1Davidson School of Chemical Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, 47907, United States
Corresponding Author:
Vilas G. Pol
Purdue University
Davidson School of Chemical Engineering
West Lafayette, Indiana 47906
vpol@purdue.edu
Acknowledgments
We would like to express our sincere gratitude to Sunkalp Vilas Pol for his valuable contribution to this research. His assistance in this article is greatly appreciated and played an important role in the development of this paper. We commend his dedication and enthusiasm for learning.
Selection and Performance Rationale of Wood vs. Aluminum Baseball Bats
ABSTRACT
USA Youth Baseball approves metal/alloy, composite, and wood (or a combination) bats for use in baseball games. However, players, parents, and coaches often face a dilemma when selecting a superior baseball bat, as bat quality depends on material, durability, performance, sensation, player preference, and balance. The purpose of this experimental investigation is to understand the maximum exit velocity of a baseball and overall performance of maple wood vs. aluminum bats. This is accomplished by hitting a stationary ball on a tee as well as with two different pitch speeds (30 and 40 MPH from a roller pitching machine), measured by a speed radar (accuracy ±1 MPH) in a controlled environment. It is hypothesized that when the material of the baseball bat changes, the exit velocity of the ball would change due to the trampoline effect (compression of the solid metal barrel) when hitting with the metal/aluminum bat compared to the solid wood bat. Apart from similar barrel size, length, and weight of the bats, it is observed that the metallic aluminum bat is slightly superior (2-3%) because of the trampoline effect when the balls were hit off the tee and with the machine at 30 MPH speed. Interestingly, for the 40 MPH automatic pitching machine test, the wood bat was 3-4% superior to the aluminum bat, possibly due to high impact speeds with less than 1 ms impact duration and minimum energy losses in the bat, or even due to the strength of the batter. The data were collected by a 12U youth baseball player in three different sessions for better accuracy and reproducibility. In fact, high-quality (hence expensive) wood or aluminum bats could lead to analogous outcomes (±1-2% variations) when used in a controlled environment, not significantly contributing to winning the baseball game.
Baseball is a popular American game played between two teams of nine members with a bat, a ball, and gloves on a diamond-shaped field with alternating batters (offense) and fielders (defense). The batter’s goal is to hit the ball hard enough, putting it out of reach of the fielding team to make a complete circuit around the bases to obtain a ‘run,’ with the team scoring the highest number of runs winning the game. This is typically made of either of wood or a lightweight metal such as aluminum. Now the mystery question is which bat (wood or aluminum) should be selected for such an important task.
During the last century, there has been significant research and development in the baseball field including selection of bats, barrel diameter, shape, length, and composition. Naturally, wood and aluminum bats are considered based on their performance, affordability, and safety. Typically, the more expensive bats use higher quality materials, hence better properties such as lightweight materials leading to longer distances and more power while producing minimal vibrations.
Due to lots of discussion in the open literature arguing which material bats are superior, this study particularly focuses on the experimental investigation of the exit velocity of most common aluminum and wood bats. It was hypothesized that using a maple wood bat versus an aluminum baseball bat of the same length, barrel size, weight, and producers used to strike the ball might create a different exit velocity because of varied physical properties of bat materials, including the commonly known trampoline effect (barrel compresses and expands) while using the hollow aluminum bat compared to the solid wood bat.
In 2022, Sherwood et al. studied five aluminum and wood baseball bats and observed that the field performance of these bats strongly correlated with the ball–bat coefficient of restitution COR. They predicted the relationship between wood baseball bat profile and durability based on finite element modelling of 15 profiles used from 15 MLB players (1). Russell described the effect of cylindrical barrel and flexural bending vibrations (2) on softball and baseball bats with respect to their performance including understanding the sweet spot and the origin of the ping (3) sound. Shenoy et al. predicted a model for the performance of solid wood and hollow metal bats with an experimental agreement for the impact speed, ball types, bat models, and impact locations (4). It is observed that the energy dissipation between the bat and the ball happens through ball deformation, elastic bat vibration and contact friction (4). In 2002, Sherwood et al. investigated the durability of the wooden bat based on the slope of grain impact and impact location, with statistical analysis and finite element modeling. In other study they predicted the relationship between wood baseball bat profile and durability (5). In 2003, Drane and Sherwood described the effect of moisture content on the wooden bat, increasing the velocity by a maximum of 1% (6). In 2002, Penna et al. described that the exit velocity can depend on the skill level of the player or a higher performing bat (7). The systematic literature review created a knowledge gap to investigate the dilemma in selecting the most effective bat that would contribute in winning the baseball game.
This article methodically answers that question with experimental evidence through carefully measuring and comparing the average exit velocities of an aluminum and a wood bat with reproducibility. Though both bats had similar speeds, exit velocity measurements show that the aluminum bat is 2-3% superior because of the hypothesized trampoline effect when the balls were hit off of the tee and against 30 MPH pitches from the ball roller pitching machine. Surprisingly, for the 40 MPH automatic pitching machine test wood bat was 3-4% superior to the aluminum bat possibly due to less than 1 ms impact duration with the minimum energy losses in the bat or even the strength of the batter. This article provides experimental evidence for 12U youth baseball players that high quality wood or aluminum bats could lead to the analogous outcomes with 1-2% variations when used in a controlled environment.
Methods
A standard pitching machine manufactured by Junior Hack Attack was utilized to set up the velocity of the ball being pitched. The speed radar was purchased from Bushnell with an accuracy of ±1 MPH. The velocity gun was calibrated utilizing the set speed of the pitching machine and reading of the radar to a 1 MPH accuracy. The aluminum bat with a length of 31 inches, 23 ounces, and a barrel size of 2 ¾ inches was purchased from Marucci. The maple wood bat with a length of 31 inches, and a barrel size of 2 ¾ inches was purchased from Victus Nox (The brand Marucci owns Victus Nox). A bucket of standard baseballs was purchased from Wilson. A standard batting tee manufactured by Tanners Tees was utilized for the tee tests. An indoor baseball and softball facility (Lifelong Sports, Lafayette, Indiana, USA) was used for these experiments. Figure 1 depicts all used baseball accessories.
Two different velocities of =30 and 40 MPH were set by adjusting left, bottom, and right knobs of a standard pitching machine (Figure 1). The balls were loaded into the pitching machine by a person with approximately 15 second intervals between the pitched balls. The batter wore the requisite safety equipment (helmet, arm guard, leg guard, and batting gloves) while hitting the balls as they were pitched. The speed radar was set up approximately 4 feet behind the batter and the exit velocity was measured after the bat had contacted the ball. Ten balls were set on the batting tee (one at a time) and hit within 15 second intervals. The handheld speed gun was used behind the batter and pointed at approximately where the ball would be headed. Three trial runs were carried out before the final experiment to find errors in the experiment and to correct them. After hitting ten balls with the aluminum bat, the wood bat was used to hit the next ten balls to minimize the error, assuming that the batter’s strength is similar between tests conducted sequentially. Within each set of experimental conditions, the exit velocity of the balls was categorized and reported as the highest (Hi), lowest (Low) and average (Avg) speeds. In some cases, the aluminum bat’s sound frequencies affected the speed gun measurements. These experiments and speed measurements were repeated. Newly purchased baseball balls were used for the measurements to minimize the error. Please note some of the concerns in wood versus aluminum bats are i) the wood bat breaking could happen due to the ball hitting around the handle area or the end, ii) the wood bat could hurt players’ hands due to high impact speeds and vibrations, and iii) the aluminum bat cracking could occur as the metal shrinks in the cold with unsafe storage.
Results
Typically, commercial baseball pitching machines are arm type (stores balls on sides in an arm shape, which automatically dispenses balls) or roller type (person must manually put balls into the machine). Both machines can dispense different pitches (8) such as fastball, curveball, screwball, slider, etc. To carry out the experiments in a controlled air, moisture, and temperature environment for better accuracy, we used roller type dispenser at LifeLong Sports, Lafayette, Indiana, USA.
Fig. 2 depicts the exit velocity data from 10 balls that were hit off of the tee with maple wood and aluminum bats. The highest exit velocity for the balls that were hit by the wood bat ranges from 57 to 62 MPH, while more consistent 61 MPH for the aluminum bat. The lower velocity and average exit velocity data demonstrate that the effect of using either wood or aluminum bat is negligible when the balls were hit off the tee.
In Fig. 3, 10 balls were pitched at 30 MPH and the exit velocity data was collected for maple wood and aluminum bats. The highest exit velocity for the balls that were hit by aluminum bat ranges from 61 to 63 MPH, while being 55 to 61 MPH for the wood bat. The lowest exit velocity for the balls that were hit by wood bat ranges from 40 to 43 MPH, while 50 to 51 MPH for the aluminum bat. Overall, 2-3% superior performance of the metal bat was observed due to hollow vibrating wall of the bat (similar to a drum upon impact), producing a loud ping sound (9).The exit velocity of the balls was almost double the velocity of balls impacting to the bat. In fact, the wall bends slightly in an inner direction retaining some of the vibrational energy and then coils back after impacting on the bat. The low frequency ping sound (1,000 Hz) indicates softer, thinner wall thickness of metal bat while high frequency (2,000 Hz) ping sound indicates bat wall is thicker, hence stiffer (9). The trampoline effect on the metal bat helps gain a little more speed compared to the wooden bat (9).
At high pitch speeds of the incoming balls (40 MPH), the obtained data show a slightly different trend, as seen in Fig. 4. The highest exit velocity for the balls that were hit by the aluminum bat ranges from 51 to 53 MPH, while being 57 to 58 MPH for the wood bat. The low exit velocity for the balls that were hit by the aluminum bat ranges from 40-41 MPH, while being 41-45 MPH for the wood bat. Namely, the wood bat showed a slightly superior exit velocity compared to the metal bat. This could be due to high impact speeds with less than 1 ms impact duration with the minimum energy percolation in the bat (9). As baseballs from the same batch were used for both the 30 MPH and 40 MPH pitch tests, these differences can be attributed to differences in the bat material rather than the baseballs themselves. In these conditions, a solid wood bat could perform better than the thin-walled metal bat because of minimized trampoline effect. The wood bat does not ping as loud as metal meaning that it imparts most of the stored elastic energy to the ball with less energy left in the wall of the bat to vibrate (9). Other possible reasons the wood bat was better with enhanced exit velocity are hitting with the harder grain or the shape of the balls (possibly deformed on the harder wood bat), and differences in manufacturing of the bats. These reasons also support why the wood bat performed superior in the 40 MPH test. When 10 balls were hit on both bats with 30 MPH and 40 MPH pitches, the measured exit velocity ranged from 40-63 MPH at low, medium and highest velocities confirming that most of the stored energy is returned to the ball without significant dissipation.
Discussion
The trampoline effect describes noticeable elasticity in objects impacting at high speeds with applicability to sports such as baseball (the ball and bat), golf (the ball and club), and tennis (the ball and racquet) such that they act like a spring analogous to when we jump on the trampoline and get bounced back. In baseball, the elasticity of a bat upon the impact of baseball is different for wood and aluminum bats. Typically, when the baseball hits a wood bat, the ball compresses losing more than half of its energy, but when using a hollow aluminum bat, the bat compresses rather than the ball.
The fundamental physics understanding of the trampoline effect in baseball and softball bats was documented by Nathan et al. two decades ago (10) who identified that upon the high-speed impact between a bat and baseball, the original center-of-mass kinetic energy is transformed into compressional energy. Certain energy is stowed in vibrational modes (hoop modes), providing this stored energy to the baseball with minimum dissipation of energy with larger ball exit velocity due to the trampoline effect (10). In other words, the elasticity of a bat upon the impact of baseball determines the magnitude of the resultant trampoline effect (Fig. 5). Typically, when the ball impacts on the aluminum bat, because of its hollow nature the bat barrel compresses to lose energy and returns it to the ball soon after. On the wood bat, the ball compresses and loses up to 75% of energy in frictional forces (10). Typically, during the bat-ball collision, the exit velocity of the ball would be dependent on the effective mass/weight of the bat. However, this is a negligible effect in the experiments reported in this work as both bats possess similar masses. The exit velocity is at its peak at the place on the bat where maximum power was applied on the surface of ball, storing more elastic energy, and subsequently imparting it back to the ball (9).
Conclusions
Controlling for the barrel size, length, and weight of the bat, it is experimentally measured and observed that aluminum bat is 2-3% superior when balls were hit off of the tee and against 30 MPH machine-pitched balls because of the trampoline effect. Remarkably, for the 40 MPH automatic pitching machine test, the wood bat was 3-4 % superior to the aluminum bat possibly due to high impact speeds with less than 1 ms impact duration with the minimum energy losses in the wood bat or even the strength of the young batter. Even though both bats had similar speeds, exit velocity measurements were measurably different. Therefore, it can be concluded that high quality wood and aluminum bats could lead to analogous outcomes when used in a controlled environment.
Application in Sport
The outstanding performance of a baseball player can be highly dependent on the selection of a metal or wood baseball bat, its balance, durability and feel in addition to the player’s capabilities. In general, metal bats are known to provide enhanced power, durability, and a broader sweet spot while wood bats provide a traditional feel, tailoring options, and a smaller sweet spot. This article offers insight into the rationale behind selecting a bat with peace of mind for the player, parent, and coach corroborating that high quality (hence expensive) wood or aluminum bats could lead to analogous outcomes with 1-2% variations when used in a controlled environment. Eventually, use of a metal or wood baseball bat is a personal choice, guided by player strength and abilities.
References
Patrick Drane, Joshua Fortin-Smith, James Sherwood, and David Kretschmann, Predict the relationship between wood baseball bat profile and durability, Procedia Engineering, 2016, 147, 425–430.
Alan M. Nathan, J. J. Crisco, R. M. Greenwald, D. A. Russell, Lloyd V. Smith, A Comparative study of baseball bat performance, Sports Engineering, 2011, 13, 153-162.
Daniel A. Russell, Acoustics and vibration of baseball and softball bats, Acoustics Today, 2017, 13(4), 35.
Mahesh M Shenoy, Lloyd V Smith, John T Axtell, Performance assessment of wood, metal and composite baseball bats, Structures, 2001, 397-404.
Blake Campshure, Patrick Drane and James A. Sherwood, An investigation of wood baseball bat durability as a function of bat profile and slope of grain using finite element modeling and statistical analysis, Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 3494.
P. J. Drane & J.A. Sherwood, The effects of moisture content and work hardening on baseball bat performance, Materials Science, 2003, 1-7 (Corpus ID: 44456022).
J. J. Crisco, R. M. Greenwald, J. D. Blume, and L. H. Penna, Batting performance of wood and metal baseball bats. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc., 2002, 34, 10, 1675–1684.
R. Cross, Physics of Baseball & Softball, Springer Science Business Media, LLC 2011, Chapter 13, 221- 234.
Nathan, D. A. Russell, L. V. Smith, The physics of the trampoline effect in baseball and softball bats, Physics, 2004, Corpus ID: 6993139.
George Minoso2024-09-26T07:03:33-05:00September 28th, 2024|Sport Training, Sports Studies|Comments Off on Selection and Performance Rationale of Wood vs. Aluminum Baseball Bats
1Department of Kinesiology and Health Studies, Southeastern Louisiana University, Hammond, LA, USA 2Fitt House, Baton Rouge, LA, USA
Corresponding Author:
Edward Hebert
SLU Box 10845
Hammond, LA 70810
ehebert@selu.edu
985-549-2132
Edward Hebert, PhD is a Professor in the Department of Kinesiology and Health Studies at Southeastern Louisiana University. His research interests include exercise motivation and adherence; and morale, efficacy, and burnout among health and wellness professionals.
Jada McGuin, MS, MHA is a health and wellness professional and the Owner/Operator of The Fitt House in Baton Rouge. Her professional interests focus on the implementation of preventative measures such as health screening, exercise, and lifestyle interventions to reduce the prevalence of chronic illness and diseases.
ABSTRACT
This study describes attitudes of adult exercisers toward female and male personal fitness trainers, and compares responses of male and female, younger vs older exercisers, and those with varying levels of exercise experience. Recruited from 4 fitness gyms, 201 adults aged 18 to 77 completed an anonymous survey where they provided relative attitude ratings toward female vs. male fitness trainers specific to the trainer’s knowledge, helping meet personal fitness goals, following their directions, comfort discussing struggles with exercise, working with the trainer for an extended time, and referring others to them. Participants rated male trainers higher for fitness knowledge, and were more willing to follow their directions, work with them for an extended time, and refer clients to them, but perceived a female trainer more favorably for discussing their struggles with exercise. Significant gender, age, and experience differences were found. Gender-biased perceptions were highest among male, older, and inexperienced exercisers, who had more positive attitudes toward male fitness trainers. Attitudes of women, younger, and experienced exercisers tended to be more neutral, and favor female trainers for meeting personal goals and discussing struggles. The results of this exploratory study suggest gender-biased exercise attitudes are influenced by participant gender, as well as age and experience, and provide impetus for additional research on exercise attitudes.
Keywords: personal training, beliefs, perceptions, biases
INTRODUCTION
Recent decades have seen a great expansion of the fitness industry signaled by an increase in the number of adults exercising in fitness centers around the world. This rise has been attributed to a number of factors including global recognition of the benefits of physical activity, endorsement of exercise by the medical community, and growth of the fitness industry (1, 29). Yet, exercise adherence remains problematic (9, 25, 37, 38, 41) and fitness clubs tend to have low retention rates (7, 17, 18, 29, 36, 42). The practice of exercising with a personal fitness trainer (PFT) has increased in popularity and personal training has become a standard feature in many settings (5, 27, 29, 43, 44). PFTs design and supervise exercise programs, and help clients set and reach personal goals. In addition, they engage in practices to promote an active lifestyle, motivate clients, and facilitate their exercise competence and self-efficacy, which can play an important role in exercise adherence (29, 35, 44). Studies of consumers consistently identify a fitness club’s staff, and fitness leaders’ instruction, feedback, and support as among the most important factors in customer satisfaction (19, 33). In addition, satisfaction with individualized training is positively associated with exercise motivation and self-efficacy (44). Consistent evidence points to the benefits of exercising with a PFT. Studies show that individuals who train with a PFT are more likely to attend exercise sessions and adhere to programs (2, 14, 22, 32). Those who train with a PFT have been found to exercise at higher intensities (31, 40) and make greater strength and fitness gains (30, 31) than those who exercise independently. These results are similar to findings comparing individuals who train alone vs. under the supervision of a fitness professional (11, 16).
Studies of fitness settings have often concluded that gender plays a role in gym-related attitudes and behaviors. In their review, Håman et al. (20) suggested fitness gym spaces are strongly associated with male bodies and norms, and gender norms influence social practices and behaviors there. Exercise motivation has been tied to weight loss for women and enhancing muscularity among men (24). Certain types of exercise are considered masculine or feminine, and exercisers have been shown to use gendered language to refer to areas of the gym (8). Interview-based studies of PFTs indicate that a clients’ gender influences their advice (20) and they recognize that gender plays a role in clients’ selection of a trainer (35).
