Sport, Commit to Kids, HeadStartPRO, and NCCP Empower+ (Creating Positive Sport Environments) were significantly related to reduced safe sport stress. Commit to Kids was significantly related to reduced athlete well-being stress. Finally, NCCP Planning a Practice, NCCP Leading Drug-free Sport, NCCP Prevention and Recovery, Commit to Kids, HeadStartPRO, NCCP Empower+ (Creating Positive Sport Environments), and CAC Safe Sport were significantly related to efficacy to support others (Table 6).

Table 6. Effects of Individual Safe Sport Courses
	Knowledge Confidence		Safe Sport Stress		Athlete WB Stress		Efficacy to Support Others
	F	Sig.	F	Sig.	F	Sig.	F	Sig.
NCCP Emergency Action Planning	60.97	<.001	5.67	.017	1.45	.229	3.75	.053
NCCP Planning a Practice	53.82	<.001	.13	.722	.44	.509	7.23	.007
NCCP Making Head Way	64.15	<.001	.10	.754	.08	.772	.35	.557
NCCP Leading Drug-free Sport	72.82	<.001	5.65	.018	.25	.618	22.49	<.001
NCCP Prevention and Recovery	47.18	<.001	3.29	.070	.08	.777	14.21	<.001
Commit to Kids	35.88	<.001	5.16	.023	8.91	.003	11.29	<.001
Standard First Aid and CPR	17.96	<.001	.31	.580	.69	.406	9.73	.002
HeadStartPRO	7.08	.008	10.31	.002	.06	.814	9.15	.003
NCCP Making Ethical Decisions	22.26	<.001	.17	.680	.01	.931	.01	.91
NCCP Empower+ (Creating Positive Sport Environments)	15.21	<.001	7.92	.04	.315	.575	16.42	<.001
CAC Safe Sport	89.17	<.001	.16	.690	3.91	.532	8.41	.004
Respect in Sport	32.62	<.001	.07	.797	.07	.797	3.64	.056
n=1365

Discussion

The purpose of this study was to explore the influences of safe sport training on sport coaches’ knowledge and confidence, safe sport-related stress, efficacy to support others, and stress about athlete well-being. Specific focus was directed towards examining the relationship between the number of safe sport courses completed and the effects of specific safe sport courses for these coaching outcomes. The results of this study demonstrated that having any training or education was related to increased efficacy to support others. Having completed a higher number of safe sport training courses was related to increased efficacy to support others and knowledge and confidence, and all safe sport courses were related to increased knowledge and confidence.

Although a plethora of safe sport education exists to-date, a prominent criticism has been the lack of empirical evaluations examining the impact or effectiveness of such training (24, 26). The findings of the current study help to address this knowledge gap by providing preliminary, empirical evidence regarding the influence of safe sport education. According to the results, coaches in more professional contexts took more safe sport training courses, which supports the notion that at elite levels of sport, coaches may have more access to professional development opportunities and/or devote more time improving their coaching skills (11, 27). Coaches who were provided access to free training in the current study also took more safe sport courses. These findings suggest that when provided the opportunity, coaches engage in professional development, however, as issues of cost and accessibility remain prevalent barriers, the advancement and development for many coaches remains limited (19, 43. Online modalities have been advocated as a cost-effective, time efficient, and readily accessible way to educate coaches (13, 14) yet, for many coaches, online professional development opportunities still present financial demands. For example, of the twelve courses examined in the current study, only three (e.g., NCCP Emergency Action Planning, CAC Safe Sport, NCCP Making Headway) are listed as online and free for coaches; in the current study, it was not known if affiliated organizations where coaches instruct reimbursed education/training and, if so, for which courses. Access or lack thereof to safe sport-related education may impact the extent to which safe, inclusive, and welcoming spaces are promoted by all coaches (22, 47). This is particularly important for coaching at the youth sport level where the delivery of sport programmes is highly dependent on volunteers who, despite recognizing their critical role for nurturing developmentally appropriate and safe environments, often lack the requisite knowledge to do so (2, 44, 46).

The completion of more safe sport training courses and all courses examined in the current study was related to enhanced coaches’ knowledge and confidence. Exposing coaches to diverse topics which include but are not limited to safety, positive development, harmful practices, and mental health, are critical to improving coaches’ awareness and ability to create safe sport environments (6, 28, 30). The coaches also reported increased knowledge of the Rule of Two and the Responsible Coaching Movement; these safe sport efforts provide additional safety principles for Ontario and Canadian coaches more broadly on background screening, appropriate interactions, and ethics training (8). Findings may be interpreted to suggest that not only does safe sport education positively influence coaches’ knowledge and confidence to create safe environments but also facilitates greater awareness of safe sport efforts in the Canadian sport context, thus providing coaches with a more comprehensive perspective on ways to stimulate safer sport.

Nurturing athletes’ holistic development is a key responsibility of coaches; however, coaches may not have the necessary education and training to adequately support their athletes (41). The current findings indicate that the completion of more safe sport education as well as specific courses (e.g., NCCP Empower+, CAC Safe Sport) may nurture coaches’ expertise and confidence to actively support their athletes with personal and performance challenges. The extent to which athletes report positive coach-athlete dynamics and feel supported in their relationships with coaches has been known to influence whether they experience learning, growth, and safe sport environments (32). Safe sport training also influenced coaches’ confidence to support coaching peers/support staff with personal and performance issues; these findings are particularly important as learning by doing, having a coach mentor, and observing others are important sources of knowledge and development for coaches (43). Collectively, the improvements in coaches’ efficacy to support others (athletes and coaches) suggests that safe sport training may serve as an effective mechanism through which knowledge dissemination and learning amongst stakeholders is achieved.

