ISSN: 1543-9518

A Longitudinal Cross-Sectional Analysis of Physical Fitness and Motor Competency for Intermediate School Students

Authors: Moez Baklouti1

1Full Professor, Human Sciences Department, Institut Superieur de Sport et de l’Education Physique, University of Mannouba, Tunisia

 

Editor’s Note: This article uses the pseudonym Nm.Wr.Qs. The Sport Journal has discussed this with the author. The acronym represents a school in North America, and The Sport Journal has confirmed that the school and district exist. This note serves to assure readers that reasonable steps have been taken to confirm the legitimacy of the content presented.

Corresponding Author:

[email protected]

ABSTRACT 

Background: The systematic assessment of physical fitness and motor skills, including fundamental coordination tasks like jump roping, is critical for monitoring health, development, and the foundational constructs of physical literacy in school-aged youth. Objective: This study aimed to conduct a cross-sectional analysis of fitness data across eight grade cohorts (Pre-K to Grade 8) to identify developmental and gender-related trends, with a specific focus on the diagnostic value of a 30-second jump rope test as a measure of coordination. Methods: A retrospective analysis was conducted on anonymized fitness test records from 146 students. Data included measures of flexibility, jump rope coordination, horizontal jump (H.J.), vertical jump (V.J.), 30-meter sprint, medicine ball throw (MB6), weight, and height. Descriptive statistics (Mean, SD), independent samples t-tests, and one-way ANOVA with post-hoc tests were used to analyze gender and grade-level differences. Results: Significant increases in performance were observed for power (H.J., V.J., MB6) and speed (30m) from early to later grades. Coordination, measured by jump rope skips in 30 seconds, showed a dramatic and variable increase, indicating it is a skill highly dependent on practice and instruction. Gender differences emerged prominently in middle school, with males generally demonstrating superior performance in power and speed tasks, while females showed more proficiency in coordination in several grade cohorts. Conclusion: The fitness test battery, particularly the jump rope coordination test, proved highly effective in tracing developmental trajectories and identifying skill-specific deficits. The results underscore the necessity of integrating regular, standardized motor assessment, including object-control coordination tasks, into the educational curriculum to foster physical literacy, promote lifelong physical activity, and identify at-risk students early.

Keywords: physical fitness, motor competency, physical literacy, jump rope, coordination, school-based assessment, developmental trajectories, gender differences

INTRODUCTION 

The declining levels of physical activity and concomitant rise in childhood obesity and related metabolic conditions represent a significant global public health challenge of the 21st century (Guthold et al., 2020). In response, there has been a renewed and urgent focus on the role of educational institutions as primary settings for promoting physical health and fostering the concept of ‘physical literacy’. Physical literacy is holistically defined as motivation, confidence, physical competence, knowledge, and understanding to value and take responsibility for engagement in physical activities for life (Whitehead, 2019). Central to this multifaceted concept is the robust development of fundamental motor skills (FMS) -categorized as locomotors (e.g., running, jumping) and object-control (e.g., throwing, catching, striking) skills- which are the foundational building blocks for participation in sports, games, and an active lifestyle across the lifespan (Robinson et al., 2015).

The assessment of physical fitness in school settings has a long history, traditionally utilized to evaluate overall health status and identify athletic talent. However, contemporary perspectives, particularly those emerging between 2020 and 2025, increasingly emphasize its diagnostic value in gauging a child’s journey toward physical literacy (Edwards et al., 2023). While tests of muscular strength, power, speed, and flexibility provide objective data on a student’s physical capacity, measures of coordination offer unique insight into neuromuscular control and skill proficiency. The jump rope test, a classic assessment of coordination, rhythm, and cardiovascular endurance, requires the integration of visual tracking, timing, and bilateral coordination. Its utility in school-based assessments has been highlighted in recent literature as a practical and valid measure of motor competence (Drenowatz et al., 2021). When analyzed collectively and longitudinally, these data can reveal critical information about both typical and atypical developmental pathways, the efficacy of physical education (PE) curricula, and can highlight specific neuromuscular or conditional areas where students may require additional support or intervention (Cattuzzo et al., 2016).

Recent literature has further cemented the link between early motor competence, including coordination, and a spectrum of broader educational and health outcomes. Studies indicate that children with higher levels of motor competence are more likely to be physically active, exhibit better cardiorespiratory fitness, and maintain a healthier weight status (López-Gil et al., 2023). Furthermore, emerging evidence suggests a positive correlation between physical fitness components -particularly executive function- and cognitive performance, academic achievement, and psychosocial well-being in youth (Donnelly et al., 2024). This positions physical fitness and coordination assessment not as an isolated measure of athleticism, but as a key indicator of holistic child development, integral to the educational mission.

Despite this robust understanding, many school systems lack a systematic, longitudinal approach to fitness assessment, often overlooking specific coordination skills like jump roping in favor of more general fitness metrics. Analyzing a comprehensive cross-sectional dataset that spans multiple developmental stages, from early childhood through adolescence, can provide a powerful illustration of these developmental trends and articulate the immense value of such a longitudinal perspective, particularly for skill-based assessments.

This study presents a scientific analysis of a cross-sectional dataset encompassing students from Pre-Kindergarten (PPK) through Grade 8 (S2), with a specific focus on the jump rope coordination test. The primary aims are:

  1. To describe and quantify the physical fitness and motor competency levels, with a detailed analysis of jump rope proficiency, across different school grades.
  2. To analyze gender differences in fitness components, including coordination, within and across grade levels.
  3. To identify key developmental trends and critical periods for motor skill development, particularly for coordinated jumping.
  4. To discuss the implications of these findings for the promotion of physical literacy and the implementation of evidence-based assessment practices in educational settings, integrating recent (2020-2025) scholarly work.

METHODS 

Research Design and Data Source

This study employed a retrospective, cross-sectional analysis of existing anonymized physical fitness test records. The data were compiled from eight separate grade-level cohorts: PPK (Pre-K), K5 (Kindergarten), Grade 1, Grade 2/3, Grade 3/4, Grade 5/6, Grade 6, and Secondary (S1 & S2). The combined dataset included records for 146 students at Nm.Wr.Qs.

Participants

The sample consisted of 146 children and adolescents. A breakdown of the sample by grade and gender is presented in Table 1. Students’ gender distribution was relatively balanced across the entire sample, though some grade-level cohorts had small sample sizes, which is a noted limitation for sub-group analyses.

Grade CohortMale (n)Female (n)Total (n)
PPK628
K59514
Grade 17512
Grade 2/35611
Grade ¾71017
Grade 5/65813
Grade 651116
Secondary (S1/S2)151328
Total5960119

Table 1: Sample Size and Gender Distribution by Grade Cohort

 *Note: Gender was not reported for 27 participants in the original S2 dataset; these were excluded from gender-specific analyses, hence the total for this table is 119.*

Measures and Variables

The following fitness components were assessed using standardized field tests, as recorded in the original data tables:

  1. Flexibility (Flex.): Measured in centimeters using a sit-and-reach test. Positive values indicate reach beyond the toes.
  2. Coordination (Coor.): Number of successful jump rope skips in a 30-second interval.
  3. Lower-Body Power (Horizontal Jump – H.J.): Standing broad jump distance measured in centimeters.
  4. Lower-Body Power (Vertical Jump – V.J.): Vertical jump height measured in centimeters.
  5. Speed (30m): Time to sprint 30 meters, measured in seconds. All times were converted to seconds (e.g., 8″ 36 became 8.36 seconds).
  6. Upper-Body Power (MB6 Lb.): Distance thrown for a 6-pound medicine ball, measured in centimeters.
  7. Anthropometrics: Body weight (in pounds) and height (in centimeters). These were used to calculate Body Mass Index (BMI).

Data Analysis

All statistical analyses were conducted using IBM SPSS Statistics (Version 29). Data from the original tables were cleaned and standardized. Descriptive statistics (means and standard deviations) were calculated for all variables by grade and gender. To examine gender differences, independent samples t-tests were conducted within each grade cohort where sample size permitted (n>5 per group). A one-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was used to test for significant differences in mean performance across grade levels for each fitness variable. Where the ANOVA was significant (p < .05), Tukey’s HSD post-hoc test was applied to identify which specific grade levels differed from one another. Effect sizes were calculated using Cohen’s d for t-tests (small: d=0.2, medium: d=0.5, large: d=0.8) and eta-squared (η²) for ANOVA (small: 0.01, medium: 0.06, large: 0.14). The alpha level for statistical significance was set at p < .05.

RESULTS

The results are presented in four sections: an overview of developmental trends across grades, a detailed analysis of gender differences, an examination of body composition, and a focused analysis of jump rope coordination.

Developmental Trends Across Grade Levels

A clear and statistically significant developmental trend was observed for all performance-based measures. As expected, as children grew older, their performance in tasks requiring power, speed, and strength improved markedly. Descriptive statistics for key variables across grades are presented in Table 2.