The results of previous interview-based studies (27, 34) indicated that women prefer a female PFT. This preference is based on perceptions of being less self-conscious about their bodies with a female trainer, and the beliefs that a female trainer would better understand and empathize with their struggles with exercise and comfort levels in the gym. Survey-based research comparing perceptions of male and female fitness trainers have studied the attitudes of college students, and produced mixed results. In their study of 402 undergraduates, Fisher et al. (15) found no clear preference for a male or female PFT, yet hypothetical female PFTs received higher ratings for general perceptions of competence, and participants’ willingness to discuss progress and take instructions/corrections from them, compared to male trainers. Boerner et al. (5) similarly found that college undergraduates perceived female PFTs as more competent and knowledgeable than males. However, male students preferred to work with a male fitness trainer, while female students had no gender preference. Similarly, Magnusen and Rhea (28) found female college Division I athletes had no preference for a male or female strength coach, whereas males preferred a male coach.
Thus, research to date on attitudes toward male vs. female PFTs has provided mixed results, and survey-based studies to date have exclusively examined perceptions of college students, which may be different from non-college aged adults. In addition, research has yet to examine how attitudes toward male/female fitness trainers may vary with other potentially-influential factors such as age and exercise experience. Thus, the purpose of this exploratory study was to examine attitudes toward male and female PFTs in a sample of adult members of fitness gyms, and compare responses with respect to participant gender, age, and exercise experience.
METHODS
Participants
Participants were 201 (144 female; 57 male) adult members of four fitness centers from one city in the southeast United States who responded to an online survey. They ranged in age from 18 to 77 years (mean = 35.87, SD = 14.87 years). Self-reported experience levels were Beginner (n=59), Intermediate (n=91) and Advanced (n=51). Over half of the sample indicated exercising four or more times per week (54.9%), with 25.3% indicating three times per week, and 20.1% once a week. Table 1 provides the number and percent of male and female participants in age and exercise experience groups.
Procedures
Prior to data collection, the study was approved by the Institutional Review Board of the authors’ university. Participants were recruited from fitness centers via email with the cooperation of the managers. Two facilities were small gyms that offered only individual and small group training, and two were larger traditional fitness centers that housed a variety of equipment and amenities, and provided personal training services and group exercise classes as well as independent exercise. A recruiting email with a link to an anonymous online survey was sent to all members of the two small gyms, and members of the larger gyms who had expressed interest in personal training. Participants were assured of anonymity and informed their participation was voluntary and they were providing consent to participate by completing the survey.
Data were collected February-March 2021 using a survey created for the study. Survey items were based on and relatively similar to those used in previous research on attitudes toward female/male fitness trainers (15). Item content was guided by previous research examining criteria for selecting a PFT (20, 29, 35) and on reasons people may prefer a male/female PFT (27, 34). After initial development, the survey was reviewed by researchers with expertise in fitness who provided feedback and recommendations.
The first section sought demographic information including gender, age, level of fitness experience (beginner, intermediate, or advanced), and frequency of exercise during the last month. The next section focused on participant’s attitudes about working with a PFT, specifically how their attitudes would be influenced by the trainer’s gender. It included 6 face-valid items: (1) “My belief about the trainer’s knowledge about fitness,” (2) “My belief in the trainer’s desire for me to meet my personal fitness goals,” (3) “My willingness to follow the trainer’s directions about exercise,” (4) “My level of comfort discussing my struggles with exercise with the trainer,” (5) “My willingness to continue working with the trainer for an extended length of time,” and (6) “My willingness to refer clients to the trainer.” Participants responded to teach item on a 5-option scale: Higher for a female trainer, slightly higher for a female trainer, the same for a female or male trainer, slightly higher for a male trainer, or higher for a male trainer.
Data Analysis
For data analysis, ratings were translated to a numerical scale from -2 to 2 with the neutral response in the center: (-2) Higher for a female trainer), (-1) Slightly higher for a female trainer), (0) The same for a female or male trainer, (1) Slightly higher for a male trainer, and (2) Higher for a male trainer. Responses were also coded categorically as neutral, or favoring a male or female trainer. Descriptive statistics (mean, standard deviation, and percent of responses indicating a neutral response or favoring a female/male PFT) for responses to each item are reported for the entire sample.
Responses were also analyzed with respect to three independent variables (gender, age group, and fitness experience). Three levels of fitness experience were self -reported Beginner, Intermediate, and Advanced. For the purpose of the study, participants were divided into two age groups operationally defined as younger (18-39 years) and older (40 years and older) exercisers. Numerical responses were analyzed using three separate MANOVAs with the 6 survey items as dependent measures. Significant main effects were further analyzed using independent t-tests or one-way ANOVA. Partial Omega Squared (ηp2) and Cohen’s d were reported as indicators of effect size. In addition to these analyses, the percent of participants whose responses were neutral or favored a male or female PFT were reported for groups.
RESULTS
As shown in Figure 1, as a whole, participants tended to have higher ratings of male PFTs relative to fitness knowledge, willingness to follow their directions, working with the trainer for an extended time, and referring clients to them. However, they tended to perceive a female PFT more favorably for discussing their struggles with exercise. The percent of responses that were neutral or favored a male/female trainer yielded similar patterns. Overall, more people indicated positive attitudes toward a male than a female PFT for expectations of fitness knowledge (31.3% vs. 5.5%), as well as willingness to follow the trainer’s directions (29.9% vs. 10.9%), working with the trainer for an extended time (20.9% vs. 11.9%), and referring other clients to the trainer (17.4% vs. 5.5%). For comfort discussing struggles with exercise, 41.8% indicated a preference for a female trainer with only 24.4% preferring a male trainer. For most items, 50-60% of participants indicated a neutral response (the same for a male or female trainer), with the exception of comfort discussing concerns for which only 33.3% indicated no preference.
Attitudes of Male and Female Respondents
As shown in Figure 2, responses of male and female exercisers showed clear gender differences. Mean values indicated men rated a male PFT higher than a female PFT for all items. By comparison, female exercisers’ responses tended to vary more across items, and average responses were near neutral for several items. The MANOVA indicated significant differences between male and female respondents were present [Wilks’ Lambda=.845, p<.001, ηp2=.16]. Follow up comparisons indicated significant differences for four items: expectations for the trainer to help meet personal fitness goals [t(199)=4.20, p<.001, Cohen’s d=1.14], willingness to follow the trainer’s directions [t(199)=2.71, p<.01, Cohen’s d=1.00], comfort discussing exercise struggles [t(199)=5.24, p<.001, Cohen’s d=1.24], and willingness to work with the trainer for an extended time [t(199)=2.01, p<.05, Cohen’s d=.93].
Gender-biased patterns were also evident in the percent of ratings which were neutral vs. favored a male or female PFT (see Table 2). A higher percent of male exercisers indicated they would be more comfortable discussing their struggles with a male (43.9%) than a female trainer (17.5%), whereas female exercisers indicated a preference for a female (51.4%) over a male PFT (16.9%). A similar same-gender preference was indicated for perceptions of the trainer’s desire to help meet personal fitness goals, and working with them for an extended time.
Attitudes of Younger vs. Older Exercisers
Older exercisers (aged 40 and over) tended to favor a male PFT for all items, whereas younger exercises (18-39 years) had more varied responses and were near neutral for several items (see Figure 3). Responses were found to vary significantly by age group [Wilks’ Lambda= .884, p<.05, ηp2=.06]. Follow-up comparisons indicated significant differences for two items: meeting personal goals [t(197)=2.88, p<.01, Cohen’s d=0.45], and discussing struggles [t(197)=3.18, p<.01, Cohen’s d=0.49]. As indicated in Table 3, for these items, older exercisers tended to have either neutral attitudes or favor a male trainer, whereas younger exercisers more often favored a female trainer.
Variation as a Function of Exercise Experience
Mean scores for individuals varying in exercise experience are shown in Figure 4. The MANOVA comparing responses was significant [Wilks’ Lambda=.839, p<.001, ηp2=.08]. One way ANOVA follow-up comparisons indicated a significant difference for only one item: expectations for the PFT’s knowledge [F(2,198=7.14, p<.001, ηp2=.086]. Post-hoc Student-Newman-Keuls comparisons indicated beginning exercisers had significantly greater expectations of fitness knowledge for male trainers (p<.05), whereas knowledge expectations of male vs. female trainers were similar for exercisers with intermediate or advanced experience. Examination of response percentages (Table 4) shows a clear pattern of reduced gender-bias as exercise experience increased. For example, only 35.6% of beginner-level exercisers indicated expectations for a trainer to help them meet personal exercise goals would be the same for a male or female trainer, but this neutral rating increasing to 53.8% of intermediate exercisers, and 64.7% of advanced exercisers. This same pattern of increasing neutral response with higher exercise experience was observed for all items.
DISCUSSION
Research supports the benefits of exercising with a PFT (2, 14, 22, 30, 32, 40), and evidence suggests that gender plays a role in exercise attitudes and behaviors, including selection of a trainer (20, 26, 35, 39). Previous survey-based research on attitudes toward male and female PFTs have studied undergraduate students; attitudes of adult fitness center members have not been investigated. An additional limitation of existing research is the failure to examine variables that may play a role in these attitudes. This study examined attitudes toward male and female PFTs among 201 adult fitness center members. Perceptions were reported for the entire sample, and analyzed relative to participant gender, age group, and exercise experience.
As a whole, more participants favored a male over a female trainer for expectations of fitness-related knowledge, willingness for follow the trainer’s directions, working with the trainer for an extended time, and referring other clients to them. However, adults tended to be more comfortable discussing struggles and concerns with exercise with a female trainer. Fisher et al. (15) similarly reported college students had a more positive attitude about discussing progress with female than male trainers.
Age Differences
Our results showed age-related attitudinal differences. Specifically, older exercisers favored a male PFT, whereas younger respondents favored a female PFT primarily with respect to two items: assistance achieving personal goals and discussing exercise-related struggles. These findings are different from those reported in studies of college students, who overall, viewed female PFTs as more competent and knowledgeable than males (5, 15). Thus, these age-related attitudinal differences may be one of the more notable findings of this study, and may reflect changes in broader gender role-related attitudes among generations (10, 13).
Differences among Male and Female Exercisers
Comparisons between the responses of male and female exercisers revealed two important findings. First, men rated a male PFT higher than a female PFT for all items, while female exercisers’ ratings were more neutral. This is consistent with previous research on college students (5) and Division I university athletes (28) that indicated males preferred to work with a male PFT or strength coach, while females had no clear preference. Second, large and significant differences were observed between responses of men and women for several attitudes including those associated with knowledge, help meet personal goals, following directions, discussing concerns, and working with the trainer for an extended time. While men rated a male PFT higher for all items, women had more favorable perceptions of female PFTs for two specific items: discussing their struggles with exercise, and expectations regarding the trainer’s desire to help them meet personal fitness goals.
These findings align favorably with the results of previous interview-based studies indicating that women who choose a female PFT attribute this decision to beliefs that a female would have a greater empathy for them, and a better understanding of their bodies, struggles, and comfort levels (27, 34). These findings are also consistent with gender-preference research in healthcare. Drummond et al. (12), for example, found that college athletes felt more comfortable when provided care by an athletic trainer of the same gender, and a same-gender healthcare provider preference has been found for physicians and nurses when interactions are of an intimate nature (6, 23). When providing reasons for a healthcare provider of the same gender, women indicate it is due to comfort levels discussing problems and the perception that a female provider will take more personal interest in them (23).
Experience as a Mediator of Gender-Bias
We also examined attitudes toward male/female PFTs as a function of exercise experience, and used self-ratings as the basis for group formation. Comparisons indicated that, as exercise experience increased, gender-biased ratings decreased. Among beginning exercisers, 37% indicated their expectations for a PFT’s knowledge was neutral (the same for a male or female), whereas 65% of intermediate and 90% of advanced exercisers indicated so. This pattern of increasing gender-neutrality with exercise experience was observed for all items. These results suggest that gender-biased attitudes toward male/female PFTs may reduce with experience. This interpretation is consistent with the ideas that, while fitness-based attitudes and practices are influenced by gender norms and expectations, they are not fixed, but are fluid and can be changed with experience (3, 4, 20).
CONCLUSIONS, LIMITATIONS, AND DIRECTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
The results of this study indicate that many adult exercisers have gender-biased perceptions of PFTs with higher expectations for a male trainer’s fitness-based knowledge, and willingness to follow a male trainer’s directions and refer clients to him, yet are more comfortable discussing their struggles with a female trainer. Consistent with prior research on college students, these attitudes vary with participant gender. Men had stronger preferences for a same-gender PFT than women did, yet many women tended to favor a female PFT for interest in their personal goals and discussing their struggles and concerns. In addition, potentially important findings from this study are that gender-biased attitudes varied by age and exercise experience. Further research examining how these and other factors and experiences influence gender-referenced perceptions of fitness and fitness professionals is warranted, as is extending research on fitness-related attitudes beyond that of college students.
Previous research on this topic (5, 15) has primarily surveyed convenience samples of undergraduate students whose participation and experience in exercise was unknown, whereas participants in this study were adult fitness center members primarily between 20 and 39 years of age, most who identified as having intermediate or advanced exercise experience, and who exercised 3 or more times a week. Thus, the findings of this study may be more generalizable to typical adults who exercise on a regular basis. However, it should be acknowledged that, while data were derived from a sample of adults from multiple fitness centers, all gyms were from the same region of the U.S., and respondents were primarily female. Age-related differences were examined among two groups with an arbitrary dividing point. Thus, future research on this topic using more varied samples, more adult males, among varying age groups, and additional potentially influential variables is recommended.
APPLICATIONS IN SPORT
Fitness professionals should recognize that gender plays a role in exercise attitudes and behaviors, including the selection of PFTs and exercise leaders to work with. Data from this study highlight specific beliefs that may play a role in PFT preferences, and how these preferences vary with exerciser’s gender, age, and level of exercise experience. As a result, fitness professionals can strive to behave and communicate in ways that both support clients’ preference, but also seek to overcome biases that may exist.
References
Andreasson, J., & Johansson, T. (2014). The fitness revolution: Historical transformations in the global gym and fitness culture. Sport Science Review, 23(3-4), 91-112. doi: 10.2478/ssr-2014-0006
Arikawa, A. Y., O’Dougherty, M., & Schmitz, K. H. (2011). Adherence to a strength training intervention in adult women. Journal of Physical Activity and Health, 8(1), 111-118. https://doi.org/10.1123/jpah.8.1.111
Azzarito, L., & Katzew, A. (2010). Performing identities in physical education: (En)gendering fluid selves. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 81(1), 25-37. https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2010.10599625
Barker-Ruchti, N., Grahn, K., & Lindgren, E. C. (2016). Shifting, crossing and transforming gender boundaries in physical cultures. Sport in Society, 19(5), 615-625. https://doi.org/10.1080/17430437.2015.1073942
Boerner, P. R., Polasek, K. M., True, L., Lind, E., & Hendrick, J. L. (2021). Is what you see what you get? Perceptions of personal trainers’ competence, knowledge, and preferred sex of personal trainer relative to physique. Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 35(7), 1949-1955. doi: 10.1519/JSC.0000000000003027
Chur‐Hansen, A. (2002). Preferences for female and male nurses: The role of age, gender and previous experience – Year 2000 compared with 1984. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 37(2), 192-198. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2648.2002.02079.x
Clavel San Emeterio, I., García-Unanue, J., Iglesias-Soler, E., Luis Felipe, J., & Gallardo, L. (2019). Prediction of abandonment in Spanish fitness centres. European Journal of Sport Science, 19(2), 217-224. https://doi.org/10.1080/17461391.2018.1510036
Coen, S. E., Rosenberg, M. W., & Davidson, J. (2018). “It’s gym, like g-y-m not J-i-m”: Exploring the role of place in the gendering of physical activity. Social Science & Medicine, 196, 29-36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2017.10.036
Collado-Mateo, D., Lavín-Pérez, A. M., Peñacoba, C., Del Coso, J., Leyton-Román, M., Luque-Casado, A., Gasque, P., Fernandez-del-Olmo, M. A., & Amado-Alonso, D. (2021). Key factors associated with adherence to physical exercise in patients with chronic diseases and older adults: An umbrella review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(4), 2023. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18042023
Cotter, D., Hermsen, J. M., & Vanneman, R. (2011). The end of the gender revolution? Gender role attitudes from 1977 to 2008. American Journal of Sociology, 117(1), 259-289.
Coutts, A. J., Murphy, A. J., & Dascombe, B. J. (2004). Effect of direct supervision of a strength coach on measures of muscular strength and power in young rugby league players. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 18(2), 316-323. http://hdl.handle.net/10453/9724
Drummond, J. L., Hostetter, K., Laguna, P. L., Gillentine, A., & Del Rossi, G. (2007). Self-reported comfort of collegiate athletes with injury and condition care by same-sex and opposite-sex athletic trainers. Journal of Athletic Training, 42(1), 106-112. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1896076/
Eagly, A. H., Nater, C., Miller, D. I., Kaufmann, M., & Sczesny. S. (2020). Gender stereotypes have changed: A cross-temporal meta-analysis of U.S. public opinion polls from 1946 to 2018. American Psychologist, 75(3), 301-315. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/amp0000494
Fischer, D. V., & Bryant, J. (2008). Effect of certified personal trainer services on stage of exercise behavior and exercise mediators in female college students. Journal of American College Health, 56(4), 369-376. https://doi.org/10.3200/JACH.56.44.369-376
Fisher, J. P., Platts, C., & Stopforth, M. (2013). Attitudes toward and preferences for male and female personal trainers. International Journal of Exercise Science, 6(4), 256-268.
Gentil, P., & Bottaro, M. (2010). Influence of supervision ratio on muscle adaptations to resistance training in nontrained subjects. Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 24(3), 639-643. doi: 10.1519/JSC.0b013e3181ad3373
Gjestvang, C., Abrahamsen, F., Stensrud, T., & Haakstad, L. A. (2020). Motives and barriers to initiation and sustained exercise adherence in a fitness club setting: A one‐year follow‐up study. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 30(9), 1796-1805. https://doi.org/10.1111/sms.13736
Gjestvang, C., Abrahamsen, F., Stensrud, T., & Haakstad, L. A. (2021). What makes individuals stick to their exercise regime? A one-year follow-up study among novice exercisers in a fitness club setting. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 638928. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.638928
Gocłowska, S., Piątkowska, M., & Lenartowicz, M. (2019). Customer satisfaction and its measurement in fitness clubs of Warsaw. Economics & Sociology, 12(2), 205-218. doi:10.14254/2071-789X.2019/12-2/12
Håman, L., Yring, H., Prell, H., & Lindgren, E. C. (2020). Personal trainers’ health advice in the fitness gym space from a gender perspective. International Journal of Qualitative Studies on Health and Well-being, 15, 1794364. https://doi.org/10.1080/17482631.2020.1794364
International Health, Racquet and Sportsclub Association IHRSA. The 2020 IHRSA global report: The state of the health club industry. IHRSA.
