General – The Sport Journal

A Longitudinal Cross-Sectional Analysis of Physical Fitness and Motor Competency for Intermediate School Students

Authors: Moez Baklouti¹

¹Full Professor, Human Sciences Department, Institut Superieur de Sport et de l’Education Physique, University of Mannouba, Tunisia

Editor’s Note: This article uses the pseudonym Nm.Wr.Qs. The Sport Journal has discussed this with the author. The acronym represents a school in North America, and The Sport Journal has confirmed that the school and district exist. This note serves to assure readers that reasonable steps have been taken to confirm the legitimacy of the content presented.

Corresponding Author:

[email protected]

ABSTRACT

Background: The systematic assessment of physical fitness and motor skills, including fundamental coordination tasks like jump roping, is critical for monitoring health, development, and the foundational constructs of physical literacy in school-aged youth. Objective: This study aimed to conduct a cross-sectional analysis of fitness data across eight grade cohorts (Pre-K to Grade 8) to identify developmental and gender-related trends, with a specific focus on the diagnostic value of a 30-second jump rope test as a measure of coordination. Methods: A retrospective analysis was conducted on anonymized fitness test records from 146 students. Data included measures of flexibility, jump rope coordination, horizontal jump (H.J.), vertical jump (V.J.), 30-meter sprint, medicine ball throw (MB6), weight, and height. Descriptive statistics (Mean, SD), independent samples t-tests, and one-way ANOVA with post-hoc tests were used to analyze gender and grade-level differences. Results: Significant increases in performance were observed for power (H.J., V.J., MB6) and speed (30m) from early to later grades. Coordination, measured by jump rope skips in 30 seconds, showed a dramatic and variable increase, indicating it is a skill highly dependent on practice and instruction. Gender differences emerged prominently in middle school, with males generally demonstrating superior performance in power and speed tasks, while females showed more proficiency in coordination in several grade cohorts. Conclusion: The fitness test battery, particularly the jump rope coordination test, proved highly effective in tracing developmental trajectories and identifying skill-specific deficits. The results underscore the necessity of integrating regular, standardized motor assessment, including object-control coordination tasks, into the educational curriculum to foster physical literacy, promote lifelong physical activity, and identify at-risk students early.

Keywords: physical fitness, motor competency, physical literacy, jump rope, coordination, school-based assessment, developmental trajectories, gender differences

INTRODUCTION

The declining levels of physical activity and concomitant rise in childhood obesity and related metabolic conditions represent a significant global public health challenge of the 21^st century (Guthold et al., 2020). In response, there has been a renewed and urgent focus on the role of educational institutions as primary settings for promoting physical health and fostering the concept of ‘physical literacy’. Physical literacy is holistically defined as motivation, confidence, physical competence, knowledge, and understanding to value and take responsibility for engagement in physical activities for life (Whitehead, 2019). Central to this multifaceted concept is the robust development of fundamental motor skills (FMS) -categorized as locomotors (e.g., running, jumping) and object-control (e.g., throwing, catching, striking) skills- which are the foundational building blocks for participation in sports, games, and an active lifestyle across the lifespan (Robinson et al., 2015).

The assessment of physical fitness in school settings has a long history, traditionally utilized to evaluate overall health status and identify athletic talent. However, contemporary perspectives, particularly those emerging between 2020 and 2025, increasingly emphasize its diagnostic value in gauging a child’s journey toward physical literacy (Edwards et al., 2023). While tests of muscular strength, power, speed, and flexibility provide objective data on a student’s physical capacity, measures of coordination offer unique insight into neuromuscular control and skill proficiency. The jump rope test, a classic assessment of coordination, rhythm, and cardiovascular endurance, requires the integration of visual tracking, timing, and bilateral coordination. Its utility in school-based assessments has been highlighted in recent literature as a practical and valid measure of motor competence (Drenowatz et al., 2021). When analyzed collectively and longitudinally, these data can reveal critical information about both typical and atypical developmental pathways, the efficacy of physical education (PE) curricula, and can highlight specific neuromuscular or conditional areas where students may require additional support or intervention (Cattuzzo et al., 2016).

Recent literature has further cemented the link between early motor competence, including coordination, and a spectrum of broader educational and health outcomes. Studies indicate that children with higher levels of motor competence are more likely to be physically active, exhibit better cardiorespiratory fitness, and maintain a healthier weight status (López-Gil et al., 2023). Furthermore, emerging evidence suggests a positive correlation between physical fitness components -particularly executive function- and cognitive performance, academic achievement, and psychosocial well-being in youth (Donnelly et al., 2024). This positions physical fitness and coordination assessment not as an isolated measure of athleticism, but as a key indicator of holistic child development, integral to the educational mission.

Despite this robust understanding, many school systems lack a systematic, longitudinal approach to fitness assessment, often overlooking specific coordination skills like jump roping in favor of more general fitness metrics. Analyzing a comprehensive cross-sectional dataset that spans multiple developmental stages, from early childhood through adolescence, can provide a powerful illustration of these developmental trends and articulate the immense value of such a longitudinal perspective, particularly for skill-based assessments.

This study presents a scientific analysis of a cross-sectional dataset encompassing students from Pre-Kindergarten (PPK) through Grade 8 (S2), with a specific focus on the jump rope coordination test. The primary aims are:

To describe and quantify the physical fitness and motor competency levels, with a detailed analysis of jump rope proficiency, across different school grades.
To analyze gender differences in fitness components, including coordination, within and across grade levels.
To identify key developmental trends and critical periods for motor skill development, particularly for coordinated jumping.
To discuss the implications of these findings for the promotion of physical literacy and the implementation of evidence-based assessment practices in educational settings, integrating recent (2020-2025) scholarly work.

METHODS

Research Design and Data Source

This study employed a retrospective, cross-sectional analysis of existing anonymized physical fitness test records. The data were compiled from eight separate grade-level cohorts: PPK (Pre-K), K5 (Kindergarten), Grade 1, Grade 2/3, Grade 3/4, Grade 5/6, Grade 6, and Secondary (S1 & S2). The combined dataset included records for 146 students at Nm.Wr.Qs.

Participants

The sample consisted of 146 children and adolescents. A breakdown of the sample by grade and gender is presented in Table 1. Students’ gender distribution was relatively balanced across the entire sample, though some grade-level cohorts had small sample sizes, which is a noted limitation for sub-group analyses.

Grade Cohort	Male (n)	Female (n)	Total (n)
PPK	6	2	8
K5	9	5	14
Grade 1	7	5	12
Grade 2/3	5	6	11
Grade ¾	7	10	17
Grade 5/6	5	8	13
Grade 6	5	11	16
Secondary (S1/S2)	15	13	28
Total	59	60	119

Table 1: Sample Size and Gender Distribution by Grade Cohort

*Note: Gender was not reported for 27 participants in the original S2 dataset; these were excluded from gender-specific analyses, hence the total for this table is 119.*

Measures and Variables

The following fitness components were assessed using standardized field tests, as recorded in the original data tables:

Flexibility (Flex.): Measured in centimeters using a sit-and-reach test. Positive values indicate reach beyond the toes.
Coordination (Coor.): Number of successful jump rope skips in a 30-second interval.
Lower-Body Power (Horizontal Jump – H.J.): Standing broad jump distance measured in centimeters.
Lower-Body Power (Vertical Jump – V.J.): Vertical jump height measured in centimeters.
Speed (30m): Time to sprint 30 meters, measured in seconds. All times were converted to seconds (e.g., 8″ 36 became 8.36 seconds).
Upper-Body Power (MB6 Lb.): Distance thrown for a 6-pound medicine ball, measured in centimeters.
Anthropometrics: Body weight (in pounds) and height (in centimeters). These were used to calculate Body Mass Index (BMI).

Data Analysis

All statistical analyses were conducted using IBM SPSS Statistics (Version 29). Data from the original tables were cleaned and standardized. Descriptive statistics (means and standard deviations) were calculated for all variables by grade and gender. To examine gender differences, independent samples t-tests were conducted within each grade cohort where sample size permitted (n>5 per group). A one-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was used to test for significant differences in mean performance across grade levels for each fitness variable. Where the ANOVA was significant (p < .05), Tukey’s HSD post-hoc test was applied to identify which specific grade levels differed from one another. Effect sizes were calculated using Cohen’s d for t-tests (small: d=0.2, medium: d=0.5, large: d=0.8) and eta-squared (η²) for ANOVA (small: 0.01, medium: 0.06, large: 0.14). The alpha level for statistical significance was set at p < .05.

RESULTS

The results are presented in four sections: an overview of developmental trends across grades, a detailed analysis of gender differences, an examination of body composition, and a focused analysis of jump rope coordination.

Developmental Trends Across Grade Levels

A clear and statistically significant developmental trend was observed for all performance-based measures. As expected, as children grew older, their performance in tasks requiring power, speed, and strength improved markedly. Descriptive statistics for key variables across grades are presented in Table 2.

*Grade*	n	H.J. (cm) M (SD)	V.J. (cm) M (SD)	30m (s) M (SD)	MB6 (cm) M (SD)	Flex. (cm) M (SD)	Coor. (Jumps) M (SD)
*PPK*	8	89.4 (8.5)	9.0 (2.1)	8.76 (1.45)	93.8 (18.9)	+5.5 (4.8)	1.0 (1.6)
K5	14	103.9 (13.7)	12.6 (3.5)	7.01 (0.76)	108.6 (18.1)	+5.8 (4.1)	0.2 (0.4)
*Gr 1*	12	125.8 (15.2)	11.0 (3.1)	6.50 (0.83)	136.8 (16.9)	+4.8 (4.9)	9.3 (7.5)
*Gr 2/3*	11	124.1 (21.2)	16.7 (4.9)	6.22 (0.95)	166.4 (37.1)	+3.6 (8.6)	16.3 (7.8)
*Gr 3/4*	17	141.2 (25.8)	17.9 (5.1)	6.28 (0.75)	228.5 (40.8)	–4.4 (8.2)	21.5 (10.2)
*Gr 5/6*	13	141.2 (22.7)	16.5 (5.3)	6.05 (0.62)	218.1 (38.4)	+2.8 (7.8)	67.2 (48.1)
*Gr 6*	16	162.8 (16.3)	21.9 (5.1)	5.62 (0.47)	289.7 (65.8)	+1.9 (8.5)	27.6 (11.2)
*Secondary*	28	181.8 (29.1)	25.9 (8.8)	5.66 (0.84)	372.9 (78.9)	–1.9 (11.3)	30.5 (12.8)

Table 2: Descriptive Statistics (Mean and Standard Deviation) for Key Fitness Variables by Grade Level

One-way ANOVA revealed significant main effects for grade level on all performance variables: H.J. (F(7, 111) = 32.15, p < .001, η² = 0.67), V.J. (F(7, 111) = 21.44, p < .001, η² = 0.58), 30m sprint (F(7, 111) = 16.02, p < .001, η² = 0.51), and MB6 throw (F(7, 111) = 71.89, p < .001, η² = 0.82). Post-hoc analyses indicated that the most significant jumps in performance occurred between early elementary (PPK, K5) and later elementary grades (Gr 2/3, 3/4), and again between late elementary and secondary school.

Figure 1. Mean Horizontal Jump Distance by Grade Level

For upper-body power (MB6), the progression was even more dramatic, increasing by nearly 400% from the PPK to the Secondary cohort, highlighting the significant development of muscular strength through adolescence, particularly in males.

Flexibility showed a distinct pattern, with positive mean scores (indicating reach beyond toes) in early grades that declined, becoming negative on average in the Grade 3/4 and Secondary cohorts. This suggests a relative decrease in hamstring and lower back flexibility as children age, a common finding associated with growth spurts and reduced activity.

The Development of Jump Rope Coordination

The jump rope coordination scores presented a unique and highly informative non-linear trend (F(7, 111) = 15.89, p < .001, η² = 0.50). Performance was minimal in PPK (M=1.0, SD=1.6) and K5 (M=0.2, SD=0.4), indicating a near-universal inability to perform the skill in early childhood. A significant jump occurred in Grade 1 (M=9.3, SD=7.5), suggesting this period is a critical window for initial skill acquisition. Scores then showed a steady, significant increase through Grade 3/4 (M=21.5, SD=10.2).

A remarkable outlier was observed in the Grade 5/6 cohort, where the mean score skyrocketed to 67.2 jumps, albeit with an enormous standard deviation (SD=48.1). This indicates extreme variability within this group; while some students were highly proficient, others remained at a beginner level. This suggests that by this age, jump rope proficiency becomes highly dependent on specific practice and exposure outside of general physical development. Scores then consolidated in Grade 6 (M=27.6, SD=11.2) and Secondary (M=30.5, SD=12.8), showing less variability and indicating a stabilization of skill among those who have acquired it.

Gender Differences in Physical Performance

Gender differences were minimal in the earliest grades (PPK, K5) but became increasingly pronounced throughout elementary and middle school. Detailed comparisons for selected cohorts are presented in Table 3.

Grade & Variable	Males M (SD)	Females M (SD)	p-value	Cohen’s d
*Grade 3/4 (n=7 / n=10)*
H.J. (cm)	151.4 (33.9)	133.9 (17.1)	0.17	0.66
MB6 (cm)	247.1 (40.1)	215.6 (37.2)	0.10	0.81
Coordination (Jumps)	18.1 (8.2)	23.9 (10.9)	0.23	-0.60
Flexibility (cm)	-11.0 (6.5)	+0.3 (6.9)	0.002	-1.69
*Grade 6 (n=5 / n=11)*
H.J. (cm)	170.0 (8.9)	159.5 (17.8)	0.25	0.75
MB6 (cm)	290.0 (67.1)	289.5 (68.3)	0.99	0.01
Coordination (Jumps)	31.2 (15.5)	26.5 (9.7)	0.49	0.36
*Secondary (n=15 / n=13)*
H.J. (cm)	194.7 (26.3)	167.1 (23.8)	0.005	1.11
30m (s)	5.38 (0.72)	5.98 (0.83)	0.04	-0.78
MB6 (cm)	422.7 (71.5)	316.9 (38.7)	<0.001	1.86
Coordination (Jumps)	28.7 (13.1)	32.5 (12.4)	0.42	-0.30

Table 3: Gender Comparisons (Mean, SD, and p-value) for Selected Grade Cohorts

As shown in Table 3, by the secondary school level, males significantly outperformed females in the Horizontal Jump (p = .005, d = 1.11), the 30m Sprint (p = .04, d = -0.78), and the Medicine Ball Throw (p < .001, d = 1.86), representing medium to very large effect sizes. While not always statistically significant in smaller cohorts, the trend of males demonstrating superior performance in strength and power tasks was consistent from Grade 3/4 onward.

