General – Page 2 – The Sport Journal

A Manual Therapy Treatment for Headache Pain

Authors: Lindsay C. Luinstra¹, Dan Sigley¹, Heidi A. VanRavenhorst-Bell¹

Corresponding Author:

Dr. Lindsay Luinstra, DAT, MS, LAT, ATC

1845 Fairmount Street,

Box 16,

Wichita, KS 67260

[email protected]

(316) 978-5440

¹Department of Human Performance Studies, Wichita State University, Wichita, KS, USA

Dr. Lindsay Luinstra, DAT, MS, LAT, ATC is an assistant professor of athletic training at Wichita State University in Wichita, KS. Her research interest is in sports medicine and manual therapy techniques to treat athletic-related injury.

Dr. Dan Sigley, DAT, LAT, ATC is an assistant professor of athletic training at Wichita State University in Wichita, KS. His research interest is in concussion education, evaluation, and treatment paradigms.

Dr. Heidi A. VanRavenhorst-Bell, PhD is Chair and Associate Professor in the Department of Human Performance Studies and Manager of the Human Performance Laboratory at Wichita State University. She has an established interdisciplinary line of research directed toward functional performance across exercise physiology and orofacial myology.

ABSTRACT

Cervicogenic headache (CEH) is caused by dysfunction in the cervical spine and surrounding muscles. It is typically characterized by unilateral or sometimes bilateral head pain, often accompanied by limited neck movement. Postural and neuromuscular dysfunction in the cervical spine may contribute to the onset of headache-related pain. This study aims to address headache-related pain using the C2 evaluation and treatment protocol from the MyoKinesthetic System, a manual therapy method focused on evaluating and treating postural imbalances. A female patient with self-reported chronic headache-related pain and neck discomfort underwent six treatments using the C2 cervical nerve root protocol over a two-week period, with 48-72 hours between each session. Each treatment lasted approximately 8 minutes. Subjective and objective outcome measures were collected throughout the treatment period, including clinician-assessed cervical range of motion, the Numerical Pain Rating Scale (NPRS), the Neck Disability Index (NDI), and the Headache Impact Test-6 (HIT-6). At the initial assessment, the patient reported an NPRS score of 4/10, an NDI score of 14/50, and a HIT-6 score of 58. After the final treatment, the patient’s NPRS pain score was 5/10, with NDI and HIT-6 scores of 15/50 and 54, respectively. Cervical extension range of motion improved by 7 degrees post-treatment. However, the average NPRS pain reduction over the two weeks was only 0.25 points and not clinically significant. At the 30-day follow-up, NPRS results met the minimally clinically important difference (MCID), with a score of 0. Headache frequency decreased from daily to once every three days, with the duration reduced to around 15 minutes. The patient reported improved tolerance for physical activities and fewer work disruptions. Lasting improvements were observed in neck function, headache impact, pain, and range of motion. These findings are promising, but more research is needed to confirm the MyoKinesthetic System’s effectiveness for CEH. Targeting the C2 cervical nerve root helped reduce the patient’s chronic headache frequency and neck discomfort, suggesting potential for addressing neuromuscular imbalances. However, since this is a single case study, further research with larger samples and comparisons to other treatments is needed to assess its broader efficacy and long-term effects.

Key Words: MyoKinesthetic System; cervical nerve root; head-related discomfort

INTRODUCTION

Cervicogenic headache (CEH) is characterized by pain in the head associated with the cervical spine and cervical musculature (Bogduk, 2001; Bogduk & Govind, 2009; Haldeman & Dagenais, 2001). Sjaastad et al. (1998), along with the International Headache Society (The International Classification of Headache Disorders, 2018), define CEH as a unilateral headache that may also present bilaterally, associated with the cervical spine and muscles. Identifying signs and symptoms, including a reduced active and passive range of motion in the cervical spine leading to mechanical dysfunction, is critical in diagnosing CEH (Sjaastad et al., 1998). Accompanying symptoms may include nausea, vomiting, flushing, dizziness, phonophobia, photophobia, blurred vision, and dysphagia (Sjaastad et al., 1998). The burden of a headache is measured by the degree of pain and suffering experienced by the patient.

Treatment options are available across multiple healthcare specialties (Yang et al., 2010), including athletic training, and treatment choice appears to depend on the specialty of the healthcare provider treating the patient (Smith & Bolton, 2013). Various treatment methods have been studied, both invasive (e.g., surgery and injections) and non-invasive (e.g., massage, cervical mobilizations, trigger point therapy, and acupressure) in nature (Bogduk & Govind, 2009; Haldeman & Dagenais, 2001; Quinn et al., 2002; Schoensee et al., 1995). The goal of clinicians using non-invasive manual therapy techniques is to resolve patient complaints by treating the cervical spine as the primary source of CEH symptoms (Bogduk, 2004).

Non-invasive therapeutic techniques for CEH include cervical spine mobilization, massage, trigger point therapy, and acupressure (Bogduk & Govind, 2009; Haldeman & Dagenais, 2001; Quinn et al., 2002; Schoensee et al., 1995; Youdas et al., 1992). Researchers have demonstrated clinically significant reductions in headache intensity, frequency, and duration among patients treated with non-invasive techniques over at least a six-week treatment protocol (Bogduk & Govind, 2009; Haldeman & Dagenais, 2001; Quinn et al., 2002; Schoensee et al., 1995; Youdas et al., 1992). Although manual therapy techniques have been reviewed as effective management tools for CEH (Bogduk & Govind, 2009; Haldeman & Dagenais, 2001; Quinn et al., 2002; Youdas et al., 1992), no studies have specifically evaluated the effects of pain intensity changes and cervical range of motion after shorter treatment durations, such as a two-week treatment protocol. Conservative treatments that require extended durations to achieve significant results may motivate patients to seek faster remedies (e.g., medication) that perpetuate their condition by altering symptoms without addressing the underlying cause.

The MyoKinesthetic (MYK) System is an evaluation and treatment paradigm used to restore the central nervous system’s (CNS) communication with the musculoskeletal system to achieve allostasis. The MYK evaluation is designed to identify abnormalities in a patient’s static posture and connect those abnormalities to specific nerve root(s) via the associated myotome(s). The clinician then treats at the level of the identified myotome by using active and passive patient movements with a simultaneous external stimulus, similar to massage, to stimulate the communication pathways of the CNS.

The MYK System is theorized to decrease nociceptive firing that may cause or occur due to joint and tissue movement restriction (Smith & Bolton, 2013). The MYK system aims to create postural balance by treating the bilateral neuromuscular system along a specific nerve root. Specifically, for headaches, the MYK System utilizes additional classification beyond postural evaluation, including assessing headache pain and location. The MYK system, which helps the clinician determine the nerve root to be treated, offers a headache assessment table designed by Dr. Mike Uriarte (Uriarte, 2004). The location of headache-related symptoms in one or multiple areas (e.g., top of the head, sides of the head, front or back of the head, front of the head above the eyes, and back of the head no lower than the occiput) is used to determine which cervical nerve root may be affected. Currently, limited published research examines the effectiveness of the MYK headache treatment on headache-related pain (Moy, 2015).

The purpose of this case study was to examine the effects of the MYK system over two weeks when treating a patient classified with chronic CEH (i.e., occurring 15 days or more per month for longer than three months).

TABLE 1

The ‘Yes/No’ Cervical Nerve Root Assessment Chart

Nerve Root	Location of Pain	Special Characteristics
C1	Anywhere on the head, this is determined when we do the ‘yes/no’ test.	If their head is ‘rotated only,’ it is C1.
C2	Top of the head, sides of the head, front and back of the head.	No lower than the occiput.
C3	In the eyes, between the eyes, behind the eyes, into the jaw or cheek area, top of the neck.

Case Report

The patient, a thirty-three-year-old female, reported her main complaints were headache pain and neck discomfort off and on for over ten years, starting while she was in middle school. A signed HIPAA and informed consent form were obtained before the initial evaluation and treatment. The patient’s prior history of significant injury included rotator cuff lesion and finger, foot, and toe fractures. The patient underwent shoulder arthroscopy to repair the rotator cuff three years prior. Still, since the headaches were present before and after the surgery, it was not believed to be a primary contributing factor. The patient’s contributing factors that coincided with her headache symptoms included sinusitis and bilateral numbness in her hands. The patient also reported that she had missed significant events in her life because of her chronic headache pain. Her work-life was frequently disturbed; she required breaks often and was unable to stay focused on her tasks. In her own words, her ‘everyday active lifestyle was disrupted frequently’.

The patient pursued multiple treatments and techniques over several years to relieve her headaches and neck discomfort but found little to no success. Some treatments positively impacted her condition for a short period but had not changed her condition long-term. These treatments and techniques included chiropractic care, medication, injections, essential oils, and physical therapy. Prescription pain medication and muscle relaxers were used as a last resort. Over-the-counter medicines were used by the patient weekly as needed.

METHODS

Assessment

After obtaining a complete history and satisfying the inclusion/exclusion criteria (see Table 2), a physical examination was performed, consisting of cranial nerve and vertebral artery insufficiency testing, before the MYK ‘yes/no’ test and the MyoKinesthetic (MYK) full-body postural assessment. Cranial nerve function tested normal, as did the vertebral artery performance.

Table 2

Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria.

Inclusion Criteria	Exclusion Criteria
-Pain projected to the forehead, orbital region, temples, ears, neck, or occipital region; -Pain with specific neck movements or sustained postures; -Complaints of palpable pain or discomfort/limitation of active or passive ROM.	-Participants > 50 years old; -Positive Vertebral Artery Test; if positive, refer out -If any analgesic or non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) were taken within the last 24 hours; -If the participant has an acute diagnosis of concussion or has not been released by a physician for full activity with no restriction from a concussion diagnosis

The MYK ‘yes/no’ test is used within the MYK System to determine resting head position. The patient stands with eyes closed and nods and shakes his/her head several times before coming to a comfortable resting position. The position of the head at rest is noted. Assessing cervical posture/imbalance with eyes closed may help to remove the visual input that the body uses to level itself with the horizon. In conjunction with the location of symptoms as outlined in Table 1, the ‘Yes/No’ Test is used to determine the cervical nerve root associated with the patient’s posture and symptoms. In this case, the patient’s cervical posture was visibly laterally flexed to the right.

The MYK full-body postural assessment consists of the clinician evaluating the patient’s posture and stance, noting any imbalances when compared bilaterally and against postural norms (e.g., neutral). In this case, clinical evaluation utilizing the MYK full-body postural assessment (Table 3) and clinician expertise demonstrated a C1-T1 dysfunction, with considerable postural imbalances associated with C6. The patient’s primary complaint was headache pain on the top of the head and temples with general neck discomfort. As outlined in Table 1, the C2 nerve root was identified as the affected nerve root using the headache treatment guidelines.

Pain-free active cervical ranges of motion (extension, flexion, and right/left rotation) were assessed using a goniometer with the patient’s eyes closed. At the initial examination, the patient had 53 degrees of pain-free active cervical extension and 45 degrees of pain-free active cervical flexion. Pain-free active cervical rotation to the left and right was 60 degrees and 67 degrees, respectively.

Instrumentation

For patient-reported instruments to be most helpful in clinical practice and research, those with good psychometric properties and clinical applicability were utilized (Houts et al., 2020; Farrar et al., 2001). Instruments that were well-established in the literature and validated were selected to measure the impact of headaches in this case study.

The Headache Impact Test Questionnaire

The Headache Impact Test (HIT-6) is designed to assess the global impact of headaches on patients, measuring content areas such as pain, social-role limitations, cognitive functioning, psychological distress, and vitality (Houts et al., 2020). Nachit-Ouinekh et al. (2005) evaluated the global impact of episodic headaches in patients consulting general practitioners using the HIT-6 questionnaire and compared headache severity and quality of life. A comparison of the HIT-6 scores was conducted for each of the four sub-scores (i.e., functional, psychological, social, and therapeutic indices) against the French Qualité de Vie et Migraine (QVM) questionnaire (Nachit-Ouinekh et al., 2005). Scores range from “60 or more—headache has a severe impact on your life” to “49 or less—headache has little to no impact on your life” (Nachit-Ouinekh et al., 2005).

The Numerical Pain Rating Scale

The Numerical Pain Rating Scale (NPRS) is an 11-point numerical scale in which the clinician asks the patient to rate their pain verbally on a scale from 0 (no pain) to 10 (worst pain imaginable) (Farrar et al., 2001). In this study, average scores were calculated using the patient’s “current,” “best,” and “worst” pain scores, which were then compared to the post-treatment “current” pain score.

The Neck Disability Index

The Neck Disability Index (NDI) is a patient-reported, condition-specific functional status questionnaire that includes items related to pain, personal care, lifting, reading, headaches, concentration, work, driving, sleeping, and recreation. Out of a possible 50 points, a higher score indicates greater patient-perceived neck disability. A 5-point change on the index is considered a clinically important difference (Chan Ci En et al., 2009).

At the initial assessment, the patient reported an NPRS of 4/10, a HIT-6 score of 58, and an NDI score of 14/50. Measurements and outcomes were also collected at 30- and 60-day follow-ups.

The treatment of the C2 nerve root was determined based on the MyoKinesthetic (MYK) System’s “yes/no” test results. Treatment was performed following MYK System guidelines with the patient in a seated position. The clinician administered treatment using the MYK System parameters: passive movements were completed first, with the clinician passively moving the participant through each muscle’s range of motion (five times) while applying manual stimulus similar to massage to the muscles of the C2 myotome. Then, the participant actively moved (seven times) through the same range of motion while the clinician applied the same stimulus to the muscles. Once all muscles innervated by the C2 nerve root were treated bilaterally, treatment was complete. Treatments lasted approximately eight minutes on average and were conducted six times over two weeks, with 48 to 72 hours between each treatment.

RESULTS

After the final treatment, the pain reported on the NPRS was 5/10. The patient also completed the NDI and HIT-6, with scores of 15/50 and 54 points, respectively (see Table 4). Cervical range of motion (ROM) measurements were recorded in degrees and evaluated pre- and post-treatment. There were significant improvements in cervical extension ROM, with an increase of 7 degrees post-final treatment. A summary of ROM measurements is presented in Table 5.