Jeffery, R. W., Wing, R. R., Thorson, C., & Burton, L. R. (1998). Use of personal trainers and financial incentives to increase exercise in a behavioral weight-loss program. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 66(5), 777-783. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.66.5.777
Kerssens, J. J., Bensing, J. M., & Andela, M. G. (1997). Patient preference for genders of health professionals. Social Science & Medicine, 44(10), 1531-1540. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0277-9536(96)00272-9
Kilpatrick, M., Hebert, E., & Bartholomew, J. (2005). College students’ motivation for physical activity: Differentiating men’s and women’s motives for sport participation and exercise. Journal of American College Health, 54(2), 87-94. http://dx.doi.org/10.3200/JACH.54.2.87-94
Lakicevic, N., Gentile, A., Mehrabi, S., Cassar, S., Parker, K., Roklicer, R., Bianco, A., & Drid, P. (2020). Make fitness fun: Could novelty be the key determinant for physical activity adherence? Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 577522. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.577522
León-Quismondo, J., García-Unanue, J., & Burillo, P. (2020). Service perceptions in fitness centers: IPA approach by gender and age. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(8), 2844. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17082844
Madeson, M. N., Hultquist, C. N., Church, A., & Fisher, L. A. (2010). A phenomenological investigation of women’s experiences with personal training. International Journal of Exercise Science, 3(3), 157-169. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4738891/
Magnusen, M. J., & Rhea, D. J. (2009). Division I athletes’ attitudes toward and preferences for male and female strength and conditioning coaches. Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 23(4), 1084-1090. doi: 10.1519/JSC.0b013e318199d8c4
Maguire, J. S. (2001). Fit and flexible: The fitness industry, personal trainers and emotional service labor. Sociology of Sport Journal, 18(4), 379-402. ttps://doi.org/10.1123/ssj.18.4.379
Maloof, R. M., Zabik, R. M., & Dawson, M. L. (2001). The effect of use of a personal trainer on improvement of health related fitness for adults. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 33(5), S74.
Mazzetti, S. A., Kraemer, W. J., Volek, J. S., Duncan, N. D., Ratamess, N. A., Gomez, A. L., Newton, R. U., Hakkinen, K., & Fleck, S. J. (2000). The influence of direct supervision of resistance training on strength performance. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 32(6), 1175-1184.
McClaran, S. R. (2003). The effectiveness of personal training on changing attitudes towards physical activity. Journal of Sports Science & Medicine, 2(1), 10-14. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3937569/
McGuire, A. M., Anderson, D. F., & Trail, G. (2009). Examination of consumer differences on the importance and satisfaction with fitness service attributes. International Journal of Sport Management, 10(1), 102-119.
Melton, D., Dail, T. K., Katula, J. A., & Mustian, K. M. (2011). Women’s perspectives of personal trainers: A qualitative study. The Sport Journal, 14(1), 0104. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4439248/
Melton, D. I., Katula, J. A., & Mustian, K. M. (2008). The current state of personal training: An industry perspective of personal trainers in a small southeast community. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 22(3), 883-889. doi: 10.1519/JSC.0b013e3181660dab
Middelkamp, J., Van Rooijen, M., & Steenbergen, B. (2016). Attendance behavior of ex-members in fitness clubs: A retrospective study applying the stages of change. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 122(1), 350-359. https://doi.org/10.1177/0031512516631075
Peters, A. E., Kraus, W. E., & Mentz, R. J. (2023). New paradigms to address long-term exercise adherence, an achilles heel of lifestyle interventions. Circulation, 147(21), 1565-1567. https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.123.064161
Picorelli, A. M. A., Pereira, L. S. M., Pereira, D. S., Felício, D., & Sherrington, C. (2014). Adherence to exercise programs for older people is influenced by program characteristics and personal factors: A systematic review. Journal of Physiotherapy, 60(3), 151-156. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jphys.2014.06.012
Pridgeon, L., & Grogan, S. (2012). Understanding exercise adherence and dropout: An interpretative phenomenological analysis of men and women’s accounts of gym attendance and non-attendance. Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise and Health, 4(3), 382-399. https://doi.org/10.1080/2159676X.2012.712984
Ratamess, N. A., Faigenbaum, A. D., Hoffman, J. R., & Kang, J. (2008). Self-selected resistance training intensity in healthy women: The influence of a personal trainer. Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 22(1), 103-111. doi: 10.1519/JSC.0b013e31815f29cc
Rodrigues, F., Bento, T., Cid, L., Pereira Neiva, H., Teixeira, D., Moutão, J., Marinho, D. A., & Monteiro, D. (2018). Can interpersonal behavior influence the persistence and adherence to physical exercise practice in adults? A systematic review. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 2141. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02141
Sperandei, S., Vieira, M. C., & Reis, A. C. (2016). Adherence to physical activity in an unsupervised setting: Explanatory variables for high attrition rates among fitness center members. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 19(11), 916-920. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsams.2015.12.522
Thompson, W. R. (2022). Worldwide survey of fitness trends for 2022. ACSM’s Health & Fitness Journal, 26(1), 11-20.
Wayment, H. A., & McDonald, R. L. (2017). Sharing a personal trainer: Personal and social benefits of individualized, small-group training. Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 31(11), 3137-3145. doi: 10.1519/JSC.0000000000001764
Qshequilla Parham Mitchell2024-09-16T09:32:10-05:00September 13th, 2024|General, Sport Training|Comments Off on Adult exercisers’ attitudes toward female and male personal fitness trainers: Influence of gender, age, and exercise experience
Authors: Richard O. Segovia PhD, EdD1, Alexander Buelna, PhD2, and Brian Sunderman, MA3
1School of Education, Liberty University, Lynchburg, VA, USA 2College of Social and Behavioral Health, Walden University, Minneapolis, MN, USA 3School of Security and Global Studies, American Military University, Charles Town, WV, USA
Corresponding Author:
Richard O. Segovia, PhD, EdD
1971 University Blvd
Lynchburg VA, 24515
Rsegovia1@liberty.edu
737-330-6288
Richard O. Segovia, PhD, EdD, is an adjunct professor and dissertation chair at Liberty University in Lynchburg, VA, and an academic evaluator at Western Governors University in Salt Lake City, Utah. Dr. Segovia’s research interests focus on learning and teaching, combat sports, law enforcement practices, and educational leadership.
Alexander Buelna, PhD, is currently a deputy associate commissioner with Texas Health and Human Services. Dr. Buelna’s areas of research interest includes post-traumatic stress’s impact on veterans and efficient business processes.
Brian Sunderman, MA, is the officer in charge of the Texas Department of Public Safety’s Arrest and Control Tactics Unit. Lieutenant Sunderman’s research interests include the utility of Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu in law enforcement as a law enforcement force option
An examination of studies related to Brazilian jiu-jitsu in enhancing mental and physical health among veterans and first responders: A scoping review
ABSTRACT
Purpose: This scoping review explores the many benefits of Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu (BJJ) on veterans and first responders, focusing on physical health improvements, psychological benefits, and social integration. The purpose is to synthesize existing literature to identify research gaps and suggest directions for future studies. By examining both qualitative and quantitative research, this review seeks to show the utility of BJJ as a therapeutic modality option and propose it as a comprehensive intervention for enhancing the overall well-being of veterans and first responders. Methods: PubMed and Google Scholar searches were conducted to capture a broad range of studies involving BJJ with veterans or first responders. This review adheres to the PRISMA-ScR guidelines, focusing on studies discussing physical, mental, and social outcomes. Results: The initial search yielded numerous qualitative and quantitative studies. This review categorizes the findings into themes of physical health improvements, psychological benefits, and social integration, highlighting the variability and scope of the existing literature. Conclusions: The review highlights the need for well-structured research to substantiate BJJ’s therapeutic benefits. It recommends areas for in-depth exploration in future systematic reviews or primary studies, especially longitudinal studies on BJJ’s effects and specific therapeutic contributions. Application in Sport: For coaches and trainers, integrating BJJ into programs for veterans and first responders enhances physical fitness and mental health. BJJ improves cardiovascular health, strength, and endurance and reduces PTSD, depression, and anxiety symptoms. BJJ supports mental resilience and provides a supportive community, helping in social integration and reducing isolation. Incorporating BJJ can holistically enhance the recovery and effectiveness of veterans and first responders.
In examining the multi-layered impacts of Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu (BJJ) on enhancing veterans’ and first responders’ mental and physical health, this scoping review examines a significant, emergent area of therapeutic practices. BJJ, a martial art known for its detailed focus on ground fighting and submission holds, offers more than physical training. It is a dynamic intervention that promotes psychological resilience and aids in social reintegration. By synthesizing various studies [6, 13], this review illuminates how BJJ improves physical mobility and mental health outcomes and facilitates the reintegration of veterans into civilian life. Through structured training sessions, BJJ fosters a supportive community environment, addressing the complex rehabilitation needs of veterans and first responders by bridging physical exertion and focus with mental health support. This review explores BJJ’s profound benefits across rehabilitative settings, substantiating its therapeutic value with empirical evidence and detailed analysis.
Although primarily a fighting style and a sport, many are beginning to embrace BJJ as a powerful therapeutic intervention for various purposes. Current research confirms potential scientific benefits from the use of BJJ in physical rehabilitation, psychological resilience, and social integration for populations experiencing high levels of stress – specifically, veterans and first responders. This review is essential at a historical moment when BJJ seems to have a place in therapeutic settings, yet anecdotal evidence essentially underpins current practice. At the same time, an emerging body of empirical literature supports its effectiveness as a sport and work of art. Drawing from qualitative and quantitative research metrics, this scoping review intends to synthesize and expand on the current understanding of BJJ’s multifaceted benefits. This review is relevant because the populations best served by BJJ’s transformative power experience complex physical, mental, and social challenges. These challenges significantly affect vulnerable populations, such as veterans and first responders, due to the cumulative (and sometimes unique) occupational stressors in their working environments.
The purpose of this scoping review is (1) to consider BJJ’s effect on physical health, (2) to assess the psychological benefits of BJJ, (3) to assess BJJ’s social integration utility, and (4) to identify research gaps and potential future studies as it applies to veterans and first responders.
Literature Review
As BJJ gains recognition not only as a martial art but also as a valuable tool for rehabilitation and recovery, it is important to critically examine the breadth and depth of its impact through scholarly research. This review examines the role of BJJ in enhancing the mental and physical health of veterans and first responders, drawing on a rich array of literature that spans clinical studies, systematic reviews, and observational research. This review aims to bridge the gap between theoretical approaches and practical applications in BJJ by synthesizing evidence from diverse academic sources, highlighting its efficacy in fostering physical resilience and psychological and social well-being. The literature discusses how BJJ contributes to rehabilitation processes, supports mental health recovery, and facilitates community reintegration, offering a comprehensive analysis of its benefits.
Rehabilitation and Recovery for Veterans
Rehabilitation and Recovery for Veterans
In recent years, BJJ has emerged as a pivotal intervention for enhancing veterans’ and first responders’ mental and physical well-being. As previously mentioned, this martial art is known for its emphasis on ground fighting and submission. It offers more than just physical training; it provides a structured environment that fosters psychological resilience and social reintegration. For example, studies [3, 16] have documented the significant benefits BJJ offers in rehabilitating soldiers and aiding veterans with PTSD, highlighting improvements in both physical mobility and mental health outcomes. Furthermore, a separate study [5] discusses BJJ’s role in easing veterans’ transition into civilian life, leveraging the discipline’s community-centric nature to combat isolation and build lasting social networks. These collective findings underscore BJJ’s unique position as a therapeutic modality capable of addressing the complex spectrum of veterans’ needs by bridging rigorous physical challenges with psychological and social support.
Physical Rehabilitation and Psychological Recovery
An article on the benefits of BJJ for solider rehabilitation [6] discusses the significant role of BJJ in soldiers’ physical rehabilitation and mental recovery. BJJ’s comprehensive approach helps improve physical mobility and flexibility, often compromised during active-duty service. Engaging in BJJ aids in building both strength and endurance, which is critical for the comprehensive recovery of injured soldiers. Moreover, the mental aspects of BJJ, such as focus and discipline, contribute significantly to psychological resilience, helping soldiers overcome trauma and stress-related challenges.
Additionally, BJJ provides a supportive community for soldiers, fostering a sense of belonging and mutual understanding among peers, which is vital during rehabilitation. This social support, combined with physical training, makes BJJ an effective rehabilitation tool, addressing recovering soldiers’ physical and psychological needs. By participating in BJJ, soldiers work on their physical rehabilitation and gain confidence and mental strength, which are vital for their successful reintegration into everyday life.
PTSD Management and Community Integration
BJJ provides veterans a therapeutic environment that fosters mental discipline and builds a strong community. Engaging in BJJ allows veterans to experience controlled physical interactions, which can be crucial for regaining trust in their bodily responses and reducing hyperarousal associated with PTSD [8]. The structured setting of BJJ classes offers a predictable and safe environment where veterans can learn new skills in a supportive atmosphere. This aspect of predictability and control is essential for helping veterans manage PTSD symptoms effectively.
In addition, the communal aspect of BJJ encourages veterans to form supportive relationships with peers who may share similar experiences. These social connections are invaluable as they help combat the isolation often felt after leaving military service [12]. Through regular training, veterans develop physical strength and emotional resilience, bolstered by the camaraderie found in BJJ gyms [12]. Participants frequently cite this community support as critical to their recovery and civilian life adjustment.
Sustained PTSD Relief
A study on BJJ training as a possible therapeutic modality [13] explored the specific benefits of BJJ for service members and veterans who have PTSD. The research [13] shows significant improvements in PTSD symptoms among participants attributed to the physical exertion and mental focus required in BJJ training. The study highlights how BJJ helps in developing coping strategies for stress and trauma, which are critical for long-term mental health recovery. The repetitive nature of drills and the controlled physical engagements provide a therapeutic outlet for aggression and pent-up emotions.
The study also emphasizes the sense of accomplishment and increased self-esteem from progressing in BJJ. These psychological benefits are crucial for veterans and service members who often struggle with self-worth after leaving service. Training in BJJ offers a structured environment to measure growth through skill levels, providing a tangible sense of progression usually needed after military service.
Reintegration and Social Reconnection
BJJ has also been studied [5] as a powerful tool for veterans’ reintegration into civilian life. The study [5] suggests that BJJ’s disciplined environment helps veterans transition by providing a structured routine similar to that experienced in the military. This similarity helps mitigate the culture shock many veterans experience post-service. Additionally, the physical demands of BJJ provide a healthy outlet for stress and aggression, which are common challenges for veterans adjusting to civilian life.
Furthermore, BJJ fosters a sense of community and brotherhood among its practitioners, which mirrors the camaraderie found in the military. This aspect of social support is crucial for veterans who may feel isolated after their service [5]. The shared experiences in training can lead to lasting friendships and a support network that assists with reintegration, making BJJ an influential social and psychological tool for veterans.
Enhancing Law Enforcement Capabilities
BJJ is also proving to be a transformative tool for law enforcement, offering a multifaceted approach to officer training that extends beyond physical tactics to include significant mental and emotional benefits. BJJ training enhances mental acuity, decision-making under pressure, and interpersonal skills, which are essential in the high-stress context of law enforcement work [9]. These skills help officers manage stressful encounters more effectively, promoting a mindset geared toward de-escalation and controlled responses rather than aggression.
Furthermore, another study [7] highlights the practical impacts of BJJ on use of force protocols, showing how these techniques help maintain calm and control during confrontations, reducing the likelihood of unreasonable or excessive force. This aspect of BJJ training not only improves officer safety but also the safety of the community by minimizing potentially harmful physical interactions. Meanwhile, positive changes in the Marietta Police Department, where BJJ training has reduced injuries and complaints regarding force use, demonstrate BJJ’s potential to enhance team morale and effectiveness [10].
Mental Acuity and Interpersonal Skills Improvement
Research [9] shows the extensive benefits of BJJ, emphasizing its impact beyond just physical techniques to include mental and emotional enhancements. BJJ training can significantly improve mental acuity and decision-making under pressure in law enforcement, where officers often encounter high-stress situations. The practice also fosters resilience and patience, skills that are beneficial in both personal and professional settings. BJJ’s focus on mindfulness and present-moment awareness helps officers handle stressful encounters more calmly and with greater understanding.
Furthermore, the training enhances interpersonal skills, essential for officers who must de-escalate tense situations without resorting to excessive force. BJJ teaches control and restraint, promoting a mindset of protection rather than aggression. Officers trained in BJJ are often better equipped to maintain their safety and that of others while minimizing harm and managing physical confrontations effectively [7]. This holistic approach to training makes BJJ an invaluable tool for law enforcement agencies.
Police Use of Force
An article on the impact of BJJ training on improving use-of-force protocols within law enforcement concluded that training helps officers maintain calm and control in high-stress situations, reducing the likelihood of excessive force [7]. BJJ provides officers with effective yet non-lethal techniques, crucial in safely managing physical confrontations. Additionally, the discipline and mental focus developed through consistent BJJ practice enhance officers’ decision-making abilities, allowing them to assess situations more accurately and respond appropriately. The article suggests that BJJ improves individual officer performance and fosters greater trust and cooperation between law enforcement and the communities they serve, ultimately contributing to safer and more effective policing practices.
The article also discusses the psychological benefits of BJJ training, such as increased confidence and reduced anxiety, which can significantly affect how officers perceive and respond to threats. The enhanced decision-making skills and better judgment officers develop through BJJ training can lead to more positive outcomes in policing encounters, promoting safer community interactions.
Improved Outcomes in Law Enforcement
Research [10] reports on successfully implementing a BJJ program in the Marietta Police Department. The program has led to measurable improvements in officer outcomes, including reduced injuries and fewer complaints regarding the use of force. The training emphasizes skill over strength, equipping officers with the knowledge to control situations effectively without escalating violence.
Furthermore, the program has been instrumental in building team morale and solidarity among officers. The shared experience of training and improving together has strengthened the department’s internal community, which translates into more effective teamwork in the field. This solidarity is crucial for maintaining high standards of police work and ensuring the safety of both officers and the community they serve.
Injury Prevention and Safety Enhancement
The 2021 BJJ Training Data Documents a Reduction in Injuries report from the Marietta (GA) Police Department (MPD), highlighting the tangible benefits of BJJ training in reducing injuries among police officers. The MPD report concludes that comprehensive physical training enhances flexibility, strength, and overall body awareness, leading to this reduction [10]. Officers trained in BJJ are better prepared to handle physical confrontations safely and efficiently, protecting themselves and the individuals with whom they interact. The skills learned in BJJ allow officers to apply force in a controlled manner, significantly lowering the risk of injury.
The data from MPD [3] also underscores the potential for BJJ training to transform standard police training protocols. By incorporating BJJ, departments can ensure that their officers are not only physically capable but also mentally prepared to handle the stresses of law enforcement. This proactive approach to training can reduce workers’ compensation claims, decrease sick leaves due to injuries, and improve overall morale within the department.
Enhancing Physical Fitness and Mental Health
BJJ is a profound physical discipline and a significant enhancer of mental health and community building [1]. This unique martial art offers physiological benefits and underscores how regular BJJ training improves cardiovascular health, muscular strength, and endurance [1]. The mental advantages, such as increased focus and stress reduction, are pivotal in making BJJ a holistic practice for personal health and fitness.