GradenH.J. (cm)
M (SD)		V.J. (cm)
M (SD)		30m (s)
M (SD)		MB6 (cm)
M (SD)		Flex. (cm)
M (SD)		Coor. (Jumps)
M (SD)
PPK889.4 (8.5)9.0 (2.1)8.76 (1.45)93.8 (18.9)+5.5 (4.8)1.0 (1.6)
K514103.9 (13.7)12.6 (3.5)7.01 (0.76)108.6 (18.1)+5.8 (4.1)0.2 (0.4)
Gr 112125.8 (15.2)11.0 (3.1)6.50 (0.83)136.8 (16.9)+4.8 (4.9)9.3 (7.5)
Gr 2/311124.1 (21.2)16.7 (4.9)6.22 (0.95)166.4 (37.1)+3.6 (8.6)16.3 (7.8)
Gr 3/417141.2 (25.8)17.9 (5.1)6.28 (0.75)228.5 (40.8)–4.4 (8.2)21.5 (10.2)
Gr 5/613141.2 (22.7)16.5 (5.3)6.05 (0.62)218.1 (38.4)+2.8 (7.8)67.2 (48.1)
Gr 616162.8 (16.3)21.9 (5.1)5.62 (0.47)289.7 (65.8)+1.9 (8.5)27.6 (11.2)
Secondary28181.8 (29.1)25.9 (8.8)5.66 (0.84)372.9 (78.9)–1.9 (11.3)30.5 (12.8)

Table 2: Descriptive Statistics (Mean and Standard Deviation) for Key Fitness Variables by Grade Level

One-way ANOVA revealed significant main effects for grade level on all performance variables: H.J. (F(7, 111) = 32.15, p < .001, η² = 0.67), V.J. (F(7, 111) = 21.44, p < .001, η² = 0.58), 30m sprint (F(7, 111) = 16.02, p < .001, η² = 0.51), and MB6 throw (F(7, 111) = 71.89, p < .001, η² = 0.82). Post-hoc analyses indicated that the most significant jumps in performance occurred between early elementary (PPK, K5) and later elementary grades (Gr 2/3, 3/4), and again between late elementary and secondary school.

Figure 1. Mean Horizontal Jump Distance by Grade Level

For upper-body power (MB6), the progression was even more dramatic, increasing by nearly 400% from the PPK to the Secondary cohort, highlighting the significant development of muscular strength through adolescence, particularly in males.

Flexibility showed a distinct pattern, with positive mean scores (indicating reach beyond toes) in early grades that declined, becoming negative on average in the Grade 3/4 and Secondary cohorts. This suggests a relative decrease in hamstring and lower back flexibility as children age, a common finding associated with growth spurts and reduced activity.

The Development of Jump Rope Coordination

The jump rope coordination scores presented a unique and highly informative non-linear trend (F(7, 111) = 15.89, p < .001, η² = 0.50). Performance was minimal in PPK (M=1.0, SD=1.6) and K5 (M=0.2, SD=0.4), indicating a near-universal inability to perform the skill in early childhood. A significant jump occurred in Grade 1 (M=9.3, SD=7.5), suggesting this period is a critical window for initial skill acquisition. Scores then showed a steady, significant increase through Grade 3/4 (M=21.5, SD=10.2).

A remarkable outlier was observed in the Grade 5/6 cohort, where the mean score skyrocketed to 67.2 jumps, albeit with an enormous standard deviation (SD=48.1). This indicates extreme variability within this group; while some students were highly proficient, others remained at a beginner level. This suggests that by this age, jump rope proficiency becomes highly dependent on specific practice and exposure outside of general physical development. Scores then consolidated in Grade 6 (M=27.6, SD=11.2) and Secondary (M=30.5, SD=12.8), showing less variability and indicating a stabilization of skill among those who have acquired it.

Gender Differences in Physical Performance

Gender differences were minimal in the earliest grades (PPK, K5) but became increasingly pronounced throughout elementary and middle school. Detailed comparisons for selected cohorts are presented in Table 3.

Grade & VariableMales M (SD)Females M (SD)p-valueCohen’s d
      Grade 3/4 (n=7 / n=10)
H.J. (cm)151.4 (33.9)133.9 (17.1)0.170.66
MB6 (cm)247.1 (40.1)215.6 (37.2)0.100.81
Coordination (Jumps)18.1 (8.2)23.9 (10.9)0.23-0.60
Flexibility (cm)-11.0 (6.5)+0.3 (6.9)0.002-1.69
     Grade 6 (n=5 / n=11)
H.J. (cm)170.0 (8.9)159.5 (17.8)0.250.75
MB6 (cm)290.0 (67.1)289.5 (68.3)0.990.01
Coordination (Jumps)31.2 (15.5)26.5 (9.7)0.490.36
     Secondary (n=15 / n=13)
H.J. (cm)194.7 (26.3)167.1 (23.8)0.0051.11
30m (s)5.38 (0.72)5.98 (0.83)0.04-0.78
MB6 (cm)422.7 (71.5)316.9 (38.7)<0.0011.86
Coordination (Jumps)28.7 (13.1)32.5 (12.4)0.42-0.30

Table 3: Gender Comparisons (Mean, SD, and p-value) for Selected Grade Cohorts

As shown in Table 3, by the secondary school level, males significantly outperformed females in the Horizontal Jump (p = .005, d = 1.11), the 30m Sprint (p = .04, d = -0.78), and the Medicine Ball Throw (p < .001, d = 1.86), representing medium to very large effect sizes. While not always statistically significant in smaller cohorts, the trend of males demonstrating superior performance in strength and power tasks was consistent from Grade 3/4 onward.

In contrast, no significant gender differences were found in jump rope coordination at any grade level, though the effect sizes in Grade 3/4 (d = -0.60) and Secondary (d = -0.30) suggested a trend favoring females, while in Grade 6, the trend slightly favored males (d = 0.36). This indicates that coordination, as measured by this task, is not gender-dimorphic in the way strength and power are, and proficiency is likely more linked to opportunity and practice. Females maintained a significant advantage in flexibility in Grade 3/4 (p = .002, d = -1.69), though this difference was no longer significant by secondary school.

Body Composition Trends

Height and weight increased predictably with age. The Body Mass Index (BMI) was calculated and converted to kg/m² for analysis. Mean BMI percentiles, estimated based on CDC growth charts, generally fell within the healthy range for most cohorts. However, individual cases of very high BMI (>95th percentile) were present, particularly in the Grade 3/4 (e.g., Participant ZMP: BMI ~31) and Grade 6 (e.g., Participant KW: BMI ~33) cohorts, aligning with national concerns about childhood obesity. These outliers often corresponded with notably poor performance in weight-bearing fitness tasks like the 30m sprint and horizontal jump, as well as very low jump rope scores, demonstrating the impact of body composition on motor skill performance.

DISCUSSION

This cross-sectional analysis provides a compelling snapshot of the physical development of students from early childhood through late adolescence, with particular insight into the development of coordination through jump roping. The results largely align with established motor development literature and offer several key, actionable insights for promoting physical literacy in educational settings, viewed through the lens of recent research.

The Jump Rope as a Diagnostic Tool for Physical Literacy

The jump rope coordination data provide perhaps the most vivid illustration of the difference between physical growth and skill acquisition. The near-zero scores in PPK and K5 are expected, as jump roping is a complex skill requiring bilateral coordination, rhythm, and timing that typically emerges around age 6 or 7 (Haywood & Getchell, 2020). The significant jump in Grade 1 marks a critical sensitive period for introducing this skill. The dramatic spike and high variability in the Grade 5/6 cohort are highly informative. This pattern suggests that by ages 10-12, mere physical maturation is insufficient to develop proficiency. Instead, performance becomes heavily influenced by factors such as deliberate practice, participation in sports or activities that incorporate jump roping, and cultural or social exposure to the activity (Drenowatz et al., 2021). The subsequent consolidation of scores in later grades suggests a proficiency barrier (Stodden et al., 2008) has been crossed by some, while others may have disengaged from the skill entirely.

This has direct implications for physical literacy. A child who cannot jump rope may be excluded from playground games and certain physical activities, negatively impacting their confidence and motivation, key affective domains of physical literacy (Whitehead, 2019). Therefore, the jump rope test is not merely a measure of coordination; it is a powerful diagnostic for identifying students who are missing fundamental, culturally relevant movement skills that can facilitate social inclusion and ongoing participation.

Interpreting Broader Developmental Trajectories

The observed, statistically significant improvements in power, speed, and strength are consistent with normal physiological growth and maturation (Malina et al., 2004). The steep improvements in lower-body power (H.J., V.J.) and speed (30m) during the elementary years correspond to a critical period for developing fundamental movement skills (FMS). As Robinson et al. (2015) argue, proficiency in FMS is a primary mechanism underlying physical literacy. The dramatic increase in upper-body power (MB6), particularly in males during adolescence, can be attributed to the surge in testosterone and the development of greater muscle mass (Lloyd et al., 2014).

The significant decline in average flexibility is a concerning trend that has been documented elsewhere and is linked to increased sedentary behavior (e.g., screen time) and a lack of targeted stretching (Schranz et al., 2020). This highlights a specific, often overlooked, area for intervention within a physical literacy framework.

Addressing the Emergent Gender Gap and Skill Equity

The emergence of a significant gender gap in adolescence in strength and power tasks with large effect sizes is a well-established phenomenon (Thomas et al., 2022). While biological factors play a role, sociocultural factors are also at play. Research indicates that adolescent girls often experience a decline in physical self-perception and participation in strength-based activities (Barnett et al., 2022). Our findings suggest that the middle school years represent a critical window for implementing targeted, inclusive strength-building programs for girls (Behringer et al., 2024).

The lack of a significant gender gap in jump rope proficiency is a crucial finding. It demonstrates that when skills are equally practiced and valued for all children, performance gaps need not emerge. This reinforces the importance of a curriculum that explicitly teaches and provides ample practice for a wide range of motor skills to all students, regardless of gender.