The mean pain scores across the two weeks of treatment were not clinically significant compared to the NPRS minimally clinically important difference (MCID), which is defined as an average decrease of 2 points. In this case, the average decrease was only 0.25 points (Chan Ci En et al., 2009). However, daily NPRS results met the minimally clinically significant difference at the 30-day follow-up, with an average of 0 (Chan Ci En et al., 2009). Lastly, the patient’s postural examination changed between intake and discharge, as many imbalances were corrected within normal limits (see Table 3; Uriarte, 2004).

The patient reported a dramatic decrease in headache frequency over the two-week period, from experiencing a headache daily to only one every three days. By the end of the two-week treatment period, the patient noted that headache duration significantly decreased, lasting approximately 15 minutes compared to several hours or days before treatment. The patient also reported improved tolerance for physical activities she had previously been unable to perform, such as walking for extended periods, lifting weights, completing household tasks, and playing with her child. Disruptions at work were also greatly diminished, and the patient reported improved ability to focus on tasks with greater ease.

While the patient reported notable improvements, it is essential to analyze the raw data to form a proper conclusion. When evaluating follow-up scores, the findings suggest lasting improvements in multiple aspects of the patient’s life, including but not limited to neck function, perceived headache impact, pain levels, and range of motion. The follow-up scores are illustrated in Table 4.

DISCUSSION

The MyoKinesthetic (MYK) System elicited positive and lasting changes in this patient with frequent and intense cervicogenic headaches (CEH) over just two weeks of treatment. By the 60-day follow-up, the patient’s pain was nearly eliminated, and headache frequency had become rare. The patient also reported no headache-related pain or discomfort between treatments, which were spaced 48 to 72 hours apart. Improvements were observed in cervical flexion and right rotation, and the patient reported a significant enhancement in functional activities, allowing her to enjoy a more comfortable home life and a less painful work environment. The MYK System may be beneficial for other patients with CEH; however, research on its effectiveness remains limited, as is the case with other manual therapy techniques. Further studies are needed to determine why MYK may have been effective in treating this patient.

Manual therapy has been shown to decrease pain, improve function, and enhance quality of life in patients with musculoskeletal conditions, though its effectiveness varies among individuals (Uriarte, 2004). For example, massage therapy is commonly used to treat general pain complaints, yet some patients experience substantial relief while others show little to no improvement. Similarly, alternative treatment approaches, such as mobilizations with movement, may have been more or less effective in addressing the patient’s primary complaint. Treating patients with pain is inherently subjective, as each patient’s response is influenced by a combination of mental, physical, and emotional factors.

The MYK technique may extend its effects beyond conventional treatment boundaries. Patients may perceive MyoKinesthetic treatment as similar to joint mobilization and massage (e.g., pressure, squeezing, trigger point therapy). Neural mobilization may also occur as all tissues move through various ranges of motion. Some patients report a stretching or traction effect, while others describe experiencing a “pop” sensation, suggesting a possible manipulative effect. The MYK System is designed to be quick and efficient, requiring minimal space and exertion from the clinician (Moy, 2015).

Although limited research has explored manual therapy as a viable treatment for headaches, Smith and Bolton (2013) provided a compelling argument supporting its use. While acknowledging study limitations, their evaluation considered both postural and pain-related factors. Headaches related to stress, nerve irritation, or muscle spasms were subjectively identified, and chronic pain in the neck and upper trapezius region was also noted. MYK was used in this case to address the patient’s symptoms, and the treatment was beneficial. The systematic evaluation process within the MYK System highlighted neuromuscular imbalances, targeted their treatment, and raised the question of whether MYK could serve as an effective intervention for headaches (Uriarte, 2004).

A study by Moy (2015) applied the MYK System to a patient with complaints of neck pain, shoulder pain, hip pain, and headaches. Through a comprehensive assessment, the C8 nerve root was identified as the source of the patient’s symptoms. Following targeted MYK treatment, the patient experienced a significant reduction in pain, improved cervical range of motion, and enhanced quality of life after nine treatment sessions.

At the conception of the MYK System, a review of research addressing neuromuscular function and dysfunction was conducted. Understanding the neuromuscular system was fundamental to its development. Dr. Uriarte (2004) conceptualized the neuromuscular system as a “two-sided story,” emphasizing the necessity of bilateral treatment to address the root cause of pain rather than merely targeting the symptomatic area.

Furthermore, during MYK treatment, the body may perceive movement as normal and recognize the applied stimulus as non-threatening. This process allows patients to transition from painful to non-painful motion. A unique aspect of the MYK System is how treatment concludes. According to Dr. Uriarte (2004), posture serves as an external reflection of the neurological system. Before treatment, compensatory patterns may develop due to dysfunction and gravitational forces. Following treatment, the body and neurological system are expected to feel more balanced and better equipped to adapt to movement and gravity naturally.

Limitations

As with any attempted case study, limitations were present. Limitations included the following: 1) The treatment pressure may vary among treatments over the two weeks. While the type of stimulus (stroking, tapping, massaging) may not matter, varying pressure has not been studied; therefore, the effects of pressure have not been determined. This may be viewed as a limitation of the technique rather than a limitation of this study. 2) Reliability of goniometric measurement was not established before data collection, which may have created a limitation on reporting significant cervical ROM changes. However, all measurements were taken in the same setting, patient position, and by the same clinician. Validity and reliability of goniometric measures are usually established amongst clinicians, with multiple ROM measurements collected blindly over some time with the same subjects. With there only being one patient and one clinician in this study, inter- and intra-reliability are lacking. 3) Although the patient was instructed not to take medication or have other treatments for headaches, the clinician cannot control what happens outside the clinic. The patient did not report any other treatments or taking medication during the time of the study.

Further research should be conducted, exploring whether the muscles’ stimulation affects multiple participants with suspected cervicogenic headache during the acute stages of a CEH. Other research should be conducted utilizing the MYK manual therapy treatment technique on different body regions to determine treatment effectiveness. Another viable research topic would be comparing the specific nerve root treatment based on the location of headache pain (C1, C2, C3) compared to the location of dysfunction according to the MYK Upper Body assessment findings (C1-T1).

CONCLUSIONS

MYK manual therapy helped this patient improve in their complaint of headache pain and frequency. This study demonstrates that the MYK System headache treatment may be a practical treatment choice to reduce the intensity of patient-reported pain in patients with suspected cervicogenic headaches. The treatment of cervical nerve root C2 from the MYK System created a clinically significant change in the participant’s perceived pain, including some results found after the 30-day and 60-day follow-ups.

The question arises: Is MYK the most viable option for patients suffering from headache-related pain? MYK is quick, easy, and presents as effective. The treatment needs more research and discussion to support the idea that MYK is effective and helps validate more manual therapy techniques. While MYK is not the only manual therapy technique available, it appears viable when assessing and treating patients. Overall, the changes in pain, intensity, and frequency observed in this study support the MyoKinesthetic System headache treatment along cervical nerve root C2 as a successful form of a non-invasive technique when treating cervicogenic headaches.

APPLICATIONS IN SPORT

For coaches, athletic trainers, and parents, understanding cervicogenic headaches (CEH) and their potential impact on athletes is crucial. Athletes, especially those involved in contact sports or repetitive motions, are at a higher risk for neck injuries that could lead to headaches. These headaches can affect an athlete’s performance and overall well-being, causing discomfort, limiting movement, and sometimes sidelining them from practice or competition.

As a coach or athletic trainer, recognizing the signs of CEH and addressing them early can make a significant difference in an athlete’s recovery and performance. Techniques such as cervical mobilizations, myofascial release, and other manual therapies can relieve, improve range of motion, and prevent long-term issues. By being proactive and incorporating strategies to address CEH, you can help athletes stay on track, reduce downtime, and support their physical function, ultimately enhancing their athletic experience and success. Parents, too, can play an important role by being aware of the symptoms and encouraging their athletes to seek timely treatment.

Acknowledgments

The authors declare no conflict of interest and did not receive payment for this study.

REFERENCES

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Bogduk, N. (2004). The neck and headaches. Neurologic Clinics, 22(1), 151–171. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ncl.2003.11.006
Bogduk, N., & Govind, J. (2009). Cervicogenic headache: An assessment of the evidence on clinical diagnosis, invasive tests, and treatment. The Lancet Neurology, 8(10), 959–968. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1474-4422(09)70209-9
Sjaastad, O., Fredriksen, T. A., & Pfaffenrath, V. (1998). Cervicogenic headache: Diagnostic criteria. Headache: The Journal of Head and Face Pain, 38(6), 442–445. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1526-4610.1998.3806442.x
The International Classification of Headache Disorders, 3rd edition. (2018). Cephalalgia, 38(1), 1–211. https://doi.org/10.1177/0333102417738202
Yang, M., Rendas-Baum, R., Varon, S. F., et al. (2010). Validation of the Headache Impact Test (HIT-6™) across episodic and chronic migraine. Cephalalgia, 31(3), 357–367. https://doi.org/10.1177/0333102410379890
Quinn, C., Chandler, C., & Moraska, A. (2002). Massage therapy and frequency of chronic tension headaches. American Journal of Public Health, 92(10), 1657–1661. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.92.10.1657
Haldeman, S., & Dagenais, S. (2001). Cervicogenic headaches. The Spine Journal, 1(1), 31–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1529-9430(01)00017-2
Schoensee, S. K., Jensen, G., Nicholson, G., et al. (1995). The effect of mobilization on cervical headaches. Journal of Orthopaedic & Sports Physical Therapy, 21(4), 184–196. https://doi.org/10.2519/jospt.1995.21.4.184
Youdas, J. W., Garrett, T. R., Suman, V. J., et al. (1992). Normal range of motion of the cervical spine: An initial goniometric study. Physical Therapy, 72(11), 770–780. https://doi.org/10.1093/ptj/72.11.770
Hall, T. M., Robinson, K. W., Fujinawa, O., et al. (2008). Intertester reliability and diagnostic validity of the cervical flexion-rotation test. Journal of Manipulative and Physiological Therapeutics, 31(4), 293–300. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmpt.2008.03.007
Uriarte, M. (2004). MyoKinesthetic system upper body training manual. MyoKinesthetic Institute.
Moy, B. (2015). Case study detail – The MyoKinesthetic Institute (MYK). MyoKinesthetic Institute. Retrieved August 18, 2021, from https://www.myokinesthetic.com/case-studies/the-treatment-of-c8-with-manual-therapy
Houts, C. R., Wirth, R. J., McGinley, J. S., et al. (2020). Determining thresholds for meaningful change for the Headache Impact Test (HIT‐6) total and item‐specific scores in chronic migraine. Headache: The Journal of Head and Face Pain, 60(10), 2003–2013. https://doi.org/10.1111/head.13950
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Norkin, C. C., White, D. J., Torres, J., et al. (2016). Measurement of joint motion: A guide to goniometry (5th ed.). F.A. Davis Company.

APPENDIX

Table 3

MYK Postural Assessment (pre/post)

Table 4

Patient Reported Outcomes

	NDI		HIT-6		NPRS
ASSESSMENT	Score	Ranking	Score	Ranking	Pre- Score	Post- Score	Mean of Raw
Initial	14/50	Mild	58	Substantial	4	3	3.75
Discharge	15/50	Moderate	54	Some	7	5	4
Mean	_	_	57.6	Substantial	–	–	–
30-Day	8	Mild	46	Little to no impact	–	–	0
60-Day	5	Mild	38	Little to no impact	–	–	.666

Table 5

Goniometric measurement mean normative data for cervical range of motion taken from Norkin et al.

Cervical Range of Motion
Movement	Normative Data	Pre-treatment	Post-treatment (change)	30-Day Follow Up	60-Day Follow Up
Flexion	40° ± 12	45°	40° (-5°)	47.3°	46°
Extension	50° ± 14	53°	60° (7°)	41.6°	37°
Left Rotation	49° ± 9	53°	54.6° (1.6°)	55.6°	51°
Right Rotation	51° ± 11	60°	61.6° (1.6°)	58.6°	62°

Troy Palmer2025-10-08T12:16:04-05:00April 15th, 2026|Concussions, General, Research, Sports Health & Fitness, Sports Medicine|Comments Off

Fundraising in Sports: A case study

Author: Francisco J. Quevedo¹

Corresponding Author:

Francisco J. Quevedo

72 Maple Street

Watchung, NJ, 07069

[email protected]

929-208-5289

¹Department of Marketing, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Newark, NJ

Dr. Quevedo is an Assistant Professor of Marketing at Rutgers University. A UMass Amherst ’78 graduate, he got his doctorate, MBA, and CAGSB at Pace University. He taught there, and at NYU before joining Rutgers full-time in 2020. He worked corporate and developed his family’s businesses in insurance, tourism, sports, and agriculture for 33 years until returning to academia. He has taught college for 15 years and done consulting for Fortune 100 firms, NGOs, and governments in nine countries. He has worked with nonprofits for 20 years. He researches brand management and nonprofit marketing, publishing 12 articles and chapters since 2019. He received an Award for Teaching Innovation in 2023 and coordinates the CM3A consulting center at Rutgers.

ABSTRACT

Nonprofits in general long for fundraising guidance, market and donor research, and strategic planning support from academia. Within this sector, US amateur sports could represent a $60.5 billion segment, which receives but a small portion of total donations. To help close the gap, this paper presents a case study that can serve as a model to optimize nonprofit performance based on an amateur sports organization, which combines three related studies: a time-series analysis of nonprofits in the US showing that revenues depend largely on awareness and income, and points to the need to choose the right target and put the message out to raise funds; a donor survey which showed that, individually, decisions to give are based mostly on pride, pity, PR, personal interest, and pleasure, and points to the need to craft the right appeal; and a cross-sectional, six-country analysis of a proposed structure and processes that represents the underlying theory for this paper, which showed how networking, fiscal leveraging, and a coherent narrative, supported by the proper strategy and organization, generate external influence and revenues, thus emphasizing the need to follow proper procedure to achieve the desired results. A deep dive into the scientific literature sets the stage to analyze 17 years of experience in the WSKF Sports Foundation, part of a worldwide organization that spans over 110 countries and a million members, and raised up to $3.3 million at its peak in 2015, winning 266 world medals between 2007 and 2017, thereby providing a blueprint for fundraising in sports that can extend to most nonprofit organizations.