Many coaches (uninformed on the benefits of positive touch) have adopted a risk-averse perspective when interacting with athletes (i.e., “no touching”) to avoid being accused of misconduct or having their behaviors misconstrued as harmful (33, 34). In the current study, no significant relationship resulted between the number of safe sport training courses completed and coaches’ perceived safe sport stress (e.g., fear of maltreatment allegations). Specific courses were identified as decreasing safe sport stress, however, some of the courses (e.g., NCCP Emergency Action Planning, HeadStartPro, NCCP Leading Drug-free Sport) focus on physical injury prevention and/or drug-free sport and do not necessarily provide broader content on maltreatment that might warrant the reported lower coach stress regarding potential accusations of harm or safe sport issues. Although coaches have commonly reported concerns about touching in sport (33), there has also been growing awareness of psychological harm and toxic cultures in sport (38, 48). The lack of reported stress regarding safe sport concerns may be reflective of coaches being less fearful of false accusations related to psychological forms of harm as opposed to sexual harms. As the survey questions referred to coach stress in relation to abuse and harassment claims broadly, further research attention is needed to assess whether education may impact coaches’ safe sport stress differently depending on the form of harm (e.g., sexual versus psychological).

It is also interesting that while safe sport education was related to coaches’ improved efficacy to support athletes with personal and performance issues, the number of completed courses was not significantly related to stress about managing athlete physical and mental well-being. Only one course (Commit to Kids) reduced coaches’ perceived stress for managing athlete well-being. Commit to Kids focuses exclusively on providing education on sexual harms; while education on sexual harms is needed to advance safe sport, psychological harm and neglect are reported far more frequently by athletes (25, 48) and thus coaches’ perceptions of their ability to manage athletes’ well-being may be limited in scope.

NCCP Empower+ (Creating Positive Sport Environments) was associated with enhanced knowledge and confidence, improved efficacy to support others, and lower safe sport stress, whereas CAC Safe Sport Training was linked to improved knowledge and confidence and efficacy to support others. Interestingly, Commit to Kids was the only course to positively impact all coaching outcomes, despite focusing exclusively on sexual harms. As sexual harm continues to receive the most media and research attention (4, 25), education on sexual harms may be interpreted by coaches and those in the sport community to be most relevant and important for creating safe sport. Further, in Ontario and Canada more broadly, sport organizations frequently identify course equivalents where coaches may complete different courses, including CAC Safe Sport Training, Respect in Sport, NCCP Empower+, and Commit to Kids but still satisfy the safe sport-related requirements needed to instruct. The lack of an integrated approach and the various safe sport education options available may expose coaches to different experiences and levels of learning, thus providing a plausible explanation for the reported influences on coaching outcomes in the current study. To advance safe sport,evidence-informed education for coaches and stakeholders more broadly is needed (5, 47).

Limitations and Future Directions

Although this study contributes to research and practice in safe sport by providing insights into the reported benefits of safe sport education for coaches, the findings must be interpreted within the context of the current study. Considering the CAO selected the safe sport-related courses of interest for evaluation, a broad perspective of safe sport (i.e., injuries, drug-free sport, planning appropriate practices, maltreatment) was required. The data were also collected from coaches in a specific geographic region (Ontario, Canada) and thus many of the safe sport courses evaluated were exclusive to this coaching sample. The courses evaluated in the current study should not be considered an exhaustive list of all safe-sport courses; for example, since the completion of the study, several courses (e.g., Support Through Sport, Safe Sport 101 Playbook) have been revised and/or developed. Additionally, as the sport domain has been referred to one that reinforces toxic cultures, there are several education courses in Ontario and Canada more broadly on creating positive culture and inclusive environments (e.g., NCCP Coaching Athletes with a Disability), that were not included and require future consideration regarding their impact on coaches and advancing safe sport.

The study findings highlighted a relationship between safe sport education and improvements in coach knowledge and confidence and efficacy to support others, suggesting that practitioners should explore ways to make safe sport education free of cost and accessible. However, as this study did not assess knowledge translation, future research is needed to examine if coaches’ improved knowledge, confidence and efficacy from education contributes to behavior change and the use of more developmentally appropriate and safe coaching practices. Organizational influence also remains an area of interest; for example, it would be beneficial to explore how an organization’s cultural values, priorities (e.g., win-at-all-costs vs holistic development), and support (e.g., free training), may impact coach education uptake and subsequently the effectiveness of safe sport education on coaching outcomes. Future researchers may consider a case study approach to examine the impact of safe sport education for coaches within a specific organization; for example, Likert-scales may be used to assess attitudes, beliefs, and perceptions, semi-structured interviews may help to gain deeper insights on coaches’ interpretations regarding safe sport courses, and participant observation may shed light on issues of coach behavior change resulting from safe sport education.

Conclusion

Safe sport education for coaches has been consistently advocated as a recommendation for advancing safe, inclusive, and welcoming environments, however, the influence of safe sport education remains largely unknown (24, 26). The current study contributes to the sport literature by providing an examination of the influences of safe sport training for coaches. Findings revealed a relationship between the number of safe sport training courses coaches completed and increases in their knowledge and confidence and efficacy to support others. However, the number of safe sport training courses completed was not associated with stress related to safe sport matters or athlete well-being. All safe sport courses were reportedly associated with improved coach knowledge and confidence. Several training courses were also linked to improvements in coaches’ efficacy to support others and reductions in their safe sport stress, with only one course contributing to coaches’ reduced stress related to athlete-well-being. Although the findings suggest favorable influences of safe sport training for coaches, the current study did not assess behavioral change. Future research is needed to explore whether reported improvements (e.g., knowledge and confidence) associated with safe sport education translates to coaching practice.

Applications in Sport

Safe sport education in the current study was reportedly associated with enhanced coach knowledge and confidence to create safe environments and efficacy to support athletes and other coaches/support staff. Unfortunately, as a large portion of the sport sector is run by a volunteer workforce (e.g., volunteer coaches), sport organizations remain reluctant to enforce training requirements for fear of further burdening these coaches who frequently report stress and burnout (2, 35). However, the extent to which sport organizations and their leaders prioritize and support safe sport, has been shown to impact the effectiveness of safe sport efforts (17, 37, 49). In some cases, merely having safe sport education initiatives may have little impact on creating and sustaining safer environments and appear as superficial gestures towards change, further reproducing harms (29, 31). Sport and coaching organizations are confronted with the challenge of maintaining low time and cost demands for many volunteer coaches while also providing adequate education for volunteer (and paid) coaches (19, 46).