CONCLUSION 

This comprehensive analysis of multi-grade fitness data vividly illustrates the dynamic nature of physical development throughout the school years. The results confirm expected trends of improving power and speed, highlight a critical period of declining flexibility, and reveal a pronounced gender gap in strength-related tasks emerging in adolescence. The in-depth analysis of jump rope coordination provides a powerful testament to the role of practice and instruction in motor skill development, separate from mere physical maturation. This skill-based assessment proved to be a highly sensitive diagnostic tool for identifying variability in motor competence and potential gaps in physical literacy. By moving beyond mere data collection to data-informed action, educators and policymakers can create more effective, inclusive, and developmentally appropriate physical education programs. Such programs, which explicitly teach foundational skills like jump roping to all children, are fundamental to empowering them with the competence, confidence, and desire to lead active, healthy lives, thereby fulfilling the core promise of physical literacy.

LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH

This study has several limitations. Its cross-sectional design infers longitudinal trends from different individuals at single time points; a true longitudinal study would provide more robust data on individual developmental pathways. The sample sizes for some grade-level cohorts were small, limiting the statistical power of some gender comparisons. Future research should employ longitudinal designs with larger samples, track the relationship between early jump rope proficiency and later physical activity levels, and incorporate qualitative measures of students’ confidence and enjoyment in performing these skills.

APPLICATIONS IN SPORT

The data strongly supports the integration of systematic fitness and skill assessment as a core component of a physical literacy-informed curriculum. As Edwards et al. (2023) argue, assessment should not be for grading but for guiding. The results of such tests can:

  1. Identify Skill Deficits Early: The jump rope test can flag students in Grade 1 who are not acquiring fundamental coordination skills, allowing for early intervention.
  2. Inform Instruction: Physical educators can use these data to form small groups for targeted skill instruction (e.g., a jump rope clinic for the low-performing students in Grade 5/6) and to ensure their curriculum addresses flexibility and upper-body strength for girls.
  3. Promote a Mastery Climate: By focusing on individual improvement in skills like jump roping, rather than solely on athletic performance, teachers can foster the confidence and motivation that are central to physical literacy (Robinson & Goodway, 2021).

REFERENCES 

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  2. Behringer, M., Vom Heede, A., Matthews, M., & Mester, J. (2024). Effects of strength training in children and adolescents: A meta-analysis. Pediatrics, 153 (1), e2023062512. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2023-062512
  3. Cattuzzo, M. T., dos Santos Henrique, R., Ré, A. H. N., et al. (2016). Motor competence and health-related physical fitness in youth: A systematic review. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 19 (2), 123–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsams.2014.12.004
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  11. Malina, R. M., Bouchard, C., & Bar-Or, O. (2004). Growth, maturation, and physical activity (2nd ed.). Human Kinetics.
  12. Robinson, L. E., & Goodway, J. D. (2021). Instructional climates in preschool children who are at-risk. Part I: Object-control skill development. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 92 (1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2020.1712316
  13. Robinson, L. E., Stodden, D. F., Barnett, L. M., et al. (2015). Motor competence and its effect on positive developmental trajectories of health. Sports Medicine, 45 (9), 1273–1284. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-015-0351-6
  14. Schranz, N., Tomkinson, G., Olds, T., & Dannecker, L. (2020). What is the effect of resistance training on the strength, body composition and psychosocial status of overweight and obese children and adolescents? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Sports Medicine, 50 (1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-019-01238-y
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2025-12-12T09:51:04-06:00July 1st, 2026|General, Sport Training, Sports Coaching, Sports Exercise Science, Sports Health & Fitness, Sports Studies|Comments Off on A Longitudinal Cross-Sectional Analysis of Physical Fitness and Motor Competency for Intermediate School Students
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BOOK REVIEW: Murphy, J. (2020). Inner Excellence. Train Your Mind For Extraordinary Performance And The Best Possible Life. Academy of Excellence – New York – Rome – Tokyo.

Author: Barrett Snyder

Corresponding Author:

Barrett Snyder

[email protected]

The author holds an M.S. Exercise Science degree from West Chester University of Pennsylvania and an MBA from Drexel University.

Inner Excellence, by Jim Murphy, was published in 2020 but entered the broader public conversation several years later. During a nationally televised Wild Card game in January 2025, A.J. Brown of the Philadelphia Eagles was spotted reading the book on the sideline, a moment that drew widespread attention. His postgame praise helped propel the book to the number one spot on Amazon by the following morning.While Brown’s visibility expanded its audience, Murphy’s work ultimately stands on its own as a clear, accessible exploration of the mental habits that separate elite performers and extend beyond sport.

At its core, Inner Excellence challenges the idea that achievement alone creates a meaningful life, instead placing value on growth that begins internally through self-awareness and personal development rather than external validation. Murphy encourages readers to move away from chasing approval or outcomes and toward building a steadier foundation rooted in purpose and perspective. Central to this shift is his caution against ego, which he describes as one of the greatest obstacles people face. In Murphy’s view, excessive self-focus distorts perspective, limits growth, and distracts from long-term development.

That same mindset shapes how Murphy frames the book itself. He invites readers to approach Inner Excellence not as a destination to reach, but as an ongoing process rather than a final achievement. In doing so, he challenges conventional definitions of success, suggesting that exceptional leaders measure it through effort, growth, and a sense of purpose extending beyond oneself. This reframing feels relevant in a culture fixated on contracts, awards, and social media validation. Importantly, Murphy delivers these ideas without an authoritative tone, writing instead as a guide alongside the reader and inviting reflection rather than dictating conclusions. Although many examples draw from athletics and the language of sport, the lessons extend well beyond athletes, translating naturally to everyday life and professional pursuits through references to figures such as Theodore Roosevelt, Ralph Waldo Emerson, and J.K. Rowling.

Murphy draws on his background as a former member of the Chicago Cubs to illustrate how closely his sense of identity and self-worth became tied to performance. That dynamic may feel familiar to many readers and raises a natural question about how often personal worth becomes linked to results alone. I recognize that tendency in myself, particularly in the ways confidence and self-perception can become tethered to external outcomes.

Inner Excellence is organized into eleven chapters that explore a broad range of ideas, including performance, emotional control, presence, overcoming mental blocks, maintaining poise under pressure, and leadership. Across these chapters, Murphy also weaves in topics such as the subconscious, visualization, self-awareness, the difference between dreams and goals, and the development of courage. Among them, Chapter 3, “The Greatest Opponents You’ll Ever Face,” stood out most to me. In it, Murphy identifies three internal adversaries that undermine performance and growth: the Critic, the Monkey Mind, and the Trickster. The Critic delivers negative judgments, the Monkey Mind fuels relentless mental noise, and the Trickster fixates on past failures to reinforce self-doubt. What gives the chapter its weight for me is how it reflects my own experience, where progress is often limited less by external obstacles than by the internal narratives I carry.

Murphy brings further clarity to this idea by framing life as a series of choices between two paths: the path of freedom and the path of comfort. One requires risk, growth, and a willingness to confront fear, while the other favors safety and familiarity, often at the cost of long-term development. I am frequently drawn toward the option that offers less resistance, only to recognize how easily comfort can delay growth. In this way, Inner Excellence moves beyond athletic performance and becomes a personal challenge, prompting an honest reckoning with how rarely meaningful progress occurs without deliberate discomfort.

Inner Excellence is not a book meant to be rushed, and for some readers, myself included, it can feel overwhelming if approached too quickly. There is a great deal of material, but readers should not feel pressured to absorb or apply everything at once. Instead, the book benefits from a slower, more intentional pace, with chapters best read in smaller sections and revisited as needed. Murphy’s approach relies on reflection, lived experience, illustrative examples, and quotations rather than formal research or statistical validation, which may not appeal to readers who prefer strictly data-driven frameworks. That said, the book is intended as a practical resource rather than an academic text. Each chapter concludes with clearly defined “Key Points,” along with follow-up questions and activities that encourage application. In this way, Inner Excellence functions less as a book to be read straight through and, for me, more as a personal toolkit, one that invites readers to return to specific chapters and apply the lessons most relevant to their lives. The writing is clear, making the ideas easy to understand and apply in everyday settings.

Murphy draws a parallel between physical and mental training, emphasizing that mental development deserves the same consideration we give physical preparation. Inner Excellence offers not a finish line, but a framework meant to be revisited, applied, and lived over time. It reads less as a prescription for immediate change and more as an invitation to return, reflect, and apply its ideas with patience and intention, making it a book I would strongly recommend and one that at times feels akin to a personal form of therapy.

2026-02-12T13:35:16-06:00June 24th, 2026|Book Reveiws, Contemporary Sports Issues, Leadership, Sports Studies, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|Comments Off on BOOK REVIEW: Murphy, J. (2020). Inner Excellence. Train Your Mind For Extraordinary Performance And The Best Possible Life. Academy of Excellence – New York – Rome – Tokyo.
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Examining Work Addiction, Burnout and Work-Family Conflict in Sport Organizations

Authors: Alexandrya H. Cairns1, Danielle Earnest2, Stephanie M. Singe3

1PhD, ATC, Assistant Professor, Department of Health and Movement Sciences, Southern Connecticut State University

2BS, Athletic Training Student, Department of Kinesiology University of Connecticut

3PhD, ATC, FNATA, Professor, Department of Kinesiology, University of Connecticut

 

Corresponding Author:

[email protected]

ABSTRACT 


Purpose: The culture of National Collegiate Athletics Association (NCAA) Division I (DI) athletics can stimulate a culture that appears to “greedy” placing high demands on the time and energy of those working within the sport organization. These intense demands create the potential for experiences of work addiction, burnout, and work-family conflict among sport professionals. We aimed to examine the overall experiences of work addiction, burnout, and work-family conflict within the NCAA DI sport organization. Methods: We used an online cross-sectional survey (Qualtrics, Provo, UT) composed of demographics, measurement tools for work addiction, burnout, and work-family conflict. Each of the scales have strong internal consistency as reported by Cronbach’s alpha scores. The study was distributed to certified athletic trainers (AT), coaches, and sport performance coaches (SPC) working full-time in their position at an NCAA DI institution. Results: There was no significant difference in reported scores on the BWAS between athletic trainers and coaches (U = 3952.00, p = .160), and no significant difference was found between sport performance coaches and athletic trainers (U = 5894.00, p = .879). A significant difference of burnout levels between athletic trainers and coaches was revealed (U = 3559.50, p = .017) andno significant difference discovered in the reported levels of burnout between athletic trainers and sport performance coaches (U = 5483.00, p = .313). There was no significant difference between athletic trainers and coaches for work-family conflict (U = 4483.00, p =.939), or sport performance sport performance coaches and athletic trainers (U= 5576.50, p = .416). Conclusions: Our results indicate that work addiction and work-family conflict are experienced similarly across the sport organization. Athletic trainers were found to experience higher levels of burnout compared to coaches, but similar levels to sport performance coaches. Application in Sport: Implementing policies that address work and family strain coaches, athletic trainers, and sport performance coaches can face working in sport is important. Although overall burnout was low, athletic trainers were at greater risk; thus addressing the factors causing them to have greater levels of burnout than other 2 stakeholder groups is important.