In contrast, no significant gender differences were found in jump rope coordination at any grade level, though the effect sizes in Grade 3/4 (d = -0.60) and Secondary (d = -0.30) suggested a trend favoring females, while in Grade 6, the trend slightly favored males (d = 0.36). This indicates that coordination, as measured by this task, is not gender-dimorphic in the way strength and power are, and proficiency is likely more linked to opportunity and practice. Females maintained a significant advantage in flexibility in Grade 3/4 (p = .002, d = -1.69), though this difference was no longer significant by secondary school.

Body Composition Trends

Height and weight increased predictably with age. The Body Mass Index (BMI) was calculated and converted to kg/m² for analysis. Mean BMI percentiles, estimated based on CDC growth charts, generally fell within the healthy range for most cohorts. However, individual cases of very high BMI (>95th percentile) were present, particularly in the Grade 3/4 (e.g., Participant ZMP: BMI ~31) and Grade 6 (e.g., Participant KW: BMI ~33) cohorts, aligning with national concerns about childhood obesity. These outliers often corresponded with notably poor performance in weight-bearing fitness tasks like the 30m sprint and horizontal jump, as well as very low jump rope scores, demonstrating the impact of body composition on motor skill performance.

DISCUSSION

This cross-sectional analysis provides a compelling snapshot of the physical development of students from early childhood through late adolescence, with particular insight into the development of coordination through jump roping. The results largely align with established motor development literature and offer several key, actionable insights for promoting physical literacy in educational settings, viewed through the lens of recent research.

The Jump Rope as a Diagnostic Tool for Physical Literacy

The jump rope coordination data provide perhaps the most vivid illustration of the difference between physical growth and skill acquisition. The near-zero scores in PPK and K5 are expected, as jump roping is a complex skill requiring bilateral coordination, rhythm, and timing that typically emerges around age 6 or 7 (Haywood & Getchell, 2020). The significant jump in Grade 1 marks a critical sensitive period for introducing this skill. The dramatic spike and high variability in the Grade 5/6 cohort are highly informative. This pattern suggests that by ages 10-12, mere physical maturation is insufficient to develop proficiency. Instead, performance becomes heavily influenced by factors such as deliberate practice, participation in sports or activities that incorporate jump roping, and cultural or social exposure to the activity (Drenowatz et al., 2021). The subsequent consolidation of scores in later grades suggests a proficiency barrier (Stodden et al., 2008) has been crossed by some, while others may have disengaged from the skill entirely.

This has direct implications for physical literacy. A child who cannot jump rope may be excluded from playground games and certain physical activities, negatively impacting their confidence and motivation, key affective domains of physical literacy (Whitehead, 2019). Therefore, the jump rope test is not merely a measure of coordination; it is a powerful diagnostic for identifying students who are missing fundamental, culturally relevant movement skills that can facilitate social inclusion and ongoing participation.

Interpreting Broader Developmental Trajectories

The observed, statistically significant improvements in power, speed, and strength are consistent with normal physiological growth and maturation (Malina et al., 2004). The steep improvements in lower-body power (H.J., V.J.) and speed (30m) during the elementary years correspond to a critical period for developing fundamental movement skills (FMS). As Robinson et al. (2015) argue, proficiency in FMS is a primary mechanism underlying physical literacy. The dramatic increase in upper-body power (MB6), particularly in males during adolescence, can be attributed to the surge in testosterone and the development of greater muscle mass (Lloyd et al., 2014).

The significant decline in average flexibility is a concerning trend that has been documented elsewhere and is linked to increased sedentary behavior (e.g., screen time) and a lack of targeted stretching (Schranz et al., 2020). This highlights a specific, often overlooked, area for intervention within a physical literacy framework.

Addressing the Emergent Gender Gap and Skill Equity

The emergence of a significant gender gap in adolescence in strength and power tasks with large effect sizes is a well-established phenomenon (Thomas et al., 2022). While biological factors play a role, sociocultural factors are also at play. Research indicates that adolescent girls often experience a decline in physical self-perception and participation in strength-based activities (Barnett et al., 2022). Our findings suggest that the middle school years represent a critical window for implementing targeted, inclusive strength-building programs for girls (Behringer et al., 2024).

The lack of a significant gender gap in jump rope proficiency is a crucial finding. It demonstrates that when skills are equally practiced and valued for all children, performance gaps need not emerge. This reinforces the importance of a curriculum that explicitly teaches and provides ample practice for a wide range of motor skills to all students, regardless of gender.

CONCLUSION

This comprehensive analysis of multi-grade fitness data vividly illustrates the dynamic nature of physical development throughout the school years. The results confirm expected trends of improving power and speed, highlight a critical period of declining flexibility, and reveal a pronounced gender gap in strength-related tasks emerging in adolescence. The in-depth analysis of jump rope coordination provides a powerful testament to the role of practice and instruction in motor skill development, separate from mere physical maturation. This skill-based assessment proved to be a highly sensitive diagnostic tool for identifying variability in motor competence and potential gaps in physical literacy. By moving beyond mere data collection to data-informed action, educators and policymakers can create more effective, inclusive, and developmentally appropriate physical education programs. Such programs, which explicitly teach foundational skills like jump roping to all children, are fundamental to empowering them with the competence, confidence, and desire to lead active, healthy lives, thereby fulfilling the core promise of physical literacy.

LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH

This study has several limitations. Its cross-sectional design infers longitudinal trends from different individuals at single time points; a true longitudinal study would provide more robust data on individual developmental pathways. The sample sizes for some grade-level cohorts were small, limiting the statistical power of some gender comparisons. Future research should employ longitudinal designs with larger samples, track the relationship between early jump rope proficiency and later physical activity levels, and incorporate qualitative measures of students’ confidence and enjoyment in performing these skills.

APPLICATIONS IN SPORT

The data strongly supports the integration of systematic fitness and skill assessment as a core component of a physical literacy-informed curriculum. As Edwards et al. (2023) argue, assessment should not be for grading but for guiding. The results of such tests can:

Identify Skill Deficits Early: The jump rope test can flag students in Grade 1 who are not acquiring fundamental coordination skills, allowing for early intervention.
Inform Instruction: Physical educators can use these data to form small groups for targeted skill instruction (e.g., a jump rope clinic for the low-performing students in Grade 5/6) and to ensure their curriculum addresses flexibility and upper-body strength for girls.
Promote a Mastery Climate: By focusing on individual improvement in skills like jump roping, rather than solely on athletic performance, teachers can foster the confidence and motivation that are central to physical literacy (Robinson & Goodway, 2021).

REFERENCES

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Troy Palmer2025-12-12T09:51:04-06:00July 1st, 2026|General, Sport Training, Sports Coaching, Sports Exercise Science, Sports Health & Fitness, Sports Studies|Comments Off

Super Shoes: A Quantitative Analysis of Short-Term and Long-Term Performance Gains

Authors: Ryan Savitz¹, Divit Gupta², Jared Ward³, Andrew Bjorkelo¹

¹Neumann University

²Conestoga High School

³Brigham Young University

Corresponding Author:

Ryan Savitz

[email protected]

ABSTRACT

Purpose:

This paper analyzes the long-term effect of carbon plated running shoe technology (super shoes) on the performance of elite female and male marathoners.

Methods:

In order to do this, we collected data on the number of male sub-2:08 and female sub-2:26:50 marathons in years both prior to and after the introduction of such shoes. Regression models were then constructed to assess the yearly trend in these data both pre and post super shoe introduction (this was done separately for each gender).

Results:

We found a statistically significant increase in the slope following the introduction of super shoes, with the annual number of sub-2:08 performers increasing by approximately 11.8 more athletes per year for men and 22.2 for women. Additionally, we compared the change in men’s slope to the change in women’s slope, finding that women’s times responded significantly more to the introduction of super shoes than did the men’s times.

Conclusions:

In summary, super shoes not only provide an immediate boost to race day performance, but also appear to have ongoing time improvement effects over time.

Applications in Sport:

This research will allow runners to make informed decisions regarding their use of shoe technology in competition. These findings suggest that performances in elite marathoning are improving at a faster rate since the introduction of super shoes. This implies that athletes, coaches, and governing bodies must account for the ongoing effects of shoe technology in training, competition, and qualification standards.

Keywords: Marathon, carbon plated shoes, performance benefits from shoes

INTRODUCTION AND LITERATURE REVIEW

The marathon race traces its origins back to the legend of Pheidippides. We owe the standardization of the distance to the royal family at the 1908 London Olympics, who requested the race to pass the palace, and thus at 26 miles and 385 yards, and a tradition of long distance racing was born.

Following the running boom of the early 1970s, marathon running has become increasingly popular at both a recreational and elite level. Currently, the most competitive marathons are part of the Abbott World Marathon Majors.

One noteworthy thing about long-distance running is that it requires minimal equipment. Perhaps the greatest innovation in equipment technology was the introduction of carbon plated shoes by Nike in 2016. Initially, knowledge of their existence was rather limited, although the three male marathon medalists at the Rio De Janeiro Olympics all wore some prototype of these shoes (5). These shoes, however, did not become widely available until 2017 and, therefore, we use 2017 as their year of introduction for the purposes of the analyses we conduct in this paper. Over time, the use of these shoes has grown to encompass recreational runners as well, and they have become increasingly popular for use in training, due to their extensive cushioning.

Previous work by Bjorkelo et al. (2024) has shown that the use of these shoes has an immediate effect on performance. In particular, they found an immediate increase in the number of sub-2:08 marathons run per year by male marathoners. The goal of this paper, however, is to determine what, if any, long-term benefits these shoes offer. In other words, our goal is to see, if, in addition to the aforementioned immediate benefit, this shoe technology also affects the rate at which the number of sub-2:08 marathons per year is increasing. We assess the same relationship for the number of women’s marathons run under 2:26:50 each year. Mathematically, this study models elite marathon performance counts as a piecewise linear time series with a structural break corresponding to the introduction of new shoe technology. To provide background for these analyses, we now turn to a review of the literature.

A great deal of research into the various factors affecting long distance running performance has been conducted over the years. Running shoe technology has become an increasingly popular area of research following the introduction of super shoes. Much of this research has involved the effect of these shoes on running economy (RE). Morgan et al. (8) define RE as the volume of oxygen that must be consumed (per kg body weight) in order to support a particular running velocity.

While many factors affect RE, the one most relevant to this study is related to running mechanics. Specifically, this factor involves the force with which an athlete’s foot can hit and depart from the ground (3). Much of the research into the efficacy of super shoes in reducing marathon times has been lab research related to these ground forces. For example, Herbert-Losier and Pamment (5) found that while the Nike Zoom Streak 6 (a traditional racing shoe) had an energy return of 65.5%, the Nike Vaporfly (a super shoe) returned 87% of the expended mechanical energy. They found that this increase in energy return results in approximately a 4% increase in RE and a 2% increase in performance. Similarly, Hunter et al. (7) found runners’ oxygen consumption to be between 1.9% and 2.8% lower in carbon plated shoes, as opposed to traditional racing shoes.

The aforementioned laboratory gains in RE can, naturally, vary quite a bit from one individual to another. For instance, Paradisis et al. (9) found that, among recreational runners, the reduction in oxygen consumption attributable to carbon plated racing shoes can be up to 3.8%. It is also important to note that most of the studies on RE focused on male subjects or pooled male and female subjects (1). As we will shortly see, one of the analyses performed in this study attempts to discern any differences in separately averaged male and female response to super shoes.

Although much of the research into carbon plated shoe technology has been conducted in the laboratory, some work has been done outside of the laboratory. In particular, Bjorkelo et al. (2) found that the introduction of super shoes in 2017 was associated with a 91 second decrease in elite male marathoning times. Additionally, Robbin et al. (11) found that, since the introduction of super shoes, elite male and female marathoning times have improved according to the 3 following criteria: (1) the arithmetic mean of the medians of the 100 best performances per year was at least 0.3% faster than the reference value, (2) at least 50% of the years in the observation period were faster than the reference value, and (3) two years within the observation period were the fastest years analyzed. Most notably, they found that arithmetic mean of the medians decreased by 1.45% for the females and by 0.73% for the males. This corroborates the 1.174% decrease in elite male times found by Bjorkelo et al. (2).

In this paper, we will take the previous research several steps further. While the previous research looked at the one-time effect of super shoes on race times (e.g. a 1.45% decrease in marathon times for women and a 0.73% decrease for men) (11), we will address the question: on a yearly basis, are race times improving more rapidly than they used to for elite male and female marathon runners? Additionally, we will statistically quantify any differences that exist between this rate of improvement for men versus women.

METHODS

In order to address the questions posed above, we collected data on the number of male individuals running under 2:08 for the marathon for each year from 1985 through 2024, and similarly, collected data on the number of female individuals running under 2:26:50 for each year from 2002 through 2024 (note that we examine the number of unique individuals under these time standards, not the total number of performances under these standards). These data are publicly available, and were obtained from the World Athletics database (6). We then conducted several linear regression analyses. Due to the time-series nature of the data, we used Cochrane-Orcutt transformations on all continuous variables, in order to remediate the autocorrelation of the residuals (4). This transformation transforms the regression variables such that the correlation of model errors over time is dramatically reduced. After correcting for autocorrelation, no evidence of heteroskedasticity or non-normality of residuals was detected. Additionally, in order to minimize the multicollinearity in the models, we centered the year about 2017. Note that all hypotheses are tested at the 0.05 level of significance.

In each of the aforementioned regressions, the dependent variable is either the number of individuals who ran sub-2:08 marathon in a given calendar year (when dealing with men), or the number of individuals who ran sub-2:26:50 marathon times in a given calendar year (when dealing with women). The times of 2:08 and 2:26:50 were chosen for the following reasons: (1) they allowed us to find data dating back a few decades, (2) they would still be considered an elite marathon time today, and (3) the data for this particular set of times was readily available. Further, the choice of 2:08 allows for a nice comparison to work previously done by Bjorkelo et al. (2), and as 2:08 is near the 2024 Olympic standard for men, the Olympic standard for women seemed a compatible complement. That said, we note that there is nothing intrinsically special about the times of 2:08 and 2:26:50.

While we acknowledge that the use of counts of performances below a fixed threshold differs from directly modeling finishing times, this approach offers two advantages. First, it provides a consistent and interpretable measure of performance depth over time, allowing us to assess how many athletes are achieving historically high standards in any given year. Second, threshold-based measures such as ours are less sensitive to extreme outliers (e.g., world records) and instead capture overall changes in competitive field quality.

In each regression, the year (e.g. 2010) is used as an independent variable. As noted in the introduction, we consider 2017 to be the first year for which super shoes were widely available.

In practical terms, the approach outlined above allows us to compare how quickly elite-level performances were improving before and after the introduction of super shoes. Instead of focusing on individual race times, the model captures changes in the depth of elite performances over time.