Further insights from the benefits of BJJ in managing PTSD [12] and BJJ as a form of social and psychological therapy [4] deepen our understanding of BJJ’s impact. One longitudinal study demonstrates the sustained effectiveness of BJJ in managing PTSD symptoms, offering a potential therapeutic pathway for veterans and others suffering from chronic stress disorders [12]. Parallelly, a review of BJJ’s social and psychological benefits emphasizes its role in forging strong community ties and enhancing cognitive functions through strategy formulation and problem-solving challenges [4]. Together, these studies [12, 4] present a compelling case for integrating BJJ into wellness and therapy programs to bolster physical robustness and foster a supportive social environment.
Physiological and Psychological Benefits
One systematic review [1] of the extensive physical and physiological demands placed on individuals who practice Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu suggests that BJJ is effective in enhancing cardiovascular health, muscular strength, and endurance. The review also notes the mental benefits of regular, intense physical activity, such as improved focus and stress reduction. The comprehensive nature of BJJ training makes it an excellent form of exercise for improving overall fitness and health.
Furthermore, the review discusses how BJJ athletes develop unique physiological adaptations that enhance their performance. These include increased aerobic capacity, better body composition, and superior muscular endurance. The insights provided by this review suggest that BJJ could be beneficial in cross-training for various activities due to its all-encompassing physical demands and the mental toughness it develops.
Longitudinal Insights
Research provides compelling evidence through a longitudinal study that BJJ has sustained benefits in managing PTSD among veterans [12]. This longitudinal study followed participants over a period, noting significant and lasting decreases in PTSD symptoms among those who regularly engage in BJJ. The work suggests that the combination of physical activity, mental focus, and social interaction inherent in BJJ practice contributes to these positive outcomes.
In addition, the study also highlights how the repetitive and immersive nature of BJJ training can serve as a form of exposure therapy, where participants gradually face and gain control over stress triggers in a controlled environment. Although the work focused on PTSD management among veterans, PTSD is not exclusive only to that group (e.g., law enforcement officers or others who have PTSD after a traumatic event). This method of coping can lead to profound changes in how individuals who suffer from PTSD process and react to stress, potentially providing a blueprint for integrating BJJ into broader PTSD treatment programs.
Building Resilience and Community
In a systematic review, a researcher examined the role of BJJ as both a social and psychological therapy [4]. The review consolidates findings from multiple studies, illustrating how BJJ aids in building strong community ties, which is essential for mental health. The physical closeness and mutual trust required in BJJ training create a unique social dynamic that fosters interpersonal relationships and a supportive network, offering a sense of belonging and community that is often therapeutic. Moreover, the review details how the mental challenges presented in BJJ—such as strategy formulation and problem-solving—enhance cognitive functions and contribute to psychological resilience. These mental benefits complement the physical aspects of BJJ, creating a holistic therapy modality that addresses multiple facets of psychological health.
METHODS
A scoping review of the literature was appropriate to meet the objectives of this study and answer the research question: What benefits does Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu (BJJ) training provide for veterans and first responders in terms of physical, mental, and social health?
This study’s protocol was developed using the scoping review methodological framework [2]. The draft protocol for this review was analyzed by research colleagues and implemented. The protocol consisted of a series of five stages, details of the search strategy and steps of the review process included:
Identifying and collecting relevant studies: Literature searches were conducted across four electronic bibliographic databases: PubMed and Google Scholar. An initial search using the search terms “Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu,” “veterans,” “first responders,” “rehabilitation,” “physical health,” “mental health,” and “community integration” was conducted. This search established salient parameters and eight key search terms to conduct additional searches across the four databases. Those eight critical terms included: (i) Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu and veterans; (ii) Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu and first responders; (iii) BJJ and PTSD; (iv) BJJ for physical rehabilitation; (v) BJJ and conflict resolution; (vi) mental health benefits of BJJ; (vii) physical health benefits of BJJ; and (viii) social integration through BJJ. The collected literature was then screened for relevance to the research question. After removing duplicates, studies were assessed for eligibility. Reference lists of eligible studies were further screened for additional relevant studies.
Study selection: Inclusion and exclusion criteria were established to filter and guide searches for relevant literature. To be included, literature from searches had to meet four inclusion criteria: (i) be from a peer-reviewed journal, a conference presentation, or a published thesis; (ii) published in the English language; (iii) include documented interventions or analysis related to BJJ; and (iv) be quantitative or qualitative. The literature was not restricted by time frame, study population, geographical publication, or type/design of journal article. Collected literature that did not meet all criteria was excluded. However, two colleagues analyzed conflicting literature to reach a consensus for inclusion. By applying the eligibility criteria, two reviewers screened the articles for selection. Blinding was applied at this stage to ensure no bias between reviewers in the selection process. All conflicts between the two reviewers, generated through screening, were discussed to reach a consensus. When conflict remained, the opinion of a third reviewer was sought to reach a consensus. Initially, articles were selected from the title and abstract screening. A second, more in-depth selection was then conducted through full-text screening. December 3, 2023, was the last date that the search was executed.
Charting the data: Once included articles were selected, data was extracted and charted according to author, title, journal, publication year, geographical location, purpose, sample size and type, methodology, intervention type, outcomes, key findings, and barriers. One author extracted and grouped the data, and another validated the data to ensure accuracy. Data were organized and grouped into subtopics according to the identified study purposes: (i) physical health benefits of BJJ; (ii) mental health benefits of BJJ; (iii) social integration through BJJ; (iv) PTSD and BJJ; (v) conflict resolution skills through BJJ; and (vi) physical rehabilitation through BJJ.
Summarizing and synthesizing the results: Authors collectively compared and discussed the charted data. Descriptive statistics were performed to characterize the research literature and to identify the breadth and gaps. Trends across geographic locations and decades of publication of included studies were evaluated. The study results were examined and discussed within each thematic area to determine trends and commonalities. Barriers and gaps were identified within the literature to suggest future areas of study. A consensus between all three authors regarding the critical information generated from the review was reached.
In addition to the scoping review methodological framework proposed by leading scholars in the scoping review methodologies [2]. The researchers for this review followed the PRISMA Extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) checklist [11]. No risk of bias assessment, summary measures, or additional analyses were conducted in this scoping review following the PRISMA-ScR [11]. No formal review protocol exists.
Figure 1. PRISMA 2020 Flow Diagram.
Physical Health Benefits
The studies reviewed consistently demonstrated that BJJ training significantly enhances physical fitness, mobility, and injury rehabilitation. According to one study [1], participants showed marked improvements in cardiovascular health, muscular strength, and endurance. These findings align with the report from MPD, which documented a reduction in injuries among law enforcement officers engaged in BJJ, attributing these benefits to the increased physical conditioning that BJJ provides [3]. This comprehensive approach to physical health not only aids in immediate injury recovery but also contributes to long-term physical wellness.
In one example, the graph below adapted data from a study of physical and physiological profiles of BJJ athletes [1] and shows the peak and mean power values for those who train in BJJ, highlighting its intense physical demands.
The graph displays anaerobic power values from two distinct studies. The study of physical and physiological profiles of BJJ athletes [1] dataset provides measurements for both peak power and mean power:
Peak Power: This represents the highest instantaneous power output achieved by the athletes during the test.
Mean Power: Reflects the average power maintained throughout the Wingate test, typically 30 seconds.
The colors differentiate the types of power measured:
Red Bars: Peak power values from two studies.
Green Bars: Mean power values from the same studies.
The graph highlights variations between studies, underscoring the need for consistent testing methodologies to compare anaerobic capacity accurately across different research. However, the researcher concluded that BJJ athletes possess considerable anaerobic capacity, with peak power outputs exceeding 10 W/kg and mean power outputs close to 10 W/kg. These values demonstrate the athletes’ proficiency in generating and sustaining high levels of power, essential during competitive grappling engagements, such as executing takedowns, resisting submissions, or applying forceful maneuvers.
In another example, the chart below adapted data from MPD. It showed three distinct bars, each representing the percentage reduction in incidents due to BJJ training within the Marietta Police Department in 2020.
The first bar shows a 48% reduction in injuries to officers who used force, indicating significant safety improvements for the officers involved.
The second bar illustrates a 53% reduction in injuries to persons who required force during arrest, highlighting the training’s role in protecting the officers and those they encounter.
The third bar indicates a 23% reduction in Taser use, demonstrating a shift towards less reliance on electronic control devices, which can be critical in high-tension situations.
Mental Health Benefits
The mental health improvements associated with BJJ are particularly significant. Researchers who explored BJJ training for U.S. service members and veterans with symptoms of PTSD found substantial reductions in PTSD symptoms among veterans participating in BJJ, with benefits extending to decreased levels of depression and anxiety [13]. Interestingly, researchers who studied BJJ benefits in managing PTSD further supported these findings in their longitudinal study [12], which noted lasting mental health benefits from regular BJJ practice. The mental discipline and focus required in BJJ training foster an environment conducive to psychological healing and emotional stability, making it a valuable tool in mental health therapy.
For example, this review adapted data from research on BJJ training for U.S. service members and veterans with symptoms of PTSD [13] and graphs the effect sizes calculated from PCL-5 assessments for veterans participating in BJJ training. The graph illustrates the effect sizes at two key intervals of their study: pre-treatment to mid-treatment and pre-treatment to post-treatment. To assess the impact of BJJ on PTSD symptoms among veterans and first responders, researchers measured changes in PTSD symptomatology using the PTSD Checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5) and concluded decreased levels of depression and anxiety.
Effect Sizes and Confidence Intervals
The graph depicts effect sizes (Cohen’s d) and their corresponding 95% confidence intervals to illustrate the magnitude and precision of changes in PTSD symptoms from pre-treatment to mid-treatment and from pre-treatment to post-treatment.
Statistical Significance
The p-values associated with these findings underscore the statistical significance of the observed improvements, suggesting that the effects are attributable to the BJJ intervention.
Social and Community Aspects
The findings illustrated BJJ’s role in enhancing social interactions and building community ties. For example, one researcher examined BJJ as a possible social and psychological therapeutic modality and underscored how BJJ promotes camaraderie and supports systems among participants, creating a sense of belonging and mutual trust [4]. This community aspect is crucial, especially for veterans and first responders, who often experience isolation in their professional roles. The shared experience of BJJ training fosters solid interpersonal relationships and provides a supportive network that enhances the social well-being of its members.
These results collectively illustrate BJJ’s comprehensive benefits, affirming its effectiveness across physical, mental, and social domains. Integrating BJJ into therapeutic and training programs offers a holistic approach to health and wellness, supporting individuals’ physical conditioning and psychological and social rehabilitation.
For instance, this work adapted data from a study on BJJ as social and psychological therapy [4] and crafted a thematic map to illustrate the complex relationships between various aspects of BJJ and their outcomes.
Reduces Negative Behaviors
he thematic map distinguishes between direct benefits and the pathways that facilitate these benefits, using color coding to enhance readability and understanding. It effectively encapsulates how BJJ is a multifaceted enhancer of psychosocial health. By detailing both the outcomes and the mechanisms, the map serves as a tool for understanding BJJ’s broad and nuanced impacts beyond the mat, supporting its integration into psychological and social rehabilitation programs.
THEMES
Multiple themes emerged from the outcomes assessed in the literature. One researcher with expertise in BJJ identified and categorized these themes, and studies were grouped into key categories inspired by different domains related to veterans and first responders. Most studies evaluated one specific theme within the context of BJJ while acknowledging others to a lesser degree; however, some overlap of themes emerged in studies. Table 1 groups all studies by theme, variable, citation, and geographical region.
Table 1. Summary of all themes, the variable(s) assessed in each theme, and the studies that assessed the variable(s).
From the included literature: (1) physical health benefits of BJJ; (2) mental health benefits of BJJ; (3) social integration through BJJ; (4) BJJ’s role in PTSD management; (5) BJJ for conflict resolution skills; and (6) BJJ for physical rehabilitation, all occupied the primary purpose of the greatest number of studies. Other pertinent topics included: (7) BJJ’s impact on law enforcement training; (8) psychological resilience through BJJ; (9) community building and support systems through BJJ; and (10) strategies for implementing BJJ in therapeutic settings, which were the secondary focus of some studies and integrated into studies with another primary focus.
DISCUSSION
This scoping review aimed to define and evaluate the quantitative and qualitative data regarding the effects of BJJ on veterans and first responders. It was conducted through standard methods outlined by leading scholars in the field [2] to identify, select, and synthesize the findings from 11 studies. The current knowledge of BJJ was documented by analyzing the geographic scope of studies, the year of publication, and the specific themes that emerged from the literature. Provided below are significant results of this review that can be relevant for future researchers, practitioners, and BJJ instructors.
The included studies revealed evidence of BJJ’s physical health benefits. Participants showed marked improvements in cardiovascular health, muscular strength, and endurance [1]. These physical health benefits were consistent across different populations and settings, highlighting BJJ’s utility in enhancing overall fitness and aiding injury rehabilitation [10]. Despite these positive findings, further research is needed to establish standardized protocols for measuring these benefits across diverse groups.
The literature also prominently discussed BJJ’s mental health benefits. Substantial reductions in PTSD symptoms, depression, and anxiety were reported among veterans participating in BJJ [12, 13] These findings suggest that BJJ provides a supportive environment conducive to psychological healing and emotional stability. The mental discipline and focus required in BJJ training foster an environment that encourages mindfulness and stress reduction. However, the mechanisms underlying these mental health benefits are not fully understood and warrant further investigation.
Social integration emerged as a significant theme, with BJJ promoting camaraderie and support systems among participants. Studies highlighted how BJJ fosters a sense of belonging and mutual trust, crucial for veterans and first responders who often experience isolation in their professional roles [4]. The communal aspect of BJJ training helps build strong interpersonal relationships and provides a supportive network that enhances social well-being. Future research should explore how these social benefits can be optimized further to support the reintegration of veterans into civilian life.
BJJ’s role in enhancing law enforcement capabilities was another key finding. BJJ training improves mental acuity, decision-making under pressure, and interpersonal skills, which are essential in the high-stress context of law enforcement work [7, 9]. The practical impacts of BJJ as a response to resistance option were also noted, with reduced injuries and complaints regarding the use of force in departments that implemented BJJ training programs [10]. These findings underscore the importance of incorporating BJJ into law enforcement training to enhance officer safety and effectiveness.
Technological advancements in BJJ training were less frequently discussed but are becoming increasingly relevant. Integrating AI and other technologies to enhance training and performance tracking could revolutionize how BJJ practitioners train and improve [12]. Future research should explore the potential of these technologies in providing more precise and individualized training programs.
Comparisons across gender and skill levels revealed essential insights into how different populations benefit from BJJ training. Differences in physical and psychological responses to BJJ were noted, suggesting that tailored training programs may be necessary to optimize benefits for diverse groups [1]. Future studies should continue to explore these differences to develop more inclusive and effective training methodologies.
The inclusion of wheelchair BJJ and adaptive training for individuals with disabilities was minimal but highlighted the need for more inclusive research. Studies focused on the biomechanics of BJJ for wheelchair users and its potential benefits in promoting physical and mental health [6]. Expanding research in this area could lead to better support and training for individuals with disabilities.
Future Research
Understanding the many benefits of BJJ for veterans and first responders is unquestionable. Continued research should aim to standardize measurement protocols and explore the long-term impacts of BJJ training. Future studies should also consider integrating technological advancements and developing adaptive training programs to support diverse populations. By expanding the scope of research to include mixed-double formats and other variations of BJJ, researchers can develop a more comprehensive understanding of its benefits and applications.
Strengths and Limitations of this Scoping Review
This scoping review applied a systematic and rigorous search strategy to retrieve a comprehensive range of articles addressing the benefits of BJJ for veterans and first responders. Considering both peer-reviewed journal articles and grey literature, the review captured a broad spectrum of knowledge, including unpublished theses and conference presentations. However, some studies were unintentionally omitted due to limited access, and the exclusion of non-English language studies may have skewed the geographic analysis of the literature. Additionally, the reliance on self-reported data in many studies introduces potential biases that should be addressed in future research.
CONCLUSIONS
This study sought to review the literature on the benefits of BJJ for veterans and first responders, focusing on physical, mental, and social health outcomes. It answers this study’s research question and presents the current knowledge for each identified theme, providing opportunities for future research. This scoping review will aid in building a more comprehensive understanding of BJJ’s therapeutic mechanisms and significantly contribute to optimizing its application in rehabilitative and therapeutic settings. A growing body of research is being conducted globally on BJJ’s benefits. The current literature reveals substantial evidence of BJJ’s positive impact on physical fitness, mental health, and social integration. However, the varying methodologies and outcomes of the included studies indicate that more rigorous research is needed to elucidate BJJ’s mechanisms of action fully. This scoping review provides an impetus for further research on BJJ’s effects on specific populations, including adaptive training for individuals with disabilities and integrating technological advancements in training. Studies included in this scoping review only scratched the surface of these variables and their impact on the well-being of veterans and first responders. Future research should aim to expand on these findings to develop a more comprehensive understanding of BJJ’s potential as a therapeutic tool.
APPLICATIONS IN SPORT
Integrating BJJ into training programs for veterans and first responders provides a versatile approach to enhancing their physical, mental, and social well-being. Coaches and trainers can leverage BJJ to significantly improve cardiovascular health, muscular strength, and endurance, which are essential for the physically demanding roles of these professionals. The mental health benefits of BJJ are particularly noteworthy; the studies in this review show it reduces symptoms of PTSD, depression, and anxiety, thereby promoting emotional resilience and effective stress management. Furthermore, BJJ’s structured and strategic nature supports mental acuity and decision-making under pressure, which are necessary skills for operational effectiveness. Socially, BJJ offers a sense of community and mutual support, aiding in the social integration of veterans and first responders and mitigating feelings of isolation. By incorporating BJJ into their training regimes, coaches and trainers can deliver a holistic program that enhances physical fitness and supports psychological health and social connectivity, ultimately improving the overall recovery, resilience, and operational readiness of veterans and first responders. This comprehensive approach underscores BJJ’s value as a therapeutic intervention in sports training programs for these populations.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors confirm that all the research in this work has met ethical guidelines and adhered to the legal requirements of the United States of America. In addition, the principal investigator is compliant with the Collaborative Institutional Training Initiative (CITI) Program on social and behavioral researchers and social and behavioral responsible conduct of research training. Furthermore, this work was not funded, the authors declare no conflict of interest, and it did not contain studies with human participants or animals performed by the principal investigator.
References
1Andreato, L., Lara, F., Andrade, A., & Branco, B. (2017). Physical and physiological profiles of Brazilian jiu-jitsu athletes: A systematic review. Sports Medicine – Open, 3(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40798-016-0069-5
2Arksey, H., & O’malley, L. (2005). Scoping studies: towards a methodological framework. International journal of social research methodology, 8(1), 19-32.
3BJJ training data documents a reduction in injuries. (2021). Marietta, GA. https://www.mariettaga.gov/CivicAlerts.aspx?AID=3116#:~:text=MPD%20officers%20participating%20in%20Brazilian,arrested%20when%20force%20was%20required
4Blomqvist Mickelsson, T. (2021). Brazilian jiu-jitsu as social and psychological therapy: a systematic review. Journal of Physical Education and Sport, 21(3), 1544-1552.
5Collura, G. L. (2018). Brazilian Jiu Jitsu: A tool for veteran reassimilation. University of South Florida.