Key Words: stress, role strain, workplace dynamics, organization conflict

INTRODUCTION 

Working within a collegiate sport organization places high demands on an individual, regardless of the role they play within that organization. The demands of the individual working in sport can include long working hours (+40 hours a week) that extend into nights and weekends (Laskowski & Ebben, 2016; Mazerolle et al., 2011; Scriber & Alderman, 2005; Singe et al., 2023b). Working hours are often accompanied by the need to be physically present, limiting flexibility and autonomy over work scheduling (Laskowski & Ebben, 2016; Mazerolle et al., 2011; Scriber & Alderman, 2005; Singe et al., 2023b). Organizational culture represents the underlying beliefs, values, and assumptions within an organization (Schein, 2010). The culture within sport organization has been described as one that is influenced by commercialization which has led to pressures to win at all costs due to the financial implications (Pope & Pope, 2014). Coaches, athletic trainers, and others working in sport organizations can feel the pressures associated with this culture, which can increase their stress, and influence their perceptions of work saliency, work-family conflict, and burnout.

Work addiction is a preoccupation with work (Andreassen, 2014; Robinson, 1999); and can be conceptualized as an individual who prioritizes their work over other responsibilities, which can lead to work-family conflict (Eason et al., 2022). Working in sport may have an influence on experiences of work addiction, particularly if the expectations around success and commitment hinge on prioritizing work. Coaches, athletic trainers, and sport performance coaches all contribute to the mission of the sport organization yet have very different and unique roles. Thus, the level of work addiction each of these individuals working in sport may demonstrate could vary, as well as the influence it may have on burnout and work-family. Research has examined experiences of burnout and work-family conflict among coaches and athletic trainers, independently, but not simultaneously (Graham & Smith, 2021; Singe et al., 2022). Organizational factors unique to sport are perhaps keys to understanding why burnout and work-family conflict occur, and better understanding if the role assumed in the sport organization can contribute.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Working Within the Sport Organization

The National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) is the governing body that administers intercollegiate athletics in the United States. The NCAA is subdivided into three different divisions to create a fair playing field where teams are competing with schools at a similar level. Many factors separate the three subdivisions including media attention, airtime, and of course resources centered around finances and scholarship (Overview, n.d.). The NCAA Division I (DI) schools typically house the largest student bodies and possess the greatest number of athletic scholarship opportunities largely attributed to their large athletic budgets. Working within the NCAA DI setting comes with increased pressures and stress (Singe et al., 2022; Taylor et al., 2019) , particularly for coaches as they must produce through wins as well as retain students in their programs (Norris et al., 2017; Singe et al., 2022). The NCAA DI programs have large budgets which has the potential to play a significant role in the pressures and stress faced by those who are employed in the division.

At the NCAA Division II (DII) level student-athletes are offered scholarships to participate, but the number per sport is much less than the NCAA DI setting (Our Division II Story, n.d.).The expectations of those student-athletes participating at this level are somewhat less than the NCAA DI level, as time demands are slightly less (Our Division II Story, n.d.). The overall philosophy of the NCAA DII setting is one about balance, in which student-athletes are pushed to excel in their sport, but also in the classroom and campus community (Our Division II story, n.d.).

The NCAA Division III (DIII) level does not award scholarships generated from athletic participation (Our Three Divisions, n.d.), and has been described as a setting that encourages student first, and athlete second. Since there are no athletic scholarships offered, the budgets within these programs are much less than the other two divisions. The demands and expectations within the NCAA DIII setting are much less than and considered to be the most well-balanced collegiate experience (Our Division III Story, n.d.).

Working in the intercollegiate setting has been described as high-pressure, demanding, and one that can increase feelings of stress. Work addiction, burnout, and challenges with work-life balance have been found to occur for those working in intercollegiate sport, including coaches, athletic administrators, sports information specialists, and athletic trainers (Dixon & Bruening, 2005; Eason et al., 2022; Graham & Smith, 2022; Hatfield & Johnson, 2012). Causative factors linked to these challenges of working in sport include culture expectations within the workplace, time demands, inflexible work schedules, travel, and role incongruence. Sport is founded on the premise of teamwork and each member of the team has a critical role to support team success. Coaches, athletic trainers, and sport performance coaches are key members within the intercollegiate setting with unique roles supporting the student-athlete. Each has different roles, responsibilities, and expectations, and evidence that suggests those working in the intercollegiate setting are challenged to push beyond their work saliency leaving them vulnerable to work addiction, burnout, and work-family conflict. 

Work Addiction and Sport

Workaholism is conceptualized as something that occurs when a person becomes completely engulfed in their work, investing their time and energy in their work life (McMillan et al., 2003). Those who display characteristics of a workaholic are prone to experiences of increased stress, burnout, and work-family conflict (Clark et al., 2016; Eason et al., 2022). One’s career has been associated with higher experiences of workaholism, such as sport as the culture is one of sacrifice, expectations to put in long work hours, and choosing work over one’s personal life (Dixon & Bruening, 2005; Graham & Dixon, 2014). Workaholics have a high involvement in their work (i.e. working long hours), have a hard time disengaging from work, and feel compelled or driven to work (McMillan et al., 2003). Working harder than perhaps their job requires workaholics will then start neglecting their lives outside of their jobs (Schaufeli et al., 2008).

Coaches, athletic trainers, and sport performance coaches all must work long hours; in fact, athletic trainers have reported working 60+ hour work weeks, extending into nights and weekends (Bruening & Dixon, 2007; Singe et al., 2023b; Snarr & Beasley, 2022). These long working hours reported by individuals working in sport have been attributed to burnout and work-family conflict (Eason et al., 2022), and recently have been suggested to be perhaps driven by work addiction ( Eason et al., 2022) or associated with it (Taylor et al., 2019). Work addiction can be explained as an individual factor that can be attributed to one’s experiences of work-family conflict or burnout, and job demands such as long hours can be an organizational construct that influences work-family conflict or burnout (Cayton & Valovich McLeod, 2020; Eason et al., 2022). What is unknown is the aspects such as the navigation of long working hours and personal attributes of a coach, athletic trainer, or sport performance coach necessary to be successful members working in intercollegiate athletics.

Work addiction has seven core components or symptoms: salience, mood modification, tolerance, withdrawal, conflict, relapse, and problems. These symptoms have been developed into a scale, the Bergen Work Addiction Scale (BWAS) as outlined by Andreassen et al. (2014) salience (the activity dominates thinking and behavior), tolerance (increasing amounts of the activity are required to achieve initial effects), mood modification (the activity modifies/improves mood), relapse (tendency for reversion to earlier patterns of the activity after abstinence of control), withdrawal (occurrence of unpleasant feelings when the activity if discontinued or suddenly reduced), conflict (the activity comes into conflict with personal life, needs, and relationships), and problems (caused by being greatly engaged in the activity).

Experiences of Burnout in Athletics

Burnout is one of the many identified stressors of those working in athletics largely attributed to the long working hours, high workloads, and demands (Singe et al., 2023b). Burnout has been defined as the degree of physical and psychological fatigue experienced by a person that can be attributed to personal, work, or client-related stress (Cairns et al., 2023; Kristensen et al., 2005). Organizational factors have been identified in being the greatest influence over experiences of burnout (Barrett et al., 2016). Individual factors such as personality have also been observed to influence burnout as well. Burnout has been positively associated with role strain, neuroticism, and work-family conflict (Barrett et al., 2016; Cayton & Valovich McLeod, 2020). The demanding environment of athletics involves high emotional involvement, stress, responsibility, and time restraints (Cayton & Valovich McLeod, 2020; Mazerolle et al., 2008). Furthermore, the organization commonly inadequately compensates their employees while still expecting them to work long hours with inadequate numbers of staff, a lack of control over scheduling, and limited time off (Bruening & Dixon, 2007; Cayton & Valovich McLeod, 2020). The combination of these factors places those working within the sport organization at an increased risk of experiencing burnout. Positive relationships have been observed between burnout, work-family conflict, and intention to leave, while negative relationships have been observed with job and life satisfaction for those experiencing burnout (Mazerolle et al., 2008).