RESULTS

We now address the first research question: has the annual rate of increase of the number of men running under 2:08 changed since the introduction of super shoes?

Men

To clarify the above statement, we assume (and can see from the data) that the number of men running under 2:08 each year has been increasing over time, independent of shoe technology. This may be attributable to such things as improved nutrition and better training methods. Our goal is to see if that rate of increase changed in 2017, upon the introduction of super shoes. In order to do this, we estimate the following equations:

Y = b₁₁ + b₂₁X, where Y = the number of men under 2:08, and X = year (for years 1985-2016)

Y = b₁₂ + b₂₂X, where Y = the number of men under 2:08, and X = year (for years 2017-2024).

In the first equation above, b₁₁ is the estimate y-intercept and b₂₁is the estimated slope. Similar notation is used throughout the remainder of this section for the remaining equations. In practice, b₂₁ is the pre-super shoe slope and b₂₂is the post-super shoe slope. b₂₁ tells us, on average, how many sub-2:08 performers were being added per year prior to the introduction of super shoes (presumably due to things like improved nutrition), while b₂₂tells us, on average, how many sub-2:08 performers have been added per year after the super shoes were widely available.

The estimated equations are presented below (with standard errors in parentheses below the parameter estimates):

(equation 1a) Y = -2022.04 + 2.595X

(0.516)

(equation 1b) Y = -39725.17 + 14.395X

(1.973)

Although it is not our primary topic of interest, we note that each of the slope parameter estimates above are statistically significant, and have p-values < 0.001.

After estimating both equations (using ordinary least squares regression), we test the following hypothesis:

H₀: b₂₁= b₂₂

H₁: b₂₁ ≠ b₂₂

Note that we use the approach above, as opposed to simply estimating one equation with an interaction term, because our attempts to do so were met with serious multicollinearity issues.

In order to test the hypothesis above, we utilized a modified Sattherthwaite approach (13) to estimating the degrees of freedom for the corresponding t-test. We utilize this approach because (1) some of our sample sizes are relatively small and (2) the variance of the parameter estimates we are comparing do not appear to be equal.

From equations 1a and 1b, we find a test statistic value of T = 5.78. Using the method of von Davier (13), we find an effective degrees of freedom of 8.23. This results in a p-value = 0.00042. Hence, we reject our null hypothesis of no difference between the slopes. Indeed, it appears that the annual rate of change (slope) in the number of sub-2:08’s during the super shoe era is significantly greater than the rate of change prior to the introduction of super shoes.

The difference between the slopes above is 11.8. This means that, upon the introduction of super shoes, the rate of increase in the number of sub-2:08 runners each year increased by 11.8. In other words, we are now adding nearly 12 more athletes per year to the sub-2:08 ranks than was the case prior to 2017. In a practical sense, this suggests that elite performance is not just improving, but improving at an accelerating rate since the introduction of super shoes.

Women

Similarly, we now address our second research question: has the annual rate of increase of the number of women running under 2:26:50 changed since the introduction of super shoes?

In order to answer this question, we estimate the following equations:

Y = a₁₁ + a₂₁X, where Y = the number of women under 2:26:50, and X = year (for years 2002-2016)

Y = a₁₂ + a₂₂X, where Y = the number of women under 2:26:50, and X = year (for years 2017-2024)

The estimated equations are presented below (with standard errors in parentheses below the parameter estimates):

(equation 2a) Y = -3780.75 + 3.58X

(1.127)

(equation 2b) Y = -55464.92 + 25.79X

(3.521)

As with the male marathoners, note that both of the slope parameter estimates above are statistically significant, and have p-values 0.008 and less than 0.001, respectively.

We now test the following hypothesis for the women:

H₀: a₂₁= a₂₂

H₁: a₂₁ ≠ a₂₂

From equations 2a and 2b, we calculate a test statistic value of T = 6.01. Using the method of von Davier (13), we find an effective degrees of freedom of 5.87. This results in a p-value = 0.0018. Hence, we again reject our null hypothesis of no difference between the slopes. It appears that, as with the male marathoners, the annual rate of change (slope) in the number of sub-2:26:50’s run by females during the super shoe era is significantly greater than the rate of change prior to the introduction of super shoes.

Finding the difference of the slopes above, we are now seeing a rate of increase in sub-2:26:50 runners that is 22.21 athletes per year more than it was previously.

Comparison of Men and Women

We have just seen that there is convincing statistical evidence to show that the rate of increase of both male and female fast (under 2:08 and 2:26:50, respectively) marathons has increased since the introduction of super shoes. Our final research question involves determining whether or not these two changes in rate of fast times is different between the genders. In order to do this, we estimate one regression equation for each gender. Each of these equations involves the entirety of the years available for that gender. The dependent variable is unchanged from before. We now use the 3 following independent variables: X₁ = year, X₂ is a 0-1 dummy variable which indicates whether or not super shoes were available that year, and the interaction term X₁ X₂. We can then test to see if there is a difference in the changes of the two genders’ slopes by testing to see if the parameter estimates for the two interaction terms are equal or not. Specifically, we test:

H₀: c_4m= c_4f

H₁: c_4m ≠ c_4f,

Where the c_i are the coefficients of the two equations’ parameter estimates, and m and f refer to the male and female equations, respectively. The coefficients in the hypotheses above are taken from equations 3a and 3b below, which represent the two regression equations we estimated:

(equation 3a) Y = 26.71 +1.008X_1m + 25.94X_2m + 2.73X_1mX_2m

(0.208) (8.54) (2.06)

(equation 3b) Y = 108.85 +3.194X_1f + 321.71X_2f + 20.27X_1fX_2f

(0.90) (48.64) (3.36)

Recall that Y is the estimated number of athletes under 2:08 or 2:26:50 (elite), and each equation above contains an intercept, an intercept additive “shift” for the super shoe era (X₂), a slope representing the estimated annual increase in number of elite marathons from 1985-2024 (X₁),and an additive increase in slope for the estimated additional number of elite marathons each year after the introduction of super shoes (X₁X₂₎).

From equations 3a and 3b, we used the same techniques as in the first two hypothesis tests, and calculate a test statistic value of T = 4.45 with an effective degrees of freedom of 5.67. This results in a p-value = 0.0067. Hence, we reject the null hypothesis and do, indeed, find evidence that the rate of change in the two genders’ slopes is different. Namely, the women’s slope appears to have changed more than did the men’s slope. We now discuss the aforementioned results in more detail.

DISCUSSION

The results from the previous section provide several interesting implications for the future of marathoning. The preceding findings are not only statistically important, but also have applications for coaches and athletes who want to understand how rapidly the competitive standard in elite marathoning is evolving. To our knowledge, this is the first study to provide statistical evidence that advanced shoe technology is associated not only with immediate performance improvements, but also with an increased rate of elite performance progression over time.

In order to put these new results in context, however, it is important to recall a prior result. Bjorkelo et al. (2) previously found that the widespread introduction of super shoes in 2017 resulted in an immediate increase in the number of sub-2:08 marathons run per year. Specifically, they found two things: (1) the introduction of super shoes was associated with an immediate increase in the number of sub-2:08 marathons by just over 23 per year and (2) after accounting for this shoe effect, there was a trend over time of an additional 2.56 sub-2:08 times per year. Their data set, however, only included times through 2021. Combining these results, we can look at number of sub-2:08 times per year as a linear function of time that took a one time jump in 2017.

Our results extend this past work in a significant way. Namely, we found that, in addition to this one time jump the number of fast (where, for purposes of this paper, we define fast as under 2:08 for men and under 2:26:50 for women) marathons, the number of fast marathons being added per year has also increased. In other words, the number of fast marathon times per year can no longer be viewed as a simple linear function. Rather, the number of fast times per year is a piecewise function of time, with the changepoint occurring in 2017. At that time, the slope of the function changed.

Regarding the specifics of this change in slope, we find that in 2017, for men, the number of additional sub-2:08 times per year increased from 2.595 to 14.395. Similarly, for women, the number of additional sub-2:26:50 times per year increased from 3.58 to 25.79. There are a few possible reasons for this increase. One likely reason involves the possibility that training in these highly cushioned shoes allows runners to train at higher volume and/or intensity. This ability to run hard sessions with less residual fatigue may allow marathoners to improve their times faster than before. While a thorough discussion of marathon training methods is beyond the scope of this paper, we do mention an example. First, Ruiz et al. (12) found that carbon plated marathon racing shoes allowed athletes to run faster later in hard track workouts. Similarly, it would be reasonable to expect that these shoes might allow athletes to recover more quickly following the completion of hard workouts. If this is true, it would allow marathoners to run more hard workouts during any given time period.

In addition to the recovery effect noted above, it is possible that there might be a psychological effect influencing the increasing rate of fast marathon times being seen each year. Pfister (10) found that a super shoe placebo effect might exist. Specifically, they found that, given 2 structurally identical shoes, runners perceived a reduction in running effort when they were told the shoes were super shoes.

Related to this is the potential for super shoes to have initiated a “Bannister effect” in marathon running. The Bannister effect refers to the flood of sub-4:00 miles run in the immediate aftermath of Roger Bannister breaking that long revered barrier in 1954 (14). It is possible that the physical effects of super shoes resulted in people running faster than before, which, in turn, led to people believing they could run faster than before. If a 2:08 marathon is no longer seen as especially fast for an elite male marathoner, this belief may result in more elite athletes going after this as a realistic goal, thus increasing the pool of people who may run under 2:08. It would seem reasonable for all of the aforementioned super shoe effects to hold for both men and women and, indeed, we found statistically significant evidence that the rate of increase in fast marathons did increase for both men and women.

Other possible explanations include that the “slope” and “intercept” considerations are being confounded by the effects of some early adopters and some later adopters. This is less likely for Olympic caliber athletes as those considered here.

Further, it seems that super shoe producers are continuing to innovate. Nike’s original super shoes were named “4%s,” a nod to the purported energy savings. As time goes by and technologies improve, this 4% number may grow.

Our next result of interest involves comparing the super shoe effect in men and women. As seen in our results section, the rate of increase in women’s fast (2:26:50) marathon times was statistically significantly greater than the rate of increase in men’s fast (2:08) times. This implies that, for some reason, super shoes may have a greater effect on women’s times than on men’s. Minimal work has been done comparing men’s and women’s responses to super shoes, so the reasons behind the difference we detected are speculative. One possible reason could be due to potential differences in male and female physiology and/or biomechanics. A second reason could be related to the possibility that there may simply be more room for improvement in women’s marathoning than in men’s marathoning (perhaps due to later access).

While this study focuses on elite-level performances, the findings may also have implications for non-elite runners. As improvements in shoe technology continue to influence performance at the highest levels, similar results have been found for recreational runners (9). This could affect pacing strategies, training approaches, and goal setting for individuals whose objectives are things like setting personal best times or qualifying for the Boston Marathon.

As can be seen, maintaining one’s competitive status may increasingly depend not only on talent and training, but also on access to and the use of advanced footwear technology.

This research also provides interesting avenues for future research. First, it would be valuable for more research to be done comparing the effect of carbon plated shoes on males versus females. Research comparing effects in both training, racing, and recovery would be valuable. Second, a repeat of the study contained herein in several years would be of interest. In particular, such a study could shed light on whether or not the change in slope we observed is permanent. Finally, extending the work done in this paper to track races would be most useful. The technology present in super shoes was, even more recently, introduced to spikes used for track races. It would be interesting to see how similar the effects of these spikes are to the effects we found in the marathon shoes.

There are some limitations to the research presented here. First, and most importantly, our sample sizes are relatively small. This is unavoidable, however, since super shoes have only been widely available for 8 years as of the writing of this paper. Additionally, we note that the results we found speak to the evolution of marathon racing as a whole, and do not offer predictions as to the effect of shoe technology on any given runner. Finally, it is certainly possible that factors such as changes in prize structures and advances in training may have contributed to the observed changes over time. That said, our inclusion of a time variable in each regression should account for incremental changes in performance over time. By comparing the change in the time variable’s slope upon the introduction of super shoes, we attempt to isolate this major change as best as reasonably possible.

CONCLUSION

In summary, we have found that the use of carbon plated shoe technology is significantly related to the rate of increase in the number of fast marathoners per year. In addition to the immediate performance effect of super shoes, the number of additional fast times being added each year has increased significantly for both men and women since the introduction of these shoes in 2017. In order to remain competitive in this environment, athletes are going to have to take advantage of every possible opportunity offered by equipment technology. This increase in competitiveness appears to be even greater in women’s marathoning than in men’s marathon racing. More broadly, these findings highlight how new technologies can alter the trajectory of performance progression in endurance sports.

APPLICATIONS IN SPORT

The results of this study have important implications for athletes, coaches, and sport governing bodies. First, the ongoing benefit of super shoe technology provides one important additional reason for competitive runners – both elite and non-elite – to consider the use of super shoes. As Paradisis et al. (9) showed, the lab effect of super shoes is quite significant, even among recreational competitors. While elite athletes generally have their shoes paid for by sponsors, recreational athletes must consider the costs and benefits of these shoes. With most super shoes costing at least $250, it is important to be aware of all of their benefits prior to making a purchasing decision. For competitive runners, this implies that, despite their cost, not using super shoes may place them at a growing disadvantage as performance standards continue to improve.

Second, as noted earlier, a portion of the ongoing benefit of super shoes appears to be due to their ability to allow runners to perform more frequent high intensity training sessions. Having empirically verified that this benefit is significant, athletes of all levels may now consider working with their coaches to modify past training regimens, due to the enhanced ability to recover that these shoes provide. Coaches may therefore consider revisiting traditional recovery assumptions when developing training micro and macrocycles. For example, coaches may consider modest increases in weekly training volume or intensity, while carefully monitoring recovery, in order to leverage the enhanced recovery capacity offered by super shoe technology.

Finally, there are applications for race directors and governing bodies. The people in charge of determining qualifying times for events such as the Olympics, Olympic Trials, and Boston Marathon often determine these standards years in advance with a rough idea of the field size they desire. Since we have now shown, and quantified, that the rate of increase in the number of fast times has increased, it may be useful to consider this information when setting qualifying standards, in order to optimize the number of competitors in a marathon. Failure to account for these trends may result in the use of qualifying standards that no longer reflect the intended level of selectivity.