6Fender, R. (2024). Benefits of Brazilian jiu-jitsu for soldier rehabilitation. www.army.mil. https://www.army.mil/article/273135/benefits_of_brazilian_jiu_jitsu_for_soldier_rehabilitation
7Howard, R. (2022). Improving Use of Force Training for Officers. Florida Department of Law Enforcement. https://www.fdle.state.fl.us/FCJEI/Programs/SLP/Documents/Full-Text/Howard,-Rocky-paper.aspx
9Kilby, T. (2022). The benefits of jiu-jitsu beyond technique. Police1. https://www.police1.com/health-wellness/articles/the-benefits-of-jiu-jitsu-beyond-technique-WaVZI8zAQXh9Gx5S/
10Rogers, K., Jones, P., & Burne, K. (2021). Marietta Police Department measurably improves officer outcomes with the BJJ program. Jitsmagazine.com. https://jitsmagazine.com/marietta-police-department-measurably-improves-officer-outcomes-with-bjj-program/.
11Tricco, A. C., Lillie, E., Zarin, W., O’Brien, K. K., Colquhoun, H., Levac, D., … & Straus, S. E. (2018). PRISMA extension for scoping reviews (PRISMA-ScR): checklist and explanation. Annals of internal medicine, 169(7), 467-473.
12Weinberger, K., & Burraston, T. (2021). Benefits of Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu in Managing Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder: A Longitudinal Study. Journal of Community Engagement & Scholarship, 13(4).
13Willing, A. E., Girling, S., Deichert, R., Wood-Deichert, R., Gonzalez, J., Hernandez, D., Foran, E., Sanberg, P. R., & Kip, K. E. (2019). Brazilian jiu-jitsu training for us service members and veterans with symptoms of PTSD. Military Medicine, 184(11-12), e626–e631. https://doi.org/10.1093/milmed/usz074
George Minoso2024-08-27T15:53:24-05:00August 30th, 2024|General, Sport Training, Sports Exercise Science|Comments Off on An examination of studies related to Brazilian jiu-jitsu in enhancing mental and physical health among veterans and first responders: A scoping review
Authors: Lindsay Ross-Stewart1, Landon Braun2, & Victoria Hardcastle3
1Department of Applied Health, Southern Illinois University Edwardsville 2College of Health Professions and Sciences, University of Wisconsin Milwaukee 3Department of Intercollegiate Athletics, Savannah State University
Corresponding Author: Dr. Lindsay Ross-Stewart Campus Box 1126 Southern Illinois University Edwardsville Edwardsville, IL, 62026 lrossst@siue.edu (618) 650-2410
Lindsay Ross-Stewart, PhD is an Associate Professor in the Department of Applied Health at Southern Illinois University Edwardsville. Dr. Ross-Stewart is a CMPC® and a Canadian Sport Psychology Association Mental Performance Consultant (MPC).
Landon Braun, M.S., is a Doctoral Student at the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee in the College of Health Professions & Sciences. At UWM Landon works as a Teaching Assistant in the School of Rehabilitation Sciences & Technology where he teaches courses related sport and performance psychology to both undergraduate and graduate students.
Victoria Hardcastle, M.S., is an Assistant Softball Coach at Savannah State University.
Effective use of Imagery Assisted Virtual Reality in Pitch Recognition and Sport Imagery Ability Development
ABSTRACT
Abstract: Imagery can be described as experience that mimics real world experiences through the combination of using different sensory modalities in the absence of actual perceptions (43). One uses visual, auditory, kinesthetic (touch), smell, and taste to create a picture simulating real world environments and scenarios. Imagery can be used to enhance various aspects of performance by mentally preparing someone for an upcoming competition or helping an athlete focus specifically on a task (19). Virtual reality, understood in this study as a first-person filmed, computer presented, immersive simulation of a real environment (32), has become increasingly more utilized in sport performance settings (7, 37, 44). Combing these two elements, the purpose of this study was to investigate an applied Imagery Assisted Virtual Reality (IAVR) intervention on imagery ability and pitch recognition in a sample of eleven National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division One softball players at a Midwestern University. This study’s results indicated a significant increase in global imagery ability as well as in four of the five functions of imagery (CS, CG, MG-A, MG-A) and in pitch type recognition. Practically, the results from this study suggest that the IAVR intervention can create an impactful experience to assist athletes in improving their performance and psychological skills.
Keywords: Psychological Skills, Pitching Ability, Softball, Virtual Reality, Collegiate Sport
Virtual reality technology has become an increasingly common tool used in sport (e.g., 3 – 4, 7, 14, 17, 24, 26; 28, 31, 37, 44) with application in areas such as injury rehabilitation (31), and performance enhancement (2, 27, Wood et al., 2020). In fact, virtual reality has been labeled the next step forward for athletic training (47) and has been the subject of several states of the field (e.g., 7, 26).
Virtual reality was originally defined as a computer-generated, artificial, or simulated environment created by technological software (38). Within sport, it has been defined as instances when individuals are engaged in a sport that is represented in a computer-simulated environment which aims to induce a sense of being mentally or physically present and enables interactivity with the environment (28). One important aspect that virtual reality training is lacking is a focus on how virtual reality can assist in increasing an athlete’s psychological skill development (32). While virtual reality can impressively replicate environments and simulate real-world reactions; it still lacks the ability to capture an emotional response to the environment (32). As we know that how one feels and their perceptions of the sporting environment are necessary for performance, past research has shown this to be a challenge in traditional VR interventions (11) Research on the incorporation of imagery into a virtual reality training program has shown it to be a promising way to gain the advantages of VR and to overcome this potential challenge (32, 33; 34).
In the context of sport, White and Hardy (45) defined mental imagery as: an experience that mimics real experience. We can be aware of “seeing” an image, feeling movements as an image, or experiencing an image of smell, tastes, or sounds without actually experiencing the real thing (23). One approach to the application of imagery in sport is the revised applied model of imagery, which states that athletes may use it to achieve different outcomes (10). To achieve desired outcomes, imagery type, what athlete’s images and imagery function, the why or the purpose of an athlete’s image should be considered (29). Imagery type is split into two categories, cognitive and motivational, with each operating at specific and general levels (43). Cognitive refers to performance enhancement while motivational focuses on confidence enhancement (5). Imagery types and functions have been defined as: Cognitive specific (CS) helps an athlete to work on skill learning, development, and execution. Cognitive general (CG) affords the athlete the ability to image different strategies and routines. Motivational specific (MS) imagery focuses on enhancing motivation through goal setting and goal achievement. Motivational general arousal (MGA) imagery focuses on somatic and emotional experiences such as regulating stress and arousal. Motivational general mastery (MGM) imagery concentrates on coping, gaining, and maintaining self-confidence, and staying focused (10, 18) identify. Athletes might use each of the imagery types alone or in combination with one another, depending on the meaning an athlete applies to the image (29). For example, an athlete can use cognitive specific imagery (CS type) to image themselves executing a skill successfully (CS function), but this image may also increase their confidence, which would be for the function type MG-M (10).
Focusing on the way in which Imagery and Virtual Reality could be used together, Ross-Stewart and colleagues developed Imagery Assisted Virtual Reality (IAVR), a training protocol that involves an immersive virtual reality experience for users in which kinesthetic awareness is incorporated with users being able to see a first-person simulated scenario coupled with an individualized imagery script aimed at enhancing psychological skills and performance (32). IAVR entailed a first-person filmed batting environment from an on-deck position all the way up to batting and taking swings. This video was then followed by a blank screen with an individualized guided imagery script tailored to each individual player that was either audio recorded in the video itself or written down. In their initial study they found that participants who completed an IAVR intervention increased their skills imagery (CS), goal imagery (MS) and mastery imagery (MG-M) as measured by the Sport Imagery Ability Questionnaire (SIAQ; 43). Furthermore, results suggested an increase in overall imagery use, positive self-talk and automaticity in both practice and competition through the length of the study. Additionally, negative thinking during competition decreased, as measured by the Test of Performance Strategies (TOPS; 39). The finding that imagery and virtual reality used together can impact psychological constructs was supported by Frank et al (2022) who found self-efficacy to increase in a physical activity task using imagery and virtual reality. Furthering the support for IAVR, a recent study on the impact of VR on imagery ability and emotional affect found that VR can “induce emotional arousal and affect the mental imagery skills and positive affect of athletes” (46).
Baseball hall of famer Ted Williams referred to batting as “the hardest thing to do in sports” (35). If a softball pitcher throws a 60-mph fastball, it will reach Homeplate in .45 seconds. However, if she throws a changeup at 50 mph, it will reach Homeplate in .55 seconds. Batters have a brief window of opportunity in which they must recognize the pitch and decide to swing or not swing (20). Pitch recognition is the batter’s ability to recognize which way the seams on the ball are spinning/rotating and the trajectory of the ball (20). These two components can be categorized by pitch type (fastball, change-up, drop ball, rise ball) and prediction of eventual location of the pitch (strike, ball, inside, outside) (13). Being able to recognize pitches is an essential aspect of batting. However, there exists little agreement on what the skill of pitch recognition consists of and how to improve it (13). Each pitch is comprised of different combinations of velocity, rotation, and trajectory cues. Outside of rotation and trajectory cues, there are other sources of information a batter might be receiving information from without being aware of it. These cues include knowledge of the pitcher, game situation, and batter’s count (20). A batter’s ability to recognize which pitch is being thrown will allow them to conduct their swing accordingly and increase performance. This recognition will allow a batter to make more solid hits and recognize the difference between a ball and strike. This recognition will also allow them to either look for pitches they want to hit or draw more walks. Therefore, pitch recognition is a pivotal skill for softball players to obtain if they want to achieve top performance.
The use of VR has been shown to be an effective tool for the increase of strike zone and pitch recognition (16). Virtual reality training has also been shown to lead to a greater sensitivity to visual information provided by the ball trajectory, seam rotation, and improved ability to use monocular cues to determine whether a pitch would cross the plate in the strike zone or not (16). Furthermore, Ranganathan and Carlton (30) found that VR was effective when baseball players had visual information of an entire pitch in their VR environment and ball trajectory yielded a higher prediction accuracy.
Based on both past research in VR and IAVR, merging imagery and virtual reality may enhance the psychological skill and strategy development of athletes more than if they are used alone. Taken with recent suggestions for more research on the effectiveness of VR on both skill acquisition and psychological change in sport (e.g., 7 17, 26, 28 31, 41), specifically, Cotterill’s assertion that “there is also a need for more applied case studies that outline the procedures adopted and reflect on the outcomes obtained using VR in sport psychology–relevant ways”(7, p.22). The purpose of this paper is to highlight an applied Imagery Assisted Virtual Reality intervention that was used with a National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I softball team. Specifically, hitters were given the opportunity to participate in an intervention that designed individualized imagery assisted virtual reality video for them and then they were assessed to see how it impacted their imagery ability, and pitch recognition. Based on past research, it was hypothesized that both global imagery ability and pitch recognition would increase from baseline to post intervention. Furthermore, based on past research on IAVR (32) it was hypothesized that CS, CG, and MG-M imagery would significantly increase from baseline to post intervention. No hypothesis was made related to MS and MG-A imagery due to lack of past research, at the time of data collection, supporting the use of this imagery increasing using IAVR.
Materials and Methods
Methods
Participants Participants were 11 NCAA Division One female softball players at a Midwestern University. Of the 11 participants five were right-handed batters and six were left-handed batters. Their ages ranged from 18-24 years old.
Measures Sport Imagery Ability Questionnaire (43; SIAQ): The SIAQ was designed to measure an athlete’s ability to image different content (i.e., strategies, skills, feelings, and goals) and the frequency that an athlete images. The questionnaire has 15 questions rated from 1 (very hard to image) to 7 (very easy to image). The questions are divided into five different subscales; skill imagery ability (e.g., defining a specific skill), strategy imagery ability (e.g., making/executing strategies), goal imagery ability (e.g., winning the game), affect imagery ability (e.g., positive emotions connected with the sport), and mastery imagery ability (e.g., positive outlook when things are not going well). An overall sport imagery ability score and all subscales were calculated separately. To score each of the five subscales, questions for the subscale were summed and divided by the number of questions for each source. The SIAQ has been found to have good validity and reliability (43)
Pitch recognition test: A Pitch Recognition test was designed for this study to assess a participant’s ability to recognize a pitch type (fastball. change-up, etc.) and pitch location (strike/ball). Participants viewed twelve pitches via GoPro film from a pitcher. The film the participants viewed was from the same film they viewed in their IAVR. There were five seconds between each pitch allowing for the participants to circle both the pitch type and pitch location of the previously viewed pitch. The pitch recognition test had twelve different pitches for the baseline testing and the post intervention testing. The number of pitches they correctly identified for both type and location divided by twelve was their total pitch recognition scores. Both pitch type and pitch location were scored as subscale.
Procedure Institution IRB was obtained. Players were recruited from an NCAA (National Collegiate Athletic Association) Division I softball team. Eleven players signed up to participate in the intervention. Participants who gave consent were assigned a time to film their first-person VR film. Filming was done both on the players’ field and in their indoor hitting facility to make sure it properly mimicked where they were currently practicing. During filming, participants wore dual mounted GoPro headsets on top of their batting helmets to gain first person filming perspectives. Participants were instructed to go through their whole routine starting with preparation for the on-deck circle by stepping into the batter’s box. Filming was also done to gain a third person perspective using a dual mounted GoPro headset strapped to a tripod and placed in the batter’s box. For this film day, three pitchers from the same team, who volunteered to help with the study were filmed pitching from the mound (one left-handed, two right-handed). All three of the pitchers threw their pitches (fastball, change-up, rise ball, etc.) for both right-handed batter and left-handed batter viewpoints. Ninety-six pitches were filmed to allow for a variety of options for the pitching videos. After the filming was complete the research team used Shotcut to edit the film into two pitch recognition videos, and an individualized VR video for each participant. Videos of the pitches were made to assess pitch recognition at baseline and time 2. To make these videos, the third-person video was edited by clipping each pitcher’s pitch into its own. This allowed the researchers to integrate all three pitchers’ pitches into a specific order. Researchers then went through and selected twelve pitches out of the right-handed batter’s film and a separate twelve out of the left-handed batter’s film. These clips were arranged to simulate two full at bats, with a five second black screen between each pitch. This method was replicated to make the pitch recognition video that would be used for the post test.
To make the IAVR videos, first-person perspective film was edited to start when participants start their pre-at bat routine. The clip ended when the batter received a pitch from the pitcher while they were in the batter’s box. In these videos pitch clips were aligned to simulate a real world at bat, including timing between bats. To develop the guided imagery scripts that would be recorded as audio into the Virtual Reality videos, participants individually met with the research team to discuss their experiences at bat. The imagery scripts were written according to the guidelines suggested by (42) making sure to incorporate both stimulus and response propositions (8, 22) to the imagery scripts. The imagery scripts were broken down and recorded into two audio files. The first recording consisted of each participant’s rituals and routines starting when they are “in the hole” all the way to being in the batter’s box. This included getting equipment on (batting gloves, elbow guard, etc.), walking to the on-deck circle, on deck circle rituals, walking to the batter’s box, and pre at bat rituals. Some participants opted to have their walk-up song playing in the background during their imagery script when walking from the on-deck circle to the batter’s box.
The second recording started when each participant was in the batter’s box. Depending on how the participant wanted their imagery script written, they might receive a ball or strike first. Then, hitting to a designated spot of their choosing. Participants then had a choice of running through first, running to second, or sliding into second. The scenarios and cues they picked up from the first base coach were all individualized to each participant. These individual imagery scripts were turned into audio files and then embedded into the participants corresponding virtual reality film to make the Imagery Assisted Virtual Reality interventions for each participant. The IAVR was set up as the following: imagery script of preparation for an at bat, 3rd person pitch film, first person film from the dugout to the batter’s box, and then imagery script of hitting the ball and making it to a base safe. Before being given their IAVR film, participants watched the baseline pitch recognition video and marked the pitch type and location of each video. Each player was provided with a pair of virtual reality goggles and a locked cell phone loaded with their individualized video. Instructions were also provided to participants on how to download the videos onto their personal phone if they preferred to have it on their own phone. Participants were instructed to watch their IAVR video at least once a day using virtual reality goggles. Participants were also informed that if they requested any changes to their IAVR (i.e., imagery speed, tone, pitch order) the research team would make the changes at any time during the intervention. After participants had the IAVR video for six weeks they completed a post intervention pitch recognition test where they watched the second pitching video that had been made and once again recorded what type and location, they believed they saw for each pitch. They also completed the SIAQ at this time.
Results Review of the data indicated that two participants had missed one question each. The means for each question were used as a replacement so the participants data could still be used in the analysis, as deemed appropriate in inferential statistics (21). Next descriptive statistics for baseline and post intervention were calculated for each of the five imagery ability subscales and global imagery ability score, as well as total pitch recognition, pitch type and pitch location. Paired samples t-tests were run to assess mean changes from baseline to post intervention for all imagery ability subscales and total imagery score as well as for the three pitch assessments. As the data were expected to increase from baseline to post intervention across all variables a one tailed test was employed with an alpha level of 0.05. Cohens d were calculated for all pairs with 0.21 – 0.59 considered a small effect .60 – .79 a medium effect and 0.80 to 100 a large effect (6).
Imagery Participants’ global imagery ability was higher at post-testing (m = 5.69, sd = 0.79) as opposed to baseline (m = 5.02, sd = 0.69), which was found to be a statistically significant difference, t(10) = -2.70, p = .01, d = 0.91). Skill imagery ability change from baseline to post intervention was also significant (t(10) = -2.51, p = 0.02, d = 0.73), indicating that the participants increased their skill imagery ability from baseline (m = 4.79, sd = 1.12) to post intervention (m = 5.63, sd = 1.20). Strategy imagery ability was found to have a statistically significant change (t(10) = -2.05, p = .03, d = 0.63). Means indicated an increase from 4.73 (sd =0.94) at baseline to 5.30 (sd =0.88) at post intervention. The affect imagery ability increase was statistically significant (t(10) = -2.07 p = 0.03, d = 0.81). Means indicated a change from 5.55 (sd = 0.83) at baseline to 6.22 at post intervention (sd = 0.79). Mastery imagery ability from baseline (m = 4.88, sd = 0.86) to post test (m = 5.60, sd = 0.79) was also statistically significant (t(10) = -2.05, p = 0.02, d = 0.88). Goal imagery did not have a statistically significant change from baseline (m = 5.15, sd = 1.02) to post intervention (m = 5.70, sd = 1.03, (p = 0.07, d = 0.53).
Pitch Statistics Pitch type recognition was found to be statistically significant from baseline (m = 6.60, sd = 3.13) to post intervention (m = 9.10, sd = 2.08), t(10) = -2.28, p = .04) with a large effect size (d = 0.94). Pitch location recognition and total pitch recognition both increased, however neither were statistically significant changes (p >0.05). Percentage change was also recorded for pitch type as that is the common way to assess these statistics in applied softball scenarios. See Table 1 for full statistics for Pitch.
Table 1. Average Number and percentage of pitches accurately identified at baseline and Post Intervention
Discussion This study investigated the effect of an applied Imagery Assisted Virtual Reality intervention on NCAA Division I softball players’ imagery ability and pitch recognition. This study hypothesized an increase in global imagery ability, pitch recognition as well as increases in skill (CS), strategy (CG), and Confidence (MG-M) imagery. Overall, the hypotheses were supported by the findings of this study.