Due to the predispositions those working in sport face, burnout has been widely studied in sport. Those working in sports have been shown to experience moderate levels of burnout (Cairns et al., 2023; Singe et al., 2023a; Snarr & Beasley, 2022). However, there have been slight fluctuations in reported levels of burnout since the pandemic with levels of burnout lessening (Cairns et al., 2023). Sport professionals also tend to report high levels of personal and work-related burnout (Singe et al., 2023a; Taylor et al., 2019). Levels of personal burnout have a positive relationship with working hours and a negative relationship with hours of sleep (Singe et al., 2023a). Men and women report similar levels of burnout, suggesting that gender is not a significant predictor of experiences of burnout (Cairns et al., 2023). Incorporating coping strategies such as social support, continuing education, and self-care in addition to organizational support have all been associated with decreased levels of burnout in sport (Singe et al., 2023a; Snarr & Beasley, 2022).

Work-family Conflict

Work-family conflict defined as a form of inter-role conflict. The conflict occurs when the general demands of, time devoted to, and strain created by the job interfere with performing family-related responsibilities (Netemeyer et al., 1996). With the high demands concerning time and presence associated with working in sport, work-family conflict is a prominent area of interest within the sport organization. Work-family conflict has been framed as a complex construct that is explained by individual, organizational/structural, and socio-cultural factors (Dixon & Bruening, 2005). This integrated approach to the exploration of work-family conflict within sport is increasingly important as studies have shown the presence of work-family conflict across the sport organization regardless of factors such as job, age, sex, or family/marital status. (Bruening & Dixon, 2007; Mazerolle et al., 2008) .

While work-family conflict is experienced regardless of demographic factors, there have been increased levels of work-family conflict associated with marital and parental statuses. Those who are married with children are more likely to experience greater levels of work-family conflict (Singe et al., 2022). Setting has also been seen to play a role in the experiences of work-family conflict with those working in collegiate athletics reporting higher levels than those in the secondary setting (Mazerolle et al., 2015). Experiences of work-family conflict among those working in the sport organization have also been seen to be above average (Mazerolle et al., 2015). Previous research has also suggested that working within the NCAA DI setting increases experiences of work-family conflict (Singe et al., 2022). This is supported by findings that those working in the NCAA DI setting report greater levels of work-family conflict compared to those working in the NCAA DIII setting which could likely be attributed to the increased demand of the DI setting (Singe et al., 2022). Beyond intense professional demands, long working hours, lack of control over work schedules, and unbalanced workloads were all also related to increased conflict at the DI level (Mazerolle et al., 2011). Within the sport organization, four types of conflict have been found attributing to work-family conflict: time, energy, attention, and emotional spillover (Graham & Smith, 2022). However, several organizational and personal strategies help establish work-family balance. As an organization, the implementation of staffing policies and the creation of a supportive work environment help in reducing experiences of work-family conflict (Mazerolle et al., 2011). Individual management strategies can be broken down into personal factors and individual strategies on the professional level. Individual strategies involve the incorporation of teamwork, boundary setting, prioritization, and integration of family with work (Mazerolle et al., 2011). Personal factors focus greatly on the separation and work and life as well as the establishment of a support network (Mazerolle et al., 2011).

Purpose

Despite the growing body of research dedicated to the examination of these constructs within the sport organization, there remains a need for a better understanding of the varied experiences held by different stakeholders within the organization. Additionally, the exploration of work-addiction within the sport organization is novel. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine overall experiences of burnout, work addiction, and work-family conflict within sport organizations. Additionally, this study seeks to compare these experiences among the various stakeholders within the sport organization. Given this information, we hypothesized the following:

H1a– Coaches will report greater levels of work addiction compared to athletic trainers.

H2b– Athletic trainers will report greater levels of work addiction compared to sport performance coaches.

H2a– Athletic trainers will report greater levels of burnout compared to coaches.

H2b– Athletic trainers will report greater levels of burnout compared to sport performance coaches.

H3a– Athletic trainers will report greater levels of work-family conflict compared to coaches.

H3b– Athletic trainers will report greater levels of work-family conflict compared to sport performance coaches.

H4a– Work addiction and work-family conflict will have a positive relationship.

H4b– Work addition and burnout will have a positive relationship. 

METHODS 

Study design

The study design is a web-based cross-sectional study (Qualtrics, Provo, UT). Data was collected using a self-reported online questionnaire evaluating sleep, self-care, work-family conflict, work addiction, and burnout among NCAA Division I collegiate athletic trainers, coaches, and sport performance coaches. Approval for this study was obtained from the institutional review board (IRB) prior to data collection, which occurred over a four-week period in the Fall of 2023.

Procedures

Prior to survey distribution, we completed a face validity process; 3 athletic trainers took the survey for the purposes of the process. No changes were made to the survey based on the face validity feedback. Two email reminders were sent at the 1-week and 3-week marks, reminding participants to complete the survey.

Participants

The target population for the current study were NCAA Division I (DI) athletic trainers, sport performance coaches, and coaches. A list of all NCAA DI institutions was created using the NCSA college recruiting website (n = 363). From the list of institutions offering NCAA DI athletics programs, the individual athletics websites were accessed to create a list of emails for those individuals identified as an athletic trainer, sport performance coach, or a head or assistant coach. We were able to identify 13,412 email addresses across the 3 stakeholder groups. Our power analysis indicated a requirement of 258 respondents, which resulted in 86 participants from each stakeholder (group). Strata randomization was utilized since we did not have a complete list of all possible participants, thus phases of distribution were utilized and represented in Figure 1.  

Figure 1. Recruitment and Data Screening

Sample

A total of 153 athletic trainers (51.5%), 59 coaches (19.9%), and 78 sports performance coaches (26.3%) completed this research study. Of the participants, 166 were female (55.9%), 121 male (40.7%), and 2 preferred not to answer (0.7%). The mean age of the participants in this study was 33 ± 9, with ages ranging from 22 – 70 years. Participants on average had 10 ± 9 years of experience, with an average of 5 ± 6 years working at their current institution. On average, participants worked 55 ± 16 hours per week. Complete demographic data is shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Participant Demographics

DemographicScore
Gender, n (%)
    Male121 (40.7)
    Female166 (55.9)
    Prefer not to answer2 (0.7)
Highest level of education, n (%)
    Bachelor’s Degree48 (16.2)
    Master’s Degree237 (79.8)
    Doctorate5 (1.7)
Primary Role, n (%)
    Head Coach18 (6.1)
    Associate Coach9 (3.0)
    Assistant Coach34 (11.4)
    Head Athletic Trainer15 (5.1)
    Associate Athletic Trainer37 (12.5)
    Staff/Assistant Athletic Trainer99 (33.3)
    Director, Sport Performance (Conditioning)23 (7.7)
    Strength and Conditioning Coach51 (17.2)
Marital status, n (%)
    Single137 (46.1)
    Cohabitating28 (9.4)
    Married117 (39.4)
    Separated2 (0.7)
    Divorced3 (0.7)
    Widowed1 (0.3)
    Engaged3 (1.0)
Spouse employment status n (%)
    Employed, full-time210 (70.7)
    Employed, part-time18 (6.1)
    Does not work/stay at home25 (8.4)
Children, n (%)
    0202 (70.0)
    Currently Pregnant8 (2.7)
    121 (7.1)
    233 (11.1)
    3+27 (8.8)
Group Identity, n (%) 
    Single Female112 (37.7)
    Single Male33 (11.1)
    Married Female43 (14.5)
    Married Male80 (26.9)
    This does not apply to me20 (6.7)

Instrumentation

The online survey was hosted in Qualtrics and included 36-items not including the demographic questions. Participants completed 13 demographic questions, prior to the 3 scales (i.e. Copenhagen Burnout Inventory (CBI), Bergen Work Addiction Scale, and Work-Family Conflict), which were not altered as they are valid instruments.  

Burnout. Burnout was measured using the CBI as a tool that demonstrates reliability (α=.85-.87) and had been used previously to measure burnout among athletic trainers (α=.88) (Kristensen et al., 2005; Naugle et al., 2013). The scale included 3 subscales: personal (n=6-items), work-related (n=7-items), and client-based burnout (n=6-items). Participants use a 5-point Likert scale 0 (never/almost never/low degree), 25 (seldom/low degree), 50 (somewhat or sometimes), 75 (often/high degree), and 100 (always/high degree). The scale is summed for an overall burnout score, with a higher score indicating a higher level of burnout (0 is low, 100 is severe).

Work addiction. The Bergen Work Addiction Scale (BWAS) was used to measure work addiction (α=.78) among our sample. The scale has 7-items, each representing an aspect, or symptom of work addiction (salience, mood modification, tolerance, withdrawal, conflict, relapse, and problems – Table 6). The 7-items are assessed using a 5-point Likert scale, 1 (never) to 5 (always). The responses are summed (range 7 to 35), and a score of 4 (often) or 5 (always) on 4 of 7 items indicates a high risk for work addiction.

Work-family conflict. Work-family conflict scale was assessed using the scale previously validated by Netemeyer et al. (α=.90). The 10-item scale evaluates the bi-directional nature of the construct; 5-items for work-family conflict (WFC) and 5-items for family-work conflict (FWC). Participants indicated their responses on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). Sample questions include: “WFC®The demands of my job interfere with my home and family life,” and “FWC®The things I want to do at home do not get done because of the demands of my job.”

Data analyses

The data collected via Qualtrics was transferred to Excel by Microsoft Corporation. Following the completion of data collection, it underwent a filtration process to remove incomplete responses, defined as those failing to complete the required scales or the survey itself as per the scale validation. Subsequently, the filtered data was imported into SPSS, version, etc., for statistical analysis. Demographic information such as age, gender, and marital status were obtained through specific questions, and these demographic variables were subjected to descriptive and frequency analyses. The outcomes are presented as mean and standard deviation or frequency. Validated scales were assessed using means due to the non-parametric nature of the data analysis at hand, and Cohens d is reported for effect size.