REFERENCES

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Bjorkelo, A., Savitz, R., Ward, J., & Waggoner, B. (2024). Super shoes: How super are they? Journal of Sports Analytics, 10(1), 137-140.
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Herbert-Losier, K., & Pamment, M. (2022). Advancements in running shoe technology and their effects on running economy and performance– a current concepts overview. Sports Biomechanics, pp.1–16. doi:10.1080/14763141.2022. 2110512
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Hunter, I., McLeod, A., Valentine, D., Low, T., Ward, J., & Hager, R. (2019). Running economy, mechanics, and marathon racing shoes. Journal of Sports Sciences, 37(20), 2367-2373
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Pfister, A. (2024). The potential placebo effect of advanced footwear technology on running economy and comfort in female recreational runners (Doctoral dissertation, The University of Waikato).
Robbin, J., Mai, P., Helwig, J., and Willwacher, S. (2023) Does an analysis of the world top 100 track and road running performances provide an indication for the effects of super shoes and spikes?, Footwear Science, 15:sup1, S16-S17, doi: 10.1080/19424280.2023.2199262
Ruiz-Alias, S. A., Pérez-Castilla, A., Soto-Hermoso, V. M., & García-Pinillos, F. (2023). The effect of using marathon shoes or track spikes on neuromuscular fatigue caused by a long-distance track training session. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 44(13), 976-982.
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Troy Palmer2026-06-29T08:43:40-05:00June 26th, 2026|Contemporary Sports Issues, General, Olympics, Sport Training, Sports Coaching, Sports Exercise Science, Sports Marketing|Comments Off

Examining Work Addiction, Burnout and Work-Family Conflict in Sport Organizations

Authors: Alexandrya H. Cairns¹, Danielle Earnest², Stephanie M. Singe³

¹PhD, ATC, Assistant Professor, Department of Health and Movement Sciences, Southern Connecticut State University

²BS, Athletic Training Student, Department of Kinesiology University of Connecticut

³PhD, ATC, FNATA, Professor, Department of Kinesiology, University of Connecticut

Corresponding Author:

[email protected]

ABSTRACT

Purpose: The culture of National Collegiate Athletics Association (NCAA) Division I (DI) athletics can stimulate a culture that appears to “greedy” placing high demands on the time and energy of those working within the sport organization. These intense demands create the potential for experiences of work addiction, burnout, and work-family conflict among sport professionals. We aimed to examine the overall experiences of work addiction, burnout, and work-family conflict within the NCAA DI sport organization. Methods: We used an online cross-sectional survey (Qualtrics, Provo, UT) composed of demographics, measurement tools for work addiction, burnout, and work-family conflict. Each of the scales have strong internal consistency as reported by Cronbach’s alpha scores. The study was distributed to certified athletic trainers (AT), coaches, and sport performance coaches (SPC) working full-time in their position at an NCAA DI institution. Results: There was no significant difference in reported scores on the BWAS between athletic trainers and coaches (U = 3952.00, p = .160), and no significant difference was found between sport performance coaches and athletic trainers (U = 5894.00, p = .879). A significant difference of burnout levels between athletic trainers and coaches was revealed (U = 3559.50, p = .017) andno significant difference discovered in the reported levels of burnout between athletic trainers and sport performance coaches (U = 5483.00, p = .313). There was no significant difference between athletic trainers and coaches for work-family conflict (U = 4483.00, p =.939), or sport performance sport performance coaches and athletic trainers (U= 5576.50, p = .416). Conclusions: Our results indicate that work addiction and work-family conflict are experienced similarly across the sport organization. Athletic trainers were found to experience higher levels of burnout compared to coaches, but similar levels to sport performance coaches. Application in Sport: Implementing policies that address work and family strain coaches, athletic trainers, and sport performance coaches can face working in sport is important. Although overall burnout was low, athletic trainers were at greater risk; thus addressing the factors causing them to have greater levels of burnout than other 2 stakeholder groups is important.

Key Words: stress, role strain, workplace dynamics, organization conflict

INTRODUCTION

Working within a collegiate sport organization places high demands on an individual, regardless of the role they play within that organization. The demands of the individual working in sport can include long working hours (+40 hours a week) that extend into nights and weekends (Laskowski & Ebben, 2016; Mazerolle et al., 2011; Scriber & Alderman, 2005; Singe et al., 2023b). Working hours are often accompanied by the need to be physically present, limiting flexibility and autonomy over work scheduling (Laskowski & Ebben, 2016; Mazerolle et al., 2011; Scriber & Alderman, 2005; Singe et al., 2023b). Organizational culture represents the underlying beliefs, values, and assumptions within an organization (Schein, 2010). The culture within sport organization has been described as one that is influenced by commercialization which has led to pressures to win at all costs due to the financial implications (Pope & Pope, 2014). Coaches, athletic trainers, and others working in sport organizations can feel the pressures associated with this culture, which can increase their stress, and influence their perceptions of work saliency, work-family conflict, and burnout.

Work addiction is a preoccupation with work (Andreassen, 2014; Robinson, 1999); and can be conceptualized as an individual who prioritizes their work over other responsibilities, which can lead to work-family conflict (Eason et al., 2022). Working in sport may have an influence on experiences of work addiction, particularly if the expectations around success and commitment hinge on prioritizing work. Coaches, athletic trainers, and sport performance coaches all contribute to the mission of the sport organization yet have very different and unique roles. Thus, the level of work addiction each of these individuals working in sport may demonstrate could vary, as well as the influence it may have on burnout and work-family. Research has examined experiences of burnout and work-family conflict among coaches and athletic trainers, independently, but not simultaneously (Graham & Smith, 2021; Singe et al., 2022). Organizational factors unique to sport are perhaps keys to understanding why burnout and work-family conflict occur, and better understanding if the role assumed in the sport organization can contribute.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Working Within the Sport Organization

The National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) is the governing body that administers intercollegiate athletics in the United States. The NCAA is subdivided into three different divisions to create a fair playing field where teams are competing with schools at a similar level. Many factors separate the three subdivisions including media attention, airtime, and of course resources centered around finances and scholarship (Overview, n.d.). The NCAA Division I (DI) schools typically house the largest student bodies and possess the greatest number of athletic scholarship opportunities largely attributed to their large athletic budgets. Working within the NCAA DI setting comes with increased pressures and stress (Singe et al., 2022; Taylor et al., 2019) , particularly for coaches as they must produce through wins as well as retain students in their programs (Norris et al., 2017; Singe et al., 2022). The NCAA DI programs have large budgets which has the potential to play a significant role in the pressures and stress faced by those who are employed in the division.

At the NCAA Division II (DII) level student-athletes are offered scholarships to participate, but the number per sport is much less than the NCAA DI setting (Our Division II Story, n.d.).The expectations of those student-athletes participating at this level are somewhat less than the NCAA DI level, as time demands are slightly less (Our Division II Story, n.d.). The overall philosophy of the NCAA DII setting is one about balance, in which student-athletes are pushed to excel in their sport, but also in the classroom and campus community (Our Division II story, n.d.).

The NCAA Division III (DIII) level does not award scholarships generated from athletic participation (Our Three Divisions, n.d.), and has been described as a setting that encourages student first, and athlete second. Since there are no athletic scholarships offered, the budgets within these programs are much less than the other two divisions. The demands and expectations within the NCAA DIII setting are much less than and considered to be the most well-balanced collegiate experience (Our Division III Story, n.d.).

Working in the intercollegiate setting has been described as high-pressure, demanding, and one that can increase feelings of stress. Work addiction, burnout, and challenges with work-life balance have been found to occur for those working in intercollegiate sport, including coaches, athletic administrators, sports information specialists, and athletic trainers (Dixon & Bruening, 2005; Eason et al., 2022; Graham & Smith, 2022; Hatfield & Johnson, 2012). Causative factors linked to these challenges of working in sport include culture expectations within the workplace, time demands, inflexible work schedules, travel, and role incongruence. Sport is founded on the premise of teamwork and each member of the team has a critical role to support team success. Coaches, athletic trainers, and sport performance coaches are key members within the intercollegiate setting with unique roles supporting the student-athlete. Each has different roles, responsibilities, and expectations, and evidence that suggests those working in the intercollegiate setting are challenged to push beyond their work saliency leaving them vulnerable to work addiction, burnout, and work-family conflict.

Work Addiction and Sport

Workaholism is conceptualized as something that occurs when a person becomes completely engulfed in their work, investing their time and energy in their work life (McMillan et al., 2003). Those who display characteristics of a workaholic are prone to experiences of increased stress, burnout, and work-family conflict (Clark et al., 2016; Eason et al., 2022). One’s career has been associated with higher experiences of workaholism, such as sport as the culture is one of sacrifice, expectations to put in long work hours, and choosing work over one’s personal life (Dixon & Bruening, 2005; Graham & Dixon, 2014). Workaholics have a high involvement in their work (i.e. working long hours), have a hard time disengaging from work, and feel compelled or driven to work (McMillan et al., 2003). Working harder than perhaps their job requires workaholics will then start neglecting their lives outside of their jobs (Schaufeli et al., 2008).

Coaches, athletic trainers, and sport performance coaches all must work long hours; in fact, athletic trainers have reported working 60+ hour work weeks, extending into nights and weekends (Bruening & Dixon, 2007; Singe et al., 2023b; Snarr & Beasley, 2022). These long working hours reported by individuals working in sport have been attributed to burnout and work-family conflict (Eason et al., 2022), and recently have been suggested to be perhaps driven by work addiction ( Eason et al., 2022) or associated with it (Taylor et al., 2019). Work addiction can be explained as an individual factor that can be attributed to one’s experiences of work-family conflict or burnout, and job demands such as long hours can be an organizational construct that influences work-family conflict or burnout (Cayton & Valovich McLeod, 2020; Eason et al., 2022). What is unknown is the aspects such as the navigation of long working hours and personal attributes of a coach, athletic trainer, or sport performance coach necessary to be successful members working in intercollegiate athletics.

Work addiction has seven core components or symptoms: salience, mood modification, tolerance, withdrawal, conflict, relapse, and problems. These symptoms have been developed into a scale, the Bergen Work Addiction Scale (BWAS) as outlined by Andreassen et al. (2014) salience (the activity dominates thinking and behavior), tolerance (increasing amounts of the activity are required to achieve initial effects), mood modification (the activity modifies/improves mood), relapse (tendency for reversion to earlier patterns of the activity after abstinence of control), withdrawal (occurrence of unpleasant feelings when the activity if discontinued or suddenly reduced), conflict (the activity comes into conflict with personal life, needs, and relationships), and problems (caused by being greatly engaged in the activity).

Experiences of Burnout in Athletics

Burnout is one of the many identified stressors of those working in athletics largely attributed to the long working hours, high workloads, and demands (Singe et al., 2023b). Burnout has been defined as the degree of physical and psychological fatigue experienced by a person that can be attributed to personal, work, or client-related stress (Cairns et al., 2023; Kristensen et al., 2005). Organizational factors have been identified in being the greatest influence over experiences of burnout (Barrett et al., 2016). Individual factors such as personality have also been observed to influence burnout as well. Burnout has been positively associated with role strain, neuroticism, and work-family conflict (Barrett et al., 2016; Cayton & Valovich McLeod, 2020). The demanding environment of athletics involves high emotional involvement, stress, responsibility, and time restraints (Cayton & Valovich McLeod, 2020; Mazerolle et al., 2008). Furthermore, the organization commonly inadequately compensates their employees while still expecting them to work long hours with inadequate numbers of staff, a lack of control over scheduling, and limited time off (Bruening & Dixon, 2007; Cayton & Valovich McLeod, 2020). The combination of these factors places those working within the sport organization at an increased risk of experiencing burnout. Positive relationships have been observed between burnout, work-family conflict, and intention to leave, while negative relationships have been observed with job and life satisfaction for those experiencing burnout (Mazerolle et al., 2008).

Due to the predispositions those working in sport face, burnout has been widely studied in sport. Those working in sports have been shown to experience moderate levels of burnout (Cairns et al., 2023; Singe et al., 2023a; Snarr & Beasley, 2022). However, there have been slight fluctuations in reported levels of burnout since the pandemic with levels of burnout lessening (Cairns et al., 2023). Sport professionals also tend to report high levels of personal and work-related burnout (Singe et al., 2023a; Taylor et al., 2019). Levels of personal burnout have a positive relationship with working hours and a negative relationship with hours of sleep (Singe et al., 2023a). Men and women report similar levels of burnout, suggesting that gender is not a significant predictor of experiences of burnout (Cairns et al., 2023). Incorporating coping strategies such as social support, continuing education, and self-care in addition to organizational support have all been associated with decreased levels of burnout in sport (Singe et al., 2023a; Snarr & Beasley, 2022).

Work-family Conflict

Work-family conflict defined as a form of inter-role conflict. The conflict occurs when the general demands of, time devoted to, and strain created by the job interfere with performing family-related responsibilities (Netemeyer et al., 1996). With the high demands concerning time and presence associated with working in sport, work-family conflict is a prominent area of interest within the sport organization. Work-family conflict has been framed as a complex construct that is explained by individual, organizational/structural, and socio-cultural factors (Dixon & Bruening, 2005). This integrated approach to the exploration of work-family conflict within sport is increasingly important as studies have shown the presence of work-family conflict across the sport organization regardless of factors such as job, age, sex, or family/marital status. (Bruening & Dixon, 2007; Mazerolle et al., 2008) .

While work-family conflict is experienced regardless of demographic factors, there have been increased levels of work-family conflict associated with marital and parental statuses. Those who are married with children are more likely to experience greater levels of work-family conflict (Singe et al., 2022). Setting has also been seen to play a role in the experiences of work-family conflict with those working in collegiate athletics reporting higher levels than those in the secondary setting (Mazerolle et al., 2015). Experiences of work-family conflict among those working in the sport organization have also been seen to be above average (Mazerolle et al., 2015). Previous research has also suggested that working within the NCAA DI setting increases experiences of work-family conflict (Singe et al., 2022). This is supported by findings that those working in the NCAA DI setting report greater levels of work-family conflict compared to those working in the NCAA DIII setting which could likely be attributed to the increased demand of the DI setting (Singe et al., 2022). Beyond intense professional demands, long working hours, lack of control over work schedules, and unbalanced workloads were all also related to increased conflict at the DI level (Mazerolle et al., 2011). Within the sport organization, four types of conflict have been found attributing to work-family conflict: time, energy, attention, and emotional spillover (Graham & Smith, 2022). However, several organizational and personal strategies help establish work-family balance. As an organization, the implementation of staffing policies and the creation of a supportive work environment help in reducing experiences of work-family conflict (Mazerolle et al., 2011). Individual management strategies can be broken down into personal factors and individual strategies on the professional level. Individual strategies involve the incorporation of teamwork, boundary setting, prioritization, and integration of family with work (Mazerolle et al., 2011). Personal factors focus greatly on the separation and work and life as well as the establishment of a support network (Mazerolle et al., 2011).