This study’s results indicated a significant increase in the participants’ global imagery ability with this change indicating a large effect size. Furthermore, of the five imagery subscales all showed increases from baseline to post intervention, with Skill, Strategy, Mastery and Affect imagery ability increasing from baseline to post intervention. The increase in global imagery ability and subscale increases equates to the athlete’s ability to image being easier in real sport situations (49). This is of applied significance as this increase in global imagery could assist athletes in mental preparation before engaging in sport specific performance endeavors. It is also of importance as we have few studies demonstrating how to increase imagery ability even though we know the ability to image is important for athletes who want to use imagery to increase their sport performance. As imagery has been shown over and over again to increase sport performance (e.g., 9), knowing how to increase imagery ability is an important step in pursuit of maximizing the benefits of this psychological strategy. This study demonstrates how virtual reality can assist a person’s imagery ability when showing real world video in correlation to their imagery script. We can postulate that global imagery ability increased in part due to the IAVR increasing the functional equivalency of the intervention (32). These results align with research on functional equivalence (22 and the PETTLEP model of imagery which states that all senses need to be engaged to be fully immersed in an imagery script (e.g., 1, 19; 36, 40).
The results indicated significant increases in confidence (MG-M) and affect (MG-A) imagery ability which equates to an athlete’s ability to image and be in control and cope during difficult sporting situations, and image positive content withing their sport (43). It may be that these motivational imagery subscales had a significant increase due to cue words (e.g., calm, focus, confidently) that were inserted into each participants imagery script to stimulate an emotional response. These cue words, chosen by each participant, were combined with repeated phrases such as “take a deep breath,” “feel yourself,” and “you are confident” were also used to stimulate an emotional response from participants. Some participants also opted to have their walk-up song play during their imagery assisted virtual reality. This auditory connection between virtual reality film and real-world stimulus may have allowed participants to emotionally connect to the IAVR and use it to regulate arousal. It should be noted that although it was not hypothesized that affect imagery (MG-A) would increase due to lack of research at the time of study, this finding is supported by recent research that has come out since data was collected for this study (46). The increase in MG-A imagery ability indicates that athletes experienced some type of realistic emotion within the imagery experience. This finding coincides with previous research (25, 27) that posits increases in affect imagery within virtual reality films may be attributed to social presence within these virtual reality films. Lee and colleagues (25) believed that responses to social presence within virtual environments may be due to the players’ expectations of interactions during an actual game. Within this study, social presence was maintained throughout virtual reality film by incorporating the presence of teammates in the videos. Finally, there were significant increases in skill (CS), and strategy (CG) imagery ability, which supported the hypothesis and is in line with past research (32). This makes sense as the IAVR gave the players extra opportunities to see themselves engaging in the skill of hitting and through imagery incorporated their individual strategies for how they were going to hit the ball.
Pitch Statistics The hypothesis that pitch recognition would increase was partially supported. Pitch type recognition was found to be significantly increased from pre to post intervention. However, although pitch location recognition and total pitch recognition both increased, neither change was statistically significant. Percentage change was also recorded for pitch type as that is the common way to assess these statistics in applied softball scenarios and gave real world application information when it came to pitch recognition change. Of particular importance in this study was the finding that pitch type recognition increased by over 20% (from recognizing 6.6/12 – 9.1/12) from baseline to post intervention. Although not statistically significant the change in total pitch recognition increased by two pitches (4.1/12 to 5.9/12, 15%) which in an applied setting is a noteworthy performance increase. As the IAVR in this study was not filmed with 360-degree cameras it may be that this affected the batter’s sense of where the pitch was over the base, leading to a lack of pitch location increase. However, the IAVR focus on first person perspective of the pitch coming at them just as it would in a real game essentially gave them more reps “reading” the pitch where they did not have to think about anything else (what they were going to do), which may be part of why their pitch type recognition increased. These findings are important for those within the softball world as we know that recognizing a pitch can predict accuracy of an at bat (e.g., 30, 16). Although it is noted that pitch recognition is an essential aspect to batting, there is little agreement on how to improve it (13). This study’s results demonstrate the effectiveness of IAVR on increasing pitch type recognition and could therefore be a low-cost tool used by teams to increase the skill of pitch recognition, and therefore batting percentages.
While this study is an important addition to the new area of Imagery Assisted Virtual Reality, there are limitations to consider. The first limitation of this study was the sample size. Although the small sample size is acknowledged as a limitation it should be noted that even with this small sample size, the effect sizes in this study were medium to high indicating that with a larger sample these findings may be even more pronounced. As this was an applied study using players who were in season, it was considered unethical to make some of them a control group. Specifically, having some players given an advantage over others, an advantage that is not shown to disappear over time, would be unfair to those in the control group, impacting both individual athletes and the team as a whole. Therefore, not having a control group, although a deliberate decision, does lead to the lack of knowledge as to whether another unexpected variable may have impacted these results.
As IAVR is a new strategy for increasing imagery ability and sport performance, there are several areas future researchers should consider. Current research on IAVR has focused on the effect of IAVR on imagery ability it may be useful to focus on imagery use (facilitative and debilitative) as the ability to image is of importance only in that it effects imagery use effectiveness (12). Therefore, future research should focus specifically on the effect of IAVR on amount of deliberate imagery use both during and after they complete the IAVR protocol. To that point, future applied research on IAVR would benefit from tracking season performance post intervention, or by athletes who use IAVR throughout a season. Additionally, the impact of IAVR on pitch recognition during in game would be a worthy pursuit. At this time, we do not know what the optimal length of an IAVR protocol would be for athlete imagery, psychological skill, or athletic performance. All these areas are ripe for future research to investigate.
Conclusion Overall, the results of this study further support the value of an Imagery Assisted Virtual Reality protocol being used in sport. Specifically, this study showed that IAVR can increase performance statistics (pitch recognition) and imagery ability.
Applications in Sport These findings have practical significance as they lend support for IAVR to be used by softball players to further both their in-game skills and psychological skills development. Furthermore, these findings add to the existing literature that indicates IAVR may be a cost effective and impactful tool for athletes in various sports.
References
Anuar, N., Cumming, J., & Williams, S. E. (2015). Effects of applying the PETTLEP model on vividness and ease of imaging movement. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 28(2), 185-198. doi:10.1080/10413200.2015.1099122
Bedir, D., & Erhan, S. E. (2021). The effect of virtual reality technology on the imagery skills and performance of target-based sports athletes. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 2073. doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.02073
Bideau, B., Multon, F., Kulpa, R., Fradet, L., Arnaldi, B. & Delamarche, P. (2004). Using virtual reality to analyze links between handball thrower kinematics and goalkeeper’s reactions. Neuroscience Letters, 372(1-2), pp.119-122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neulet.2004.09.023
Bird, J. M. (2020). The use of virtual reality head-mounted displays within applied sport psychology. Journal of Sport Psychology in Action, 11(2), 115-128. https://doi.org/10.1080/21520704.2018.1563573
Callow, N., & Hardy, L. (2001). Types of imagery associated with sport confidence in netball players of varying skill levels. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 13(1), 1-17. doi:10.1080/104132001753155921
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ:
Cotterill, S. (2018). Virtual reality and sport performance: Implications for applied practice. Case Studies in Sport and Exercise Psychology, 2, 21-22. doi:10.1123/cssep.2018-0002
Cumming, J., Cooley, S. J., Anuar, N., Kosteli, M.-C., Quinton, M. L., Weibull, F., & Williams, S. E. (2016). Developing imagery ability effectively: A guide to layered stimulus response training. Journal of Sport Psychology in Action, 8(1), 23–33. doi: 10.1080/21520704.2016.1205698
Cumming, J., & Ramsey, R. (2008). Imagery interventions in sport. In Advances in applied sport psychology (pp. 15-46). Routledge. doi: 10.13140/2.1.2619.2322.
Cumming, J., & Williams, S. E. (2013). Introducing the revised applied model of deliberate imagery use for sport, dance, exercise, and rehabilitation. Movement & Sport Sciences-Science & Motricité, (82), 69-81. https://doi.org/10.1051/sm/2013098
Cuperus, A. & Van der Ham, I. (2016). Virtual reality replays of sports performance: Effects on memory, feeling of competence, and performance. Learning and Motivation, 56, pp.48-52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lmot.2016.09.005
Di Corrado, D., Guarnera, M., Vitali, F., Quartiroli, A., & Coco, M. (2019). Imagery ability of elite level athletes from individual vs. team and contact vs. no-contact sports. Brain, Cognition, and Mental Health, 7, e6940. doi: https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.6940
Fadde, P. J. (2006). Interactive video training of perceptual decision-making in the sport of baseball. Retrieved from http://peterfadde.com/Research/Baseball.pdf
Fink, P., Foo, P., & Warren, W. (2009). Catching fly balls in virtual reality: A critical test of the outfielder problem. Journal of Vision, 9(13), pp.14-14. doi: https://doi.org/10.1167/9.13.14
Frank, C., Hülsmann, F., Waltemate, T., Wright, D. J., Eaves, D. L., Bruton, A., Botsch, M., & Schack, T. (2022). Motor imagery during action observation in virtual reality: the impact of watching myself performing at a level I have not yet achieved. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 1-27. https://doi.org/10.1080/1612197x.2022.2057570
Gray, R. (2017). Transfer of training from virtual to real baseball batting. Frontiers in Psychology, 2183. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02183
Harrison, K., Potts, E., King, A. C., & Braun-Trocchio, R. (2021). The effectiveness of virtual reality on anxiety and performance in female soccer players. Sports, 9(12), 167. https://doi.org/10.3390/sports9120167
Hall, C. R., Mack, D. E., Paivio, A., & Hausenblas, H. A. (1998). Imagery use by athletes: Development of the Sport Imagery Questionnaire. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 29(1), 73–89.
Holmes, P. S. & Collins, D. J. (2001). The PETTLEP approach to motor imagery: A functional equivalence model for sport psychologists. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 13(1), 60-83. doi:10.1080/104132001753155958
Hyllegard, R. (1991). The role of the baseball seam pattern in pitch recognition. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 13(1), pp.80-84. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.13.1.80
Huck, S. W. (2014). Reading statistics and research (7th ed.). Pearson Education Limited.
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. https://doi.org/10.2307/2290095
Jeannerod, M. (1981) Intersegmental coordination during reaching at natural visual objects. Attention and performance IX, ed. Long, J. & Baddeley, A., & Erlbaum.
Jones, L., & Stuth, G. (1997). The uses of mental imagery in athletics: An overview. Applied and Preventive Psychology, 6(2), 101–115. doi: 10.1016/s0962-1849(05)80016-2
Kehoe, R. & Rice, M. (2016). Reality, virtual reality, and imagery: Quality of movement in novice dart players. British Journal of Occupational Therapy, 79(4), pp.244-251. https://doi.org/10.1177/0308022615616820
Lee, H., Chung, S., & Lee, W. (2012). Presence in virtual golf simulators: The effects of presence on perceived enjoyment, perceived value, and behavioral intention. New Media & Society, 15(6), pp.930-946. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444812464033
Malachi, E.G., Tunggara, R., Cahyadi, Y., Meiliana, Fajar. M. (2023). A systematic literature review of virtual reality implementation in sports. International Conference on Artificial Intelligence in Information and Communication (ICAIIC) Conference Program. doi 10.1109/ICAIIC57133.2023.10067095
Murray, E., Neumann, D., Moffitt, R. and Thomas, P. (2016). The effects of the presence of others during a rowing exercise in a virtual reality environment. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 22, pp.328-336.
Neumann, D. L., Moffitt, R. L., Thomas, P. R., Loveday, K., Watling, D. P., Lombard, C. L., Antonova, S., & Tremeer, M. A. (2018). A systematic review of the application of interactive virtual reality to sport. Virtual Reality, 22(3), 183-198.
Nordin, S. M., & Cumming, J. (2008). Types and functions of athletes’ imagery: Testing predictions from the applied model of imagery use by examining effectiveness. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 6(2), 189-206. doi:10.1080/1612197x.2008.9671861
Ranganathan, R. & Carlton, L. (2007). Perception-action coupling and anticipatory performance in baseball batting. Journal of Motor Behavior, 39(5), pp.369-380.doi: 10.3200/JMBR.39.5.369-380.
Richlan, F., M Weiß, M., Kastner, P., & Braid, J. (2022). Virtual training, real effects: A systematic literature review on sports performance enhancement through interventions in virtual reality. PsyArXiv. psyarxiv.com. doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/ckgm2
Ross-Stewart, L., Price, J., Jackson, D., & Hawkins, C. (2018). A preliminary investigation into the use of an imagery assisted virtual reality intervention in sport. Journal of Sports Science, 6(1).
Ross-Stewart, L & Lee, R. (2023). VR training and imagery training in esports. Journal of Imagery Research in Sport and Physical Activity, 18. doi.org/10.1515/jirspa-2023-0003
Sai Raam, S. V., Santhosh Gopi, S., Santhosh, K., Aravind Subramanian, N., & Babiyon Clement, A. (2022). A preliminary investigation on sports-based VR technology with the influence of psychological skill training. International Journal of Creative Research Thought, 10, 7.
Sherwin, J., Muraskin, J., & Sajda, P. (2012). You can’t think and hit at the same time: Neural correlates of baseball pitch classification. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 6. doi: 10.3389/fins.2012.00177
Smith, D., Wright, C., Allsopp, A., & Westhead, H. (2007). It’s all in the mind: PETTLEP-based imagery and sports performance. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 19(1), 80-92. doi:10.1080/10413200600944132
Sohail, Z., Firdos, A., Ikram, S., & Talha, M. (2022). The impact of virtual reality and augmented reality on sport psychology. Revista de Psicología del Deporte (Journal of Sport Psychology), 31(1), 217-226. Retrieved from https://www.rpd-online.com/index.php/rpd/article/view/667
Steuer, J. (1992). Defining virtual reality: Dimensions determining telepresence. Journal of Communication, 42(4), 73-93. doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.1992.tb00812.x
Thomas, P.R. Murphy, S.M., & Hardy, L. (1999) Test of performance strategies: Development and preliminary validation of a comprehensive measure of athletes’ psychological skills, Journal of Sports Sciences, 17, 697 -711. doi: 10.1080/026404199365560
Wakefield, C., & Smith, D. (2012). Perfecting practice: Applying the PETTLEP model of motor imagery. Journal of Sport Psychology in Action, 3(1), 1-11. doi:10.1080/21520704.2011.639853
Wang, J. (2012). Research on application of virtual reality technology in competitive sports. Procedia Engineering, 29, pp.3659-3662.
Williams, S. E., Cooley, S. J., Newell, E., Weibull, F., & Cumming, J. (2013). Seeing the difference: Developing effective imagery scripts for athletes. Journal of Sport Psychology in Action, 4(2), 109–121. doi: 10.1080/21520704.2013.781560
Williams, S. E., & Cumming, J. (2014). Sport imagery ability questionnaire. ResearchGate. doi:10.13140/RG.2.1.1608.6565
Wood, G., Wright, D. J., Harris, D., Pal, A., Franklin, Z. C., & Vine, S. J. (2021). Testing the construct validity of a soccer-specific virtual reality simulator using novice, academy, and professional soccer players. Virtual Reality, 25(1), 43-51. doi.org/10.1007/s10055-020-00441
White, A. & Hardy, L. (1998). An in-depth analysis of the uses of imagery by high-level slalom canoeists and artistic gymnasts. The Sport Psychologist, 12(4), 387–403. doi.org/10.1123/tsp.12.4.387
Wu Y, Lukosch S, Lukosch H, Lindeman RW, McKee RD, Fukuden S, Ross C and Collins D (2023), Training mental imagery skills of elite athletes in virtual reality. Frontiers in Virtual Reality, 1189717. doi: 10.3389/frvir.2023.1189717
Zorowitz, J. (2018, December 4). It Just Got Real. Retrieved from https://www.nbcsports.com/newsletters
George Minoso2024-07-18T10:12:55-05:00August 2nd, 2024|Research, Sport Training, Sports Coaching|Comments Off on Effective use of Imagery Assisted Virtual Reality in Pitch Recognition and Sport Imagery Ability Development
1School of Health and Life Sciences, Teesside University, UK (corresponding author) 2Population and Health Sciences Unit, Newcastle University UK
Corresponding Author:
Corresponding Author: Mark Chen Campus Heart, Southfield Road, Middlesbrough TS1 3BX, Tees Valley m.chen@tees.ac.uk
Dr Mark Chen is a Senior Lecturer in Sport and Exercise Science at Teesside University and is a Chartered Psychologist with the British Psychological Society (BPS). Dr Chen’s research interests include psychological consequences of sports injury and attentional aspects of sports performance.
Dr. Andrew Richardson is a Chartered Heath and Activity Practitioner with the Chartered Institute for the Management of Sport and Physical Activity (CIMSPA) and is currently a Research Associate within the Population and Health Sciences Institute at Newcastle University. Andrew’s other research interests include body image, performance enhancing drugs, transgender sport, esports and public health..
Male Competitive Powerlifters relationship with Body Image: Utilising the Multidimensional Body Image Self Relations Questionnaire (MBSRQ).
ABSTRACT
Purpose: There is growing evidence to suggest that competitive male athletes in aesthetic sports that scrutinize their body image may experience undesirable mental health outcomes. However, there is limited research to address these issues in strength sports, particularly the sport of Powerlifting. Methods: This study employed the Multidimensional Body Image Self Relations Questionnaire (MBSRQ), which recruited 365 male participants across the following subgroups. Powerlifters (P) (n = 133), Active Subjects (AS) (n = 79), Appearance Based Sports (ABS) (n = 68), Strength Sports (SS) (n = 47) and Other Sports (OS) (n = 38). Results: One–way ANOVA showed significant (p < 0.05) results between all groups across six of the nine MBSRQ subscales. Post hoc comparisons found nine significant results with the powerlifting group achieving two of them against OS (p < 0.01) and AS (p < 0.01) groups respectively. Conclusions: Overall, the results showed that male powerlifters expressed their bodies-as-function rather than their bodies-as-object with regard to health evaluation and fitness orientation. This is supported by their stable and balanced scores across the MBSRQ subscales which indicates they have healthier and lower perceptions of negative body image concerns. The powerlifters results implied that a focus on objective performance improvement and maintaining a healthy body to prevent injury had body image benefits. Applications in Sport: The study concludes that male powerlifters present healthy body image perceptions compared to the other males in their respective sports and focus on their body functionality objectively rather than the subjective perception and presentation of their body image.
Keywords: Powerlifting, Body Image, Weight Classed Sports
INTRODUCTION
For this paper, the definition of Body image is referred to as “relating to a person’s perceptions, feelings and thoughts about his or her body, and is usually conceptualized as incorporating body size estimation, evaluation of body attractiveness and emotions associated with body shape and size” [1-2]. There has been extensive work conducted on the influence of body image in the media [3], in Western culture [4] and job roles such as the fitness industry [5]. Other comparisons include comparing body image within a range of demographic factors such as between athletes and non-athletes [6], age [7], nationality and ethnicity [8]. Cash and Pruzinsky [9] have defined five dimensions of body image, which work together to create an overall body image. However, these dimensions fails to mention the broader cultural and social contexts that influence body image [10]. They suggested that athletes dealing with sporting and societal pressures may experience adverse outcomes such as eating disorders or a negative perception of their body image. Such factors may lead to these pressures as a result of media and advertisements [11], supplements [12] and the use of image and performance-enhancing drugs [13].