RESULTS

Participant Demographics

Participants were 51.5% athletic trainers (n = 153), 19.9% were coaches (n=59), and 26.3% were sports performance coaches (n = 78). The average age of the participants was 33 ± 9 and they had been working in their respective roles for an average of 11± 9. They self-reported working 55 ± 17 hours per week (at the time of data collection).

Stakeholders and Work-Addiction

The mean score on the BWAS across all three stakeholder groups was 20.71 ± 4.57. Table 2 represents the mean scores on the BWAS, reported by each stakeholder group. Athletic trainers reported a score of 20.84 ± 4.51, whereas coaches reported a mean score of 20.05 ± 4.85. There was no significant difference in reported scores on the BWAS between athletic trainers and coaches (U = 3952.00, p = .160, d= 0.11). Additionally, sport performance coaches reported a mean score of 20.96 ± 4.50, and no significant difference was found between sport performance coaches and athletic trainers (U = 5894.00, p = .879, d= -0.010). Furthermore, across all three stakeholders, 80 were found to be workaholics while 210 (38%) were found not to be work addicted. Among athletic trainers, 45 of the 153 (29%) respondents were found to be workaholics. Of coaches, 12 of the 59 (20%) respondents were found to be workaholics. Among sport performance coaches, 23 of 78 (29%) respondents were found to be workaholics.

Stakeholders and Burnout

Across all three stakeholder groups, participants reported low levels (46.27 ± 16.04) on the CBI, additionally mean scores of 54.9 5 ± 17.24 on the personal-related subscale, 49.99 ± 18.87 on the work-related subscale, and 33.25 ± 18.67 on the client-related subscale. Table 2 represents the mean scores on the CBI and subscales, reported by each stakeholder group. Athletic trainers reported a mean score of 48.07 ± 16.42 on the CBI, while coaches reported a mean score of 41.99 ± 15.89 on the CBI. A significant difference of burnout levels between athletic trainers and coaches was revealed (U = 3559.50, p = .017, d= -0.16).Additionally, sport performance coaches reported a mean score of 45.97 ± 14.92. There was no significant difference discovered in the reported levels of burnout between athletic trainers and sport performance coaches (U = 5483.00, p = .313, d= -0.06).

Table 2: Comparison of Reported Scale Scores by Stakeholder

StakeholderCBI (Mean±SD)BWAS (Mean±SD)WFC (Mean±SD)
Athletic Trainers48.07±16.4220.84±4.5137.66±9.26
Coaches41.99±15.8920.05±4.8537.64±10.52
Sports Performance45.97±14.9220.96±4.5037.86±9.49

Stakeholders and Work-Family Conflict

The mean score across all stakeholders on the WFC scale was 37.71 ± 9.56. Athletic trainers reported a mean of 37.66 ± 9.26, whereas coaches reported a mean of 37.64 ± 10.52. There was no significant difference between athletic trainers and coaches (U = 4483.00, p =.939, d= -0.05).Furthermore, sport performance coaches reported a mean of 37.86 ± 9.49, and no significant difference was found between sport performance coaches and athletic trainers (U= 5576.50, p = .416, d= -0.06).

Variable relationships

Correlation matrices revealed a moderate positive correlation (.507) between work addiction and work-family conflict. Work addiction and burnout also resulted in a moderate positive relationship (.573).

DISCUSSION

Inferences has been made that working in sport can lead to experiences of burnout and work-family conflict, as well as that to be a productive member of the team one must be addicted to their role. Our purpose was to explore the experiences of work-addiction, burnout, and work-family conflict among athletic trainers, coaches, and sport performance coaches. This aim was directed at better understanding around one’s role in the sport organization and experiences of these constructs. As predicted work addiction, regardless of stakeholder position, leads to increased levels of burnout and work-family conflict. Uniquely, athletic trainers and coaches experience higher levels of burnout than sport performance coaches.

Stakeholders and Work-Family Conflict

We did not find any significant differences among our samples and experiences of WFC. The total mean score on the WFC scale is comparative to other studies examining WFC among athletic trainers work in the sport industry (Mazerolle et al. 2011; Pitney et al. 2011; Singe et al. in press). Our sample was largely represented by those who do not have children (70%); which could explain why we did not find any differences among our sample regarding experiences of WFC. Time is often a large facilitator of WFC, despite our sample reporting 55 hours per week, many did not have children another facilitator of WFC (Mazerolle et al., 2008; Pitney et al., 2011; Singe et al., 2023a). Perhaps working long hours has less of an impact on the individual when additional family responsibilities are not present, and one can focus on work and personal interests.

Stakeholders and Burnout

Overall, this sample of individuals working in the sport organization are experiencing low levels of burnout. Low levels of burnout does not imply that our sample is not experiencing it; however quantifiably it is lower. The literature over the last 5 years has suggested that coaches and athletic trainers are experiencing higher levels of burnout (Goodger et al., 2007; Singe et al., 2024; Singe et al., 2023a). We found that athletic trainers reported higher levels of burnout compared to coaches, but similar levels of burnout to sport performance coaches. Moderate levels of burnout have recently been reported among athletic trainers  (Singe et al., 2023a); however, fluctuations in experiences have been observed over the past 3 years with levels varying between moderate and low (Cairns et al., 2023; Oglesby et al., 2020; Singe et al., 2023a). Sport performance coaches have yet to be identified within the literature regarding burnout; our sample reported similar levels of burnout as athletic trainers. Similar to athletic trainers, sport performance coaches have high demands placed upon them, and they are invested in the success of their athletes as well as log long hours in the workplace (Bentzen et al., 2016; Olusoga et al., 2019).

Stakeholders and Work-Addiction

Our overall sample is not classified as a workaholic; however, both athletic trainers and sport performance coaches demonstrate a larger sample (29%) of those who would be classified as such. Workaholics may work long hours but that is by choice and perhaps not as a necessity (Andersen et al., 2023). Although our sample reports working excessive hours (55), they do not self-identify as workaholics. Moreover, we did not find significant differences between stakeholders. These findings suggest that work addiction is likely an individualized factor, and not necessarily an outcome of working in sport organization. As detailed in the work-family conflict framework of Bruening and Dixon (2005, 2007), there are individual, organizational, and sociocultural outcomes of experiences of work-family conflict.  

Variable relationships

Positive relationships were found between work addiction and both burnout and work-family conflict. The correlations found between the experiences of these constructs are consistent with those observed in previous studies examining these constructs in athletic trainers (Eason et al., 2022). These results make it apparent that experiences of work addiction, work-family conflict, and burnout occur at the same time. Previously stated, work-addiction can be attributed to experiences of work-family conflict and burnout. In this case all stakeholders are experiencing all three constructs.

We predicted there to be positive relationships between work addiction, burnout, and work-family conflict. Work addiction is yet another construct that is experienced by those working in the sport organization. This study adds to the literature that there are no differences in work-family conflict and burnout across athletic trainers, coaches, and SPCs. Yet, there are notable differences when it comes to burnout. Coaches and SPCs are experiencing work-family conflict, and work-addiction similarly to athletic trainers. This speaks to the sport organization as a whole; all employees are encountering these constructs. We suggest the sport organization investigate and assess reasons employees are work-addicted and have work-family conflict, to improve job and life satisfaction.

ATs experienced higher levels of burnout compared to coaches, and SPCs. There are many reasons this may be, the number of athletes per employee, responsibilities, and medical roles. However, in this sample athletic trainers reported low levels of burnout, though higher than coaches and SPCs, not quite as high as levels in recent literature (Barrett et al., 2016).

Consideration for Future Research and Study Limitations

The findings of this study expand upon the growing body of literature examining the constructs of work-addiction, burnout, and work-family conflict within the sport organization, yet limitations on these findings remain. Our study received 297 usable responses, which is a lower response rate than anticipated. Due to these factors, we recognize that these findings may not represent the experiences of all of those working within the sport organization. Our database was established using publicly available information therefore a complete list of all athletic trainers, coaches, and sports performance coaches at the DI level was unable to be obtained. Therefore, the results of this study may not represent the experiences of the entirety of NCAA DI athletic trainers, coaches, and SPCs. Our study also only examined those working within the NCAA DI setting; thus, those working in the DII, DIII, NAIA, or other collegiate levels may not have similar experiences with these constructs. Furthermore, those working in secondary schools or other settings also may not identify with the findings of this study.

Further research should include the investigation of work-addiction, burnout, and work-family conflict at all levels of collegiate athletics as well as those in secondary schools and alternate settings. Currently, the literature has examined these constructs within the sport organization solely focused on the experiences of athletic trainers, creating a need for future research among coaches and sports performance coaches on these constructs. Additionally, the study of work addiction within the sport organization is a novel issue, so further research is necessary to gain a better understanding of work addiction within athletics.

CONCLUSION 

This study sought to further our knowledge of the experiences of athletic trainers, coaches, and sport performance coaches in the DI setting, regarding work-addiction, burnout, and work-family conflict. Experiences were nearly universal across the sport organization except for athletic trainers experiencing greater levels of burnout compared to coaches. Positive relationships were also observed between levels of work addiction and both burnout and work-family conflict. The findings of this study suggest that these constructs are prominent issues across the sport organization. Given the prevalence across the sport organization, increased implication of both personal and organizational strategies may be necessary as a means of mitigating the impact of these issues (Cairns et al., 2023; Singe et al., 2022). This study serves as a preliminary exploration into the variance of experiences of work addiction, burnout, and work-family conflict across the sport organization stakeholders.