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank the coaches who participated in this study along with Coaches Association of Ontario who contributed to the design and recruitment of this study.

Declaration of conflicting interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

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George Minoso2024-06-20T12:01:59-05:00June 21st, 2024|General, Research, Sport Education, Sports Coaching, Sports Exercise Science|Comments Off

Celebrating the Olympics

A note from the editor: In recognition of the upcoming Olympics, The Sports Journal has “temporarily” allowed for the addition of unique perspectives on Olympic Sports. Please enjoy the commentary from Dr. John Cairney from the University of Queensland.

For the first time in over a decade, NHL players are set to return to the Olympic stage, sparking widespread excitement among ice hockey enthusiasts worldwide. Announced by NHL Commissioner Gary Bettman , this decision to participate in the 2026 and 2030 Winter Games ends a hiatus that has lasted since 2014. It reflects a strategic move to enhance international competition among the world’s elite hockey players, aiming to alternate between the Olympics and the World Cup of Hockey every two years.

The NHL’s withdrawal after the 2014 Olympics stemmed from logistical and financial concerns, including potential revenue losses and the risks of competitive imbalance and player injuries when resuming the season. The injury of John Tavares during the 2014 Sochi Olympics underscored the risk of injury, while also pointing to the demanding nature of Olympic play. Conversely, the break offered a rest period for those not participating, leading to concerns about unequal player fatigue and readiness. Players not competing in the Olympics could potentially benefit from the break, gaining an edge over those who did participate.

Despite these concerns, there was scant research at the time to evaluate their validity, even though professional sports, including ice hockey, are rich in data capable of informing such analyses. Our research team aimed to fill this gap by investigating the impact of NHL participation in the Winter Games on both team and individual player performance, with a
focus on injury and fatigue. Our findings offered some surprising insights.

Our first study looked at the team-level “fatigue effect,” suggesting that teams with more Olympic participants might experience a dip in performance post-Games due to player fatigue, potentially affecting their regular season play. We analysed goal differentials (goals for minus goals against) before and after the Olympics, taking into account the number of players each team sent and mid-season trades’ impacts. Although some Olympic years showed a trend towards a negative effect on goal differential, indicative of a potential fatigue effect, the overall impact on team performance was minor.

The second study focused on individual player performance, particularly during the 2014 Sochi Winter Olympics. We examined performance metrics before and after the Olympics to test the “fatigue theory” at an individual level. Our findings indicated that the number of Olympic minutes played had no significant effect on post-Olympic performance for players overall. However, a closer look at player positions revealed that forwards experienced a slight decrease in points per game post-Olympics if they played more minutes. Defensemen, on the other hand, were unaffected. Overall, our research suggests that concerns about performance declines due to Olympic participation may have been exaggerated.

Our studies provide reassurance that NHL players’ return to the Winter Olympics is beneficial for the sport. While issues related to scheduling, injury risks, and competitive balance remain, the evidence indicates that these factors minimally impact the league and its athletes. The advantages of Olympic participation, including sport promotion, player experience, and fan engagement, significantly outweigh the potential downsides. As the NHL sends its stars back to the Olympic ice, this move is celebrated not only by fans but also as a victory for the global prestige of ice hockey.

References

¹https://www.nhl.com/blues/news/nhl-to-return-to-olympics-host-4-nations-face-off#:~:text=For%20the%20first%20time%20in,the%20first%20time%20since%202014.
https://www.cbsnews.com/boston/news/nhls-worst-nightmare-realized-star-player-john-tavares-hurt-during-winter-olympics/#:~:text=NHL%27s%20Worst%20Nightmare%20Realized%3A%20Star%20Player%20John%20Tavares%20Hurt%20During%20Winter%20Olympics,-February%2021%2C%202014&text=BOSTON%20(CBS)%20%2D%20New%20York,over%20Latvia%20in%20quarterfinal%20play.
²https://www.scitechnol.com/peer-review/the-impact-of-the-olympics-on-regular-season-team-performance-in-the-national-hockey-league-5ghI.php?article_id=4359
https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fspor.2020.00076/full

George Minoso2024-05-08T11:05:32-05:00June 7th, 2024|Commentary, General|Comments Off

For the Good of the Game: What Keeps Soccer Referees from Renewing Their Licenses

Authors: Dr. J Ross Pruitt¹, Dr. Dexter Davis²

Corresponding Author:

J. Ross Pruitt* Professor Department of Agriculture, Geosciences, and Natural Resources

269 Brehm Hall University of Tennessee at Martin

Martin, Tennessee 38238

Phone: (731)881-7254 Fax: (731)881-7968 rpruit10@utm.edu

For the Good of the Game: What Prevents Soccer Referees from Renewing Their Licenses

ABSTRACT

The United States faces a critical shortage of youth sports referees despite a growing interest in many sports. This issue is increasingly gaining attention from sanctioning bodies, referee associations, and researchers. There is a significant cost of referee turnover and implementing strategies implemented to increase retention of officials, especially in soccer. Correct identification of the issues resulting in non-renewal of referee licenses will increase the likelihood of retention strategies being successful. This study builds on existing research by using best-worst scaling to provide a preference share on the factors that result in non-renewal which Likert scales cannot provide. Current and former U.S. Soccer Federation referees in Tennessee were surveyed to determine which factors are most likely to motivate their decision to not renew their referee license. Findings from this research indicate that motivations are different from youth referees compared to adult referees. Youth referees find the cost of refereeing and assigning are resulting in non-renewal of licenses compared to lack of respect and changing work commitments among adult referees. Results of this research can be used to improve retention strategies across age groups.