Background of Powerlifting
Powerlifting athletes are scored on objective performance measures rather than appearance evaluations. Powerlifting tests athletes on their objective strength and has traditionally been male-dominated [14]. However, in the last twenty years, female participation has significantly increased [15]. Richardson and Chen [16] state that powerlifting is a competitive strength sport comprising three techniques: the Squat, the Bench Press and the Deadlift [17-18]. The aim is to lift the most weight across the three movements for nine attempts [18]. Sports similar to powerlifting that heavily rely upon strength include Olympic weightlifting [19], strongman [20], highland games [21] and the shot–put [22], to name but a few examples. Not all of these sports mentioned have a weight class or a weight requirement, but for those that do, depending on the rules of the competition, this weight requirement may be evaluated within twenty-four or even forty-eight hours prior to the event [23]. Weight classes help ensure fairness in competition and increase the pre-competition demands of participants to enter the weight category that maximizes their advantages. Experts argue that making weight places psychological demands on athletes who may be inclined to make drastic weight cuts to gain a competitive advantage [24]. However, as powerlifters are evaluated on the amount of weight lifted, the training is based on objective scoring criteria. As scoring is objectively determined, and not a third party as in aesthetic sports, this has important implications for positive psychological adaptations [25].
Theoretical models and frameworks
Theoretical models of body image, such as Objectification theory, focus on the impact on men of a culture that increasingly objectifies men’s bodies. It suggests that men, like women, may experience self-objectification [26]. For men, the dual focus on both leanness and muscularity characterizing the male body ideal may motivate a particularly maladaptive set of behaviors designed to achieve these goals, such as rigid exercise routines, hidden use of image and performance-enhancing drugs (IPEDs) [27]. Subsequently, the literature has claimed that men may suffer from body image concerns and dysfunctional behavior [28]. Some research argues that young men experience societal pressure to achieve the muscular mesomorphic body shape, and this behaviour leads to a drive for muscularity [29].
Further, studies have demonstrated that sociocultural pressures mediated by social comparisons and internalization of muscular and low-fat ideals are associated with men’s body dissatisfaction and drive for muscularity, which might lead to disordered eating [30]. Most research has focused on aesthetic sports such as bodybuilding [31-32]. These explanations fail to consider how individuals think, feel and behave concerning their body functionality [33]. How powerlifters think, feel, and behave about their body functionality in a sport concerned with achieving objective demands is essential to achieving a more complete and holistic understanding of body image in this context [34].
Theoretically, the subjective perception of muscularity depends on the individuals’ perception of body image, which for powerlifting tends toward a functional muscularity rather than aesthetic muscularity due to the sport’s rules. Critically, the self-objectification model does not consider the functionally orientated nature of sporting competition and its impact on male psychology [35]. Therefore, the athletes have a strong sense of control and need to prepare, train and diet concerning maximizing objective performance criteria, not gaining approval from judges based on aesthetics. The environmental demand to achieve an objective standard has essential implications for broadening body image, as Ginis et al., [36] reported. They found that the idea of muscularity and physical competence in men [37] are central to their evaluations of their bodies. According to Conceptualisation theory, men are socialized to focus more attention on their body functionality than body-as-object (image) [38]. Therefore, powerlifting males are likely to value the functionality of their body over appearance, not only due to socialization processes that favour the achievement of tangible performance-based outcomes [39-40] but also due to the specific environmental demands of powerlifting which reward objective performance results. In contrast, perceptions of leanness and body fat percentage are less relevant to powerlifters performance. Franzoi [38] defined body-as-process as comprising physical capabilities and internal processes, which is similar to body functionality. The demand for functionality adds sources of experience, such as training to execute specific external and internal demands, that requires knowledge of body functionality (movement) and is, therefore, adaptive for how male powerlifters individuals think and feel about their body image [38].
For example, Richardson and Chen [16] found that female powerlifters, despite presumably having been socialized to experience higher levels of self-objectification and greater body-as-object identification than men, as predicted by self-objectification theory, nevertheless enjoyed their appearance in their sporting environment, indicating that it was not a source of anxiety, presumably due to the enjoyable experience of functional powerlifting training and competition reward. This was evident in other studies using smaller sample sizes and qualitative interviews in the same sport and sex [14 & 41]. Bordo [42] found that individuals who presented with large muscular physiques symbolized strength and masculinity.
Competition achievement and social reward within a sport based on tangible athletic goals [43-44] and psychological characteristics such as aggression when preparing to lift [45] will strongly mitigate against excessive rumination around body appearance and identity. Further reasoning supports the powerlifting community’s emphasis on body functionality [46-47]. From this perspective, male powerlifters likely develop a functional appreciation of their body that is valued separately from its appearance. This construct of functionality appreciation has only recently been investigated in the context of positive body image. It is positively associated with positive body image facets, such as body appreciation [48].
Franzoi [38] proposed that individuals hold more positive attitudes toward their body functionality than their body image. Therefore, it can be predicted that males with this orientation will hold performance adaptive attitudes toward their bodies. Body conceptualization theory offers a rationale for the body functionality being adaptive and reflective of positive male body image and improved mental health, compared to a body image orientation. This theorizing gives scope that negative body image attitudes can be adaptive and motivational within a performance-based environment based on objective rather than subjective and image-based criteria. For the male powerlifters, this would be the performance their bodies execute to meet the environmental needs (e.g., the sporting demands of their event). For example, Gattario and Frisen [49] found that males stated that finding a social context in which they found belonging and acceptance that allowed them to develop agency and empowerment allowed them to move from a negative to positive body image. With this logic, it could be predicted that competitive powerlifters will differ in their positive body image compared to individuals who are active but don’t compete.
Nevertheless, functionality measures have focused predominantly on physical capacities and internal processes and have typically concerned physical strength and muscularity. These aspects of body functionality can be conflated with physical appearance and are accentuated by male appearance ideals and the male gender role emphasizing dominance, power, and strength [50-51]. There has been some research into the body image perceptions of athletes in strength sports. Goltz et al [52] divided 156 male athletes into weight-class sports, endurance sports and aesthetic criteria sports and found no differences in body shape concerning self-depreciation due to physical appearance. Richardson and Chen [16] found no association between negative perceptions of appearance for female powerlifters compared to aesthetic sports individuals. These results suggested that the powerlifting group had contentment with their appearance, perhaps due to the decreased emphasis on body image compared to the increased emphasis on body functionality and focus on improving their skills and strength for their sport.
Apart from these few studies, research has yet to be done on body image and functionality in male powerlifting. The association of the physical body with functional sporting competition achievement based on objective standards may reduce the potential for internalizing negative body image and lead to healthy adaptations based on physical demands. This research will explore what functionality means for male powerlifters and how this impacts body image and functionality. This study aims to compare the body image of male powerlifting athletes against other subgroups of male athletic participation. The aim is to examine if male powerlifting athletes express different body image satisfaction or dissatisfaction with their body image and weight compared to subgroups of active and or sporting males.
Aim and Objectives of the Study
Aim
To compare the body image differences of male powerlifters against a range of male athletic subgroups.
Objectives
● The first objective was to determine if the powerlifters have significantly lower scores regarding their bodyweight perception when compared to other male groups in the study.
● To determine if powerlifters present an emphasis on body-as-process rather than body-as-object.
METHODS
Participant Information
An opportunity sample of 365 males was recruited through Facebook and Instagram. The recruitment period lasted three weeks in length and generated the following subgroups. There were 133 Powerlifters (P), 79 Active Subjects (AS), 68 Appearance Based Sports (ABS) participants, 47 Strength Sports (SS) participants and finally, 38 Other Sports (OS) participants within their respective subgroups. The group sample means and standard deviations for their age were 28.65 (± 7.44), height was 178.58cm (± 13.3cm), and their weight was recorded at 89.99kg (± 18.20kg).
Within Table 1.0, each subgroup’s means and standard deviations were recorded for their age, height, weight and the length of time they have spent training. The powerlifting (P) group mean age was 27.71 ± 6.86 years, the mean weight was 92.73kg ± 21.24kg, and the mean height was 176.67 ± 15.27cm. Appearance Based Sports (ABS) group mean age was 28.04 ± 7.59 years, mean weight was 86.89 ± 14.55kg, and height was 177.11 ± 12.32cm. The active Subjects (AS) group’s mean age was 30.30 ± 8.19 years, the mean weight was 84.99 ± 12.81kg, and the mean height was 179.85 ± 14.91cm. The strength Sports (SS) group’s mean age was 29.19 ± 7.26 years, the mean weight was 97.41 ± 20.11kg, and the mean height was 181.69 ± 7.02cm. In the final subgroup Other Sports (OS) group, the mean age was 28.95± 7.49 years, the mean weight was 87.19 ± 15.53kg, and the mean height was 181.47 ± 7.87cm. No ethnic identity data was recorded. The study was conducted after obtaining ethical approval from the Teesside University School of Social Science Business and Law Ethical Approvals Committee.
Measures
Multidimensional Body Self Relations Questionnaire (MBSRQ): The MBSQR measures Body Image divided into cognitive and behavioral components [53]. Items are ranked on a 1 to 5 Likert scale, where 1 = Definitely disagree, and 5 = Definitely agree. The MSBRQ subscales include Appearance Evaluation (AE), Appearance Orientation (AO), Fitness Evaluation (FE), Fitness Orientation (FO), Health Evaluation (HE), Health Orientation (HO), Illness Orientation (IO), Body Areas Satisfaction (BASS), Overweight Preoccupation (OWP) and Self-Classified Weight (SCW). Illness Orientation is not included as a separate subscale, as it is already reliably accounted for under Health Orientation. The MBSRQ is significantly evidenced in Body Image research [9 & 53] as a well-validated measure [54] through comparison with other tools of Body Image. The MBSRQ has a proven reliability and validity record for body image research [53]. The composite reliability was calculated using an SPSS Omega Macro [55] and is within the acceptable range (Cronbach’s omega = 0.79). The primary author constructed demographic questions to collect information about the participant’ background. These questions included (but were not limited to) sex, age, height, weight, and years spent training.
Procedure
Both the MSBRQ and Demographic Questionnaire were developed using Google Documents. Data gathered was stored under the General Data Protection Act [56]. Participants were assigned to groups 1.00 (Powerlifters – P), 2.00 (Appearance Based Sports – ABS), 3.00 (Active Subjects – AS), 4.00 (Strength Sports – SS) and 5.00 (Other Sports – OS), based on their answers from the demographic questionnaire. Participants were given no monetary or external incentive to take part. Participants read the pre-questionnaire information, participant information form and questionnaire instructions. Once read, participants were prompted to check a box that confirmed their consent to the study. All participants completed the questionnaire individually and received no communication from the researcher during data entry. A glossary was provided for technical terminology. Demographic questions were formatted as short answers, rating scales, and multiple-choice. Participants were informed they could opt out anytime during the study for any reason. In total, the questionnaires took about 10-15 minutes to complete.
Data Analysis
An independent group design was used to investigate the differences between the MBSRQ scores of the four. The dependent variables measured the differences in body image between the groups across nine subscales. All data were analyzed using Microsoft Excel version 2016 and Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) Version 27. Means and Standard Deviations were calculated for all the subscales. Data were checked for equality of variance between groups and assumptions for the one–way ANOVA where the alpha value was set at 0.05. Post hoc tests were calculated to compare the powerlifting group with the other three groups across the MBSRQ subscales. The post hoc alpha values were corrected for type one error rates using p < 0.01. To estimate the effect size of post hoc mean differences between groups, the Cohens d statistic size was interpreted using the following guidelines: .00-.2 (small), .40-.79, (medium) and .80 + (Large) [57] and 95% Confidence Intervals (CI) were reported. The Hedges g statistic was used if one or both groups being compared had n < 20, otherwise, Cohens d was reported.
RESULTS
The descriptive statistics associated with the MBSRQ scores across the five groups are reported in Table 2.0. It can be observed that the powerlifting group was associated with higher, consistently stable and healthy body image scores in comparison to the other four male sub-groups. Six of the nine MBSRQ subscales reported p-values below 0.05.
The descriptive statistics associated with the MBSRQ scores across the five groups are reported in Table 2.0. It can be observed that the powerlifting group was associated with higher, consistently stable and healthy body image scores in comparison to the other four male sub-groups. Six of the nine MBSRQ subscales reported p-values below 0.05.
.
Below are the graphs of the nine subscales from the MBSRQ presented to showcase the differences in mean scores for each domain of body image.
DISCUSSION This study aimed to compare the body image of male powerlifters with sporting and physically active males. There were multiple significant results across six of the nine MBSRQ subscales between the groups. Overall, the results of this study suggest that male powerlifters have a healthy relationship with their physical body when compared to all other groups. The powerlifters on average, evaluated both their health and fitness orientation were higher compared to both physically active males and males in other sports. Comparing the groups anthropometrics, all groups expressed similar heights, weights and mean age. Most participants from the powerlifting group were in the late twenties, average weight at 92.73kg and standing around 178cm in height. Nolan, Lynch and Egan [58] used a male sample that was comparable to the current study in size and age. Other studies recruiting male powerlifters all had smaller sample sizes and younger age ranges [59-60] compared to the current study.
The first objective was to determine if the powerlifters had significantly lower scores regarding their bodyweight perception when compared to other male groups in the study. There was no evidence to support this prediction, as the powerlifting group levels of overweight preoccupation and self-classified weight area satisfaction were not significantly different from the other groups. The Powerlifting group had scored 2.49 for the OWP subscale which was higher than both SS and OS groups but lower than AS was the powerlifting and ABS groups. This would appear to indicate that the male powerlifters either do not ruminate on their body-as-object to the detriment of their mental health or that the nature of engagement with the powerlifting competitive demands lends itself toward a functional conceptualization of the body over an image-based focus [61]. These results taken together do not imply that powerlifters demonstrated a negative perception of their body image. Rather, the results suggest that powerlifters link their body image toward objective performance related goals. Although, this is speculative, the intense regime of powerlifting training for competition would result to improved perceptions of body image due to perceived changes in strength over time.
Theoretically, powerlifters interpreting their body-as-process rather than the body-as-object is consistent with larger differences in Fitness Orientation, Health Evaluation and Overweight – Preoccupation compared to the sport male and physically active male groups. These subscales relate more to objective performance concerns, such as physical capacity, rather than the subjective interpretation of body image, thus appear to be accentuated by perceptions of power and strength [50-51]. Fitness orientation refers to, “Extent of investment in being physically fit or athletically competent. High scorers value fitness and are actively involved in activities to enhance or maintain their fitness. Low scorers do not value physical fitness and do not regularly incorporate exercise activities into their lifestyle” [53]. Richardson and Chen [16] found their sample of female powerlifters scored the highest out of this subscale when compared to other groups.
Health Evaluation is defined as, “Feelings of physical health and/or the freedom from physical illness. High scorers feel their bodies are in good health. Low scorers feel unhealthy and experience bodily symptoms of illness or vulnerability to illness” [53]. Richardson and Chen [16] found that their sample of female powerlifters scored the highest on this subscale compared to other sporting females.
Overweight preoccupation reflects “fat anxiety, weight vigilance, dieting, and eating restraint.” [53]. Richardson and Chen [16] found, for their powerlifting group, very stable scores around the normative values with little deviation from the mean, therefore indicating that the group were happy and content with their weight for the function of powerlifting. The Powerlifting group had higher OWP compared to the other two groups but not low enough to indicate extreme weight cutting, dieting or weight anxiety, Although, the nature of powerlifting does require some weight monitoring due to the weight classes requirement, the score was not concerning. An individual-by-individual analysis would need to be considered to accurately assess if an athlete is expressing extreme body weight anxiety or concerns.
Certainly, this does contrast with the findings of the Active subjects (AS) group who had a moderate effect size of greater overweight preoccupation (OWP) and self-classified weight (SCW) compared to Other Sports (OS) and Strength Sports (SS). These difference of the control group (AS) adds further weight for the difference between the powerlifters and the other groups body image. The active subjects were composed of individuals who don’t compete in any sport, but their recreational exercising still did not prevent them from having pre-occupation with their physique. Male exercisers can be as pre-occupied with outward appearance as women due to their motivation for muscularity [62] and also as non-athletes they may lack the functional body appreciation that male athletes possess [63].
The second objective was to determine if powerlifters present an emphasis on body-as-process rather than body-as-object. Theoretically, body functionality can be understood in contrast to appearance ideals and gender roles for men, which emphasise the importance of physical strength, prowess, and bodily control [64]. The absence of negative body image perceptions in the males only lends indirect evidence for a higher emphasis on functional cognitions related to objective performance. There were two significant differences between powerlifters with OS and AS in health evaluation and fitness orientation. There was a moderate effect size difference for health evaluation, with the powerlifting group showing more robust health behaviours than the other sports group.
The other sport group was the smallest group (n=31) and consisted of people who recreationally participated in a variety of sports of which Soccer, Cross fit and Athletics were the most numerous. The health cognitions of the powerlifters place an emphasis on being prepared to execute maximum effort in their training and respecting the possibilities and limit of what they can achieve [65]. Compared to sports such as Athletics and Soccer, which place more emphasis on diverse interceptive open skills in a changing environment and / or endurance, Powerlifting requires maximum and intense concentration to prepare for one explosive movement. Therefore, the powerlifters need to have a healthy attitude toward diet, for example, as performance is related to performing at their physical limits but is not essential for skilled footballers. These results contrast with Goltz et al., [52] who found no differences in self-depreciation due to physical appearance in comparing weight-class sports, endurance sports and aesthetic criteria sports.
The powerlifting group also showed stronger fitness orientation compared to the active subjects groups. This may mean that the powerlifters monitoring of their pre-performance health results in stronger fitness evaluations compared to individuals who only exercise and also individuals in sports with less physically explosive demands [65]. This seems to reinforce the first finding, that male powerlifters have a positive rather than negative view of their body image, in terms of the value they place on health and fitness related cognitions to help prepare for competition. The fitness-orientation aspect can be interpreted for body functionality qualities, as this subscale would support behaviours and cognitions conducive to maintaining good physical condition and a positive view of the body [66]. An explanation in terms of body conceptualization theory is that the functionality of powerlifting competition allows the participants to engage in a wider range of strategies to maintain fitness rather than being concerned with aesthetics, compared to individuals who only exercise [49].
Comparing this to the appearance-based sport (ABS) group, they too also undergo intense and regimented training, as competitors will need to ensure they are in the best condition for competition, although still based on aesthetics. However, where the ABS group differ from the powerlifters is a moderate effect size for overweight preoccupation compared to the OS group. There was also a moderate effect size for self-classified weight compared to the strength sports group. These two subscales are more in line with previous findings [67], in that aesthetic sport participants need to put more effort in body monitoring and judgements related to weight loss or gain. In powerlifting, research has shown that to overcome confounding issues that may affect athletic performance, athletes reported that the following factors help relieve or reduce competition day stressors include, the coach, mental attitudes, technical instruction, training partners and social isolation [67]. When comparing between sexes, the results revealed no fundamental difference in these confounding factors by male and female powerlifters [66]. Within both studies, it was noted that there was no mention of body image when competing to be a compounding factor, which supports the current findings. Nevertheless, the powerlifters body image or perception of their own image was not given as an option in their studies so results may have been different if participants had been given an option to select.