APPLICATIONS IN SPORT

Athletic trainers reported significantly different levels of burnout compared to coaches and sport performance coaches; thus we believe that understanding the specific role stressors for the athletic trainer can help address potential programs to prevent burnout. For example, wellness programs or a workload redistribution may be warranted for athletic trainers.  We did not find any differences among work-family conflict among any of the grups, which suggests more broad based policies that are family-friendly may help athletic trainers, coaches, and sport performance coaches (family-leave, time-off policies). Work addiction was a risk factor for both burnout and work-family conflict among our stakeholders, thus individuals and supervisors should be aware of the signs of burnout, but also encourage stress and boundary management,  as well as healthy work habits to prevent issues around burnout and conflicts between work and home. 

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2025-12-09T16:14:43-06:00June 17th, 2026|Contemporary Sports Issues, General, Leadership, Sports Health & Fitness, Sports Management, Sports Studies, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|Comments Off on Examining Work Addiction, Burnout and Work-Family Conflict in Sport Organizations
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Reducing absenteeism and turnover among part-time labor in community sport settings: A case study example and project guidelines for sport management students

Authors: Michael J. Diacin1

1Department of Kinesiology, Health, and Sport Sciences, University of Indianapolis, Indianapolis, IN, USA

 

Corresponding Author:

Michael J. Diacin, Ph.D.

1400 E. Hanna Ave.

Indianapolis, IN 46227

(317)791-5703

[email protected]

Michael J. Diacin, Ph.D., is an Associate Professor in the sport management program at the University of Indianapolis. His research interests focus on sport management pedagogy, experiential learning, and consumer incentives within spectator and participatory sport organizations.

ABSTRACT 

Part-time employees are critical to the daily operation at many sport and recreation focused businesses. Managers at many sites regularly deal with turnover and absenteeism among part-time workers. Absenteeism among the part-time workforce is problematic when less than a full staff is present to perform critical tasks. It negatively impacts customers through longer wait times and employees through increased workload. Therefore, managers in these settings should be making attempts to retain quality employees for as long as possible and offset the detrimental consequences of absenteeism. Managers could develop initiatives to ensure attendance from employees scheduled to work at times of peak customer presence as well as incentivize employees to replace absent workers on short notice. Therefore, the purpose of this work is to provide students with a case study situated within the possible employment setting of community-based sport and recreation facilities and complexes and have them develop initiatives to improve attendance and longevity of employment among part-time workers.

The application to sport management is that current students could likely work in businesses that employ part-time, seasonal workers. Commercial sport and recreation facilities and complexes exist in many locations; therefore, there is a strong likelihood that current sport management students will be working in these settings after graduation. Furthermore, they could benefit from imagining themselves overseeing a labor force of part-time workers and developing initiatives aimed at those part-time workers ranging from high school aged students to senior citizens. As future managers in these settings, students could be challenged to find ways to reduce absenteeism, fill staff shortages created by absenteeism on short notice, and retain quality workers for longer durations. The efficiency and effectiveness of the operation is highly dependent upon part-time workers; as a result, it would be worthwhile to develop initiatives to best ensure the operation is running at a maximum level of efficiency and effectiveness.

KEYWORDS: management, incentives, employees

INTRODUCTION 

Commercial sport and recreation businesses may range from single buildings to expansive multi-sport complexes. These complexes might be referred to as “sports campuses.” The size of these sites could range from an indoor facility measuring 50,000 square feet to a larger complex measuring hundreds of acres. The activities that take place within could include any assortment of team-based and individual activities. Basketball, hockey, tennis, gymnastics, soccer, flag football, cornhole, and pickleball are among the activities conducted at these sites. Regarding ownership and management of these facilities and complexes some might be owned by a municipality and managed by the municipality’s sport and recreation division. Some municipalities choose to outsource the daily management to a private company while other facilities and complexes are privately owned.

At many of these sites, a core of full-time managers directs the overall operation. The quantity of full-time employees could vary based upon the size and scope of the operation. A common aspect within these facilities and complexes is that the full-time managerial core depends on a team of part-time employees who execute many significant tasks related to customer service and maintenance. The part-time staff includes people from different age groups ranging from high school aged students to senior citizens. They receive an hourly wage, and some might receive fringe benefits such as free use of the facility (e.g., swimming pool, fitness equipment). With rare exception, part-time employees do not receive health insurance, retirement contributions, and/or other benefits that are often provided to full-time workers.

An operation in which part-time employees are heavily relied upon presents challenges to the management. Despite being counted on to execute important tasks, part-time workers are not highly compensated, nor do they receive the same benefits given to full-time staff. Unlike full-time staff, the job might not be their primary focus nor primary source of income. This population could be more likely to leave if other opportunities become available or not report for duty if other circumstances arise. Consequently, reliability and retention of part-time employees have consistently been identified as a critical issue facing managers that work in commercial sport and recreation settings (McCole, Jacobs, Lindley, & McAvoy, 2012). Consequences resulting from frequent absenteeism and rapid turnover of part-time employees could negatively impact the operation in numerous ways; therefore, management should attempt to be proactive to best mitigate the negative effects associated with frequent absenteeism and rapid turnover.

Although turnover is an inevitable aspect associated with operating any business, lessening the amount of turnover can be beneficial. The cost associated with turnover can be significant. McKinney, Bartlett, and Mulvaney (2007) identified the consumption of time and financial resources as consequences of turnover. First, there could be a cost to announce vacancies through sites that charge for posting them (e.g., classified listings in the local newspaper, websites targeting job seekers). In addition, there would be a cost associated with additional wages being paid out because a new hire could be working alongside another employee to learn the job. Since that new hire is earning a wage while working alongside another employee earning a wage, the aspect of paying two wages to do one job exists until the new hire has been fully trained and able to do a job on their own.

In addition, the cost of time spent by management on screening and interviewing candidates could be significant. Although part of the job, these activities command time, and frequent turnover means that the managerial staff is frequently spending time on screening and interviewing activities to fill vacancies. If management consistently spends time on these activities, the time spent on other aspects of the operation decreases. In a setting where there are small quantities of managerial staff and each manager “wears many hats,” retention of part-time workers would benefit management because less of their time would be dedicated to finding replacements for departed employees.

Frequent absenteeism and turnover could be especially problematic because of the negative impact to an operation when inexperienced staff is working shorthanded. For example, absenteeism could add to the workload and stress to the employee who did show up for work. In addition, there could also be a negative consequence for customers, as staff shortages could result in negative outcomes such as longer lines and wait times. If customers repeatedly have negative experiences, they might be motivated to go elsewhere to pursue their leisure interests.

On the other hand, a fully staffed operation with an experienced workforce benefits coworkers and customers. When a full contingent of experienced employees is working, no one is placed in a position of having to cover for the absent worker. In addition, the accumulation of experience increases efficiency and effectiveness within the operation. Shorter lines and shorter wait times benefit the customer. Ensuring the customer has a positive experience is critical to securing their ongoing patronage. Although absenteeism and turnover will occur, management should strive to incentivize those employees to work when scheduled as well as remain for an entire busy season (McCole et al., 2012). Management could establish various initiatives to minimize absenteeism and turnover. The details of those initiatives are expanded upon in the following section.

INITIATIVES TO REDUCE TURNOVER AND OFFSET STAFF SHORTAGES 

Commercial sport and recreation facilities are highly reliant on part-time labor to execute many important tasks. There are many circumstances that would cause these employees to miss their scheduled shift on short notice or leave the job altogether. Regardless of the legitimacy of the reason for absenteeism, such occurrences negatively impact both part-time and managerial staff, as well as customers. Therefore, a full complement of staff is needed to ensure maximum efficiency and effectiveness occurs on any given day.

These facilities and complexes are also potential employment settings for sport management students. Graduates may begin as mid-level managers in community-based sport and recreation facilities and complexes as a first job in the sport industry after graduation. Because sport management students could be working in a setting where turnover and absenteeism could be frequent, it would be worthwhile for them to engage in an exercise before entering the setting that would challenge them to think proactively and create a program designed to reduce incidents of frequent turnover and absenteeism. Although they will never eliminate absenteeism and turnover, they should be thinking proactively to minimize absenteeism as well as increase longevity among part-time employees.

Therefore, the purpose of this case study exercise is to provide students with an opportunity to engage in a managerial challenge within the possible employment setting of community-based sport and recreation facilities/complexes. It is designed to help students understand the challenges of working in settings where there is a high level of reliance upon part-time labor as well as challenge them to create a proposal designed to entice potential part-time workers to stay for a particular duration, fulfill their scheduled shifts, and/or assist in situations of absenteeism by filling shifts left open by an absent employee. The initiative could focus on a period as short as a single day to an entire peak season lasting several months. The proposal might also include focus on performance-based initiatives. For this case study exercise, the student could take the role of a mid-level manager. This mid-level manager would supervise part-time staff and reports to a higher-level full-time staff member, such as a General Manager. The proposal would be presented to the General Manager (the course instructor and/or an invited guest such as a manager of a local facility or complex).

Although it would take time and effort to create and manage such initiatives, the benefit to colleagues, customers, and the business resulting from fewer incidents of absenteeism and turnover could make the initiative worth the effort and expense. These types of facilities and complexes could generate revenues in the hundreds of thousands to several million dollars. Expenses such as utilities, maintenance, personnel, and equipment/supplies will use up most of the revenues. Therefore, the financial resources available would be limited as the quantity of dollars available for this case study exercise would be $12,000 to $18,000 annually ($1,000 to $1,500 monthly), with the fiscal year starting September 1 and ending August 31 the following year.