Keywords: best-worst scaling, soccer referees, referee motivations, referee retention

Organized sports are an important part of society within the United States as it allows recreational and entertainment opportunities for participants and spectators. Sports officials are often referred to as the “third team” and are a critical aspect to the success of organized sports. In recent years, the popular press has been bombarded with stories of referee shortages (e.g., Conlon, 2022; Medina, 2022; Yurkevich, 2023) and physical attacks (Mendola, 2014; Ortiz, 2015; Weir, 2022; Hamacher, 2023). A majority of states have enacted or are considering laws to protect referees according to the National Association of Sports Officials (NASO) who tracks the status of legislation impacting sports officials (NASO, n.d.).

Even with increased awareness of the issues of referee shortages, verbal abuse and/or physical assaults, and growing legal protections, organized sports in the United States are still facing a shortage of officials. National and grassroots sport associations have enacted strategies to reduce the turnover to aid in recruitment (Titlebaum et al., 2009) and retention (Warner et al., 2013) of sports officials. These efforts will take time to minimize the impact of verbal abuse and physical assaults that are believed to result in the exodus of sports officials (Warner et al., 2013; Downward et al., 2023). Prior research has explored the factors that result in individuals deciding to become a sports official (Furst, 1991; Kellett and Warner, 2011; Johansen, 2015; Baldwin and Vallance, 2016) and continuing as a sports official (Rainey, 1999; Rainey and Hardy, 1999; Kellett and Shilbury, 2007; Kellett and Warner, 2011; Cuskelly and Hoye, 2013; Ridinger et al., 2017; Da Gama et al, 2018; Giel and Brewer, 2020; Orviz-Martinez et al, 2021; Downward et al., 2023), but the factors resulting in non-renewal of licenses needed to officiate is less clear in the literature.

The internal and external factors that draw individuals to officiate sports are important motivators to keep renewing their license. When one or more of these factors dissipate or change, an official’s lagging desire to continue can result in non-renewal of the soccer refereeing license. Licenses to officiate soccer are typically renewed annually which requires a conscious decision to continue or not continue. This provides the official with the opportunity to reflect whether the benefits of officiating (e.g., financial, health, social) continue to exceed the costs (e.g. cost to renew the license, additional time away from family, job stress, verbal abuse). As very few soccer referees can rely financially on officiating income alone, the need to balance family, career, and officiating is present. The popularity of youth soccer results in a constant cadre of referees needing recruitment, introductory and advanced training, and retention at the youth and grassroots level. Past research (e.g., Gomes et al, 2021) has used Likert scales and qualitative interviews to determine factors that impact continued refereeing of soccer. This study adds to the existing literature by inviting current and former soccer officials to make a choice among the alternative factors included on the survey instrument. The method used in this study presents a direct ranking of factors not provided in Likert scales. This paper continues with a literature review of the existing literature of factors attracting individuals to officiate sports and what results in the decision to no longer referee followed by a description of our survey methodology. Our survey population included current and former U.S. Soccer Federation referees. Results are then discussed with suggestions for future research presented.

Literature Review

The reasons an individual becomes a sports official are complex, but often include altruistic motivations (Balch and Scott, 2007) and love of the sport (Burke, Joyner, Pim, and Czech, 2000). Furst (1991) and Balch and Scott (2007) state that officials continue to officiate for social and interpersonal reasons along with a commitment to the sport. Kellett and Shilbury (2007) discuss the importance of the social and interpersonal support provided between officials to cope with the stress of officiating sports. The stress is, in part, a reflection of the need to quickly and correctly apply the rules of the sport while being in the proper position to make a decision. Initial training of new sports officials often focuses primarily on knowing the rules of the sport with some field training to practically apply what is learned. Factors that are important to keep beginning officials engaged in officiating such forming interpersonal relationships (e.g., Furst, 1991; Balch and Scott, 2007; Kellett and Shilbury, 2007; Kellett and Warner, 2011; Baldwin and Vallance, 2016) and coping with stress (e.g., Voight, 2009) are not the primary focus of initial trainings.

Officiating sports is a stressful experience due to the complexity of making quick decisions (Guillén and Jiménez, 2001; González-Oya, 2006; Gama et al., 2018) in an environment where positive feedback for correct decisions is limited. In younger and/or inexperienced officials, the lack of experience in these environments and ability to cope with the accompanying stress can contribute to referees no longer officiating (Cuskelly and Hoye, 2013). Prior research has focused on the connection between stressors and burnout (Rainey and Hardy, 1999; Voight, 2009; Da Gama et al., 2018; Gomes et al., 2021; Orviz-Martinez et al., 2021; Downward et al., 2023) with tools like the Burnout Inventory for Referees developed by Weinberg and Richardson (1990). Stressors experienced by sports officials are not always related to the sporting event but can be representative of other factors in their lives including work, family, and support of the organization for which they officiate (Voight, 2009; Cuskelly and Hoye, 2013).

Reasons that individuals begin refereeing may not always be the reasons they intend to continue. Kellett and Shilbury (2007) document that the interpersonal relationships developed can overcome nervousness experienced by beginning officials. These interpersonal relationships can be a positive stressor, or an indication of commitment described in Cuskelly and Hoye (2013). These may be social in nature can result in officials who, “are likely to feel somewhat compelled to continue officiating through various social mechanisms” (Cuskelly and Hoye, 2013). The level of organizational support, or the official’s perception of support, can result in an intention to continue officiating (Rainey, 1999; Kellett and Warner, 2011).

Giel and Breuer (2020) find the altruistic motives are not a significant factor in continuing to referee. This highlights the importance of the social relationships as the stress associated with officiating, balancing family, job, and officiating, the stress associated with maintaining the desired level of performance, or other factors can result in the official questioning their desire to continue. This contributes to the belief often expressed in the popular press that burnout and verbal abuse/physical assault are primary motivators to officials leaving the sport (Kellett and Shilbury, 2007). The ability to reframe the abuse as described in Kellett and Shilbury (2007) may limit the extent to which the perception is reality. Voight (2009) finds the conflict between family and officiating, making a controversial call, conflict between work and officiating, making the wrong call, and verbal abuse from coaches as the top stressors among college soccer officials. The least amount of stress can be attributed to the fear of physical harm (Voight, 2009).