The AS group reported two medium effect sizes against the other sports group and strength sports group, which were in the overweight preoccupation and self-classified weight subscales, but the powerlifting group scored a moderate effect size against the AS group in fitness orientation. The reason for this can be linked to multiple variables. Firstly, the AS group participants as stated earlier in this manuscript are not training to improve their performance within a specific sport or event. They are active males who are training but with no sport specific goal in mind. Hence, these individuals may be more critical of themselves when it comes to focusing on their bodyweight. This can be easily demonstrated in the subscale of SCW where the AS group scored the lowest when compared to the OS and SS groups. As individual in these sports may compete at a weight they are comfortable at, this yields them the best performance advantages when in competition.
Notwithstanding, the AS group did score closer to a mean normative value for their OWP subscale and scored higher than both OS and SS groups. The reason may be that higher scores focus more on weight vigilance and weight anxiety. However, the OS and SS groups scoring lower than AS and having low OWP scores indicates that their sports don’t require, or these athletes didn’t express any worry about their weight when competing.
Nevertheless, there is research to suggest that those who train for body image and pursue masculine muscular ideals may be motivated for these appearances through unhealthy means. These include self – blame and or internalised shame as reported by Larison and Pritchard [68] found that men who scored higher on these variables also reported higher levels of eating disorder symptomology. Yet, in the same study, those same men who scored higher for internalised shame also scored higher on the drive to be more muscular. Finally, Swami and Bedford [69] found that men’s drive for muscularity was significantly predicted by neuroticism and their drive for body appreciated was significantly predicted by neuroticism and extroversion when considering BMI and subjective social status as drivers. However, in other studies the opposite findings have been reported. Reina et al., [67] also reported that males in non-aesthetic sports were more dissatisfied with their body image and were 1.5 times more likely to use exercise to lose weight than non-sport participants.
Limitations The MBSRQ is a valid and reliable and well stablished body image assessment tool and is appropriate for out study [53]. Nevertheless, the MBSRQ does not measure disordered eating or specific ideals of muscularity as compared to other aforementioned assessment tools. The powerlifting group in this study as in the female study by Richardson and Chen [16] is centred around one sport and unlike the other groups they are made up of multiple sports. Ultimately, this will have impacted their scores within their groups and comparing between groups. The powerlifting group as a whole had more training experience than the other groups which is reflected in their larger sample size and more stable scores which has to be factored into the analysis.
CONCLUSIONS In summary, the findings report the powerlifters presented with stable and positive outlooks and evaluations of their body image. This highlights a productive relationship with their own body image and their sport of powerlifting as a body-as-function role instead of body-as-object [47]. Comparing the powerlifters with other sport groups showed similar results. The powerlifters presented with significantly (p < 0.05) better scores for HE and FO subscales in the MBSRQ when compared to the AS and OS groups. The majority of the groups displayed stable MBSRQ subscale scores and healthy outlooks on their body image. The study found that powerlifters did not express or display any extreme perceptions of their body image despite them competing within a defined weight category. These results also find that the athletes recruited for the powerlifting group train for performance and are less concerned about their body image. By positioning their focus on objective performance (lifting as much weight as possible) this appears to have psychological benefits which helps negate negative body image as recorded in the female samples of Richardson and Chen [16] and Vargas and Winter [14]. Future research should focus on qualitative interviews with male powerlifters and additional sports to understanding the relationships between their body image and their sport.
APPLICATIONS IN SPORT The majority of previous research concerning male body image is associated with negative behaviour outcomes such as aggression, violence and or the use of PEDs [70]. This study has taken a different approach to show strength training for males has a positive outlook on their body image helping to create healthy and stable relationships with their mental health using an objective measurement. In this instance, it is the sport of powerlifting that focuses the athletes on the performance to lift as much weight as possible across three events.
Competing in a weight class sport does not necessarily produce extreme group scores and or undesirable behaviours concerning their bodyweight or body image. This implies that strength training methods such as powerlifting for males (and females as shown in Richardson and Chen [16] when seeking to improve their health and fitness are beneficial. The focus on objective strength gains via tracking their lifting through increments using progressive overload allows positive body appreciation. As a positive by-product, they will also develop improved physique through increased levels of physical activity and adherence to a training program. Furthermore, by seeing continued progressions through improving their technical proficiency doing the movements and increased muscle hypertrophy will lead to a better outlook on their mental health and body image. As they are viewing their body for its function not as an object they place less emphasis on subjective body image changes but rather on performance. In populations that include body image disorders and eating disorders, using this form of training will help support clinicians in helping return their patients to exercise routines to support a holistic recovery pathway [71].
Author roles Dr. Mark Chen: Conceptualization, Methodology, Formal analysis, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing, Supervision, Project administration.
Dr. Andrew Richardson: Conceptualization, Methodology, Formal analysis, Data curation, Writing – review & editing, Project administration.
Conflict of Interest Statement: The authors declare that have no conflict of interest when writing and or submitting this manuscript for peer review publication to The Sport Journal.
Funding No funding was sought or requested for the formation of this manuscript
References
Grogan, S. (2021). Body image: Understanding body dissatisfaction in men, women and children. Routledge.
Muth, J. L., & Cash, T. F. (1997). Body‐Image Attitudes: What Difference Does Gender Make? 1. Journal of applied social psychology, 27(16), 1438-1452.
Fardouly, J., & Vartanian, L. R. (2016). Social media and body image concerns: Current research and future directions. Current opinion in psychology, 9, 1-5.
Lake, A. J., Staiger, P. K., & Glowinski, H. (2000). Effect of Western culture on women’s attitudes to eating and perceptions of body shape. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 27(1), 83-89.
Haakstad, L. A., Jakobsen, C., Solberg, R. B., Sundgot-Borgen, C., & Gjestvang, C. (2021). Mirror, mirror-Does the fitness club industry have a body image problem?. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 53, 101880.
Pritchard, M. E., Milligan, B., Elgin, J., Rush, P., & Shea, M. (2007). Comparisons of risky health behaviors between male and female college athletes and non-athletes. Athletic Insight, 9(1), 67-78.
Öberg, P., & Tornstam, L. (1999). Body images among men and women of different ages. Ageing & Society, 19(5), 629-644.
Schneider, J., Matheson, E. L., Tinoco, A., Silva-Breen, H., Diedrichs, P. C., & LaVoi, N. M. (2023). A six-country study of coaches’ perspectives of girls’ body image concerns in sport and intervention preferences: Template analysis of survey and focus group data. Body Image, 46, 300-312.
Cash, T. F., & Pruzinsky, T. (2002). Body image: A handbook of theory, research, and clinical practice. Guilford press.
Murphy, S. (Ed.). (2012). The Oxford handbook of sport and performance psychology. Oxford University Press.
Ricciardelli, L. A., McCabe, M. P., & Banfield, S. (2000). Body image and body change methods in adolescent boys: Role of parents, friends and the media. Journal of psychosomatic research, 49(3), 189-197.
Ethan, D., Basch, C. H., Berdnik, A., & Sommervil, M. (2016). Dietary Supplements Advertised in Muscle Enthusiast Magazines: A Content Analysis of Marketing Strategies. International Journal of Men’s Health, 15(2).
Richardson, A., Dixon, K., & Kean, J. (2019). Superheroes–image and performance enhancing drug (IPED) use within the UK, social media and gym culture. Journal of forensic and legal medicine, 64, 28-30.
Vargas, M. L. F. P., & Winter, S. (2021). Weight on the bar vs. weight on the scale: A qualitative exploration of disordered eating in competitive female powerlifters. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 52, 101822.
Nichols, E., Pavlidis, A., & Nowak, R. (2021). “It’s like lifting the power”: Powerlifting, digital gendered subjectivities, and the politics of multiplicity. Leisure Sciences, 1-20.
Richardson, A., Chen, M., & Chen, D. M. (2022). Female Competitive Powerlifters relationship with Body Image: Utilising the Multidimensional Body Image Self Relations Questionnaire (MBSRQ). The Sport Journal, 24, 1-24.
IPF – International Powerlifting Federation IPF. (2019, April 11). Powerlifting.sport. https://www.powerlifting.sport/
IPF – International Powerlifting Federation IPF. (2019, April 11). Technical Rules. https://www.powerlifting.sport/fileadmin/ipf/data/rules/technical-rules/english/IPF_Technical_Rules_Book_2024_24_Jan.pdf
Mahoney, M. J. (1989). Psychological predictors of elite and non-elite performance in olympic weightlifting. International journal of sport psychology.
Winwood, P. W., Keogh, J. W., & Harris, N. K. (2011). The strength and conditioning practices of strongman competitors. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 25(11), 3118-3128.
Lavallee, M. E., & Balam, T. (2010). An overview of strength training injuries: acute and chronic. Current sports medicine reports, 9(5), 307-313.
Kyriazis, T. A., Terzis, G., Boudolos, K., & Georgiadis, G. (2009). Muscular power, neuromuscular activation, and performance in shot put athletes at preseason and at competition period. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 23(6), 1773-1779.
Complete Guide to Cutting Weight Without Sacrificing Strength | Juggernaut Training Systems. (2015, March 17). JTSStrength. https://www.jtsstrength.com/complete-guide-to-cutting-weight-without-sacrificing-strength-2
Murugappan, K. R., Cocchi, M. N., Bose, S., Neves, S. E., Cook, C. H., Sarge, T., … & Leibowitz, A. (2019). Case study: Fatal exertional rhabdomyolysis possibly related to drastic weight cutting. International journal of sport nutrition and exercise metabolism, 29(1), 68-71.
Mane, M. A. S. (2022). Comparative study of aggression of inter school level powerlifters and weightlifters. International Journal of Advance and Applied Research. Vol 9 Issue 4. Pages 1 – 5.
Heath, B., Tod, D. A., Kannis-Dymand, L., & Lovell, G. P. (2016). The relationship between objectification theory and muscle dysmorphia characteristics in men. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 17(3), 297.
Richardson, A., & Antonopoulos, G. A. (2019). Anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS) users on AAS use: Negative effects,‘code of silence’, and implications for forensic and medical professionals. Journal of Forensic and Legal Medicine, 68, 101871.
Bacevičienė, M., Titenytė, Ž., Balčiūnienė, V., & Jankauskienė, R. (2020). Drive for muscularity in Lithuanian male students: Psychometrics and associated characteristics. Baltic journal of sport and health sciences, (1), 20-27.
McCreary, D. R., Sasse, D. K., Saucier, D. M., & Dorsch, K. D. (2004). Measuring the drive for muscularity: factorial validity of the drive for muscularity scale in men and women. Psychology of men & masculinity, 5(1), 49.
Tylka, T. L. (2011). Refinement of the tripartite influence model for men: Dual body image pathways to body change behaviors. Body image, 8(3), 199-207.
Pickett, T. C., Lewis, R. J., & Cash, T. F. (2005). Men, muscles, and body image: comparisons of competitive bodybuilders, weight trainers, and athletically active controls. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 39(4), 217-222.
Devrim, A., Bilgic, P., & Hongu, N. (2018). Is there any relationship between body image perception, eating disorders, and muscle dysmorphic disorders in male bodybuilders?. American journal of men’s health, 12(5), 1746-1758.
Abbott, B. D., & Barber, B. L. (2010). Embodied image: Gender differences in functional and aesthetic body image among Australian adolescents. Body image, 7(1), 22-31.
Tylka, T. L., & Wood-Barcalow, N. L. (2015). What is and what is not positive body image? Conceptual foundations and construct definition. Body image, 14, 118-129.
Huebner, M., Arrow, H., Garinther, A., & Meltzer, D. E. (2022). How heavy lifting lightens our lives: content analysis of perceived outcomes of masters weightlifting. Frontiers in Sports and Active Living, 81.
Ginis, K. A. M., Eng, J. J., Arbour, K. P., Hartman, J. W., & Phillips, S. M. (2005). Mind over muscle?: Sex differences in the relationship between body image change and subjective and objective physical changes following a 12-week strength-training program. Body image, 2(4), 363-372.
Franzoi, S. L., & Shields, S. A. (1984). The Body Esteem Scale: Multidimensional structure and sex differences in a college population. Journal of personality assessment, 48(2), 173-178.
Franzoi, S. L. (1995). The body-as-object versus the body-as-process: Gender differences and gender considerations. Sex roles, 33, 417-437.
Alexander, D. M., Hutt, E. A., Lefebvre, J. S., & Bloom, G. A. (2019). Using imagery to enhance performance in powerlifting: a review of theory, research, and practice. Strength & Conditioning Journal, 41(6), 102-109.
Travis, S. K., Mujika, I., Gentles, J. A., Stone, M. H., & Bazyler, C. D. (2020). Tapering and peaking maximal strength for powerlifting performance: a review. Sports, 8(9), 125.
Foyster, J. M., Rebar, A., Guy, J. H., & Stanton, R. (2022). “If they can do it, I can do it”: experiences of older women who engage in powerlifting training. Journal of Women & Aging, 34(1), 54-64.
Bordo, S. (1993). Unbearable Weight: Feminism, Western Culture, and the Body.
Green, S. P., & Pritchard, M. E. (2003). Predictors of body image dissatisfaction in adult men and women. Social Behavior and Personality: an international journal, 31(3), 215-222.
Girard, M., Chabrol, H., & Rodgers, R. F. (2018). Support for a modified tripartite dual pathway model of body image concerns and risky body change behaviors in French young men. Sex Roles, 78, 799-809.
Makarowski, R., Predoiu, R., Cosma, G., Forțan, C., & Predoiu, A. (2020).Tthe influence of narcissism and aggression on body image in weight lifting and martial arts. Journal of Sport & Kinetic Movement, 2(36).
Alleva, J. M., Gattario, K. H., Martijn, C., & Lunde, C. (2019). What can my body do vs. how does it look?: A qualitative analysis of young women and men’s descriptions of their body functionality or physical appearance. Body Image, 31, 71-80.
Alleva, J. M., & Tylka, T. L. (2021). Body functionality: A review of the literature. Body Image, 36, 149-171.
Alleva, J. M., Tylka, T. L., & Van Diest, A. M. K. (2017). The Functionality Appreciation Scale (FAS): Development and psychometric evaluation in US community women and men. Body image, 23, 28-44.
Gattario, K. H., & Frisén, A. (2019). From negative to positive body image: Men’s and women’s journeys from early adolescence to emerging adulthood. Body image, 28, 53-65.
Calogero, R. M. (2012). Objectification theory, self-objectification, and body image. In: Cash, Thomas, (ed). Encyclopedia of Body Image and Human Appearance. Academic Press, pp. 574-580
Gattario, K. H., Frisén, A., Fuller-Tyszkiewicz, M., Ricciardelli, L. A., Diedrichs, P. C., Yager, Z., … & Smolak, L. (2015). How is men’s conformity to masculine norms related to their body image? Masculinity and muscularity across Western countries. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 16(3), 337.
Goltz, F. R., Stenzel, L. M., & Schneider, C. D. (2013). Disordered eating behaviors and body image in male athletes. Brazilian Journal of Psychiatry, 35, 237-242.
Cash, T. F. (2000). The multidimensional body-self relations questionnaire users’ manual. Available from the author at www. body-images. com.
Brown, T. A., Cash, T. F., & Mikulka, P. J. (1990). Attitudinal body-image assessment: Factor analysis of the Body-Self Relations Questionnaire. Journal of personality assessment, 55(1-2), 135-144.
Hayes, A. F., & Coutts, J. J. (2020). Use omega rather than Cronbach’s alpha for estimating reliability. But…. Communication Methods and Measures, 14(1), 1-24.
Regulation, P. (2018). General data protection regulation. Intouch, 25
Cohen, J. (2013). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. Academic press.
Nolan, D., Lynch, A. E., & Egan, B. (2022). Self-reported prevalence, magnitude, and methods of rapid weight loss in male and female competitive powerlifters. Journal of strength and conditioning research, 36(2), 405-410.
Wood, T. J., Wilson, L. J., & Curtis, C. (2022). Quantifying frequency of use of methods of body mass loss in competing UK powerlifters. Performance Enhancement & Health, 10(2), 100221.
Ferrari, L., Colosio, A. L., Teso, M., & Pogliaghi, S. (2022). Performance and anthropometrics of classic powerlifters: which characteristics matter?. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 36(4), 1003-1010.
Specter, S. E., & Wiss, D. A. (2014). Muscle dysmorphia: Where body image obsession, compulsive exercise, disordered eating, and substance abuse intersect in susceptible males. Eating disorders, addictions and substance use disorders: Research, clinical and treatment perspectives, 439-457.
Edwards, S., & Launder, C. (2000). Investigating muscularity concerns in male body image: Development of the Swansea Muscularity Attitudes Questionnaire. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 28(1), 120-124.
Soulliard, Z. A., Kauffman, A. A., Fitterman-Harris, H. F., Perry, J. E., & Ross, M. J. (2019). Examining positive body image, sport confidence, flow state, and subjective performance among student athletes and non-athletes. Body image, 28, 93-100.
Lodge, A. C., & Umberson, D. (2013). Age and embodied masculinities: Midlife gay and heterosexual men talk about their bodies. Journal of Aging Studies, 27(3), 225-232.
Ljdokova, G. M., Razzhivin, O. A., & Volkova, K. R. (2014). Powerlifters’ ways to overcome confounding factors at competitions. Life Sci J, 11, 481-484.
Ljdokova, G. M., Ismailova, N. I., Panfilov, A. N., & Farhatovich, K. A. (2015). Gender aspects of confounding factors in the preparation of powerlifters. Biosciences biotechnology research Asia, 12(1), 393-399.
Reina, A. M., Monsma, E. V., Dumas, M. D., & Gay, J. L. (2019). Body image and weight management among Hispanic American adolescents: Differences by sport type. Journal of Adolescence, 74, 229-239.
Larison, B., & Pritchard, M. (2019). The effects of internalized shame and self-blame on disordered eating and drive for muscularity in collegiate men. Eating and Weight Disorders-Studies on Anorexia, Bulimia and Obesity, 24, 653-660.
Swami, V., & Benford, K. (2014). Body image and personality among British men: associations between the big five domains, drive for muscularity, and body appreciation. Body Image, 11(4), 454-457.
Pope, H. G., Khalsa, J. H., & Bhasin, S. (2017). Body image disorders and abuse of anabolic-androgenic steroids among men. Jama, 317(1), 23-24.
Quesnel, D. A., Libben, M., D. Oelke, N., I. Clark, M., Willis-Stewart, S., & Caperchione, C. M. (2018). Is abstinence really the best option? Exploring the role of exercise in the treatment and management of eating disorders. Eating Disorders, 26(3), 290-310.
George Minoso2024-04-22T08:06:50-05:00April 20th, 2024|General, Research, Sport Training, Sports Exercise Science|Comments Off on Male Competitive Powerlifters relationship with Body Image: Utilising the Multidimensional Body Image Self Relations Questionnaire (MBSRQ)