Purpose

Despite the growing body of research dedicated to the examination of these constructs within the sport organization, there remains a need for a better understanding of the varied experiences held by different stakeholders within the organization. Additionally, the exploration of work-addiction within the sport organization is novel. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine overall experiences of burnout, work addiction, and work-family conflict within sport organizations. Additionally, this study seeks to compare these experiences among the various stakeholders within the sport organization. Given this information, we hypothesized the following:

H1_a– Coaches will report greater levels of work addiction compared to athletic trainers.

H2_b– Athletic trainers will report greater levels of work addiction compared to sport performance coaches.

H2_a– Athletic trainers will report greater levels of burnout compared to coaches.

H2_b– Athletic trainers will report greater levels of burnout compared to sport performance coaches.

H3_a– Athletic trainers will report greater levels of work-family conflict compared to coaches.

H3_b– Athletic trainers will report greater levels of work-family conflict compared to sport performance coaches.

H4_a– Work addiction and work-family conflict will have a positive relationship.

H4_b– Work addition and burnout will have a positive relationship.

METHODS

Study design

The study design is a web-based cross-sectional study (Qualtrics, Provo, UT). Data was collected using a self-reported online questionnaire evaluating sleep, self-care, work-family conflict, work addiction, and burnout among NCAA Division I collegiate athletic trainers, coaches, and sport performance coaches. Approval for this study was obtained from the institutional review board (IRB) prior to data collection, which occurred over a four-week period in the Fall of 2023.

Procedures

Prior to survey distribution, we completed a face validity process; 3 athletic trainers took the survey for the purposes of the process. No changes were made to the survey based on the face validity feedback. Two email reminders were sent at the 1-week and 3-week marks, reminding participants to complete the survey.

Participants

The target population for the current study were NCAA Division I (DI) athletic trainers, sport performance coaches, and coaches. A list of all NCAA DI institutions was created using the NCSA college recruiting website (n = 363). From the list of institutions offering NCAA DI athletics programs, the individual athletics websites were accessed to create a list of emails for those individuals identified as an athletic trainer, sport performance coach, or a head or assistant coach. We were able to identify 13,412 email addresses across the 3 stakeholder groups. Our power analysis indicated a requirement of 258 respondents, which resulted in 86 participants from each stakeholder (group). Strata randomization was utilized since we did not have a complete list of all possible participants, thus phases of distribution were utilized and represented in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Recruitment and Data Screening

Sample

A total of 153 athletic trainers (51.5%), 59 coaches (19.9%), and 78 sports performance coaches (26.3%) completed this research study. Of the participants, 166 were female (55.9%), 121 male (40.7%), and 2 preferred not to answer (0.7%). The mean age of the participants in this study was 33 ± 9, with ages ranging from 22 – 70 years. Participants on average had 10 ± 9 years of experience, with an average of 5 ± 6 years working at their current institution. On average, participants worked 55 ± 16 hours per week. Complete demographic data is shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Participant Demographics

Demographic	Score
Gender, n (%)
Male	121 (40.7)
Female	166 (55.9)
Prefer not to answer	2 (0.7)
*Highest level of education, n (%)*
Bachelor’s Degree	48 (16.2)
Master’s Degree	237 (79.8)
Doctorate	5 (1.7)
*Primary Role, n (%)*
Head Coach	18 (6.1)
Associate Coach	9 (3.0)
Assistant Coach	34 (11.4)
Head Athletic Trainer	15 (5.1)
Associate Athletic Trainer	37 (12.5)
Staff/Assistant Athletic Trainer	99 (33.3)
Director, Sport Performance (Conditioning)	23 (7.7)
Strength and Conditioning Coach	51 (17.2)
*Marital status, n (%)*
Single	137 (46.1)
Cohabitating	28 (9.4)
Married	117 (39.4)
Separated	2 (0.7)
Divorced	3 (0.7)
Widowed	1 (0.3)
Engaged	3 (1.0)
*Spouse employment status n (%)*
Employed, full-time	210 (70.7)
Employed, part-time	18 (6.1)
Does not work/stay at home	25 (8.4)
*Children, n (%)*
0	202 (70.0)
Currently Pregnant	8 (2.7)
1	21 (7.1)
2	33 (11.1)
3+	27 (8.8)
*Group Identity, n (%)*
Single Female	112 (37.7)
Single Male	33 (11.1)
Married Female	43 (14.5)
Married Male	80 (26.9)
This does not apply to me	20 (6.7)

Instrumentation

The online survey was hosted in Qualtrics and included 36-items not including the demographic questions. Participants completed 13 demographic questions, prior to the 3 scales (i.e. Copenhagen Burnout Inventory (CBI), Bergen Work Addiction Scale, and Work-Family Conflict), which were not altered as they are valid instruments.

Burnout. Burnout was measured using the CBI as a tool that demonstrates reliability (α=.85-.87) and had been used previously to measure burnout among athletic trainers (α=.88) (Kristensen et al., 2005; Naugle et al., 2013). The scale included 3 subscales: personal (n=6-items), work-related (n=7-items), and client-based burnout (n=6-items). Participants use a 5-point Likert scale 0 (never/almost never/low degree), 25 (seldom/low degree), 50 (somewhat or sometimes), 75 (often/high degree), and 100 (always/high degree). The scale is summed for an overall burnout score, with a higher score indicating a higher level of burnout (0 is low, 100 is severe).

Work addiction. The Bergen Work Addiction Scale (BWAS) was used to measure work addiction (α=.78) among our sample. The scale has 7-items, each representing an aspect, or symptom of work addiction (salience, mood modification, tolerance, withdrawal, conflict, relapse, and problems – Table 6). The 7-items are assessed using a 5-point Likert scale, 1 (never) to 5 (always). The responses are summed (range 7 to 35), and a score of 4 (often) or 5 (always) on 4 of 7 items indicates a high risk for work addiction.

Work-family conflict. Work-family conflict scale was assessed using the scale previously validated by Netemeyer et al. (α=.90). The 10-item scale evaluates the bi-directional nature of the construct; 5-items for work-family conflict (WFC) and 5-items for family-work conflict (FWC). Participants indicated their responses on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). Sample questions include: “WFC®The demands of my job interfere with my home and family life,” and “FWC®The things I want to do at home do not get done because of the demands of my job.”

Data analyses

The data collected via Qualtrics was transferred to Excel by Microsoft Corporation. Following the completion of data collection, it underwent a filtration process to remove incomplete responses, defined as those failing to complete the required scales or the survey itself as per the scale validation. Subsequently, the filtered data was imported into SPSS, version, etc., for statistical analysis. Demographic information such as age, gender, and marital status were obtained through specific questions, and these demographic variables were subjected to descriptive and frequency analyses. The outcomes are presented as mean and standard deviation or frequency. Validated scales were assessed using means due to the non-parametric nature of the data analysis at hand, and Cohens d is reported for effect size.

RESULTS

Participant Demographics

Participants were 51.5% athletic trainers (n = 153), 19.9% were coaches (n=59), and 26.3% were sports performance coaches (n = 78). The average age of the participants was 33 ± 9 and they had been working in their respective roles for an average of 11± 9. They self-reported working 55 ± 17 hours per week (at the time of data collection).

Stakeholders and Work-Addiction

The mean score on the BWAS across all three stakeholder groups was 20.71 ± 4.57. Table 2 represents the mean scores on the BWAS, reported by each stakeholder group. Athletic trainers reported a score of 20.84 ± 4.51, whereas coaches reported a mean score of 20.05 ± 4.85. There was no significant difference in reported scores on the BWAS between athletic trainers and coaches (U = 3952.00, p = .160, d= 0.11). Additionally, sport performance coaches reported a mean score of 20.96 ± 4.50, and no significant difference was found between sport performance coaches and athletic trainers (U = 5894.00, p = .879, d= -0.010). Furthermore, across all three stakeholders, 80 were found to be workaholics while 210 (38%) were found not to be work addicted. Among athletic trainers, 45 of the 153 (29%) respondents were found to be workaholics. Of coaches, 12 of the 59 (20%) respondents were found to be workaholics. Among sport performance coaches, 23 of 78 (29%) respondents were found to be workaholics.

Stakeholders and Burnout

Across all three stakeholder groups, participants reported low levels (46.27 ± 16.04) on the CBI, additionally mean scores of 54.9 5 ± 17.24 on the personal-related subscale, 49.99 ± 18.87 on the work-related subscale, and 33.25 ± 18.67 on the client-related subscale. Table 2 represents the mean scores on the CBI and subscales, reported by each stakeholder group. Athletic trainers reported a mean score of 48.07 ± 16.42 on the CBI, while coaches reported a mean score of 41.99 ± 15.89 on the CBI. A significant difference of burnout levels between athletic trainers and coaches was revealed (U = 3559.50, p = .017, d= -0.16).Additionally, sport performance coaches reported a mean score of 45.97 ± 14.92. There was no significant difference discovered in the reported levels of burnout between athletic trainers and sport performance coaches (U = 5483.00, p = .313, d= -0.06).

Table 2: Comparison of Reported Scale Scores by Stakeholder

Stakeholder	CBI (Mean±SD)	BWAS (Mean±SD)	WFC (Mean±SD)
Athletic Trainers	48.07±16.42	20.84±4.51	37.66±9.26
Coaches	41.99±15.89	20.05±4.85	37.64±10.52
Sports Performance	45.97±14.92	20.96±4.50	37.86±9.49

Stakeholders and Work-Family Conflict

The mean score across all stakeholders on the WFC scale was 37.71 ± 9.56. Athletic trainers reported a mean of 37.66 ± 9.26, whereas coaches reported a mean of 37.64 ± 10.52. There was no significant difference between athletic trainers and coaches (U = 4483.00, p =.939, d= -0.05).Furthermore, sport performance coaches reported a mean of 37.86 ± 9.49, and no significant difference was found between sport performance coaches and athletic trainers (U= 5576.50, p = .416, d= -0.06).

Variable relationships

Correlation matrices revealed a moderate positive correlation (.507) between work addiction and work-family conflict. Work addiction and burnout also resulted in a moderate positive relationship (.573).

DISCUSSION

Inferences has been made that working in sport can lead to experiences of burnout and work-family conflict, as well as that to be a productive member of the team one must be addicted to their role. Our purpose was to explore the experiences of work-addiction, burnout, and work-family conflict among athletic trainers, coaches, and sport performance coaches. This aim was directed at better understanding around one’s role in the sport organization and experiences of these constructs. As predicted work addiction, regardless of stakeholder position, leads to increased levels of burnout and work-family conflict. Uniquely, athletic trainers and coaches experience higher levels of burnout than sport performance coaches.

Stakeholders and Work-Family Conflict

We did not find any significant differences among our samples and experiences of WFC. The total mean score on the WFC scale is comparative to other studies examining WFC among athletic trainers work in the sport industry (Mazerolle et al. 2011; Pitney et al. 2011; Singe et al. in press). Our sample was largely represented by those who do not have children (70%); which could explain why we did not find any differences among our sample regarding experiences of WFC. Time is often a large facilitator of WFC, despite our sample reporting 55 hours per week, many did not have children another facilitator of WFC (Mazerolle et al., 2008; Pitney et al., 2011; Singe et al., 2023a). Perhaps working long hours has less of an impact on the individual when additional family responsibilities are not present, and one can focus on work and personal interests.

Stakeholders and Burnout

Overall, this sample of individuals working in the sport organization are experiencing low levels of burnout. Low levels of burnout does not imply that our sample is not experiencing it; however quantifiably it is lower. The literature over the last 5 years has suggested that coaches and athletic trainers are experiencing higher levels of burnout (Goodger et al., 2007; Singe et al., 2024; Singe et al., 2023a). We found that athletic trainers reported higher levels of burnout compared to coaches, but similar levels of burnout to sport performance coaches. Moderate levels of burnout have recently been reported among athletic trainers (Singe et al., 2023a); however, fluctuations in experiences have been observed over the past 3 years with levels varying between moderate and low (Cairns et al., 2023; Oglesby et al., 2020; Singe et al., 2023a). Sport performance coaches have yet to be identified within the literature regarding burnout; our sample reported similar levels of burnout as athletic trainers. Similar to athletic trainers, sport performance coaches have high demands placed upon them, and they are invested in the success of their athletes as well as log long hours in the workplace (Bentzen et al., 2016; Olusoga et al., 2019).

Stakeholders and Work-Addiction

Our overall sample is not classified as a workaholic; however, both athletic trainers and sport performance coaches demonstrate a larger sample (29%) of those who would be classified as such. Workaholics may work long hours but that is by choice and perhaps not as a necessity (Andersen et al., 2023). Although our sample reports working excessive hours (55), they do not self-identify as workaholics. Moreover, we did not find significant differences between stakeholders. These findings suggest that work addiction is likely an individualized factor, and not necessarily an outcome of working in sport organization. As detailed in the work-family conflict framework of Bruening and Dixon (2005, 2007), there are individual, organizational, and sociocultural outcomes of experiences of work-family conflict.

Variable relationships

Positive relationships were found between work addiction and both burnout and work-family conflict. The correlations found between the experiences of these constructs are consistent with those observed in previous studies examining these constructs in athletic trainers (Eason et al., 2022). These results make it apparent that experiences of work addiction, work-family conflict, and burnout occur at the same time. Previously stated, work-addiction can be attributed to experiences of work-family conflict and burnout. In this case all stakeholders are experiencing all three constructs.

We predicted there to be positive relationships between work addiction, burnout, and work-family conflict. Work addiction is yet another construct that is experienced by those working in the sport organization. This study adds to the literature that there are no differences in work-family conflict and burnout across athletic trainers, coaches, and SPCs. Yet, there are notable differences when it comes to burnout. Coaches and SPCs are experiencing work-family conflict, and work-addiction similarly to athletic trainers. This speaks to the sport organization as a whole; all employees are encountering these constructs. We suggest the sport organization investigate and assess reasons employees are work-addicted and have work-family conflict, to improve job and life satisfaction.

ATs experienced higher levels of burnout compared to coaches, and SPCs. There are many reasons this may be, the number of athletes per employee, responsibilities, and medical roles. However, in this sample athletic trainers reported low levels of burnout, though higher than coaches and SPCs, not quite as high as levels in recent literature (Barrett et al., 2016).

Consideration for Future Research and Study Limitations

The findings of this study expand upon the growing body of literature examining the constructs of work-addiction, burnout, and work-family conflict within the sport organization, yet limitations on these findings remain. Our study received 297 usable responses, which is a lower response rate than anticipated. Due to these factors, we recognize that these findings may not represent the experiences of all of those working within the sport organization. Our database was established using publicly available information therefore a complete list of all athletic trainers, coaches, and sports performance coaches at the DI level was unable to be obtained. Therefore, the results of this study may not represent the experiences of the entirety of NCAA DI athletic trainers, coaches, and SPCs. Our study also only examined those working within the NCAA DI setting; thus, those working in the DII, DIII, NAIA, or other collegiate levels may not have similar experiences with these constructs. Furthermore, those working in secondary schools or other settings also may not identify with the findings of this study.