Methods

The decision to not renew one’s soccer referee license reflects the costs of continuing to referee (whether financial, social, or emotional) relative to the benefits accrued by refereeing. We hypothesize that referees will consider not renewing their license prior to the actual decision where the license is not renewed (Rainey and Hardy, 1999; Cuskelly and Hoye, 2013). Factors that motivate the decision to not renew one’s license are presented in Table 1. Included factors represent those included in the literature (e.g., Furst, 1991; Rainey, 1999; Rainey and Hardy, 1999; Burke et al., 2000; Balch and Scott, 2007; Kellett and Shilbury, 2007; Cuskelly and Hoye, 2013; Johansen, 2014; Giel and Breuer, 2020) as well as those from our personal experiences refereeing and coaching soccer. After the factors shown in Table 1 were selected to include in the questionnaire, the staff and mentors of the U.S. Youth Soccer Region III Championships reviewed our factors and accompanying descriptions for thoroughness. Their suggestions are reflected in our final factors presented in Table 1.

Use of best-worst scaling (Finn and Louviere, 1992) provides the relative importance that a factor can have on a referee’s continued interest in renewing their license. This method provides an improvement over qualitative interviews which can provide insight into motivations for referees, but not a hierarchical preference ranking that can be used by referee associations to assist in retention of referees. An additional benefit of best-worst scaling is the fact it provides a ratio scale for its results unlike a Likert rating scale that may result in the ordinal ranking not being consistent across respondents (Steenkamp and Baumgartner, 1998; Lusk and Briggeman, 2009). This provides greater insight into the obstacles for a referee to annually renew their license which can lead to increased retention efforts and educational efforts by clubs and sanctioning bodies to reduce the impact of factors resulting in non-renewal of licenses.

Best-worst scaling provides the respondent the ability to select the factor that provides the most and least utility in a choice set which Likert scales do not provide. This approach has significant implications for marketing (Cohen, 2009; O’Reilly and Huybers, 2015; Massey, Wang, and Waller, 2015) to help identify specific factors that consumers find desirable. Use of this method has extended into the healthcare industry (Flynn et al., 2007) and the value of public information (Pruitt et al., 2014). Given J factors, there are J(J-1) combinations a respondent could select for each best-worst question. The choice of the most important factor j by individual i can by represented by λ_j on the utility scale with the latent level of utility determined by I_ij = λ_j + ε_ij which assumes that ε_ijis the random error term. By selecting factor j as the most important factor and factor k as the least important is determined by the probability for all other J(J-1)-1 possible differences in the choice set.

Results from best-worst scaling normally occurs through a multinomial or random parameters logit. Estimate coefficients have little interpretation aside from the magnitude of the coefficient. Preference shares for each factor’s impact on lack of interest in continuing to referee is calculated using the following equation preference share for factor.

Respondents were asked if they had actively considered not renewing their U.S. Soccer Federation (USSF) referee license in the past five years. Individuals that responded yes, were then asked best-worst questions using the factors that were identified and presented in Table 1. Using PROC OPTEX in SAS 9.4, a quasi-balanced incomplete block design (BIBD) was created. The design had a treatment D-efficiency of 90.78 and a block design D-efficiency of 99.86. This resulted in twelve best-worst questions with six factors present in each question. Each factor appeared six times to each respondent with an example of the best-worst questions is provided in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Example Best-Worst Question

Survey

A web-based Qualtrics survey was created that was distributed to current and former U.S. Soccer Federation referees implementing the best-worst questions discussed previously. Through contacts with the Tennessee Soccer Referee Program, we were able to distribute the questionnaire to 3,507 current and former referees. Our ability to contact referees who had not recertified in the previous four years is due to the Tennessee Soccer Referee Program adopting computer software that allows the program to track referees who do not re-certify from year to year. Inclusion of youth referees (between the ages of thirteen and eighteen) was approved by our university’s Institutional Review Board which allows for determination if factors vary by age. Per USSF policy, any email contact from a certified USSF assignor results in the parent/guardian also being contacted1. This resulted in parents/guardians of current and former youth referees also receiving the recruitment email. Initial questions identified if the respondent was at least eighteen years of age and then determined if the respondent was answering for themselves or as parent/guardian of a current or former youth soccer referee2. For youth referees, we included questions that determined if their parent/guardian had provided consent in addition to the minor providing assent. As the parent/guardian also received the recruitment email, email addresses for minors were collected in case the parent/guardian revoked consent necessitating removal of youth referee responses. No parent or guardian contacted us requesting removal of the youth referee’s responses.

A recruitment email was sent in early March 2023 to 3,507 current and former referees registered with USSF in the state of Tennessee with a follow-up email sent two weeks later. An incentive was offered to each respondent of a gift card worth $100 to a referee equipment supplier or a free registration for the 2023 year. Email addresses were collected at the end of the questionnaire and provided to the Tennessee Soccer Referee Program which was responsible in selecting and contacting the winners of the inducement. We received 107 usable responses for a response rate of 3.05%.

Results Demographic information is provided in Table 2. Total responses did vary by question as respondents were not required to answer every demographic question which were asked following the best-worst questions. Respondents were overwhelmingly male and Caucasian. Approximately forty percent of respondents were less than twenty-five years of age and an additional twenty-five percent between the ages of forty-three and fifty-four. Over sixty percent who responded were no longer refereeing soccer with approximately two-thirds believing they were assigned the appropriate number of matches given their skill and ability level. Those receiving the questionnaire were asked an open-ended question on how many years they refereed soccer. Of the 110 responses, many did not provide an exact number. For those who provided an exact number, the average number of years that survey participants had refereed was 8.63 years. Given responses not included in this calculation that stated they had refereed 10+, 20+, or 50+ years, this estimate of 8.63 understates the longevity of referees in this research. A histogram of responses for this question is presented in Figure 2. More than three-quarters of respondents refereed no more than sixty matches a year with the majority refereeing less than fifteen matches annually. Over ninety percent of respondents only refereed soccer. Nearly seventy percent of respondents had suffered verbal abuse in the past two years with approximately five percent having suffered a physical assault (e.g., touched, pushed, shoved, punched, kicked, or spat on) by a player, coach, fan, or parent. Parents and coaches were most likely to have been the source of verbal abuse with players being the source of physical assault.