Key Words: sponsorship, strategy, process, model, medals, nonprofit, WSKF, foundation

INTRODUCTION

This paper points to the most pressing needs of nonprofit organizations. An unpublished survey of the Center for Marketing Advantage, Advancement, and Action of Rutgers University, working with the membership of the NJ Center for Nonprofits, pinpointed the demands of private foundations; fundraising, marketing and donor research stand out as the most urgent requirements of NGOs, followed by specifics like digital marketing and communications, market research, and strategic planning. Tracking 17 years of nonprofit research and amateur sports experience, we aim to present a tested and proven model to optimize nonprofit performance with the support of three specific research studies and a wide search of the literature.

The proposed model is supported by a cross-sectional test of Koschmann, Khun & Pfaerrer’s theory (23) done by Quevedo (33), a time series analysis of the US nonprofit sector by Quevedo & Quevedo-Prince (36), and a national survey that studied the driving motives to donate by Quevedo and Lee (35), which extended prior research by Quevedo and Gopalakrishna (34) on consumer preferences applying them in the nonprofit field.

The WSKF Venezuela Sports Foundation, part of a Japanese karate federation, the World Shotokan Karate-do Federation, that spans over 20,000 clubs and over a million members in more than 100 countries, served as the basis for a six-country analysis that showed how networking, leveraging, and a coherent narrative, deployed on the shoulders of the proper strategy, organization and processes, generate external influence (press coverage and lobbying power), and lead to substantially more revenues for the organization.

These studies and experiences showed that choosing the right target, designing the right appeal, and following the right approach, strategy and processes, will boost press coverage and drive fundraising. It is not just about saying and doing the right things, nonprofits must do the right things correctly.

A key paradox in amateur sports is whether funding follows medals or medals follow funding. In the case of the WSKF Sports Foundation, winning seemed to be the key to fundraising. Winning in one championship leveraged the next championship cycle. Looking at other causes, however, we must ask, should they generate social benefits to raise funds or raise funds to generate benefits? This chicken-and-the-egg paradox (Illustration 1) is paramount in sports, since medals increase media coverage and provide bragging rights to get more funds, but then funds, and training of course, are the means to get those medals, but it may not be necessarily true in other scenarios.

Illustration # 1: Medals and Funds – A Virtuous Circle in Amateur Sports

BACKGROUND

The youth and amateur sports industry is booming. The sector’s direct spending impact was valued at $39.7 billion in 2021, says a Sports ETA’s industry report signed by Clement (6). Wintergreen Research predicted that this market would grow at a compound annual growth rate of 8.9% until 2028. The NCAA generated a record $1.22 billion of revenue in 2022 from March Madness ticket sales, merchandise and television broadcast rights. Indeed, CBS and Turner Sports will pay the NCAA up to $19.6 billion over a 22-year contract term said Morones (31). These elements can add up to a $41 billion industry which depends in good part on fundraising to survive. However, sports are but a minuscule part of the philanthropic market and dynamics, so small that they do not make the charts. Certainly, more research support is needed to develop the sector. Unfortunately, marketing literature is unable to provide meaningful guidance because scant research attention has hampered a fuller understanding of why people help, as Bendapudi, Singh & Bendapudi found (2).

Chart 1: Nonprofit Revenues in the US

The professional sports market on the other hand is projected to reach close to $85 billion this year and that may not consider royalties for branded sports clothing and memorabilia according to Statista (39). Based on these figures, we could be looking at an umbrella sports market of $126 billion in the US alone, and perhaps as much as $500 billion worldwide by extrapolation (based on US vs. world GDP).

METHODS

Sargeant and Shang (2010) emphasized that the need for a comprehensive model for fundraising has never been greater (37). Accordingly, we aim to provide a blueprint for funding amateur sports based on both theory and practice, leaning on three specific research studies, a deep dive into the scientific literature, and 17 years of successful fundraising experience with the WSKF Venezuela Sports Foundation, and 20 years of foundational work overall. Furthermore, we aimed to answer the question “will the right target and message, the right appeal and the right approach drive fundraising success, or do we need credentials and credibility upfront to attract sponsors?”

Illustration # 2: Kushman’s et al (2012) Model for Nonprofits

The WSKF Venezuela Sports Foundation raised up to $3.3 million (at the official rate of exchange) in its peak year, 2015, when its national team won 66 world medals in Tokyo, and received 73 press mentions which reverberated throughout the web internationally. These results speak for themselves. Its model was in use since 2008, and was replicated in Japan, the US, Canada, Panama, Spain, Ireland and other countries where the organization is present. A cross-sectional study, covering six countries, tested how much a gap in the execution of the appropriate model will affect fundraising results.

Data Analyses

Statistical analyses were performed using SPSS version 29.0.2.0 (IBM). Multiple regression was combined with factor analysis in the time series modeling of the US nonprofit sector. Pearson correlation coefficients were calculated, as were the significance and p-values once the best fitting variables were identified. The donor decision model was determined through multinomial logistic regression, considering the extensive use of categorical variables. Cronbach’s alpha, Pseudo-R²coefficients, significance and Chi-square values were calculated as well. Compare means was used in the cross-sectional analysis of six countries represented in the WSKF Sports Foundation to validate variations in their results.

Prior Research Studies

Traditionally, the largest source of charitable giving in the US are individuals, not corporations, with $268.28 billion in donations which represent 71% of total giving, followed by foundations ($57.19 billion or 16%), bequests ($28.72 billion or 9%), and corporations ($18.46 billion or 5%). The average annual household contribution to nonprofits stood at $2,974, according to Statista (42). The majority of charitable dollars go to churches (32%), schools and colleges (15%), human services (12%), grant-making foundations (11%), and hospitals in general (8%). Sports does not make the Top 5 in this report.

List says that the nonprofit market revolves around three major players: (1) the donors, who provide the resources to charities. These can be corporations, public institutions, individuals, and non-government organizations (NGOs); (2) charitable organizations, which attract and allocate resources; and (3) the government, which decides on the fiscal framework for individual, corporate and NGO contributions, shapes the supply of grants to the various charities, and decides which public goods it will provide directly (28).

This proposal feeds from three research studies and 17 years of fundraising experience with the WSKF Sports Foundation. First, a predictive model of the US Nonprofit Sector based on time-series analysis showed that Nonprofit Revenues (NPR) depend largely on Public Awareness, as measured by TV coverage, and on Disposable Personal Income (DPI), specifically: NPR = – 4401.542 + 528.327(DPI) +23.121(TV Coverage) + Ɛ (36). Pearson’s R came up to 0.935, significance levels were at 0.001. Confirmatory Factor Analysis reaffirmed the fit of the equation, with an R² of 0.87. These findings indicate that nonprofits must first choose their targets well. Then fundraisers must put the message out, if they wish to get funds.

The question is “what should nonprofits say?” The second reference comes from a survey of 615 respondents, using their alma mater, the ASPCA, St. Jude’s Hospital for Children, a local homeless shelter, and their church as references; considering pride, pity, PR, personal interest, and pleasure as the driving motives, testing which appeal worked best to communicate a Nonprofit Organization’s message to generate funds. These were called “The 5-Ps of Fundraising” (35). Based on the pseudo-R²coefficients generated by Multinomial Logistic Regression, the model reflected a predictive ability of 49.7%. All criteria were statistically significant. The pleasure of giving was the strongest driver, coming out as an underlying motivator in the donating decision. Different social causes respond differently to alternate fundraising appeals, therefore, determining which appeal works best is key to success. Ignoring the key drivers in the decision to donate may lead to being both ineffective and inefficient. These findings tell fundraisers how to craft the right appeal.

The third study would show how to deliver the right appeal to the right target, and how to operate a nonprofit organization successfully. Looking into the literature, Curry, Rodin and Carlson proposed that organizations that operate on transformational approaches to fundraising have fared significantly better than those which operate on a more transactional basis, and that the greater physical proximity of the donor base of an organization would positively impact fundraising (7). Wallace said that predictive modeling has concentrated on big-donor analytics, largely aimed at the identification of potential donors (43). Nonetheless, Koschman et al. (23) presented a more detailed model for optimizing the performance of Nonprofit Organizations (Illustration 2), which in hindsight, was being used by the organization under study years before it was published. Their model became thereby the underlying theory for this case study.

Indeed, Harris says that case analysis is a valid learning tool for research in fundraising for sports (15). Accordingly, we tested the Koschman et al. (23) model on the WSKF Venezuela Sports Foundation, part of a Japanese federation that spans over 20,000 clubs and more than one million members in more than 100 countries throughout all the continents except Antarctica, using six countries (the US, Panama, Spain, Ireland, Canada, and Venezuela) to find cross sectional illustrations of how the “meaningful participation” of members, the “centripetal forces” generated by the organization and its environment, and the consolidation of an institutional image through a “coherent narrative,” worked on the basis of “authoritative texts,” to use the original labels (23), generated “external influences” and led to substantially more revenues for the organization (33). These findings in sum tell fundraisers to follow proper procedure, a solid strategy, detailed plans and professional processes to achieve the desired results, given the choice of the right target and an appropriate message and appeal.

Although a better understanding of nonprofit dynamics and of the factors that affect fundraising efficiency is essential to charity managers, policy makers, and private donors, research has focused more on the micro than the macro view, says Yi (46), and not quite on the “how to” of organizational performance. Guy and Patton say that nonprofit marketing should begin with a basic understanding of motivations and donor behavior rather than merely adopting prefabricated marketing techniques (14). Sure enough, to be competitive, charitable organizations must rely on carefully formulated promotional programs, but there is an urgent need for research to identify the prevalence and effectiveness of different messages, according to Leonhardt and Peterson (27), who add that more than 55% of all NGOs appeal to selfless consumer motives (i.e., altruism), which is appropriate. However, an important experiment revealed that appealing to more selfless vs. less selfless (i.e., reputation) motives results in consumers having a more favorable attitude toward the charitable organization. So, there is more to donating than just the desire to help, and there is more to fundraising than just asking for money to those who have it. Consumer involvement, for instance, is found to have an important effect on the decision to donate; selfless appeals promote a more positive attitude among consumers with low involvement, but not for those with high involvement with a charitable cause (e.g., animal welfare).

Furthermore, Cao found that psychological involvement with charities affects donation intentions; seeing a picture of a sad vs. a happy person increased intentions to give among participants with lower levels of psychological involvement, whereas the reverse was true for highly involved participants (3), hence the importance for NGOs and CSR executives to understand the nature and behavioral context of their operations. Huber, Van Boven, & McGraw combine what they call the internal and external influences on donor behavior (18), pointing in the direction of this paper and related research. Donor behavior has been disaggregated by researchers like Fajardo, Townsend, and Bolander into two components: donation choice and donation amount. Donor-related appeals have a greater effect on choice, while organization-related appeals have a greater effect on the amount pledged or donated. This could lead one to conclude that presenting both types of appeals in a solicitation is ideal (10).

On an individual level, the vast majority of donors are enthusiastic and positive about the organizations they give to, and about charities in general says Wooden (45). Leonhardt says that people give money to feel the “glow” associated with being the kind of person who helps a worthy cause (26). Kemp, Kennett-Hensel, and Kees studied emotions like pride and pity in charitable appeals, focusing on sex and gender as potential emotional collateral variables (21). Utility-based models that focus on the effects of lifetime, recency, seasonality, and appeals also show that fundraising attempts should emphasize commitment rather than amount, as stated by Kim, Gupta, and Lee, (22). Sectorial research by Kamatham, Pahwa, Jiang and Kumar focused on education’s 75% success rate studied how different appeals affect fundraising; sophistication of the appeal has a positive effect on fundraising and the amount donated. Providing information on the state of a project has a positive effect on donations, corroborating reinforcement models of donor behavior; individuals share a burden when supporting charitable causes and donate at least as much as the minimum donated (20). At the strategic level, Krug and Weinberg’s Merit Axis Model links the mission of the organization, the money raised, and merit as a standard for nonprofit management (24). Pride, pleasure, and personal interest were linked by Third to the legacy effect in the college and universities context, pointing to relational fundraising and the application of CRM to nonprofit marketing (41). A unified conceptual, behavioral, and econometric framework for optimal fundraising can combine approaches from Economics, Marketing, Psychology, and Sociology, said Haruvy, Popkowski, Leszczyc, Allenby, Belk, Eckel, Fisher, Li, Ma, Wang, and List (16), which is the intention of this paper, considering the need for developing a comprehensive model of giving behavior and nonprofit organization performance.

Although the marketization of nonprofit activities, given by the introduction of marketing practices like sales of POP and different goods and services, competing for consulting contracts, donor relations management (the philanthropic version of CRM), and social entrepreneurship has drawn criticism, according to Eikenberry and Drapal (8), fierce competition for funds and a tighter economy have given rise to innovative fundraising methods like web-based crowdfunding and what is called Cause Related Marketing or CRAM by Chaney and Dolli (5).

Little research has been published about the perhaps circular correlation between medals and funds raised. Slater’s study relates medals and press coverage (38) which in turn supports fundraising. A cross-sectional study covering Belgium, Finland, Japan, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom by Funahashi, Shibli, Sotiriadou, Mäkinen, Dijk, and De Bosscher relates funding with sporting success (12), which seems logical. Funds allow athletes and teams to train and eat, even to rest properly, and of course to compete and classify, thereby increasing their chances of success in top-tier events. Another report by Hogan and Norton, published through the National Institutes of Health found a high direct correlation between medals and funds (17). Although correlation does not imply causation, definitely the more funds, the more medals (and vice-versa, we would add).

Fundraising will continue to be vital for sports programs and facilities to operate. However, the climate for fundraising has become more competitive as more organizations chase the same discretionary dollars, and donors become more demanding. In order to cope, fundraisers will need to readjust their strategies. Fundraisers must understand all fundraising-related elements such as the event’s purpose, target markets and donors, and methods and strategies to be employed, said a 1996 editorial in the Journal of Social Marketing. Indeed, Stier and Schneider claim that fundraising is one of the major responsibilities of sport managers in the 21st century (40).