Further research should include the investigation of work-addiction, burnout, and work-family conflict at all levels of collegiate athletics as well as those in secondary schools and alternate settings. Currently, the literature has examined these constructs within the sport organization solely focused on the experiences of athletic trainers, creating a need for future research among coaches and sports performance coaches on these constructs. Additionally, the study of work addiction within the sport organization is a novel issue, so further research is necessary to gain a better understanding of work addiction within athletics.

CONCLUSION

This study sought to further our knowledge of the experiences of athletic trainers, coaches, and sport performance coaches in the DI setting, regarding work-addiction, burnout, and work-family conflict. Experiences were nearly universal across the sport organization except for athletic trainers experiencing greater levels of burnout compared to coaches. Positive relationships were also observed between levels of work addiction and both burnout and work-family conflict. The findings of this study suggest that these constructs are prominent issues across the sport organization. Given the prevalence across the sport organization, increased implication of both personal and organizational strategies may be necessary as a means of mitigating the impact of these issues (Cairns et al., 2023; Singe et al., 2022). This study serves as a preliminary exploration into the variance of experiences of work addiction, burnout, and work-family conflict across the sport organization stakeholders.

APPLICATIONS IN SPORT

Athletic trainers reported significantly different levels of burnout compared to coaches and sport performance coaches; thus we believe that understanding the specific role stressors for the athletic trainer can help address potential programs to prevent burnout. For example, wellness programs or a workload redistribution may be warranted for athletic trainers. We did not find any differences among work-family conflict among any of the grups, which suggests more broad based policies that are family-friendly may help athletic trainers, coaches, and sport performance coaches (family-leave, time-off policies). Work addiction was a risk factor for both burnout and work-family conflict among our stakeholders, thus individuals and supervisors should be aware of the signs of burnout, but also encourage stress and boundary management, as well as healthy work habits to prevent issues around burnout and conflicts between work and home.

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Troy Palmer2025-12-09T16:14:43-06:00June 17th, 2026|Contemporary Sports Issues, General, Leadership, Sports Health & Fitness, Sports Management, Sports Studies, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|Comments Off

Basketball and black America: Exploring the intersections of race, fan involvement and community engagement

Author: Isabell L. Mills¹

¹Department of Kinesiology, Health and Sport Sciences University of Indianapolis

Corresponding Author:

Isabell L. Mills, Ph.D.

1400 E Hanna Ave., HEAL 364

Indianapolis, IN 46227

Email: Dr. Mills ([email protected])

Office Phone: 317-788-2403

Departmental Fax: 317-788-3542

ABSTRACT

Purpose:
This study explored the cultural, social, and community significance of basketball within Black America through a case study of The City League in Indianapolis. The purpose was to understand how basketball functions as a cultural anchor, pathway for opportunity, and tool for community engagement among African American spectators and participants.

Methods:
A qualitative approach was used with one semi-structured focus group of eight African American spectators (four men, four women), all over 18 years old. The session lasted 60 minutes and was audio recorded, transcribed, and analyzed using margin coding by two independent coders. Triangulation with field notes from league games and events enhanced trustworthiness.

Results:
Seven themes emerged across two domains: basketball in the Black community and The City League’s role. Participants viewed basketball as a foundation of cultural identity, family heritage, and social connection. The sport served as a vehicle for education, leadership, and personal development, while also providing emotional support and belonging. The City League was described as more than a competition; it fosters mentorship, service, and community pride. Key challenges included limited resources for smaller leagues and barriers to women’s participation linked to time and family responsibilities.

Conclusions:
Basketball operates as both a cultural cornerstone and a platform for empowerment within Black communities. The City League exemplifies how grassroots initiatives can strengthen social bonds, promote resilience, and address systemic inequities through sport.

Applications in Sport:
Sports professionals and organizations can use these insights to create inclusive, culturally grounded programs that expand access and foster authentic community relationships. Investment in local leagues, support for women’s participation, and collaboration with community partners can enhance engagement and sustainability while advancing social impact through sport.

Key Words: cultural identity, community development, marketing, grassroots sports

INTRODUCTION

Introduction

Basketball is deeply embedded within Black culture and functions as more than just a sport. It serves as a mechanism for identity formation, community-building, and economic mobility. The NBA has the highest share of Black viewers of any major American sport, with nearly twenty percent of its audience identifying as Black (Statista, 2025). Viewership alone, however, does not capture the depth of engagement. Basketball extends into grassroots initiatives, recreational leagues, and social justice movements, demonstrating its role as both cultural cornerstone and avenue of empowerment.

Beyond entertainment, basketball is linked to broader issues of economic and social mobility. In 2023, the NBA generated approximately $10.58 billion in total revenue (TOI Sports Desk, 2024). Yet, persistent inequities remain as more than one in three Black children in the United States live below the poverty line, and systemic barriers continue to restrict economic opportunities (IBW21, 2024). Against this backdrop, community-based organizations such as The City League provide essential opportunities for mentorship, engagement, and development pathways for youth and adults alike. This study explores basketball’s cultural and community roles in Black America, focusing on Indianapolis’ The City League. By examining fan and community member perspectives, the research highlights basketball’s role in identity, resilience, and grassroots development.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Scholars have long examined the role of basketball in shaping Black identity and community aspirations. Carrington (2010) conceptualized basketball as part of the sporting Black diaspora, while Spencer (2016) highlighted the sport’s role in cultural politics and resistance. Similarly, Cummings (2018) identified basketball as a tool for youth mentorship and leadership development. Together, these studies frame basketball as both cultural practice and social instrument. The City League embodies these dynamics in practice, serving as a contemporary example of how basketball continues to foster cultural pride, leadership, and community cohesion within Black America.

Basketball also shapes economic and consumer landscapes. Armstrong (2001) demonstrated how race influences NBA consumption behaviors, while Rich (2022) analyzed marketing strategies directed at Black basketball fans. These findings illustrate how basketball extends beyond recreation into the realms of consumer culture and social influence.

Other research emphasizes local and community contexts. Brooks (2011) explored how grassroots leagues foster young Black athletes’ aspirations, while Vieyra (2016) examined pickup basketball’s role in sustaining community ties. These insights reinforce the idea that basketball is not only competitive but also central to cultural preservation and social connectedness. Building on this body of work, the present study investigates how spectators and participants in The City League conceptualize basketball’s broader significance.

The City League

The City League originated in 2013 when members of a Crosstown Neighborhood Association meeting partnered with Little Bethel Missionary Baptist Church to host free basketball open gyms for local youth. The initiative quickly evolved into competitive tournaments, designed not only to enhance basketball quality but also to generate revenue to sustain programming. Early success highlighted the importance of community partnerships, leading to broader collaborations with local businesses and organizations.

Today, The City League has expanded to include both men’s and women’s leagues, with 16 and 7 teams respectively. Partnerships with corporate sponsors, such as CareSource, have further strengthened the league’s ability to provide opportunities for community development, mentorship, and engagement. More than a sporting event, The City League has become a cultural institution within Indianapolis, bridging high-level basketball, local businesses, and grassroots empowerment.

METHODOLOGY

This study employed a qualitative design using semi-structured focus group interviews. One focus group was conducted with eight participants (four male, four female). The purpose of this qualitative study was not to generalize findings to a broader population, but rather to capture rich, nuanced perspectives of African American spectators engaged in local basketball culture. The decision to use one focus group aligns with qualitative traditions that prioritize depth over breadth, particularly when participants share a common context and cultural connection (Krueger & Casey, 2015; Morgan, 1997). The participants were African American spectators of community and recreational basketball leagues in Indianapolis. All participants were over the age of 18.

Materials and Measures

Data were collected during a summer recreational basketball league through a semi-structured focus group lasting approximately 60 minutes. A moderator used a prepared script to guide discussion and ensure that relevant topics were addressed. The focus group session was audio recorded for accuracy.

Procedures

Participants were recruited using purposeful-criterion sampling. Flyers were distributed at league games and open gym sessions, containing QR codes that directed potential participants to an informed consent form and sign-up sheet. Professional basketball game tickets were provided as an incentive for participation.

Data Analysis

Margin coding was conducted by two independent coders. This analysis involves writing preliminary codes or thematic notes in the margins of transcripts to identify emerging patterns and concepts during the early stages of qualitative analysis. Triangulation with secondary sources, including participant observations and field notes collected during league games and a banquet, were used to enhance validity and trustworthiness.

RESULTS

Seven themes were identified across the focus group discussion and confirmed with supplemental field notes. Participants ranged in age from 30 to 58, with equal gender representation. Two overarching categories emerged: (a) basketball and the Black community, and (b) The City League specifically.

Themes Related to Basketball and the Black Community

Basketball as a Cultural and Historical Anchor.
Participants described basketball as deeply rooted in Black history, functioning as a cultural thread that unites families and neighborhoods across generations. One participant shared that their father had been “on the 1955 Crispus Attucks team, one of the first all-Black high school teams to win a state championship,” underscoring how basketball continues to serve as both a point of pride and a source of collective identity within the community.

Basketball as a Vehicle for Personal Growth and Opportunity.
Many participants emphasized basketball’s role in providing pathways for education, leadership, and personal advancement. As one participant explained, the league has helped “over 500 players earn scholarships,” demonstrating how community-level engagement in the sport can translate into tangible academic and professional opportunities.

Basketball as a Community Builder and Mental Health Outlet.
Participants also highlighted basketball’s importance in fostering emotional well-being and providing a sense of belonging. Several described the sport as a “catch net” for Black men, with one participant explaining that it helps “catch men and broken barriers that are systemically in our houses, our communities, our families.” For many, basketball was not simply recreation but a safe space for connection, mentorship, and healing.

Themes Related to The City League

The City League as More Than Basketball.
Participants consistently framed The City League as a transformative community institution. One participant noted that “they aren’t just a basketball league—they are doing fundraisers, feeding people, and collaborating with other organizations,” illustrating the league’s holistic approach to community engagement and service.

Challenges in Women’s Participation.
Female participants discussed barriers related to work, family responsibilities, and limited incentives for women’s involvement. As one participant explained, “Most of us are 30–40, moms, and everything else, so it’s just kind of hard. We need to pass it on and include younger ladies.” This highlights the need for more inclusive structures to sustain women’s engagement in community-based sports.

Lack of Resources for Smaller Leagues.
A recurring concern was the limited access to funding and institutional support for smaller, community-driven leagues compared to larger organizations. One participant reflected, “We all talk about diversity, inclusion, and equity, but nobody is including the inner city,” pointing to perceived disparities in local sports development and municipal investment.

The Future of The City League.
Finally, participants expressed optimism and a shared vision for the league’s growth, particularly in expanding youth involvement. As one participant stated, “We want The City League to impact the youth because the future are the children.” This sentiment underscores participants’ belief in basketball as a conduit for intergenerational continuity, mentorship, and community advancement.

Participants consistently conveyed conviction and passion in describing basketball’s cultural and community significance.

Figure 1. Conceptual model that visually connects basketball’s cultural/community roles with marketing implications and opportunities.

DISCUSSION

The findings highlight basketball’s role as both cultural anchor and tool for empowerment within Black communities. Participants’ reflections align with Carrington (2010) and Spencer (2016), who described basketball’s deep cultural resonance. Basketball was not only entertainment but also a source of identity, support, and resilience. These findings echo Cummings’ (2018) work on basketball’s role in youth development.

Challenges identified such as women’s participation barriers and inequitable funding mirror broader structural inequities. Brooks (2011) noted similar struggles in sustaining community-based leagues, while Rich (2022) argued that authenticity and resource allocation are critical for long-term sustainability. The City League’s model of grassroots empowerment demonstrates potential pathways for bridging sport, community development, and cultural preservation.

Practical Implications

Brands seeking to engage Black basketball fans must ground their efforts in authentic community investment (Rich, 2022). Participants emphasized that basketball represents more than a sport; it embodies culture, history, and connection. The following practical implications emerge from these findings:

Prioritize authenticity. Marketing strategies should reflect basketball’s cultural, social, and community-building dimensions. Campaigns that highlight mentorship, historical pride, and empowerment are more likely to resonate.
Promote representation and inclusion. Addressing barriers to women’s participation offers opportunities for differentiation. Brands can invest in inclusive programming—such as childcare support or flexible scheduling—to expand engagement among women athletes and fans.
Invest in grassroots sponsorships. Supporting smaller, underfunded community leagues builds trust and positions brands as genuine stakeholders rather than transactional outsiders.
Adopt a holistic brand perspective. Viewing basketball as a lifestyle rooted in education, mental wellness, and resilience allows brands to align their identities with values central to Black basketball communities.

Limitations

As with all qualitative research, this study has several limitations that should be considered when interpreting the findings. First, the data were drawn from a single focus group with eight participants in Indianapolis, which limits generalizability to broader populations or other geographic contexts. The use of a single focus group represents both a methodological strength and a design limitation. While this approach allowed for rich, interactive discussion and depth of understanding, it also limited the diversity of perspectives that could have been captured through multiple groups or individual interviews. Second, participant perspectives may have been shaped by self-selection bias, as individuals who chose to participate were likely already engaged with basketball culture and The City League. Third, while triangulation with field notes enhanced validity, the absence of additional data sources, such as surveys or interviews with league organizers and sponsors, constrains the depth of analysis. These limitations provide important context for the findings and point toward avenues for future exploration.

Future research

This study provides an exploratory look at the cultural significance of basketball in Black America through the case of The City League. Future research could expand on these findings in several ways. First, additional studies might examine multiple community leagues across different U.S. cities to compare how regional contexts shape the role of basketball in Black communities. Second, quantitative research could complement these qualitative insights by measuring the social, economic, and psychological impacts of community basketball programs on participants. Third, future work could focus on longitudinal outcomes, tracking how sustained involvement in leagues like The City League influences educational attainment, career development, and community engagement over time. Fourth, more focused research on women’s basketball participation in grassroots leagues is needed to better understand gendered barriers and strategies for inclusivity. Finally, scholars might investigate how brands and organizations can authentically partner with community leagues, exploring both best practices and pitfalls in sports marketing and corporate social responsibility.