As we were able to include youth referees (less than eighteen years old), we conducted t-tests for significant differences in means between those who had actively considered not renewing their USSF licenses for youth and adult referees. We did not test for differences in means in age and educational attainment categories since we compared those less than eighteen of ages to all other ages in this comparison. Differences in the mean at the 5% level of significance (p<0.05) were found in these groupings with less than fifteen matches officiated, whether the respondent felt they were under assigned, assigned the right number of matches for their skill/ability level, and whether they play organized soccer. Table 2 includes these results.

Table 2. Demographic Information

Variable	Mean	Standard Deviation
Gender (n=111)
Male	75.68%	0.43
Female	23.42%	0.43
Prefer Not to Say	0.90%	0.09
Ethnicity (n=111)
Caucasian	76.58%	0.43
African American	0.00%	0.00
Hispanic	5.41%	0.23
Native American	0.00%	0.00
Asian	0.00%	0.00
Multi-racial	6.31%	0.24
Other	2.70%	0.16
Prefer Not to Say	5.41%	0.23
Age (n=111)
13-17	22.52%	0.42
18-24	21.62%	0.41
25-30	8.11%	0.27
31-36	6.31%	0.24
37-42	1.80%	0.13
43-48	11.71%	0.32
49-54	13.51%	0.34
55-60	3.60%	0.19
Over 60	10.81%	0.31
Education Level (n=111)
Currently in Middle/High School	27.03%	0.45
High School Diploma or GED	0.00%	0.00
Trade, vocational, or technical school	4.50%	0.21
Associate Degree	4.50%	0.21
Bachelor’s Degree	27.93%	0.45
Master’s Degree	15.32%	0.36
Doctoral or Professional Degree	7.21%	0.26
Prefer Not to Say	1.80%	0.13
Household Income (n=110)
Less than $40,000	10.00%	0.30
$40,000 to $60,000	9.09%	0.29
$60,001 to $80,000	8.18%	0.28
$80,001 to $100,000	5.45%	0.23
Greater than $100,000	40.00%	0.49
Prefer Not to Say	27.27%	0.45

Table 2. Continued

Variable	Mean	Standard Deviation
Residence (n=111)
Urban Area	14.41%	0.35
Suburban Area	66.67%	0.39
Rural Area	18.92%	0.47
Levels Officiated¹
Youth recreational	33.46%
Club	28.31%
AYSO	7.35%
High School	16.18%
College	3.68%
Adult Amateur/Recreational	10.29%
Professional	0.74%
Approximate number of annual matches
Less than 15	30.91%²	0.46
16-30	19.09%	0.39
31-45	13.64%	0.34
46-60	12.73%	0.33
61-75	5.45%	0.23
76-90	8.18%	0.28
91-105	2.73%	0.16
Over 105	7.27%	0.26
Proper Assigning Level (n=109)
Under assigned	25.69%²	0.44
Over assigned	7.34%	0.26
Right number	66.97%²	0.47
Sports Officiated besides Soccer
None	92.73%	0.26
1-2	6.36%	0.25
3-4	0.91%	0.10
5 or more	0.00%	0.00
Play Organized Soccer (n=110)	43.64%²	0.50
Verbally Abused in Last Two Years (n=109)	68.81%	0.47
Source of Verbal Abuse¹
Player	18.96%
Coach	27.01%
Fan	22.27%
Parent	31.75%

Table 2. Continued

Variable	Mean	Standard Deviation
Physically Assaulted in Last Two Years (n=109)	4.59%	0.21
Source of Physical Assault¹
Player
Coach
Fan
Parent
Injury of at Least Four Weeks (n=109)	11.93%	0.33
Attend Continuing Education (n=110)
Once a year	28.18%	0.45
Twice a year	7.27%	0.26
Three to four times a year	10.00%	0.30
At least five times a year	0.00%	0.00
Does not attend	47.27%	0.50
Accepts unsanctioned matches (n=110)	12.73%	0.33
Anticipates refereeing soccer: (n=110)
No longer refereeing	60.91%	0.49
Less than one year	7.27%	0.26
One to two years	12.73%	0.33
Three to four years	8.18%	0.28
At least five years	10.91%	0.31

¹ Question allowed multiple responses and standard deviations are not presented as a result.
²Denotes significant differences at the 5% level (p<0.05) between youth and adult referees who had actively considered not renewing their license.

Non-Renewal of Referee License

Respondents who answered they had actively considered not renewing their license in the past five years were shown a series of questions asking them to select the most and least important factors impacting why they would not renew their refereeing license. As our sample included youth referees (those less than 18 years of age), we estimated a combined model for all referees responding against the alternative models of youth and adult referees. Each of these models was estimated using a multinomial logit (MNL), an uncorrelated random parameters logit (RPL), and a correlated random parameters logit model. Significant differences were found to exist between youth and adult referees who were considering not renewing resulting in separate models being estimates for youth and adult referees. Likelihood ratio tests favored the use of MNL model for both youth and adult referees.

Youth Referees

Results for youth referees are presented in Table 3 uses Work as the base factor with results. Estimates for the MNL and RPL models are presented with the MNL preferred by use of a likelihood ratio test. Aside from their magnitude, the econometric estimates in Table 3 have no natural interpretation and equation 1 was used to calculate the shares of preference that are presented. The shares of preference for the uncorrelated RPL model were generated from 1,000 random draws using a normal distribution of the mean and standard deviation of a specific factor that might result in a referee not renewing their USSF license. Shares of preference were consistent between the two modeling techniques as there was not greater than ±0.01% difference for any factor. The cost to referee (i.e., Afford) was the number one reason that youth referees had considered not renewing their USSF license. This factor includes the inability to make it to matches for youth referees reflecting the need for an adult or friend to help them make it to assignments. Note that even with a small sample size of youth referees, fifteen of the eighteen youth referees were no longer refereeing. The youth referee’s opinion on how well they were assigned was the second most important factor with the lack of Respect from fans, players, and coaches third (depending on the model used). It should be noted that the fourth most important factor was Game Fees, indicating the cost to benefit ratio for youth referees is contributing to non-renewals. The use of best-worst scaling provides a clearer view of the magnitude of factors resulting in youth referees not renewing their licenses through the direct comparisons with the lack of Respect relatively not as important as other factors.