The Case of the WSKF Sports Foundation

As mentioned, prior research showed that the secret to fundraising success lies on selecting the right target and getting the message out there (36), based on the right appeal (35), to set in motion the most effective model of nonprofit performance (33). Indeed, Koschmann et al. (23) suggested that a proper combination of networking, leveraging and communication, based on a clear strategy, and following well-targeted processes, will generate optimal press coverage and influence, and -of course- funds.

Illustration # 3: The Winning Strategy

At the WSKF Venezuela Sports Foundation, applying the Koschmann et al. (23) model, something it did four years before it was ever published, meant (1^st) leaning on the athletes and their parents to network and target corporations to gain access to their Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) programs, (2^nd) leveraging fundraising efforts on the Law for the Development of Sports which created a 0.5% sports tax on profits and allowed corporations to channel half of that directly to projects accredited by the Ministry of Sports, and (3^rd) appealing to pride and PR interests, considering that Charity Sport Event (CSE) fundraisers are often confronted by the donors’ lack of interest, even though those events can provide participants with a meaningful experience, as stated by Filo, Fechner and Inoue (11). The message was carried by a top-of-the-line institutional DVD presentation, a quarterly newsletter, a website, direct and digital marketing efforts, and through an aggressive media management strategy that used timely press-releases, many of them sent from Tokyo, the common championship site, to gain immediate exposure.

This strategy, born out of a Shihan-kai meeting in Cyprus in 2010, blended well with Kaplan and Norton’s (19) map format, which kicks off from an organization that strove to muster the support of parents, athletes, and instructors to execute the fundraising process, by reaching out to the right target with the proper appeal and press support, and achieve the desired financial results, as seen on Illustration 3. The leading KPIs (Key Performance Indicators) were medals won and funds raised primarily, but press coverage was extremely important for fundraising, since it reinforced the pride and PR appeal, as were the dimensions of the donors’ database. Donor relationship management leaned on the newsletter, BUDOtips, and as many as 73 media mentions per championship cycle.

The fundraising process was detailed, starting with the identification of all possible sources of funds, since it is not all about sponsorship. Indeed, McKeever and Pettijohn stressed that nonprofit organizations derive half of their revenues quid-pro-quo (30), as Graph 1 shows; in terms of sports organizations, this 50% may come from ticket sales, broadcasting rights, advertising, memorabilia and fees charged, among other internal sources. Additional funding may come from government or NGO grants, private and corporate donors, even multilaterals; depending on a single source is myopic as Levitt (25) would most likely define it. Accordingly, the first question that nonprofit managers must ask themselves is “are we doing the things we need to do to get money, or should we be getting money for the things we do?” Some nonprofits miss this benchmarking and go straight to asking for donations without considering the monetization of things that they can do or sell to generate funds. In case of WSKF, this meant monthly fees, sales of sporting goods and memorabilia, special training sessions, and events like national and regional championships.

Chart 3: Structure of Nonprofit Revenues

Based on a clear understanding of nonprofit market dynamics and the supply of funds, and considering the Sports Law, corporate and government targets were identified, and a unique appeal was tailored for each segment. The operational planning began when all decisions had been made and defined, otherwise it could have turned into a map without destination. The organization would pursue its financial objectives through traditional fundraising means, grants, events, and crowdfunding. The technical arm, the WSKF organization, would be the one to charge fees and hold events, collecting money from attendance and participation, under foundational guidelines.

Illustration # 4: The WSKF Fundraising Process

A growing database of corporate donors was informed and nurtured with a newsletter called BUDOtips which circulated throughout the organization. A survey of athletes, parents, and instructors generated the structure of the magazine which was then tested against donors’ expectations. Four sections were created: “Budo,” dealing with principles, for the parents who sought discipline and principles for their children, and who represented over two-thirds of the membership; “Technique” for the athletes who wanted to improve their performance; “Management” for the instructors who wanted to run their clubs profitably; and “News” for the donors and for everyone; the Editorial was just an introduction and an invitation to read, as seen on the cover page below.

Illustration # 5: The WSKF Newsletter

The results of these concerted efforts were evident. Formal fundraising began after a lack of funding left the 2005 championship cycle dry. 14 medals were won in 2007. The WSKF Venezuela Sports Foundation was created in 2008, leading to 24 world medals in Tokyo the following year. As the organization learned and matured, the medal count skyrocketed to record-breaking numbers, 50 in 2011, 42 in 2013, a record-breaking 66 in 2015, and 60 in the following cycle, 2017. Eight medals were won by a small team in the World Cup held in Cyprus in 2010. Winning led to press coverage which peaked at 73 TV, newspaper, radio and digital mentions in 2015, which reverberated throughout the web, nationally and internationally.

Chart 4: The WSKF Venezuela Medal Count

rage of 158 days younger than those athletes who win bronze medals. Together, these results suggest that the results are generally consistent across males and females as well as Summer and Winter Games.

DISCUSSION

The predictive model points fundraising and communicational efforts toward deep pockets (36), which implies choosing the right target and putting out the most appropriate message; research into donor choice (35) leads to crafting the right appeal to carry that message; and testing Koschmann et al.’s communicative framework (23, 33) guides nonprofits to follow the right strategy and proper processes, supported on networking, leveraging on legal and fiscal incentives, and on the proper media strategy. Indeed, the strategy of the WSKF Sports Foundation, knowingly or not, and ahead of its time, blended these three theories and put them into practice, combining this theoretical framework with the Kaplan and Norton’s (19) strategy map format by adapting the organizational perspective to create a network of athletes and parents to reach out to corporate donors, crafting fundraising and sports operations to leverage on the Law for the Development of Sports, and fitting the customer perspective to the media strategy, and vice-versa. The financial perspective was led by the Balanced Score Card with metrics like revenues and average sponsorship level per athlete. The Strategy Map represented in and of itself a vital authoritative paper, along with the fundraising process flowchart. Moreover, it added an interesting twist, using world championship success and feedback to fuel fundraising, as medals triggered press coverage which in turn attracted sponsors, and then their sponsorship allowed the teams and athletes to train, compete and win more medals. This created a virtuous cycle. To feed the flame, the Foundation added reverberance by hosting a “Dinner with the Champs” upon returning from Tokyo, where the press and the donors would share photo-ops with the athletes in their colors and with their medals, while receiving plaques for their support, which added more press coverage and PR opportunities.

The Foundation continued to multiply its branding efforts by adding non-sports philanthropy to its credentials, networking with several organizations like Mayor’s Offices, corporate programs (CSR), and private foundations to help the needy, thereby positioning its brand at a national level and squeezing the most out of the athletes’ medals’ appeal (Illustration 6). Again, this added more press coverage. Indeed, the WSKF Venezuela Sports Foundation showed that theory, when put into practice, gets the most out of the strategy.

CONCLUSIONS

Theory says choose your target well, craft the right appeal, and execute the right strategy correctly, following proper procedure, through a well laid out fundraising process. Strategizing will require a detailed situational analysis and brainstorm, blending the theory and the best practices into your initiatives. Choose your KPIs well; funds, medals, or outside of sports, social impact, and press coverage should be the strongest drivers; medals add leverage, they lead to press coverage, press coverage attracts sponsors and triggers pride and PR opportunities; and sponsorship allows athletes to train and participate in world events, which leads to medals, as the virtuous cycle makes another rotation. Be relentless and thorough in the execution of the strategy; and whenever and wherever possible, widen your networking circles. The more, the merrier!

Limitations and Further Research

Although the Pearson coefficient of the first study is outstanding, the donor choice research could use additional criteria like peer influence and personal commitment with the social cause to increase its predictive ability. This would make it “The 7-Ps of Fundraising” and should raise the model’s pseudo-R². The cross-sectional study is pretty straightforward, but it also showed that not every country has such a favorable fiscal framework for sports as Venezuela, which enacted legislation that taxes corporate earnings to fund the development of sports. They finance the construction of sports complexes, sporting events, and national team competitions, both nationally and internationally. Corporate donors can channel one half of that tax directly to accredited projects; this benefits the leveraging aspect of Koschmann et al.’s model (23). Nonetheless, there are always tax incentives and breaks for donors and fundraisers in just about every country we analyzed; in the end, what donors are looking for are meaningful projects that are properly organized and well presented. Credibility is a must, and feelings and appearances matter.

It should be also mentioned that the Venezuelan socio-economic and political situation today may not be conducive to achieving the same 2007 ⎯ 2017 results that were analyzed here. Funding has been politicized, the economy has shrunk 80%, and the exchange rate has gone from Bs. 10 per US dollar, in August 2018, to Bs. 119,144,000,000,000 or 119.14 today, after the regime erased eleven zeroes from the currency to hide the mega-devaluation and hyper-inflation.

APPLICATIONS IN SPORT

Rarely has a combination of theory and practice been put together to recommend fundraisers how to balance strategy and operations; not one or two but three research studies support this paper; 20 years of foundational experience leverage them; raising up to $3.3 million a year in funds and winning 266 world medals in 10 years prove it right; an organization spanning over 110 countries and over one million members, make this a unique learning opportunity. The underlying theoretical model calls for networking among people and organizations, leveraging on legal and fiscal incentives, and communicating the right message to the right target, working on the shoulders of a clear strategy, a lean and mean organization, and a consistent fundraising process, to generate press coverage and lobbying power, and ⎯ultimately⎯ funds. The theory says choose wisely, and indeed strategy is all about choice: identify the right target, craft the right appeal, and do the right things correctly, which demands a fine-tuned organization and processes.

Now, to the question, “do we need to win medals to raise funds or raise funds to win medals?” Well, yes, credentials help fundraisers win support but in the absence of medals, the operational model and the right choices should cast a net that is wide enough to generate revenues and attract volunteers, but in the absence of results, in startup nonprofits, the founders’ accolades, and networks, can help. But appearances matter, that is why the WSKF Sports Foundation leaned on its website, a top-of-the-line DVD presentation, and its newsletter, all of which seemed bigger than life, to reach the target before the medal count skyrocketed and a virtuous cycle was created. Momentum did the rest.

It is important to remember that one half of nonprofit revenues are quid-pro-quo, coming from things nonprofit organizations do or sell (see Graph # 1). Hospitals recover medical costs, universities charge tuition, and the WSKF Sports Foundation collected fees from its membership. Income cannot depend solely on donations or grants. Nonprofits must make an effort to add to their revenue streams by monetizing their activities, something not always remembered, as our consulting efforts at Rutgers University have shown us. Private foundations struggle with lack of resources and specialized skills, but solutions are at an arm’s length.

Social Implications

The Nonprofit Sector in general, which represents 5.4% of the US economy, can benefit from strategies that are supported by data and research, plus decades of fundraising experience at the same time. Amateur sports fundraising in particular, a $60 billion industry, can surely profit from a fresh perspective.

Eather, Wade, Pankowiak, et al.’s research suggests that community sports programs, supported by fundraising, can significantly enhance social capital and promote social cohesion by increasing trust, improving social networks, and fostering a stronger sense of community amongst participants, providing opportunities for community members –athletes, coaches, volunteers, and supporters– to interact, build relationships, and develop a shared identity (8)

Supporting fundraising in amateur sports through scientific research goes beyond securing financial resources. It fosters community spirit, enhances social connections, and provides numerous positive social and psychological benefits for both participants and volunteers. These benefits contribute to stronger, healthier, and more cohesive communities says Wheatley (44). Ultimately, if the nonprofit sector does indeed pick up the slack of governmental failure, Matsunaga and Yamauchi’s theory (29), then anything that benefits philanthropy will benefit society as a whole.

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Troy Palmer2025-09-10T15:45:29-05:00January 21st, 2026|General, Olympics, Research, Sports Management, Sports Studies|Comments Off

Relationship Between the National Football League (NFL) Combine Measurables and Playing Time in the 2024 NFL Rookie Class

Authors: Greg A. Ryan, Kevin Harvey, Elijah Campbell, Mark Shoebridge, Landon Overby, Joshua Sauer, & Robert L. Herron

Corresponding Author:

Robert L. Herron, Ed.D., CSCS*D, ACSM-RCEP

75 College Drive

Montevallo, AL 35115

[email protected]

205-665-6118

Authors’ Affiliation: College of Health Professions, Department of Nursing & Health Sciences, University of Montevallo, Montevallo, AL, USA.

ABSTRACT

Purpose: This study investigated the relationship between anthropometric and performance measures collected at the 2024 National Football League (NFL) Combine and playing time (PT) during the 2024 NFL regular season. Methods: Data from four anthropometric (Body Mass Index; Hand Size; Arm Length; Wingspan) and seven performance tests (40-yard Dash; 10-yard Split; Vertical Jump; Broad Jump; 3-Cone Drill; 20-Yard Shuttle; 225lb Bench Press) of 315 players were standardized into average Anthropometric Z-Scores (AZ), Performance Z-Scores (PZ) and Total Z-Scores (TZ) for analyses. PT was calculated as a player’s total number of regular season snaps during their 2024 rookie season. Pearson correlations were used to investigate the relationships (α = 0.05) between AZ, PZ, and TZ to PT. Players were also analyzed for potential relationships within each position group. Results: A significant, weak, positive correlation existed between PZ and PT (r = 0.19, p < 0.01) and TZ and PT (r = 0.20, p < 0.01) for all players. No relationship existed for AZ and PT (r = 0.02; p = 0.73). Additionally, significant relationships existed among: Offensive Line – PZ and PT (r = 0.33, p = 0.01) and TZ and PT (r = 0.35, p < 0.01); Wide Receiver – PZ and PT (r = 0.39, p = 0.03) and TZ and PT (r = 0.46, p < 0.01); Linebacker – TZ and PT (r = 0.39, p = 0.05). Conclusions: NFL Combine performance metrics may provide insight on PT, but anthropometric measurables were not related to PT. The lack of relationship within position groups indicates the NFL Combine may not be valuable in evaluating a rookie’s success on the field. Applications in Sport: Professionals who work with prospects may choose to train Combine specific techniques to maximize a prospect’s chances of playing in the NFL. However, individualized training that focuses on position specific demands or weaknesses that are not directly measured by NFL Combine tests may be more useful in increasing PT. The NFL Combine may be a useful supplement to all factors that go into an NFL team’s decision to draft a player.