REFERENCES

Armstrong, K. L. (2001). The influence of race and fan identification on NBA consumption behaviors. Journal of Sport Management, 15(2), 195-209.
Brooks, S. N. (2011). City of basketball love: Philadelphia and the nurturing of Black males’ hoop dreams. The Journal of African American History, 96(4), 522–536. https://doi.org/10.5323/jafriamerhist.96.4.0522
Carrington, B. (2010). Race, sport, and politics: The sporting Black diaspora. SAGE Publications.
Chin, C. B. (2015). ‘We’ve got team spirit!’: Ethnic community building and Japanese American youth basketball leagues. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 39(6), 1070–1088. https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870.2015.1103878
Cummings, T. (2018). Hoop dreams and community: How basketball fosters Black youth development. Journal of African American Studies, 22(3), 245-263.
Evans, A. B., & Piggott, D. (2016). Shooting for Lithuania: Migration, national identity and men’s basketball in the east of England. Sociology of Sport Journal, 33(1), 26–38. https://doi.org/10.1123/ssj.2015-0028
French, D. (2022). A game and its culture. National Review, National Review.
Institute of the Black World 21st Century. (2024, September 17). New 2024 data highlights ongoing economic disparities faced by Black people due to systemic discrimination. https://ibw21.org/news/2024-data-economic-disparities-systemic-discrimination/
Krueger, R. A., & Casey, M. A. (2015). Focus groups: A practical guide for applied research (5th ed.). SAGE Publications.
Morgan, D. L. (1997). Focus groups as qualitative research (2nd ed.). SAGE Publications.
Rich, A. (2022). Black consumers and the business of basketball: A marketing perspective. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 31(1), 50-68.
Spencer, R. (2016). Ballin’ outta control: Basketball, race, and cultural politics. Rutgers University Press.
Statista Research Department. (2025). Interest level in NBA by ethnicity. Statista. https://www.statista.com/statistics/1098410/interest-level-nba-ethnicity/
Thomas, M. B., & Wright, J. E., II. (2022). We can’t just shut up and play: How the NBA and WNBA are helping dismantle systemic racism. Administrative Theory & Praxis, 44(2), 143157. https://doi.org/10.1080/10841806.2021.1918988
TOI Sports Desk. (2024, September 21). Top 10 richest sports leagues in the world including National Football League, Indian Premier League, and others. Times of India. https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/top-10-richest-sports-leagues-in-the-world-including-national-football-league-indian-premier-league-and- others/articleshow/113548384.cms
Vieyra, F. (2016). Pickup basketball in the production of Black community. Qualitative Sociology, 39(2), 101–123. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11133-016-9324-9

Troy Palmer2025-10-13T15:23:20-05:00June 10th, 2026|Contemporary Sports Issues, General, Research, Sport Education, Sports Marketing|Comments Off

Reducing absenteeism and turnover among part-time labor in community sport settings: A case study example and project guidelines for sport management students

Authors: Michael J. Diacin¹

¹Department of Kinesiology, Health, and Sport Sciences, University of Indianapolis, Indianapolis, IN, USA

Corresponding Author:

Michael J. Diacin, Ph.D.

1400 E. Hanna Ave.

Indianapolis, IN 46227

(317)791-5703

[email protected]

Michael J. Diacin, Ph.D., is an Associate Professor in the sport management program at the University of Indianapolis. His research interests focus on sport management pedagogy, experiential learning, and consumer incentives within spectator and participatory sport organizations.

ABSTRACT

Part-time employees are critical to the daily operation at many sport and recreation focused businesses. Managers at many sites regularly deal with turnover and absenteeism among part-time workers. Absenteeism among the part-time workforce is problematic when less than a full staff is present to perform critical tasks. It negatively impacts customers through longer wait times and employees through increased workload. Therefore, managers in these settings should be making attempts to retain quality employees for as long as possible and offset the detrimental consequences of absenteeism. Managers could develop initiatives to ensure attendance from employees scheduled to work at times of peak customer presence as well as incentivize employees to replace absent workers on short notice. Therefore, the purpose of this work is to provide students with a case study situated within the possible employment setting of community-based sport and recreation facilities and complexes and have them develop initiatives to improve attendance and longevity of employment among part-time workers.

The application to sport management is that current students could likely work in businesses that employ part-time, seasonal workers. Commercial sport and recreation facilities and complexes exist in many locations; therefore, there is a strong likelihood that current sport management students will be working in these settings after graduation. Furthermore, they could benefit from imagining themselves overseeing a labor force of part-time workers and developing initiatives aimed at those part-time workers ranging from high school aged students to senior citizens. As future managers in these settings, students could be challenged to find ways to reduce absenteeism, fill staff shortages created by absenteeism on short notice, and retain quality workers for longer durations. The efficiency and effectiveness of the operation is highly dependent upon part-time workers; as a result, it would be worthwhile to develop initiatives to best ensure the operation is running at a maximum level of efficiency and effectiveness.

KEYWORDS: management, incentives, employees

INTRODUCTION

Commercial sport and recreation businesses may range from single buildings to expansive multi-sport complexes. These complexes might be referred to as “sports campuses.” The size of these sites could range from an indoor facility measuring 50,000 square feet to a larger complex measuring hundreds of acres. The activities that take place within could include any assortment of team-based and individual activities. Basketball, hockey, tennis, gymnastics, soccer, flag football, cornhole, and pickleball are among the activities conducted at these sites. Regarding ownership and management of these facilities and complexes some might be owned by a municipality and managed by the municipality’s sport and recreation division. Some municipalities choose to outsource the daily management to a private company while other facilities and complexes are privately owned.

At many of these sites, a core of full-time managers directs the overall operation. The quantity of full-time employees could vary based upon the size and scope of the operation. A common aspect within these facilities and complexes is that the full-time managerial core depends on a team of part-time employees who execute many significant tasks related to customer service and maintenance. The part-time staff includes people from different age groups ranging from high school aged students to senior citizens. They receive an hourly wage, and some might receive fringe benefits such as free use of the facility (e.g., swimming pool, fitness equipment). With rare exception, part-time employees do not receive health insurance, retirement contributions, and/or other benefits that are often provided to full-time workers.

An operation in which part-time employees are heavily relied upon presents challenges to the management. Despite being counted on to execute important tasks, part-time workers are not highly compensated, nor do they receive the same benefits given to full-time staff. Unlike full-time staff, the job might not be their primary focus nor primary source of income. This population could be more likely to leave if other opportunities become available or not report for duty if other circumstances arise. Consequently, reliability and retention of part-time employees have consistently been identified as a critical issue facing managers that work in commercial sport and recreation settings (McCole, Jacobs, Lindley, & McAvoy, 2012). Consequences resulting from frequent absenteeism and rapid turnover of part-time employees could negatively impact the operation in numerous ways; therefore, management should attempt to be proactive to best mitigate the negative effects associated with frequent absenteeism and rapid turnover.

Although turnover is an inevitable aspect associated with operating any business, lessening the amount of turnover can be beneficial. The cost associated with turnover can be significant. McKinney, Bartlett, and Mulvaney (2007) identified the consumption of time and financial resources as consequences of turnover. First, there could be a cost to announce vacancies through sites that charge for posting them (e.g., classified listings in the local newspaper, websites targeting job seekers). In addition, there would be a cost associated with additional wages being paid out because a new hire could be working alongside another employee to learn the job. Since that new hire is earning a wage while working alongside another employee earning a wage, the aspect of paying two wages to do one job exists until the new hire has been fully trained and able to do a job on their own.

In addition, the cost of time spent by management on screening and interviewing candidates could be significant. Although part of the job, these activities command time, and frequent turnover means that the managerial staff is frequently spending time on screening and interviewing activities to fill vacancies. If management consistently spends time on these activities, the time spent on other aspects of the operation decreases. In a setting where there are small quantities of managerial staff and each manager “wears many hats,” retention of part-time workers would benefit management because less of their time would be dedicated to finding replacements for departed employees.

Frequent absenteeism and turnover could be especially problematic because of the negative impact to an operation when inexperienced staff is working shorthanded. For example, absenteeism could add to the workload and stress to the employee who did show up for work. In addition, there could also be a negative consequence for customers, as staff shortages could result in negative outcomes such as longer lines and wait times. If customers repeatedly have negative experiences, they might be motivated to go elsewhere to pursue their leisure interests.

On the other hand, a fully staffed operation with an experienced workforce benefits coworkers and customers. When a full contingent of experienced employees is working, no one is placed in a position of having to cover for the absent worker. In addition, the accumulation of experience increases efficiency and effectiveness within the operation. Shorter lines and shorter wait times benefit the customer. Ensuring the customer has a positive experience is critical to securing their ongoing patronage. Although absenteeism and turnover will occur, management should strive to incentivize those employees to work when scheduled as well as remain for an entire busy season (McCole et al., 2012). Management could establish various initiatives to minimize absenteeism and turnover. The details of those initiatives are expanded upon in the following section.

INITIATIVES TO REDUCE TURNOVER AND OFFSET STAFF SHORTAGES

Commercial sport and recreation facilities are highly reliant on part-time labor to execute many important tasks. There are many circumstances that would cause these employees to miss their scheduled shift on short notice or leave the job altogether. Regardless of the legitimacy of the reason for absenteeism, such occurrences negatively impact both part-time and managerial staff, as well as customers. Therefore, a full complement of staff is needed to ensure maximum efficiency and effectiveness occurs on any given day.

These facilities and complexes are also potential employment settings for sport management students. Graduates may begin as mid-level managers in community-based sport and recreation facilities and complexes as a first job in the sport industry after graduation. Because sport management students could be working in a setting where turnover and absenteeism could be frequent, it would be worthwhile for them to engage in an exercise before entering the setting that would challenge them to think proactively and create a program designed to reduce incidents of frequent turnover and absenteeism. Although they will never eliminate absenteeism and turnover, they should be thinking proactively to minimize absenteeism as well as increase longevity among part-time employees.

Therefore, the purpose of this case study exercise is to provide students with an opportunity to engage in a managerial challenge within the possible employment setting of community-based sport and recreation facilities/complexes. It is designed to help students understand the challenges of working in settings where there is a high level of reliance upon part-time labor as well as challenge them to create a proposal designed to entice potential part-time workers to stay for a particular duration, fulfill their scheduled shifts, and/or assist in situations of absenteeism by filling shifts left open by an absent employee. The initiative could focus on a period as short as a single day to an entire peak season lasting several months. The proposal might also include focus on performance-based initiatives. For this case study exercise, the student could take the role of a mid-level manager. This mid-level manager would supervise part-time staff and reports to a higher-level full-time staff member, such as a General Manager. The proposal would be presented to the General Manager (the course instructor and/or an invited guest such as a manager of a local facility or complex).

Although it would take time and effort to create and manage such initiatives, the benefit to colleagues, customers, and the business resulting from fewer incidents of absenteeism and turnover could make the initiative worth the effort and expense. These types of facilities and complexes could generate revenues in the hundreds of thousands to several million dollars. Expenses such as utilities, maintenance, personnel, and equipment/supplies will use up most of the revenues. Therefore, the financial resources available would be limited as the quantity of dollars available for this case study exercise would be $12,000 to $18,000 annually ($1,000 to $1,500 monthly), with the fiscal year starting September 1 and ending August 31 the following year.

“Survive the Day” Initiatives

This initiative is designed to offset staffing shortages that occur when a part-time worker calls off on short notice or does not show up without any notice given. It is intended to ensure enough employees are present to execute various tasks. This initiative could be focused upon accomplishing two ideals. They are to 1) incentivize the people who are scheduled that day to show up for their shift and 2) if someone must call off, incentivize someone who wasn’t originally scheduled to take the place of the worker who called off on short notice or did not show up for work (e.g., “no call, no show”).

“Survive the Season” Initiatives

Although open for business year-round, the amount of customer activity within commercial sport and recreation facilities and complexes fluctuates based on the season. The greatest amount of customer traffic occurs during the winter months (early December through late February). Ice surfaces have been booked from the late afternoon (4pm) until late night (1am) on weekdays and booked from 6am to 1am on Saturday and Sunday. Youth association and high school hockey teams are conducting their games in the early evening. Adult leagues occupy the latter hours. In addition to the presence of these user groups, youth and high school games bring a greater amount of spectator traffic as friends, classmates, and family members of the participants attend the contests. It is also the period when public skating attendance peaks. As many as 300 customers could be admitted for a two-hour session on a Saturday or Sunday afternoon.

The ice surfaces are booked for similar hours during the months of September and October. Practice and scrimmages are typically conducted. These activities bring user groups but do not bring spectator traffic. Public skating is offered but would bring a fraction of the traffic seen during the winter months. To ensure employees are present to cover the hours in which user groups are present, a “survive the season” initiative could be designed to incentivize part-time employees to stay with the job from September through February. Contingencies could also be added. For example, employees would need to work a specified quantity of shifts/hours (especially on weekends). In addition, limits to the number of times an employee is absent from a scheduled shift, especially weekends, could be implemented.

Recognition for Performance Initiatives

This initiative would focus on rewarding employees for engaging in certain behaviors outside of the attendance-based actions. Employees who engage in quality work would be rewarded for doing so. Support for recognizing employees was revealed by Kellison, Kim, and Magnusen (2013) as they surveyed 522 part-time college aged (18-23 years old) campus recreation center employees from eleven universities to gain insight regarding factors that influenced their intentions to continue working in a part-time capacity at their respective university recreation centers. Recognition was identified as a key factor that positively influenced intentions to remain with the job/organization. Because many of the part-time workers in this case study exercise are in the age range of 18-23, these findings lend support to attempting recognition-based initiatives that have potential to retain employees.

Many organizations have a performance-based initiative in place, commonly referred to as an “employee of the month” program. This is often a competition-based system where one person is selected from the entire staff and receives the award. Various challenges to implementing initiatives where an employee is rewarded in this fashion exist. First, there is a challenge to objectively measuring and documenting the employee’s work. Because many of the part-time support staff members working in commercial sport and recreation settings do not engage in tasks that are easily quantifiable, measuring “good work” could be subject to opinion and perspective. Second, there are different employee groups, each engaging in different tasks. For instance, some of the workers are front of the house workers who are frequently interacting with customers. Others would be considered back of the house workers who do not regularly engage with customers. Consequently, there would be difficulty in comparing the performance of front of the house to back of the house workers because of the differences in their jobs. As a result, it would be the responsibility of the manager to establish parameters, standards, and/or benchmarks for each employee group.

Although an initiative for rewarding good deeds/good work is well-meaning, a system that relies on opinion, relationships, and other subjective criteria could result in more employees feeling less valued if they perceive they earned the reward but were passed over. Instead of having a competition among all employees working different jobs, an alternative is to establish the initiative so that each employee would be able to “control their own destiny.” That means each employee could receive the reward if certain benchmarks and/or standards are reached. If the commitment is made to proceed with such an initiative, an objective system of measurement is needed so that the employee could clearly understand what is expected to obtain the reward. Otherwise, employees could perceive the initiative as subjective, biased, and/or arbitrary.Regardless of the initiative(s) chosen, the proposal should include the following content:

The parameters/standards/actions that the employee will take (e.g., filling in for an absent employee, working “x” number of peak busyness shifts over a particular period) to receive the reward.
The rewards that will be given.
The costs are associated with implementing the initiative.
Argument behind why this initiative is feasible in this setting and with this workforce.
Identification of potential obstacles for success; why could this initiative be implemented and still not provide the desired results?