Table 3. Relative Importance of Factor Impacting Non-Renewal of Youth Referee Licenses

Factor	Econometric Estimates		Shares of Preference
	MNL	RPL	MNL	RPL
Respect	0.995***	1.000***	0.153	0.153
	(0.255)^a	(0.256)	[0.000]	[0.002]
	[0.000]^b	[0.018]
Youth Involvement	-0.761***	-0.763***	0.027	0.026
	(0.252)	(0.254)	[0.000]	[0.000]
	[0.000]	[0.000]
Social Aspects	0.271***	0.270	0.074	0.074
	(0.258)	(0.265)	[0.000]	[0.002]
	[0.000]	[0.172]
Family Commitments	-0.865***	-0.859***	0.024	0.024
	(0.243)	(0.246)	[0.000]	[0.000]
	[0.000]	[0.001]
Injury	-0.491*	-0.496*	0.035	0.034
	(0.256)	(0.258)	[0.000]	[0.001]
	[0.000]	[0.000]
Lack of Opportunities to Advance	-0.189	-0.188	0.047	0.047
	(0.255)	(0.257)	[0.000]	[0.001]
	[0.000]	[0.002]
Cost to Referee	1.123****	1.130***	0.174	0.174
	(0.255)	(0.256)	[0.000]	[0.002]
	[0.000]	[0.005]
Age	-1.178***	-1.138***	0.017	0.018
	(0.248)	(0.279)	[0.000]	[0.001]
	[0.000]	[0.355]
Assigning	0.999***	1.009***	0.154	0.155
	(0.255)	(0.258)	[0.000]	[0.002]
	[0.000]	[0.031]
Game Fees	0.913***	0.915***	0.141	0.141
	(0.265)	(0.267)	[0.000]	[0.003]
	[0.000]	[0.001]
Lack of Organizational Support	0.524**	0.529**	0.096	0.096
	(0.258)	(0.259)	[0.000]	[0.001]
	[0.000]	[0.001]
Work	0.000	0.000	0.057	0.058
(Base Factor)			[0.000]	[0.015]

Log Likelihood	-625.138	-624.910
McFadden’s LRI	0.094	0.149
Number of Respondents	18	18

***, **, and * asterisks represent the factor is significantly different from the Work factor at the 1%, 5%, and 10% level, respectively.

^aNumbers in parentheses are standard errors.
^bnumbers in brackets are standard deviations.

In addition to the shares of preference presented in Table 3, we generated Pearson correlations from the individual specific RPL estimates shown in Table 4. Several factors had correlations with at least ±0.3 with another factor. Given the limited number of responses, care should be taken when viewing Table 4, but it provides an indication of how youth referees view these factors influencing their decision to not continue refereeing. The more likely a youth referee viewed the lack of Social camaraderie, the higher an injury might factor into a non-renewal decision. Importantly, the lack of Social connections had a strong direct relationship with their views of Organizational Support provided to them. Concerns about how many games the referee was assigned had a positive relationship with Game Fees being an important factor in the decision to not renew the license. Game Fees tended to have large (positive or negative) correlations with many factors that were included in this research.

Table 4. Pearson Correlations Between Factors from Individual Specific RPL Estimates of Youth Referees

Factor	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10	11
Respect (1)	1.000
Youth Involvement (2)	0.007	1.000
Assign (3)	-0.140	0.177	1.000
Social (4)	-0.176	0.410	-0.301	1.000
Injury (5)	-0.007	-0.439	-0.494	0.505	1.000
Advance (6)	-0.211	-0.832	0.018	0.222	0.212	1.000
Age (7)	0.164	0.874	0.100	-0.248	-0.448	-0.919	1.000
Cost (8)	-0.043	-0.159	-0.264	0.227	0.079	-0.073	0.096	1.000
Game Fees (9)	-0.123	0.725	0.476	-0.569	-0.737	-0.538	0.694	-0.046	1.000
Organizational Support (10)	0.097	-0.338	-0.172	0.514	0.544	0.189	-0.332	0.249	-0.669	1.000
Family (11)	-0.326	-0.753	-0.030	0.489	0.564	0.723	-0.860	-0.025	-0.610	0.531	1.000

Adult Referees

Results for adult referees who had considered not renewing their USSF license are presented in Table 5. As with youth referees, a MNL model was preferred to an uncorrelated RPL model with the estimates from both models presented. Unlike youth referees, the lack of Respect experienced by adult referees is the primary reasons resulting in the non-renewal decision. Work commitments or a change in them was the second most important factor. Nearly two-thirds of adult referees who had considered not renewing their license were no longer refereeing; fifteen were considering not renewing in more than the next two years with only four considering refereeing at least four more years.