Key Words: performance testing, predictive analytics, scouting, correlational analysis, American football

INTRODUCTION

The National Football League (NFL) hosts an annual Scouting Combine in Indianapolis, Indiana of elite college football players. Only about 3% of college football players are invited to the NFL Combine and therefore represent those with the highest chance of being drafted into the NFL (4). The purpose of the NFL Combine is to allow coaches, scouts, and other team personnel representing the 32 NFL teams the opportunity to assess hundreds of players from all divisions of collegiate football.

Football has position-specific skills that are needed to excel at the highest level. However, there are similarities between each position. All positions need vertical and horizontal power, agility, and strength. During this weeklong event, players participate in a multitude of tests. These tests include anthropometric measurements (Height; Weight; Wingspan; Arm Length; Hand Size) and performance tests (40-yard dash; 10-yard split; Vertical Jump; Broad Jump; 3 Cone Drill; 20 Yard Shuttle; 225lb Bench Press). All the events in the NFL Combine have been shown to have face validity (4). NFL player personnel departments use the NFL Combine data as part of their criteria to determine whether to select a player in the upcoming NFL Draft.

While the NFL Combine tests are designed to determine that aptitude to play at the next level, research is conflicted on the ultimate usefulness of the NFL Combine in determining player performance and playing time (PT). Kuzmits and Adams (4) found no consistent significant relationship between NFL Combine tests and player performance during the years of 1999 to 2004. Research also noted that the NFL Combine from 2013 to 2015 lacked the ability to predict game performance when specifically analyzing first year game performance (3). Teramoto, Cross, and Willick (12) looked at whether the NFL Combine could predict future performance of Running Backs (RB) and Wide Receivers (WR). The results of this study were that the time on 10-yard split was the most important predictor of yards per attempt for RB while vertical jump was significantly associated with receiving yards per reception for WR. However, the measures cannot explain a large part of the variance in the future performance of RBs and WRs. Vincent et al. (15) looked at NFL Combine participants from 2005 to 2010 who then played in the NFL. Significant relationships were found between at least one NFL Combine measure and on-field success. Even though significant relationships were found the authors stated that the NFL Combine tests are only modest predictors of future performance. More recently, investigation of six physical skill tests at the NFL Combine to try and predict draft placement in the 2022 NFL Draft and showed no significant difference between drafted and nondrafted players in any of the six physical tests analyzed (14).

LaPlaca and McCullick (5) built on previous research looked at player performance from the years 2006 to 2018 and compared it to the NFL Combine from 2006 to 2016. They found that every position group, both offensive and defensive, had at least one NFL Combine test that was significantly correlated with player performance. The study made sure to disclose that even though they found significant correlations, the large sample size made it easier to find weaker correlations. A limitation that was discussed was that while the authors did use objective performance statistics such as Touchdowns scored, they also used a grading system through Pro Football Focus to determine player performance. This grading system was not purely objective because the grades are determined by multiple reviewers through the observation of game film. Therefore, the overall performance of each player was not entirely objective. Additionally, a robust study by Frank and colleagues (2) analyzed 20 years (2000-2018) of NFL Combine data and noted that for offensive positions, single measures often best predicted success, while various combinations of NFL Combine performance traits predicted success among defensive players. This study also suggested that NFL Combine data is best used in conjunction with scouting and personnel departments to supplement NFL draft decision making. Similarly, research was conducted looking at the impact of the NFL Combine on five-year performance data from the 2013-2017 NFL seasons and concluded that the NFL Combine lacked predictive ability during that timeframe (1). While historical research does exist in this field, each year provides another opportunity to determine the NFL Combine’s effectiveness in predicting success. Additionally, limited research exists discussing the relationship between NFL Combine Measurables and PT for first-year players. The primary purpose of this study was to determine if the anthropometric and performance measures of the athletes invited to the 2024 NFL Combine were related to PT during the 2024 NFL regular season.

METHODS

Participants

Participants for the data analysis in this study were college football players that participated in the 2024 NFL Combine (N = 315). Participants were also grouped by position for use of positional comparisons (Offensive Line [OL] (N = 70); Defensive Back [DB] (N = 67); Defensive Line [DL] (N = 50); Running Back [RB] (N = 29); Linebacker [LB] (N = 30); Quarterback [QB] (N = 14); Tight End [TE] (N = 16); Wide Receiver [WR] (N = 39)). All player positions were input based off their official designation at the time of the NFL Combine. Due to limited sample size (N = 6) and variations in specializations, NFL Combine athletes who were labeled Specialist (Kicker, Punter, Long Snapper) were excluded from analyses.

Procedures

Four anthropometric (Body Mass Index [BMI]; Hand Size; Arm Length; Wingspan) and seven performance measures (40-yard Dash; 10-yard Split; Vertical Jump; Broad Jump; 3-Cone Drill; 20-Yard Shuttle; 225lb Bench Press) were analyzed. BMI was calculated by the researchers using Height and Weight measurements taken at the NFL Combine. Full descriptions of the performance tests have been detailed previously by McShay (7).

The data from the NFL Combine was obtained from NFL.com/combine/tracker (8). Each participant’s scores were retrieved for every test that was completed. Standardization of data, via Z-scores, were created for every anthropometric and performance measure. The measures from the NFL Combine were standardized into averages for each player, taking each player’s combined Z-Score score and dividing by the number of NFL Combine events they participated in to account for players who did not complete every NFL Combine event. Standardized averages were created for Anthropometric Z-scores (AZ), consisting of the four anthropometric measures, Performance Z-scores (PZ), consisting of the seven performance measures, and Total Z-scores (TZ), consisting of all 11 NFL Combine measures, for analyses This method of standardization of NFL Combine data into Z-scores for analysis has previously been supported (1).

Once all NFL Combine data was standardized, researchers used Pro-football-reference.com (9) to retrieve offensive, defensive, and special teams snaps for each player during the 2024 NFL regular season. Each player’s total snap count was then combined to provide a single value to determine PT, which was used for analysis. Because of this study only requiring secondary analysis of data which is publicly available on web-based domains, which do not disclose individual’s health information, Institutional Review Board approval was not required, though the study was approved by the research institution.

Data Analyses

Pearson product moment correlations, using Statistical Product and Service Solutions (SPSS, v29.0, IBM Corporation, Armonk, NY), were used to determine the relationship (α = 0.05) between AZ, PZ, TZ to PT. Additionally, players were separated by position and Pearson product moment correlations (α = 0.05) were used to determine potential relationships within each group between AZ, PZ, and TZ, to PT. All data are presented as means ± standard deviation with 95% confidence intervals (95%CI) unless otherwise stated.

RESULTS

Descriptive Statistics

Of the 321 athletes whose data were collected, 315 were used for analysis. A total of six athletes were excluded from analysis due to their position of Specialist (punter, kicker, long snapper) because only anthropometric data was collected on this group. Of the 315 athletes used for analysis, 312 (99%) completed all anthropometric measurements. There was more variability in the performance testing, with 25 (8%) completing all seven performance events, and 263 (83.5%) completing at least one performance event. When broken down by event, 220 (69.8%) completed the 40yd (4.73 ± 0.31s) with a 10yd split (1.63 ± 0.11s), 227 (72.1%) completed the VJ (34.0 ± 4.3in), 220 (69.8%) completed the BJ (117.9 ± 9.0in), 78 (24.8%) completed the 3C (7.30 ± 0.40s), 89 (28.3%) completed the PRO (4.44 ± 0.28s), and 100 (31.8%) completed the BP (21.9 ± 5.6reps). When examining snaps played over the 2024 regular season, 239 (75.9%) players went on to play at least one snap, with 224 (71.1%) averaging more than one snap per game over the course of the season.

Anthropometric Correlation Analysis

The results of the correlation analysis for AZ and PT are presented in Figure 1. Pearson product moment correlation coefficients were calculated for the relationship between average AZ and PT for all players and separated by position group. No significant overall relationship existed for AZ and PT (n = 312; r = 0.02; p = 0.73).

Additionally, no significant relationships existed among position groups: OL (n = 70; r = 0.13; p = 0.29); RB (n = 29; r = 0.21; p = 0.29); WR (n = 37; r = 0.24; p = 0.16); TE (n = 16; r = 0.39; p = 0.14); QB (n = 13; r = 0.02; p = 0.95); DL (n = 50; r = -0.10; p = 0.52); LB (n = 30; r = 0.19; p = 0.33); DB (n = 67; r = -0.02; p = 0.89).

Performance Correlation Analysis

The results of the correlation analysis for PZ and PT are presented in Figure 2. Pearson product moment correlation coefficients were calculated for the relationship between average PZ and PT for all players and separated by position group. A significant, weak, positive correlation existed between PZ and PT (n = 263; r = 0.19, 95%CI [0.07, 0.31]; p < 0.01). The positive direction of this relationship indicates that players who performed better at the NFL Combine played more snaps during the 2024 NFL regular season.

When separated by position groups, significant, positive relationships existed for the following groups: OL (n = 61; r = 0.33, 95%CI [0.09, 0.54]; p = 0.01); WR (n = 34; r = 0.39, 95%CI [0.06, 0.65]; p = 0.03). The positive direction of these relationships indicates that OL and WR who performed better at the NFL Combine accumulated more snaps during the 2024 NFL Regular season. No significant correlations were noted for: RB (n = 25; r = 0.31; p = 0.14); TE (n = 12; r = 0.07; p = 0.15); QB (n = 7; r = -0.39; p = 0.40); DL (n = 43; r = 0.30; p = 0.06); LB (n = 26; r = 0.31; p = 0.13); DB (n = 55; r = -0.02; p = 0.89).

Total Correlation Analysis

The results of the correlation analysis for TZ and PT are presented in Figure 3. Pearson product moment correlation coefficients were calculated for the relationship between average TZ and PT for all players and separated by position group. A significant, weak, positive correlation existed between TZ and PT (r = 0.20, 95%CI [0.08, 0.31]; p < 0.01) for all players. The positive direction of this relationship indicates that players who had higher average TZ scores played more snaps in the 2024 NFL regular season.

When separated by position groups, significant, positive relationships existed for the following groups: OL (n = 61; r = 0.35, 95%CI [0.11, 0.56]; p < 0.01); WR (n = 34; r = 0.46, 95%CI [0.15, 0.69]; p < 0.01); LB (n = 26; r = 0.39, 95%CI [0.01, 0.68]; p = 0.05). The positive direction of these relationships indicates that players in these position groups who had higher average AZ scores played more snaps in the 2024 NFL Regular season. No significant correlations were noted for: RB (n = 25; r = 0.31; p = 0.14); TE (n = 12; r = 0.07; p = 0.85); QB (n = 7; r = -0.24; p = 0.61); DL (n = 43; r = 0.30; p = 0.06); DB (n = 55; r = 0.06; p = 0.70).

Discussion

The main finding of this study is that PZ and TZ may have a weak relationship to PT in a player’s first year in the NFL. There was no relationship between a player’s AZ and subsequent PT across all athletes nor when separated by position group. The study did find a significant weak positive correlation between average PZ and PT for all players. However, when separated by position groups significant, positive relationships existed for OL and WR. Finally, there was a significant weak positive correlation between TZ and PT for all players. When separated by position groups, significant, positive relationships existed for OL, WR, and LB.

There could be many reasons why these relationships exist for WR, LB, and OL. Previous movement analysis research for NFL players by position found that WR had highest in-game velocity and highest total running volume by an offensive position (6). Therefore, the 40-yard dash and 10-yard split may carry more importance among WR. The same study showed that LB had the most high-velocity efforts and high-velocity distance in game compared to all other positions. LB also showed the largest variability across player-games which is likely due to the roles that LB perform which include rushing the QB, play in space and cover offensive players, or primarily to tackle an opponent. Additionally, OL noted a positive relationship in the current study, with better NFL Combine performances leading to more PT. While previous research (11) has noted that OL have worse NFL Combine values compared to other positions, the nature of the OL position may lend itself to more direct relationships from NFL Combine performance, since these athletes require multidirectional power over limited space. The positional findings in the current study do support previous research that noted relationships between NFL Combine performance metrics and PT among WR (40-yard Dash, Vertical Jump), LB (40-yard Dash, 20-yd Shuttle) and OL (20-yard Shuttle, Vertical Jump) (1, 2).

The NFL is not the only sport that uses a combine to test and evaluate future players’ abilities. Teramoto et al. (13), investigated the National Basketball Association (NBA) scouting Combine to determine whether the NBA Combine could predict PT. The study showed that the NBA Combine metrics had minimal correlation with long-term performance. In the NBA, it was found that certain anthropometrics had slightly better predictive power than athletic tests, which contrasts with what researchers found about the 2024 NFL Combine. Both in the NFL and NBA Combine researchers have proposed that performance in college or in game is the biggest predictor of draft position and future performance (11, 13).

There are limitations associated with this study. As reported in the results only 25 (8%) of all prospects completed all seven performance events. Increasingly, players are opting out of some or all the NFL Combine process, due to injury concern, agent decision, recovering from an injury during the season, or to focus on performing well at individual workouts, where more variables can be controlled by that athlete. In the season being analyzed in this study, five of the first six picks in the NFL Draft did not participate in the NFL Combine process, which could impact these findings. A larger, more complete sample from all NFL Combine athletes would comprise a better representation of their athletic performance. Finally, players that played zero snaps their first year due to injury were included in analysis, due to limitations among researchers to determine the extent of every injury or whether a player was not on the field due to injury or coaching decisions. A player that may have had strong AZ, PZ, and TZ scores, but did not play during their rookie season because of injury, which would have impacted the relationship between those variables and PT.

CONCLUSIONS

Many studies have been conducted over the last 20 years to determine if and how NFL Combine measurables can predict performance in the NFL (1-6, 10, 12, 14, 15). These studies have found mostly found minimal relationships overall, though stronger relationships among certain position groups. Despite the general scientific consensus that the NFL Combine is not a strong predictor of future NFL success, a multitude of NFL Combine “prep courses” exist, with athletes paying for training specifically to improve in NFL Combine measurables. There has been scientific skepticism about these courses and their impact on performance at the NFL Combine and its translation to improved draft status or playing time. While these courses claim that they will improve an athlete’s chance of getting drafted, there is currently no scientific evidence to these claims (1, 4, 10). Training programs that focus on a prospect’s position specific demands or individual weaknesses that are not directly measured by NFL Combine tests may be more useful in increasing PT for that athlete. The results of the current study support the previous work in the literature, but do note that some position groups (OL, WR, LB) may benefit by improving NFL Combine-specific performance in the lead up to the NFL Combine and Draft.