PROJECT DETAILS

The following sections for this case study exercise include further description of the setting, operating schedule, manager and part-time worker job descriptions and categories. The quantity of part-time workers hired for each area and the quantity of workers from each category that is on duty at a given time is provided. In addition, the times of day and days of week they typically work as well as the duration of their shifts are indicated.

Facility Setting and Description

The facility that will be utilized for this case study is a multi-purpose facility in which the terms “ice arena” or “hockey arena” might be used. The activities that commonly take place would be ice sports such as hockey, figure skating, and recreational skating. The facility is approximately 180,000 square feet. Two arenas that each house an ice surface of 85×200 feet are the primary activity spaces. When the ice is removed, activities can be conducted on the concrete floor. During off-peak months, various events and programs such as trade shows, exhibitions, and circuses could be conducted.

Each arena consists of stationary spectator seating in the form of metal bleachers with a seating capacity of 1,000. Each arena has six locker rooms (four for hockey teams, one for referees and one additional room to be used on an “As Needed” basis (e.g., for girls participating on boys’ youth hockey teams). There are storage areas and a large garage area where the ice resurface machines are housed. Other areas not accessible to the public include mechanical rooms where the ice cooling equipment is housed. Public areas would consist of a large lobby in which numerous benches and tables are present for the convenience of the patrons. Accessible from the lobby is the concession stand, pro shop (equipment and merchandise sales), arcade, office space, fitness center, restrooms, and two multi-purpose rooms where staff meetings, birthday parties, and team banquets could be held.

Facility Operating Schedule

Many sport and recreation related businesses are open for business seven days a week and typically see most customer activity during weeknights (after 5pm, Monday through Friday) and weekends. On weekends, activity could start as early as 6am and continue as late as midnight or 1am during the peak season. This is when staff is most needed to cover these hours. The amount of customer activity will be at its peak from early December until early March. This is the peak period for youth hockey games, which increases the amount of spectator traffic as family members attend the contests. High school programs could rent space for their practices and games as well. Their games bring additional spectator traffic. It is also peak season for public skating sessions. A public skating session on a weekend afternoon during the winter months could attract as many as 300 paying customers for a two-hour window of skating time.

Regular business hours (e.g., Monday-Friday from 8am-5pm) are typically the periods with the least amount of customer activity. During this time, most maintenance and cleaning activities occur. Deliveries from vendors also occur during this time. Therefore, there is a need for management and custodial personnel to be present during times of minimal customer activity.

Full-Time Manager Descriptions

The facility is overseen by a general manager and additional full-time, salaried assistant managers. The general manager and assistant managers participate in various aspects of the operation. It is not uncommon for each assistant manager to not only have a primary responsibility regarding some managerial aspect, but also “wear many hats” and participate in other aspects of the operation. For example, one of the assistant managers might be responsible for overseeing tasks in connection with human resources. This person would be responsible for writing and disseminating job descriptions, screening applicants, and conducting interviews. The other assistant managers could be responsible for overseeing facility maintenance/cleanliness, the concessions operation, the pro shop/retail operation and/or marketing/programming. In addition, full-time managers participate in other aspects of the operation as they should be able to step in and assist anywhere on an “as needed” basis. This would include driving the ice resurface machine, operating cash registers, distributing rental equipment, and spot cleaning.

At least one of the full-time, salaried staff members are present when the building is open for business. This would include coverage during regular business hours as well as weeknights and weekends. It is possible that during peak times of business, more than one manager could be present. It would not be uncommon for 4-5 full-time management members to be employed at this type of facility.

Part Time Staff Descriptions

Perry (2018) identified different categories of employees that seek part-time employment in commercial sport and recreation facilities and complexes. The first category consists of individuals who are looking for some work to keep busy and gain supplementary income. A retired individual, perhaps a senior citizen, would fall into this category. The second category consists of post-college aged workers with full-time jobs who want or perhaps need a second job to help pay bills, accumulate extra savings, etc. The third category would consist of high school and college aged individuals who are looking to gain work experience and obtain income. This demographic is typically working around their schooling.

Regardless of the demographic, these jobs are often not the primary focus in the employee’s life. Other aspects are higher on the priority scale; therefore, employees might not alter other life aspects (e.g., primary job, school, family commitments) to work these jobs. Because the employee is not intending to make a career out of the part time job in this setting, this could have an impact upon attendance and performance.

These part-time workers fulfill “front of the house” and “back of the house” positions. In this setting, front of the house positions consists of duties such as cash handling/cash register operation, serving food products, collecting participation fees, distributing rental equipment, monitoring customer conduct, and being present in the event customers have questions and/or need assistance. Front of the house positions that often exist in the setting include concessions, skate staff, pro shop/merchandise sales, and front desk workers/receptionists.

Back of the house employees largely contribute to the cleanliness and upkeep of the facility. In this setting, custodians and ice resurfacing machine drivers/building attendants are common types of back of the house workers. They have little interaction with customers and in the case of custodians, often work when few to no customers are present in the facility.

These employees are paid an hourly wage and could work as little as 10 hours a week or as many as 40 hours a week. Accumulated hours are monitored so that the employee does not exceed 40 hours a week. If 40 hours in a week are exceeded, overtime compensation of one and a half times the employee’s standard hourly wage would be paid. In many cases, the hourly wage could be at or slightly above the locally mandated minimum wage.

For this case study exercise, seven part-time worker categories exist, consisting of several front and back of the house positions. Several people are on the roster within each worker category. Not everyone who has been hired and appears on the roster is working at the same time. Saturday and Sunday will be the busiest days requiring the greatest amount of part-time worker participation. Key duties, the time of day and quantity of hours per shift that employees within each of these categories are typically scheduled, and worker demographics are provided.

Concessions

Concession stand workers are responsible for preparing and serving food and beverages. “Quick serve” foods are usually prepared and then held in a warming bin or warming rollers (e.g., pizza, popcorn, hot dogs). Some facilities might possess a deep fryer, which would allow workers to prepare items such as fries, mozzarella sticks, etc. Concessions workers work when customer traffic is heaviest (evenings and weekends), except for periods when school is out of session such as winter break. High school and college aged employees are common. Post college aged adults working part-time, perhaps around another full-time day job, also staff the concessions operation. One person will be on duty most of the time. During the periods of peak customer traffic, such as public skating sessions during the winter months, two people could be scheduled to work at the same time. Shift duration is commonly 4-6 hours. There could be 6-8 employees on the roster in this area.

Skating staff

The skate staff would consist of counter/desk workers who are responsible for collecting admission fees and distributing “skate passes” to patrons participating in public skating sessions. Skate passes are often colored stickers the patron can wear on their clothing so that staff can easily see they paid their admission fee for that public skating session. They would also distribute rental skates to patrons who do not own their own set of skates. The other type of worker in the skating staff category is the “skate guard.” These individuals ensure those who enter the ice have paid their admission, indicated by the skate pass they are wearing. They also watch for and report any injuries or incidents of dangerous behavior to management. This worker group commonly consists of high school and college age individuals. Their work schedule aligns with public skating sessions, which are typically on Saturday and/or Sunday. With a two-hour skating session, for instance, workers could be scheduled for a 3.5 to 4-hour shift. This duration allows for them to be on duty before customers arrive and allows for post-session cleanup, putting skates away, etc. The roster could consist of 4-8 employees in this category. 1-2 skate guards would be on duty for each session (2 during the busiest winter sessions) as well as 1-2 counter/desk workers (2 during the busiest winter sessions).

Pro shop staff

Merchandise such as tape, water bottles, mouthguards, sticks, helmets, and other equipment is commonly sold in the “pro shop.” These workers are responsible for operating the register and assisting customers. Some light cleaning within the area is periodically assigned. In some facilities, skate sharpening is offered, and the pro shop employees will sharpen customers’ skates. During slow periods, the pro shop staff often is charged with sharpening the rental skates that will be used during the public skating sessions. The pro shop would be open during the evening and weekends. This worker group commonly consists of high school and college age individuals. The shift duration could last from 4-6 hours. On weeknights, one person would likely be on duty. During the weekends, especially the times around public skating sessions, two people could be on duty. There could be 4-6 people on the roster within this worker category.

Fitness center workers

The facility in this case study has a fitness center on site. The fitness center would include equipment that would commonly be found at commercial fitness centers, such as treadmills, elliptical trainers, and free weights. Monthly and/or annual memberships could be sold. This area could be open from early morning until late evening (6am-11pm) seven days a week. Fitness center workers would ensure members have checked in, engage in light cleaning duties and conduct minor troubleshooting of equipment. These workers do not conduct personal training sessions. During the weekday mornings and afternoons, the workers would mostly consist of senior citizens or other post-college aged adults. High school and college aged individuals would typically work evening and weekend hours. Because this area is staffed seven days a week from early morning to late evening, 6-8 individuals could be on the roster for this position. One worker would be working at a time for a shift typically lasting 4-6 hours.

After hours reception desk

These workers would be on duty after regular business hours on weekdays and on weekends. This person would likely distribute keys for the locker rooms to hockey teams, provide information to basic inquiries (e.g., assigned locker room number), answer phone calls, and serve as a point of contact for patrons who report a circumstance in need of attention, such as cleaning up a spill, restocking paper products in restrooms, etc. The desk worker would contact the manager on duty and/or other worker groups to address the need. In some facilities, the desk worker might assume duties such as collecting fees and distributing passes for public skating patrons. Workers in this group could range from high school or college students to post college aged individuals and senior citizens. One person at a time would be on duty and there could be 3-4 people on the roster in this category.

Building attendant/ice resurface machine driver

Building attendants are responsible for resurfacing the ice for each new user group. In between ice resurfacing duties, they are responsible for surface cleaning in locker rooms, restrooms, spectator seating areas, and lobbies/foyers. Restocking restrooms and mopping up spills are among cleaning and light maintenance duties that a building attendant would be expected to perform. They are scheduled during times when user groups are present in the building; therefore, the schedule consists of mostly evening and weekend work. Building attendants are required to be a minimum of 18 years old because the job includes operation of the ice resurfacing machine. Middle-aged individuals working around a primary job could also be working in this role. One person would be scheduled to work in this capacity on a weeknight; however, two people could be scheduled to work on weekends during peak times. The shift duration would likely be 7-8 hours. There could be 4-6 employees on the roster.

Custodial

Custodians are responsible for the overall cleanliness of the facility. Much of their time is spent cleaning and restocking restrooms and locker rooms, emptying trash bins and cleaning spectator seating areas. These employees typically work when the building is not full of customers so that they can engage in deep cleaning activities. Working during regular business hours (e.g., Monday-Friday 8am-5pm) is common. They could also be scheduled for late night/early mornings on Friday night into Saturday morning and Saturday night into Sunday morning as the facility will typically be full of customers when the doors open on weekend mornings. Worker demographics could vary, ranging from post college age to semi-retired individuals. Some of these employees might be working this job along with another job. There could be 2-4 people employed in this category, with one person on duty at a time. A typical shift duration could be 4-8 hours. If a special cleaning or maintenance project is planned, more than one worker from this category could be scheduled.

APPLICATION TO SPORT MANAGEMENT

Regarding the application of this work to the educational setting, sport management students could find this case study exercise useful because it gets them to imagine themselves working in a setting and engaging in challenges they could face once they enter the workforce as a full-time, managerial employee. Commercial sport and recreation facilities and complexes exist all over the world; therefore, there is at least some likelihood that some will work in these settings. Therefore, it is important to expose students to situations they could experience within possible employment settings. Having students generate content that could be used in an actual setting would be useful because many could be overseeing part-time workers from various demographics and life situations at their respective workplaces.

Students who work in these settings will not only be faced with challenges related to staffing but could also be working in settings where there are not large amounts of financial resources available to them. Many of these facilities and complexes are smaller “mom and pop” businesses that do not generate massive amounts of revenue. Therefore, they will have to find ways to address a challenge with a limited amount of money (in this case study $1,000-$1,500 monthly limit) at their disposal.

The content students create in association with this case study could take the form of a written proposal and/or an oral presentation. In order to give them the opportunity to create the most extensive proposal possible, it is suggested that students create content for each of the three initiatives (survive the day, survive the season, and performance). As a middle level manager who was hired by a superior, the student would report to that individual or perhaps several individuals who occupy a higher position in the organizational chart. For this case, the student could present the content to the instructor of the course who would represent the upper-level member of management. It is suggested that if feasible, managers from a local facility or complex be invited to participate in the presentation of the proposal. Their presence and scrutiny would add an additional layer of authenticity to the endeavor. Furthermore, the instructor might wish to reach out to managers of local facilities and complexes to see if they would like for students to create a proposal specifically for their operation. The manager would possibly first appear as a guest speaker and share details of the operation with the students. Students could use that visit to ask questions and gain a better understanding of the operation and then develop a plan for that manager.

Regarding the execution of the students’ proposal in the “real world,” it is likely that costs and personnel limitations would be presented as reasons as to why these ideas would not reach the execution stage. Therefore, part of the challenge for students is to create a plan that would be financially feasible for a small business as well as a plan that could be executed by a single manager or perhaps a small managerial team of 2-4 people. In closing, it is hoped that this case study exercise will benefit faculty seeking content to add to their courses. This case study could be executed within courses focusing on human resources management, facility management, and/or financial management. Because a large quantity of these operations exists, it is possible that students will secure employment in them. Therefore, this endeavor can help to further prepare students for managing a predominately part-time workforce within commercial sport and recreation facilities and complexes.

REFERENCES

Kellison, T. B., Kim, Y. K., & Magnusen, M. J. (2013). The work attitudes of millennials in collegiate recreational sports. Journal of Park and Recreation Administration, 31(1), 78-97.
McCole, D., Jacobs, J., Lindley, B., & McAvoy, L. (2012). The relationship between seasonal employee retention and sense of community: The case of summer camp employment. Journal of Park and Recreation Administration, 30(2), 85-101.
McKinney, W. R., Bartlett, K. R., & Mulvaney, M. A. (2007). Measuring the costs of turnover in Illinois Public Parks and Recreation Agencies: An exploratory study. Journal of Park and Recreation Administration, 25(1), 50-74.
Perry, P. M. (2008). Finding great part-time workers. NSGA Retail Focus, 61(2), 10-11, 22.

Troy Palmer2025-12-05T10:58:04-06:00June 3rd, 2026|Contemporary Sports Issues, General, Leadership, Research, Sports Management, Sports Studies|Comments Off