Table 5. Relative Importance of Factor Impacting Non-Renewal of Adult Referee Licenses

Factor	Econometric Estimates		Shares of Preference
	MNL	RPL	MNL	RPL
Respect	0.558***	0.568***	0.237	0.238
	(0.113)	(0.114)	[0.000]	[0.003]
	[0.000]	[0.028]
Youth Involvement	-1.571***	-1.582***	0.028	0.028
	(0.117)	(0.119)	[0.000]	[0.000]
	[0.000]	[0.004]
Social Aspects	-1.313***	-1.312***	0.036	0.036
	(0.118)	(0.131)	[0.000]	[0.001]
	[0.000]	[0.3480]
Family Commitments	-0.688***	-0.688***	0.068	0.068
	(0.112)	(0.131)	[0.000]	[0.002]
	[0.000]	[.450]
Injury	-0.794***	-0.795***	0.061	0.061
	(0.117)	(0.118)	[0.000]	[0.001]
	[0.000]	[0.010]
Lack of Opportunities to Advance	-0.828***	-.833***	0.059	0.059
	(0.116)	(0.117)	[0.000]	[0.001]
	[0.000]	[0.001]
Cost to Referee	-.481***	-0.474***	0.084	0.084
	(0.115)	(0.116)	[0.000]	[0.001]
	[0.000]	[0.016]
Age	-1.455***	-1.468***	0.032	0.031
	(0.117)	(0.127)	[0.000]	[0.001]
	[0.000]	[0.179]
Assigning	-0.491***	-0.482***	0.083	0.083
	(0.116)	(0.117)	[0.000]	[0.001]
	[0.000]	[0.001]
Game Fees	-0.350***	-0.348***	0.095	0.095
	(0.120)	(0.121)	[0.000]	[0.002]
	[0.000]	[0.009]
Lack of Organizational Support	-0.510***	-0.514***	0.081	0.081
	(0.115)	(0.116)	[0.000]	[0.001]
	[0.000]	[0.001]
Work	0.000	0.000	0.135	0.135
(Base Factor)			[0.000]	[0.014]

Log Likelihood	-2843.485	-2838.531
McFadden’s LRI	0.066	0.097
Number of Respondents	77	77

***, **, and * asterisks represent the factor is significantly different from the Work factor at the 1%, 5%, and 10% level, respectively.

^aNumbers in parentheses are standard errors.
^bnumbers in brackets are standard deviations.

As with the youth referees, Pearson correlations for the adult referees are presented in Table 6. A greater response rate among adults compared to youth referees provides more robustness in the correlations that are presented. It is interesting to note the strong negative correlation between Game Fees and Assign (-0.591) suggesting concerns about pay is not tied to assigning. Concerns about Game Fees and the ability to Advance had a strong positive relationship (0.607) indicating adult referees view the pay for higher level games isn’t a strong enough incentive to advance. Those referees who rated the inability to Advance highly was negatively correlated (-0.611) with concerns about being over or under assigned (Assign).

Table 6. Pearson Correlations Between Factors from Individual Specific RPL Estimates of Adult Referees

Factor	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10	11
Respect (1)	1.000
Youth Involvement (2)	0.063	1.000
Assign (3)	-0.304	-0.578	1.000
Social (4)	-0.105	-0.052	0.017	1.000
Injury (5)	0.153	0.533	-0.587	-0.124	1.000
Advance (6)	0.300	0.387	-0.611	0.217	0.418	1.000
Age (7)	-0.172	-0.230	0.089	-0.192	-0.115	-0.287	1.000
Cost (8)	0.275	0.179	-0.460	0.028	0.196	0.542	-0.282	1.000
Game Fees (9)	0.046	0.444	-0.591	-0.124	0.401	0.607	-0.015	0.336	1.000
Organizational Support (10)	0.129	-0.036	-0.055	-0.069	0.049	-0.334	-0.093	0.007	-0.197	1.000
Family (11)	-0.255	-0.279	0.574	-0.136	-0.543	-0.338	0.147	-0.483	-0.323	0.036	1.000

Conclusions

Concerns about retaining sports officials are a pressing factor for many sports with referee abuse a concern among leagues and official associations. Factors influencing the decision to not renew referee licenses are not well understood in the literature. Prior research has focused on qualitative factors impacting the renewal decision which doesn’t quantitatively rank factors included in the research. This research surveyed current and former referees who had actively considered not renewing their referee license with a majority no longer refereeing soccer. There were significant differences between youth and adult referees in the factors that had led them to consider not renewing their referee license. For youth, the cost to referee and concerns about being over- or under-assigned were the top two reasons for considering not renewing their license compared to adults who were more concerned about the lack of respect and work commitments. For both age groups, concerns about organizational support were significant factors as it relates to continuing refereeing.

Our study is limited by the small sample size, but it is an important look into the factors that resulted in a majority of referees no longer renewing their U.S. Soccer Federation license. While we do not focus on the well-being of referees as in Downward and Webb (2023), our findings are consistent with theirs that a zero-tolerance approach will aid in adult referee retention. This reinforces the need for organizational support (Rainey, 1995; Voight, 2007; Ridinger et al., 2017; Downward and Webb, 2023), but also requires training by those organizations on what to include in post-match reports to have the backing. As over 75% of respondents in our survey did not attend more than one continuing education session annually, sanctioning bodies and referee associations need innovative ideas to aid in reaching this objective.

Future research should focus on expanding this to referees who have not recently considered non-renewal of their referee licenses. This portion of the referee community will likely have different factors motivating their continued renewals as was demonstrated by the differences observed in this paper based on the age of the referee. Identification of the factors that aid in retention of these referees may aid in development of strategies to limit the impact of factors discussed in this research. Given the nature of soccer in the U.S., future research should better control for the differences in length of refereeing and level officiated (e.g., recreational versus club). With the number of young referees who work matches in the U.S., the skills necessary to be successful may not have been developed to handle the stressors commonly associated with officiating (Rainey, 1995; Rainey and Hardy, 1999; Burke et al., 2000; Voight, 2009; Gomes et al., 2021). A more diverse respondent pool, in terms of locality, gender, and ethnicity, is also needed to better understand why referees continue to engage in a stressful avocation.

Acknowledgements

The authors express appreciation to Don Eubank, State Referee Administrator for Tennessee Soccer, for sending the questionnaire to soccer referees in the state and providing the incentive for respondents to complete the questionnaire. We also thank the staff and mentors of U.S. Youth Soccer Region III for helpful feedback on an early draft of the questionnaire. The authors are grateful for the helpful edits and suggestions from Marco Palma on an earlier draft of this paper.

Conflicts of Interest

J. Ross Pruitt is an active soccer referee with the U.S. Soccer Federation, Tennessee Secondary School Athletic Association, and National Intercollegiate Soccer Official Association.

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