APPLICATIONS IN SPORT

The results from the current study suggest PT among NFL rookies during the 2024 regular season could not be strongly predicted with data collected during the NFL Combine. However, due to the relationships that were found, specifically withing certain position groups, it may be important for athletes in those positions to train specifically for those performance tests to have a better chance at playing in their first year. The data can be important for NFL player personnel departments who may use data collected during the NFL Combine to influence drafting decisions. Due to the significant, but variable, nature of the relationships found in the current study, it appears that the NFL Combine may be a useful supplement to scouting, film analysis, interviews, and other factors that go into an NFL team’s decision to draft a player. However, it is apparent that there is more to determining PT during a rookie season than just superlative measurables collected during the NFL Combine.

REFERENCES

Cook, J., Ryan, G. A., Snarr, R. L., & Rossi, S. (2020). The relationship between the National Football League scouting combine and game performance over a 5-year period. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 34(9), 2492–2499. https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0000000000003676
Frank, D., King, M., Dennard, C., & Macnamara, B. (2023). Discriminant function analysis reveals which combination of measures from the NFL scouting combine predict NFL performance. Journal of Expertise.
Hedlund, D. P. (2018). Performance of future elite players at the National Football League scouting combine. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 32(11), 3112–3118. https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0000000000002252
Kuzmits, F. E., & Adams, A. J. (2008). The NFL combine: Does it predict performance in the National Football League? Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 22(6), 1721–1727. https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0b013e318185f09d
LaPlaca, D. A., & McCullick, B. A. (2020). National Football League scouting combine tests correlated to National Football League player performance. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 34(5), 1317–1329. https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0000000000003479
Lyons, B., Hoffman, B., Michel, J., & Williams, K. (2011). On the predictive efficiency of past performance and physical ability: The case of the National Football League. Human Performance, 24(2), 158–172. https://doi.org/10.1080/08959285.2011.555218
McShay, T. (2016, February 27). Todd McShay’s guide to every combine drill. ESPN. http://www.espn.com/espn/feature/story/_/id/14837586/todd-mcshay-guide-every-combine-drill-nfl-draft
NFL.com. (2025). Combine tracker. https://www.nfl.com/combine/tracker
Pro-Football-Reference.com. (2025). Total snaps. https://www.pro-football-reference.com/
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Tucker, R., Lee, C., & Black, W. J. (2024). The predictive ability of the physical skills used at the NFL combine to predict draft status. The Sport Journal, 24.
Vincent, L. M., Blissmer, B. J., & Hatfield, D. L. (2019). National scouting combine scores as performance predictors in the National Football League. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 33(1), 104–111. https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0000000000002937

Troy Palmer2025-09-05T08:46:38-05:00January 7th, 2026|General, Research, Sports Management, Sports Studies|Comments Off

Relative Age Effect Among Olympic Medalists: Evidence from Ten Summer and Winter Olympic Games held between 2000 and 2018

Authors: Christiana E. Hilmer, Michael J. Hilmer¹

Corresponding Author:

Christiana Hilmer, PhD

5500 Campanile Drive

San Diego, CA 92182-4485

[email protected]

619-301-9388

¹Both: Department of Economics, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA

Christiana E. Hilmer, Ph.D., is a Professor of Economics at San Diego State University in San Diego, CA. Her research interests include the economics of sports, applied econometrics, labor economics, and resource and environmental economics.

Michael J. Hilmer, Ph.D., is a Professor of Economics at San Diego State University in San Diego, CA. His research interests include the economics of sports, labor economics, and the economics of education.

ABSTRACT

This study examines the Relative Age Effect (RAE) among 4,453 individual Olympic medalists from ten Olympic Games (five Summer and five Winter) held between 2000 and 2018. We analyze athletes’ birth quarters and ages at the time of competition to assess patterns by gender, event type, and medal outcome. Using descriptive statistics, regression analysis, a Pearson 𝜒2 test, and a logit model, we find that athletes in judged and combat events tend to be younger, while those in skill and endurance events tend to be older. Gold medalists are, on average, younger than bronze medalists and more likely to be born in the first half of the year. These results confirm the presence of RAE at the highest level of sport and suggest that early developmental advantages persist among Olympic medalists. The findings have implications for athlete development systems and elite sport selection criteria.

Key Words: Athlete Development; Birth Quarter; Elite Sport, Logit Analysis, Pearson 𝝌𝟐 test

INTRODUCTION

The Relative Age Effect (RAE) refers to the phenomenon in which individuals born earlier in a selected period, typically a calendar year, tend to benefit from developmental advantages over their younger peers within the same cohort. These advantages may include earlier physical growth, cognitive maturity, and better access to competitive opportunities. This concept was described by Barnsley and Thompson (3) in Canadian youth hockey, where players born in the first half of the year were disproportionately over-represented. RAE has since been documented across various sports, including professional baseball (Thompson, Barnsley, and Stebelsky (14)), elite youth soccer (Glamser and Vincent (7)), youth swimming (Costa et al. (5)) and basketball (Werneck et al. (17)). Extensive empirical evidence over the last three decades has confirmed its presence in multiple athletic and academic domains (Musch and Grondin (11); Patiño et al. (12)). Researchers have also explored alternative approaches to identifying RAEs by comparing athletes’ relative ages at the time of competition (Zetaruk (18) and Longo et al. (10)). Yet little is known about whether RAE endures at the pinnacle of sports performance.

Many past studies have focused on youth and amateur athletes, where selection systems, age-based groupings, and physical maturation exert considerable influence. However, less is known about whether RAE persists at the highest levels of athletic achievement. The Olympic Games, which represent peak international competition, provide a valuable lens to explore whether early developmental advantages have long-term consequences that extend into elite performance.

The Olympic context introduces additional layers of complexity. Events vary widely in physical demands, skill development, and peak performance age. For instance, judged events such as gymnastics and ice skating often feature younger athletes (Zetaruk (18) and Cummins (6)) while skill and endurance events, such as archery, cross-country skiing, and the marathon typically feature older athletes (Longo et al. (10)). Seasonal differences between Summer and Winter Games, and gender specific trajectories, also warrant attention.

Although prior research has examined RAE in Olympic contexts, findings have been mixed. Baker et al. (2) find evidence of the RAE in skiing, snowboarding, and Nordic combined, find no evidence for figure skaters, and report an atypical pattern in gymnastics. Joyner et al. (9) find evidence of RAE across multiple sports but note variation by gender and season. Raschner et al. (13) analyzed data from the first Winter Youth Olympic Games and found evidence of RAE in both genders and across strength, endurance, and technique-related sports. This study differs by focusing exclusively on Olympic medalists – those who reached the highest level in their sport – to determine whether RAE persists not just in participation, but in podium success.

This study analyzes 4,453 individual medalists from ten Olympic games (five Summer and five Winter) between 2000 and 2018. We classify events into six categories (timed, judged, skill, endurance, strength, and combat), and examine both the athletes’ age at the time of competition and their birth quarter. The central research questions are (1) Are Olympic medalists disproportionately born in the earlier quarters of the calendar year? (2) Does the probability of winning a gold medal vary by birth quarter? and (3) Are athletes’ ages at the time of competition systematically associated with event type, gender, or Olympic season? This study expands the literature by analyzing RAE by event type among Olympic medalists across both Summer and Winter Games.

METHODS

This study examines 4,453 medalists (gold, silver, and bronze) from ten Olympic Games held between 2000 and 2018 – five Summer Games (Sydney 2000, Athens 2004, Beijing 2008, London 2012, Rio de Janeiro 2016) and five Winter Games (Salt Lake City 2002, Turin 2006, Vancouver 2010, Sochi 2014, PyeongChang 2018). Data were compiled from official Olympic databases during 2019. Athlete biographies were consulted to ensure accuracy regarding birthdates, event categories, and medal results. Medalists disqualified as of December 2019 due to doping violations were excluded from this analysis.

Athletes were categorized by type of event into six mutually exclusive groups: timed/weight/measured, judged, skill, endurance, strength, and combat. Hilmer and Hilmer (8) apply these same categories to investigate the presence of confirmation bias in judged events at the Olympic Games. The first category is timed/weight/measured, where competitors start together and medal winners are determined by that individual competition (henceforth referred to, for lack of a better term, as “timed events”), such as the 100-meter dash, canoe, and downhill skiing. Judged events rely on subjective scoring either fully (ie, figure skating) or partially (ie, mogul skiing). The next category is skill events such as archery, shooting, and table tennis. The fourth category is endurance events that take a relatively long time to complete, such as biathlon, cross-country skiing, and the marathon. Strength is the fifth category of event, which includes weightlifting, shot put, and hammer throw. The final category of events is combat, which includes boxing, judo, taekwondo, and wrestling. Team sports were not included in this analysis because we are interested in an individual’s age and birth quarter at the time of competition. A team is comprised of a variety of individuals with various birth dates, which makes it difficult to isolate the impact of birth quarter and age at the time of competition. Thus, team events such as soccer, softball, basketball, and relays are excluded from this analysis. Age was calculated in days at the time of competition, and birth quarters were based on the calendar year: Q1 (January-March), Q2 (April-June), Q3 (July-September), and Q4 (October-December).

Table 1 presents the breakdown of the medal winners for each of the Olympic Games held between 2000 and 2018. The Summer Olympics have the bulk of the athletes, with 78% of the medal winners, while 22% of the medal winners compete in the Winter Games. The number of athletes winning individual medals has increased steadily over the years. Individual sports added to the Olympic Games during this time were skeleton in 2002, BMX racing in 2008, and golf in 2016.

The dependent variables are either type of medal, gold, silver or bronze, and how old the athlete is in days at the time of competition. The independent variables are quarter of birth (Q1 = Jan-Mar, Q2 = Apr – June, Q3 = Jul – Sept, Q4 = Oct – Dec), gender, season, and event type (timed, judged, skill, endurance, strength, combat). Table 2 presents the percentage of competitors in the types of events, medals earned, and quarter of birth, broken down by male and female medal winners and Summer and Winter Games. As evident from Table 2, the timed category has the most competitors with 45% of the medal winners, ranging from 40% in the Summer Games to 60% in the Winter Games. Skill, Strength, and Combat award all of their medals in the Summer Games. Judged events comprise 10% of the medals, while skill has 11% of the medals. The endurance category has 7% of the medals overall but it is an important component of the Winter Games, with almost a quarter of the medals earned falling within this category.

Under random distribution, one would expect medals to be evenly divided among the three categories. According to Table 2, bronze medals account for 36% of the overall awards. Similarly, we would expect the athletes’ birth quarters to be split evenly, with each having 25% of the medal winners if there is no presence of RAE. The first quarter has the most medal winners at 26%, while the last quarter has the least amount of medal winners at 23%, which is a statistically significant difference with a z-score of 3.07 and a p-value of 0.0022.

Table 3 provides means and standard deviations for how many days old the medalists were when they competed in their event. The average age of a medalist is 26.3 years old with a standard deviation of 4.8 years, with men at an average of 26.57 and with women at 25.94. This is similar to the finding of Longo et al. (10), who analyzed all competitors from the 2012 Summer Olympics and found men were an average of 27 years old and women were an average of 26.2 years old. Awosoga and Chow (1) find that the peak age for a track and field athlete is just under 27 years old, that finalists were on average 16 months older than the average competitor, and medalists were just one month older than the average participant. On average, the youngest medalists are those who compete in judged events, while the oldest medalists compete in skill and endurance events. This holds across males and females and for the Summer and Winter Games. The age of the medalists is distributed fairly consistently between gold, silver, and bronze medals with the gold medalists being around 100 days younger than either silver or bronze medalists for the entire sample. Males are older than females by 228 days while Winter medalists are older than Summer medalists by 241 days.

Figure 1 is a kernel density function that depicts the age in days of the medalist by the type of event. A kernel density function is a non-parametric method for visually representing the distribution of the data. Unlike a histogram, it is a smooth representation of the probability distribution function (Weglarczyk (16)) and is more informative than summary statistics because it shows the entire distribution of the data. Judged events have the youngest athletes with the mass of the distribution primarily in the lower end of the age distribution. Endurance has the bulk of its mass to the right of all of the other distributions, while skill events exceeds all of the other events at the very top of the age distribution. Figure 2 compares the distributions for males and females. Females have more medalists at the lower end of the distribution but the distributions are nearly identical at the top end of the age distribution. Figure 3 is a kernel density function for the Winter and Summer Games. The distribution for the Summer Games lies to the left of that for the Winter Games, suggesting that Summer medalists are younger than Winter medalists.

RESULTS

Table 4 provides our first look into the presence of an RAE within Olympic medal winners with a two-way table between birth quarter and type of medal. The Pearson 𝜒2 test statistic for differences among the categories is 14.12 with a p-value of 0.028. The Cramér’s V p-value of 0.0398 suggests that the observed association between birth quarter and medal type is unlikely to occur by chance. Taken together, these results suggest that there is a statistical relationship between birth-quarter and type of medal. The expected count is in parentheses and suggests that gold medal winners are over-represented for the first and second quarters of the year. All statistical analysis for this paper is performed in STATA.

Another option for analyzing the birth quarter of a medalist is to empirically assess whether it impacts their probability of winning a gold medal. To accomplish this, we estimate a logit model of the form

(1) where gold is 1 if athlete i received a gold medal and 0 if they earned a silver or bronze medal, Q1, Q2, and Q3 are the quarter of their birth of individual i, with the fourth quarter as the omitted category, and ε_i is the error term. The marginal effects are the change in the probability of the athlete winning a gold medal relative to the omitted category

Table 5 presents the marginal effects from the logit model in equation (1). Athletes who are born in the second quarter are 4.3% more likely to win a gold medal relative to those born in the fourth quarter at a 5% significance level. Athletes born in the first and third quarters are not statistically more likely to win a gold medal than those born in the fourth quarter.

In addition to examining how birth quarter impacts the medal received, we perform an empirical analysis to assess if the age of the athlete, measured in how many days old they were when they competed in their event, statistically differs for gender, type of Games, category of events, and medal type. The most inclusive model takes the form:

+ ε_i (2)

where ε_i is the error term. Each of the explanatory variables is binary with the value being 1 if the individual has the characteristic in the named variable and 0 otherwise. For example, the variable male will equal 1 if the athlete is male and 0 if the athlete is female. The omitted categories for this model are female, Winter, timed events, and bronze medal. This model is estimated using multiple linear regression with robust standard errors. Because all of the independent variables are binary, this regression model tests for differences in means between the explanatory variables, holding the other included variables constant.

The first column in Table 6 presents the results for the general model. These results suggest that, on average, males are older than females by 262 days, while Summer medalists are an average of 230 days younger than Winter medalists. Judged medalists are on average younger than timed medalists by 1090 days, skill medalists are older than timed medalists by 1002 days, endurance medalists are older than timed medalists by 848 days, and combat medalists are younger than timed medalists by 245 days. Gold medalists are an average of 151 days younger than bronze medalists and silver medalists are not statistically different in age than bronze medalists.

The results found in the initial model generally hold for models that estimate male and females separately. The statistical significance for event type for the model with only males is similar to the general model, but the magnitudes differ. For example, skill medalists are an average of 1,369 days older than timed medalists for the male-only model, while the difference was 1002 days for the full model. The other difference is that gold and silver medalists are not statistically different in age than bronze medalists. In the female-only model, athletes who medal in judged events are an average of 1,374 days younger than those who medal in timed events, while in the full model the difference was 1090 days. Female skill medalists are an average of 560 days older than female timed medalists while endurance medalists are 891 days older than timed medalists. Strength and combat medalists are not statistically different than timed medalists in age. For females, gold medalists are an average of 225 days younger than bronze medalists.

Summer and Winter Games models estimated separately follow a similar pattern to the general model in the first column. In both the Summer and Winter Games, males are statistically older than females, judged medalists are statistically younger than timed medalists, and endurance athletes are statistically older than timed athletes. In the Summer Games, skill medalists are statistically older than timed medalists and combat medalists are statistically younger than timed medalists. Summer athletes who win a gold medal are an average of 158 days younger than those athletes who win bronze medals. Together, these results suggest that the results are generally consistent across males and females as well as Summer and Winter Games.

Discussion

Our findings affirm the presence of the RAE among Olympic medalists in terms of both birth quarter and competition age. A Pearson 𝜒2 test for a difference between birth quarter and medals found a statistically significant relationship between the two variables. We also found that athletes born in Q2 are more likely to win a gold medal relative to those born in Q4. This echoes patterns identified in youth and elite-level sports by previous researchers (Joyner et. al., 2017; Musch and Grondin, 2001). These results suggest that the developmental advantages conferred by earlier birth within a competitive cohort persist even at the highest levels of sport.

The variation in age across event types aligns with existing literature suggesting that events with aesthetic or acrobatic elements, like gymnastics or figure skating, tend to feature younger athletes (Zetaruk, (18) and Cummins (6)), while events requiring cumulative physical or technical development, such as endurance or skill-based events are dominated by older competitors (Longo et. al (10)). This supports evidence of distinct developmental trajectories across Olympic disciplines. These findings contribute to a broader understanding of how structural factors such as age-grouping policies and youth sport calendars may contribute to influence athlete development long after initial talent identification. This finding may support a revision of the youth categorization system and selectors to mitigate the effects of RAE.

We can interpret these patterns using the Developmental Systems Model (Wattie et al., 2015), which posits that RAE arises from interacting individual (e.g., birthdate, maturation), task (e.g. sport type), and environmental (e.g. selection policies) constraints. Our findings reflect all three of these inputs. From the individual perspective, older athletes may possess more maturity and resilience. From the task perspective, certain disciplines favor youth, such as gymnastics and figure skating, while other disciplines favor experience, such as equestrian and long-distance running. From the environmental perspective, qualification systems often reinforce early selection biases that persist all the way up to the Olympic Games.

This study has several limitations. Our data only includes athletes who received medals at the Olympic Games, allowing us to examine RAE for those who have achieved the highest pinnacle of their sport. The broader population of Olympic participants may not exhibit the same patterns as medalists. Another caveat is that team events and relays were omitted, despite the possibility that such formats may dilute or amplify RAE effects due to different selection or substitution dynamics. Finally, the analysis does not account for cross-national or cultural variation in athlete development systems, which could meaningfully shape RAE patterns. Future research should address these gaps by examining a more comprehensive athlete pool, including non-medalists, and incorporating institutional and cultural context.

CONCLUSIONS

This study provides evidence that the RAE persists among Olympic medalists in the Summer and Winter Games held between 2000 and 2018. Medalists in judged and combat events tend to be younger, while those in skill and endurance events tend to be older, confirming widely held beliefs about athlete development pathways. Additionally, athletes born in the second quarter of the year are statistically more likely to win a gold medal than those born later in the year, reinforcing the influence of birth timing, even at the elite level.

Our results demonstrate that the effects of age-based selection advantages are not confined to youth or amateur competition but may have enduring implications for performance outcomes at the pinnacle of sport. These insights underscore the importance of re-evaluating current age-grouping structures in sport development systems. Policymakers, coaches, and sporting organizations should consider how age-based selection mechanisms might inadvertently limit long-term talent development by favoring relatively older athletes. By acknowledging and addressing these structural biases, it may be possible to create more equitable opportunities for younger athletes within a given cohort, ultimately enhancing both inclusivity and performance sustainability.

APPLICATIONS IN SPORT

To mitigate the impact of RAE, sporting bodies and youth development programs should consider pilot programs that rotate cutoff dates or cluster athletes by biological age rather than birthdate alone (see Wattie et al. (15) and Cobley et al. (4)). Musch and Grondin (11) suggest varying cutoff dates for different sports, allowing youth participants to choose the sport with the most favorable cutoff date for them. Raschner et al. (13) suggest a limit on the number of participants by each birth year across two-year age groups. Future research could explore how the dynamics of RAE evolve over an athlete’s career trajectory and examine whether similar effects are observable in non-medalists or team events.

REFERENCES

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Hilmer, C. E., & Hilmer, M. J. (2020). Does confirmation bias exist in judged events at the Olympic Games? Journal of Quantitative Analysis in Sports, 17(1), 1–10. https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1515/jqas-2019-0043/html
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Musch, J., & Grondin, S. (2001). Unequal competition as an impediment to personal development: A review of the relative age effect in sport. Developmental Review, 21(2), 147–167. https://doi.org/10.1006/drev.2000.0516
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Raschner, C., Muller, L., & Hildebrandt, C. (2012). The role of a relative age effect in the first Winter Youth Olympic Games in 2012. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 46(14), 1038–1043. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2012-091535
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Troy Palmer2025-08-26T10:08:11-05:00December 23rd, 2025|General, Olympics, Research, Sports Health & Fitness, Sports Studies, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|Comments Off

Understanding the Decline of Lacrosse Officials in the Midwest: A Study on Retention Challenges and Stakeholder Influence

Authors: Nicholas Zoroya¹, Joshua Greer², Carla Blakey³

Corresponding Author:

Nicholas Zoroya

20932 Hasenclever Dr., South Lyon, MI 48178

(248)420-9200, [email protected]

¹ Madonna University

² Cumberland University

³ University of Alabama

ABSTRACT

Purpose:

This study examines the ongoing decline of lacrosse officials in the Midwest by exploring how stakeholder behavior, organizational support, and personal motivations affect officials’ decisions to continue or leave the profession. The goal is to identify key factors contributing to attrition and provide practical recommendations for improving retention.

Methods:

A mixed-methods survey design was used to collect data from 55 lacrosse officials who had officiated in the Midwest within the past five years. Participants responded to a series of closed-ended questions assessing demographics, officiating experience, and interactions with coaches, fans, and players. Open-ended responses were also collected to contextualize and support quantitative results. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, and illustrative quotes were used to reinforce common trends.

Results:

Most participants were White males over the age of 40, with more than a decade of officiating experience. While abuse from players was reported less frequently, officials indicated that verbal abuse from coaches and fans occurred often and significantly impacted their officiating experience. Additionally, officials expressed mixed feelings about the support they receive from associations and assignors. Despite these challenges, most participants reported a strong personal connection to the game and cited their passion for lacrosse and desire to give back as primary reasons for continuing. A subset of respondents, however, acknowledged that negative experiences have made them consider leaving the profession.

Conclusions:

Findings highlight the important role personal passion plays in keeping officials engaged despite a lack of institutional support and ongoing negative stakeholder interactions. Without meaningful changes to reduce abuse and increase organizational support, the officiating pipeline will remain vulnerable. The study also raises concerns about the lack of demographic diversity in lacrosse officiating, warranting further exploration.

Applications in Sport:

The results have practical implications for lacrosse governing bodies, assignors, and administrators. Improving sideline behavior, increasing compensation, offering mentorship, and expanding recruitment efforts to underrepresented groups could significantly improve retention and build a more sustainable and inclusive officiating workforce.

Key Words: officiating, lacrosse, referee retention, stakeholder behavior, sport management

INTRODUCTION

The shortage of sports officials, particularly in youth and high school sports, is a pressing issue that threatens organized athletics’ operational integrity and sustainability. The National Federation of High School Associations (NFHS) found that around 50,000 individuals have stopped serving as high school officials since the onset of the pandemic in 2020 (Niehoff, 2022). This decline can be attributed to several interrelated factors, including occupational stress, abuse from spectators, insufficient support systems, and inadequate training opportunities for officials.

Literature Review

The shortage of sports officials is increasingly attributed to the rising incidence of verbal and physical abuse directed at referees by players and spectators. Research indicates that abusive behavior, particularly at the grassroots level, significantly contributes to high turnover rates, with negative experiences reducing officials’ willingness to continue in the profession (Dawson et al., 2021; Rayner et al., 2016). Dawson et al. (2021) highlight the alarming decline in the number of qualified officials, stressing that this culture of abuse not only affects officials but also threatens the integrity of competitive sports. Additionally, issues such as harassment and discrimination, especially against female officials, further intensify attrition, creating a hostile environment that undermines the overall health of sports communities (Marshall et al., 2022; Webb et al., 2020).

In addition, the lack of adequate support, resources, and effective training opportunities exacerbates attrition, as many organizations fail to provide the necessary infrastructure to sustain officials’ careers (Webb et al., 2020; Tingle et al., 2014). Insufficient professional development and an aging workforce further compound the issue, necessitating innovative strategies to attract and retain younger officials (Ryan et al., 2014; Barnhill et al., 2018; Pierce et al., 2021). This literature emphasizes the multifaceted challenges in officiating and highlights the critical need for systemic changes to address the issues of abuse, support, and recruitment.

The Decline of Lacrosse Officials

The decline of lacrosse officials in the Midwest has raised concerns regarding the sustainability of officiating in growing sports leagues. In recent years, the shortage of qualified officials has emerged as a critical issue. Lacrosse, a sport that has enjoyed significant regional growth in the Midwest, now faces challenges similar to those observed in other sports arenas (Ridinger et al., 2017). The decline in the number of lacrosse officials not only impedes game integrity but also affects the overall development of the sport. Existing literature has shown that multifaceted factors, including motivational changes, psychosocial stressors, and insufficient support structures, play essential roles in the retention and attrition of referees (Livingston & Forbes, 2016; Ridinger, 2015).

Negative Stakeholder Behavior

The decline in the number of lacrosse officials in the Midwest can be tied to negative stakeholder behavior, particularly from parents, coaches, and fans. This trend is troubling, as officials play a critical role in maintaining the integrity and safety of the game. The psychological impact of abuse from various stakeholders on referees cannot be overstated. Studies indicate that officials often experience significant stress and mental health challenges due to verbal abuse and aggression directed at them during games, which can lead to a decline in their overall job satisfaction and motivation (Breslin et al., 2022; Giel & Breuer, 2021).

It is important to note that the abuse received by officials, from players, coaches, and spectators, is frequently normalized within many sports environments. Research in sports such as rugby and football demonstrates that officials often report feeling overwhelmed by hostility from these groups (Webb et al., 2019; Webb et al., 2018). This hostility not only affects the officiating experience but can also deter potential new referees from entering the field. Furthermore, the retention rates of officials are directly influenced by the social interactions they have with these stakeholder groups, and the lack of positive reinforcement or sportsmanship has been shown to exacerbate dropout intentions (Giel & Breuer, 2021).

The influence of these stressors is particularly notable in the context of youth sports, where the pressure from parents and coaches can create a toxic atmosphere for officials trying to enforce rules and manage games. Coaches, in their roles, often have a substantial impact on how players perceive referees, which in turn affects the emotional atmosphere during matches (Webb, 2020). If coaches model negative behaviors, such as disrespect towards referees, it can lead to a cycle of abuse where players mimic these actions, further isolating officials and intensifying their negative experiences (Webb et al., 2018).

Interventions aimed at increasing awareness and promoting mental health support among referees are essential in addressing this decline. Recommendations have been made for mental health training for stakeholders to improve the overall environment surrounding officiating and reduce instances of abuse (Breslin et al., 2022). Additionally, stakeholder education on the consequences of negative behaviors towards officials can help reshape perspectives and foster a more respectful sporting culture. Such measures would not only help in maintaining a robust pool of lacrosse officials but also promote a healthier, more inclusive environment for all participants in the sport.

Abuse
Abuse, both verbal and physical, is a significant contributor to officiating attrition, with numerous studies highlighting its impact on officials’ mental health and intentions to quit. Brick et al. (2022) found that nearly all Gaelic Games officials surveyed (94.29%) had encountered verbal abuse, and almost one in four (23.06%) had experienced physical abuse during their careers. Verbal abuse was shown to be frequent and directly linked to mental health issues and quitting intentions, with distress acting as a mediating factor. Similarly, Webb et al. (2018) documented the prevalence of both verbal and physical abuse in rugby league, finding that emotional abuse (i.e., intimidation, swearing, and threats) and physical aggression (i.e., pushing and hitting) significantly reduced job satisfaction. These hostile environments, particularly when abuse is persistent and unaddressed, contribute to officials leaving their roles.

The impact of abuse on officiating extends across various sports and levels. For instance, Ridinger et al. (2017) revealed that 42% of 2,485 high school referees identified abuse as the most significant challenge in their roles, and 10% cited abuse as a factor in their intention to quit. This aligns with findings from Kavanagh et al. (2021), who reported that abuse in youth soccer led to emotional exhaustion and burnout among officials. Tingle et al. (2014) also noted that the normalization of verbal abuse within sports culture exacerbates the negative effects on officials, especially for newcomers lacking support systems. Collectively, these studies underscore the need for sports organizations to implement proactive abuse prevention measures and institutional support to mitigate attrition and improve the officiating experience.

Unsupportive Interactions
Unsupportive social dynamics play a critical role in officials’ decisions to leave their positions. Warner et al. (2013) examined the effects of problematic peer interactions and inadequate mentoring in sports such as lacrosse, revealing how these relational shortcomings contribute to officiating attrition. When officials lack meaningful support from mentors or peers and feel disconnected from a broader officiating community, their engagement and satisfaction decline. The Referee Retention Scale (Ridinger et al., 2017) identifies several social factors that contribute to retention, including several factors that address a sense of community and mentoring support. These elements reflect the importance of fostering interpersonal relationships that reinforce a positive officiating experience (Table 1).

Table 1
Key Factors Contributing to Referee Retention

Factor Name	Description
Administrator Consideration	Level of perceived fairness and consideration from assigners and administrators
Mentoring	Support and encouragement from a mentor or a friend to become involved with officiating
Sense of Community	Perceived sense of belonging to a supportive community of officials
Lack of Stress	Infrequent encounters with stressful situations related to officiating

Note. Adapted from Ridinger, L. L., Kim, K. R., Warner, S., & Tingle, J. K. (2017). Development of the Referee Retention Scale. Journal of Sport Management, 31(5), 514–527.

In addition to interpersonal issues, organizational shortcomings also undermine retention efforts. Warner et al. (2013) highlighted how insufficient policy frameworks and administrative neglect exacerbate attrition, particularly when officiating structures fail to proactively address the evolving needs of officials. The Referee Retention Scale provides a methodological foundation for identifying these structural deficiencies. Notably, factors such as “Administrator Consideration” and “Lack of Stress” underscore the role of fair management practices and manageable work environments in referee satisfaction. Furthermore, Livingston and Forbes (2016) and Ridinger (2015) emphasize the necessity of aligning recruitment and retention strategies with officials’ motivations and expectations. Collectively, these findings stress that without intentional and sustained institutional support, officiating organizations risk ongoing loss of personnel due to preventable burnout and disengagement.

Referee Retention

Research on referee retention has provided useful insights into the systemic and individual challenges impacting officiating roles. Ridinger et al. (2017) developed the Referee Retention Scale to assess factors such as job satisfaction, perceived organizational support, and the prevalence of abuse, all of which are directly linked to declining retention rates. Their work underscores that referee attrition is often precipitated by issues that extend beyond the administrative domain and delve into psychosocial and environmental stressors. Similarly, Livingston and Forbes (2016) investigated the evolving motivations of amateur sport officials and confirmed that changes in personal goals and external support diminish retention levels over time. Their study, although centered on Canadian officials, provides a framework that is applicable to the Midwest context, where similar socio-organizational dynamics are at play.

Ridinger (2015) compared the experiences of baseball umpires and lacrosse officials, revealing common constraints such as economic shortages and inadequate mentorship. This comparative analysis highlights that lacrosse officials, in particular, face challenges that are exacerbated by limited training opportunities and the absence of community-based support systems. In other research pertinent to community sports, Baxter et al. (2021) examined the experiences of female volunteer officials, outlining barriers and motivators that resonate with broader issues affecting retention. Although focused on gender-related dimensions of officiating, their findings reinforce the notion that organizational policies and social support are crucial to sustaining a committed officiating workforce.

The literature clearly indicates that the decline of lacrosse officials in the Midwest is a complex phenomenon influenced by issues of retention, support deficiency, and exposure to abuse. By synthesizing insights from multiple studies, this review stresses the importance of a comprehensive strategy that includes recruitment, retention, and preventive measures to improve the working environment for lacrosse officials. Future research and policy changes informed by these findings will be crucial in reversing the downward trend and ensuring the long-term sustainability of lacrosse officiating.

Conclusion

Despite a growing body of literature on officiating attrition, few studies have examined the distinct cultural and geographic dynamics affecting lacrosse officials in emerging regions like the Midwest. The reviewed research highlights a multifaceted crisis, with lacrosse serving as a representative case of the broader challenges afflicting youth and high school sports. Across regional and national contexts, verbal abuse and safety concerns have emerged as key contributors to attrition. In the Midwest, the shortage of lacrosse officials is impeding sport development and compromising game quality.

National survey findings from NASO and NFHS reinforce the severity of the crisis, revealing that a majority of new officials depart within three years due to burnout, safety concerns, and undervaluation. While recent initiatives, such as the NFHS National Officials Consortium Summit and the #BecomeAnOfficial campaign, represent positive steps forward, the literature suggests that these efforts must be part of a broader, coordinated strategy. Interventions focused on stakeholder education, mental health support, structured mentorship, and the public acknowledgment of officials’ contributions are necessary to reverse current trends. Sustaining officiating in lacrosse will require systemic change, cultural realignment, and a renewed commitment to valuing those who enforce the rules and protect the integrity of the game.

METHODS

Purpose

The purpose of this study is to examine the underlying causes of the declining number of lacrosse officials in the Midwest. Specifically, it seeks to determine how stakeholder interactions, support structures, and personal motivations influence officials’ decisions to remain active in the field. The study is designed to inform retention strategies and stakeholder education efforts.

Methodology

Participants

Participants in this study were 55 lacrosse officials who officiated games across the Midwest region of the United States. Eligibility criteria required participants to have officiated lacrosse at any level (youth, high school, college, or club) within the past five years in a Midwest state. Participants were predominantly male and white, and ranged in age from 25 to 72 years old, with officiating experience spanning from less than 1 year to over 30 years. Participation was voluntary, and no compensation was provided.

Procedures

Data was collected via an anonymous online survey distributed through Qualtrics. Recruitment was conducted through email invitations sent to lacrosse officiating associations, assignors, and personal networks within the officiating community, as well as through social media posts targeting officials in the Midwest. The survey remained open for three weeks, with one reminder sent midway through the collection period. Prior to data collection, the study received Institutional Review Board (IRB) approval from Madonna University. Participants provided informed consent at the beginning of the survey.

The survey consisted of both closed and open-ended questions. Closed-ended items collected demographic information (age, gender, race/ethnicity, years of officiating experience) and information on perceived challenges in officiating (e.g., pay, scheduling, respect from stakeholders). Open-ended questions invited participants to elaborate on their experiences, including reasons for continuing or discontinuing officiating and suggestions for improving the officiating experience.

Data Analysis

Quantitative data were analyzed using descriptive statistics (frequencies, percentages, means) to summarize participant demographics and the prevalence of key issues identified by officials. Open-ended responses were reviewed to identify illustrative quotes that reinforced or provided examples of the quantitative findings. Qualitative responses were not formally coded or thematically analyzed but were used to add narrative context to the statistical results.

RESULTS

A total of 55 lacrosse officials from the Midwest region completed the survey. Participants ranged in age from 23 to 67 years (M = 45.8, SD = 11.2), with the majority identifying as male (85%) and White/Caucasian (94%). Officials reported working across multiple states, most commonly Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Ohio, and Wisconsin. On average, participants had 14.3 years of officiating experience, with nearly all officiating at the youth and high school levels (92%). Additionally, 64% reported officiating collegiate lacrosse, and 9% officiated at the professional level.

Officials were asked about their experiences with negative interactions from various stakeholders. Verbal abuse from coaches was reported as occurring “sometimes” by 58% of respondents and “often” by 16%. Similar patterns emerged regarding fans and parents, with 49% reporting “sometimes” and 22% reporting “often” experiencing verbal abuse. Abuse from players was less frequent, with 51% of officials reporting “rarely” and 38% reporting “sometimes.” Despite these negative interactions, officials rarely reported fearing for their personal safety, with 74% indicating “never” and 18% “rarely” feeling unsafe while officiating.

Perceptions of support from officiating associations were mixed. While 42% of respondents felt “often” supported by their associations, 33% reported “sometimes” feeling supported, and 25% “rarely.” When asked how often they considered quitting due to negative experiences, 56% reported “never” considering leaving officiating, 24% “rarely,” 11% “sometimes,” and 9% “often.”

Qualitative responses provided further insight into officials’ motivations and concerns. Officials frequently cited a love for the game, a desire to give back to the sport, camaraderie with fellow officials, and ensuring opportunities for young athletes as primary reasons for continuing to officiate. One participant explained, “I won’t stop until my body no longer allows me to officiate,” while another noted, “If associations or assignors supported officials more, I’d feel better about continuing.” Conversely, low pay, spectator abuse, insufficient support from associations, and the physical demands of officiating as they age were commonly cited factors contributing to potential attrition.

Discussion

The findings of this study provide a nuanced look into the factors influencing lacrosse officials’ retention in the Midwest. Despite frequent reports of verbal abuse from coaches, players, and fans, many respondents reported continuing to officiate due to intrinsic motivations such as a love of the sport and a desire to give back. This aligns with prior research emphasizing passion and sport commitment as key drivers of officiating persistence. Finding joy in officiating can lead to better psychological outcomes, fostering an environment where officials are more likely to continue their engagement with the sport (Carson et al., 2020).

However, respondents also highlighted significant deterrents to retention, including low compensation, lack of recognition, poor treatment from stakeholders, and limited support from assigning organizations. These challenges are consistent with broader officiating literature identifying unsupportive environments and abuse as predictors of attrition. Research supports the notion that the challenges of managing player dynamics and external pressures, such as crowd noise, significantly impact officials’ performance and mental states (Carter et al., 2024). Therefore, the emotional and psychological investment in sport, empowered by both passion and commitment, is essential in nurturing a sustained career in officiating.

Interestingly, while many officials expressed dissatisfaction with aspects of the officiating experience, few indicated plans to immediately stop officiating, suggesting a complex interplay between commitment, tolerance for negative experiences, and practical constraints.

The demographic homogeneity of the sample raises additional concerns. The overwhelming representation of older White men suggests potential gaps in recruitment or retention efforts targeting women and racial minorities. Given lacrosse’s growing popularity and emphasis on inclusion, this lack of diversity warrants further investigation and intervention.

Collectively, these findings reinforce the need for officiating associations and lacrosse governing bodies to implement more robust training, mentorship, and support systems. Addressing verbal abuse, improving communication, and recognizing officials’ contributions may improve retention. Ultimately, sustaining a high-quality officiating workforce requires addressing both systemic challenges and individual experiences.

Future Research

While this study offers valuable insight into the experiences of lacrosse officials in the Midwest, it also highlights several opportunities for future research. First, the demographic composition of respondents (predominantly White, male, and middle-aged or older) suggests a need to explore barriers to entry and advancement for underrepresented groups in officiating. Investigating the experiences of women, racial minorities, and younger officials could help identify structural or cultural factors limiting diversity in the officiating pipeline.

Additionally, future research could expand beyond the Midwest to assess whether similar trends exist nationally or vary by region. Comparative studies across different competitive levels (youth, high school, collegiate, professional) may also reveal distinct challenges and support mechanisms. Finally, longitudinal research could track officials over time to better understand career trajectories, burnout risk, and retention strategies. Together, these avenues of inquiry can build a more comprehensive understanding of officiating challenges and inform evidence-based recruitment and retention initiatives.

CONCLUSIONS

This study sheds light on the complex realities facing lacrosse officials across the Midwest, revealing a profession challenged by inadequate pay, lack of respect from key stakeholders, inconsistent scheduling practices, and minimal institutional support. Despite these hurdles, officials overwhelmingly cited their love of the game, passion for supporting athletes, and commitment to the sport as primary motivators for continuing their work. This finding underscores a critical dynamic: lacrosse officiating, particularly in under-resourced regions, is being sustained largely by the intrinsic dedication and personal investment of its officials rather than by systemic support or professional incentives.

Without this fierce passion for the sport, it is likely that attrition would be even higher. Many participants described tolerating negative treatment, logistical difficulties, and low compensation solely because of their deep-rooted connection to lacrosse. While this dedication is admirable, it raises serious concerns about sustainability and burnout. The profession cannot rely indefinitely on goodwill and personal sacrifice without addressing the structural and cultural issues contributing to official dissatisfaction and turnover.

These findings highlight the urgent need for action to support and retain lacrosse officials and ensure the sport’s long-term sustainability. Ultimately, this study emphasizes that lacrosse officiating in the Midwest stands at a crossroads.

APPLICATION IN SPORT

The findings of this study have clear implications for lacrosse governing bodies, officiating associations, assignors, coaches, and athletic administrators seeking to address the shortage of officials. First, targeted efforts to reduce verbal abuse and improve sideline behavior are critical for creating a more supportive environment that encourages retention. Educational workshops for coaches, parents, and athletes focused on respecting officials may help shift cultural norms and reduce negative interactions.

Second, the study highlights the need for stronger mentoring and peer support systems within officiating communities. Developing formal mentorship programs that connect new officials with experienced referees could foster a greater sense of belonging and resilience, improving retention among newer and younger officials. Assigning bodies should prioritize community-building activities, recognition initiatives, and accessible professional development opportunities to sustain engagement.

Additionally, improving compensation and scheduling practices may directly influence retention by addressing key logistical frustrations reported by officials. Providing consistent game assignments, clear communication, and timely pay can increase satisfaction and encourage officials to remain active longer.

Finally, the demographic homogeneity observed in this study signals an urgent need to broaden recruitment efforts to underrepresented groups, including women and racial minorities. Intentional outreach, training scholarships, and inclusive recruitment messaging may help diversify the officiating pipeline and ensure the sport’s continued growth. Implementing these strategies can help sport leaders, administrators, and policy makers foster a more sustainable, inclusive, and supportive officiating environment in lacrosse and beyond.

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Troy Palmer2025-07-21T14:29:22-05:00December 9th, 2025|Contemporary Sports Issues, General, Research, Sport Training, Sports Coaching, Sports Studies|Comments Off