“Survive the Day” Initiatives

This initiative is designed to offset staffing shortages that occur when a part-time worker calls off on short notice or does not show up without any notice given. It is intended to ensure enough employees are present to execute various tasks. This initiative could be focused upon accomplishing two ideals. They are to 1) incentivize the people who are scheduled that day to show up for their shift and 2) if someone must call off, incentivize someone who wasn’t originally scheduled to take the place of the worker who called off on short notice or did not show up for work (e.g., “no call, no show”).

“Survive the Season” Initiatives

Although open for business year-round, the amount of customer activity within commercial sport and recreation facilities and complexes fluctuates based on the season. The greatest amount of customer traffic occurs during the winter months (early December through late February). Ice surfaces have been booked from the late afternoon (4pm) until late night (1am) on weekdays and booked from 6am to 1am on Saturday and Sunday. Youth association and high school hockey teams are conducting their games in the early evening. Adult leagues occupy the latter hours. In addition to the presence of these user groups, youth and high school games bring a greater amount of spectator traffic as friends, classmates, and family members of the participants attend the contests. It is also the period when public skating attendance peaks. As many as 300 customers could be admitted for a two-hour session on a Saturday or Sunday afternoon.

The ice surfaces are booked for similar hours during the months of September and October. Practice and scrimmages are typically conducted. These activities bring user groups but do not bring spectator traffic. Public skating is offered but would bring a fraction of the traffic seen during the winter months. To ensure employees are present to cover the hours in which user groups are present, a “survive the season” initiative could be designed to incentivize part-time employees to stay with the job from September through February. Contingencies could also be added. For example, employees would need to work a specified quantity of shifts/hours (especially on weekends). In addition, limits to the number of times an employee is absent from a scheduled shift, especially weekends, could be implemented.

Recognition for Performance Initiatives

This initiative would focus on rewarding employees for engaging in certain behaviors outside of the attendance-based actions. Employees who engage in quality work would be rewarded for doing so. Support for recognizing employees was revealed by Kellison, Kim, and Magnusen (2013) as they surveyed 522 part-time college aged (18-23 years old) campus recreation center employees from eleven universities to gain insight regarding factors that influenced their intentions to continue working in a part-time capacity at their respective university recreation centers. Recognition was identified as a key factor that positively influenced intentions to remain with the job/organization. Because many of the part-time workers in this case study exercise are in the age range of 18-23, these findings lend support to attempting recognition-based initiatives that have potential to retain employees.

Many organizations have a performance-based initiative in place, commonly referred to as an “employee of the month” program. This is often a competition-based system where one person is selected from the entire staff and receives the award. Various challenges to implementing initiatives where an employee is rewarded in this fashion exist. First, there is a challenge to objectively measuring and documenting the employee’s work. Because many of the part-time support staff members working in commercial sport and recreation settings do not engage in tasks that are easily quantifiable, measuring “good work” could be subject to opinion and perspective. Second, there are different employee groups, each engaging in different tasks. For instance, some of the workers are front of the house workers who are frequently interacting with customers. Others would be considered back of the house workers who do not regularly engage with customers. Consequently, there would be difficulty in comparing the performance of front of the house to back of the house workers because of the differences in their jobs. As a result, it would be the responsibility of the manager to establish parameters, standards, and/or benchmarks for each employee group.

Although an initiative for rewarding good deeds/good work is well-meaning, a system that relies on opinion, relationships, and other subjective criteria could result in more employees feeling less valued if they perceive they earned the reward but were passed over. Instead of having a competition among all employees working different jobs, an alternative is to establish the initiative so that each employee would be able to “control their own destiny.” That means each employee could receive the reward if certain benchmarks and/or standards are reached. If the commitment is made to proceed with such an initiative, an objective system of measurement is needed so that the employee could clearly understand what is expected to obtain the reward. Otherwise, employees could perceive the initiative as subjective, biased, and/or arbitrary.Regardless of the initiative(s) chosen, the proposal should include the following content:

  • The parameters/standards/actions that the employee will take (e.g., filling in for an absent employee, working “x” number of peak busyness shifts over a particular period) to receive the reward.
  • The rewards that will be given.
  • The costs are associated with implementing the initiative.
  • Argument behind why this initiative is feasible in this setting and with this workforce.
  • Identification of potential obstacles for success; why could this initiative be implemented and still not provide the desired results?

PROJECT DETAILS

The following sections for this case study exercise include further description of the setting, operating schedule, manager and part-time worker job descriptions and categories. The quantity of part-time workers hired for each area and the quantity of workers from each category that is on duty at a given time is provided. In addition, the times of day and days of week they typically work as well as the duration of their shifts are indicated.

Facility Setting and Description

The facility that will be utilized for this case study is a multi-purpose facility in which the terms “ice arena” or “hockey arena” might be used. The activities that commonly take place would be ice sports such as hockey, figure skating, and recreational skating. The facility is approximately 180,000 square feet. Two arenas that each house an ice surface of 85×200 feet are the primary activity spaces. When the ice is removed, activities can be conducted on the concrete floor. During off-peak months, various events and programs such as trade shows, exhibitions, and circuses could be conducted.

Each arena consists of stationary spectator seating in the form of metal bleachers with a seating capacity of 1,000. Each arena has six locker rooms (four for hockey teams, one for referees and one additional room to be used on an “As Needed” basis (e.g., for girls participating on boys’ youth hockey teams). There are storage areas and a large garage area where the ice resurface machines are housed. Other areas not accessible to the public include mechanical rooms where the ice cooling equipment is housed. Public areas would consist of a large lobby in which numerous benches and tables are present for the convenience of the patrons. Accessible from the lobby is the concession stand, pro shop (equipment and merchandise sales), arcade, office space, fitness center, restrooms, and two multi-purpose rooms where staff meetings, birthday parties, and team banquets could be held.

Facility Operating Schedule

Many sport and recreation related businesses are open for business seven days a week and typically see most customer activity during weeknights (after 5pm, Monday through Friday) and weekends. On weekends, activity could start as early as 6am and continue as late as midnight or 1am during the peak season. This is when staff is most needed to cover these hours. The amount of customer activity will be at its peak from early December until early March. This is the peak period for youth hockey games, which increases the amount of spectator traffic as family members attend the contests. High school programs could rent space for their practices and games as well. Their games bring additional spectator traffic. It is also peak season for public skating sessions. A public skating session on a weekend afternoon during the winter months could attract as many as 300 paying customers for a two-hour window of skating time. 

Regular business hours (e.g., Monday-Friday from 8am-5pm) are typically the periods with the least amount of customer activity. During this time, most maintenance and cleaning activities occur. Deliveries from vendors also occur during this time. Therefore, there is a need for management and custodial personnel to be present during times of minimal customer activity.

Full-Time Manager Descriptions

The facility is overseen by a general manager and additional full-time, salaried assistant managers. The general manager and assistant managers participate in various aspects of the operation. It is not uncommon for each assistant manager to not only have a primary responsibility regarding some managerial aspect, but also “wear many hats” and participate in other aspects of the operation. For example, one of the assistant managers might be responsible for overseeing tasks in connection with human resources. This person would be responsible for writing and disseminating job descriptions, screening applicants, and conducting interviews. The other assistant managers could be responsible for overseeing facility maintenance/cleanliness, the concessions operation, the pro shop/retail operation and/or marketing/programming. In addition, full-time managers participate in other aspects of the operation as they should be able to step in and assist anywhere on an “as needed” basis. This would include driving the ice resurface machine, operating cash registers, distributing rental equipment, and spot cleaning.

At least one of the full-time, salaried staff members are present when the building is open for business. This would include coverage during regular business hours as well as weeknights and weekends. It is possible that during peak times of business, more than one manager could be present. It would not be uncommon for 4-5 full-time management members to be employed at this type of facility.

Part Time Staff Descriptions

Perry (2018) identified different categories of employees that seek part-time employment in commercial sport and recreation facilities and complexes. The first category consists of individuals who are looking for some work to keep busy and gain supplementary income. A retired individual, perhaps a senior citizen, would fall into this category. The second category consists of post-college aged workers with full-time jobs who want or perhaps need a second job to help pay bills, accumulate extra savings, etc. The third category would consist of high school and college aged individuals who are looking to gain work experience and obtain income. This demographic is typically working around their schooling.

Regardless of the demographic, these jobs are often not the primary focus in the employee’s life. Other aspects are higher on the priority scale; therefore, employees might not alter other life aspects (e.g., primary job, school, family commitments) to work these jobs. Because the employee is not intending to make a career out of the part time job in this setting, this could have an impact upon attendance and performance.

These part-time workers fulfill “front of the house” and “back of the house” positions. In this setting, front of the house positions consists of duties such as cash handling/cash register operation, serving food products, collecting participation fees, distributing rental equipment, monitoring customer conduct, and being present in the event customers have questions and/or need assistance. Front of the house positions that often exist in the setting include concessions, skate staff, pro shop/merchandise sales, and front desk workers/receptionists.

Back of the house employees largely contribute to the cleanliness and upkeep of the facility. In this setting, custodians and ice resurfacing machine drivers/building attendants are common types of back of the house workers. They have little interaction with customers and in the case of custodians, often work when few to no customers are present in the facility.

These employees are paid an hourly wage and could work as little as 10 hours a week or as many as 40 hours a week. Accumulated hours are monitored so that the employee does not exceed 40 hours a week. If 40 hours in a week are exceeded, overtime compensation of one and a half times the employee’s standard hourly wage would be paid. In many cases, the hourly wage could be at or slightly above the locally mandated minimum wage.

For this case study exercise, seven part-time worker categories exist, consisting of several front and back of the house positions. Several people are on the roster within each worker category. Not everyone who has been hired and appears on the roster is working at the same time. Saturday and Sunday will be the busiest days requiring the greatest amount of part-time worker participation. Key duties, the time of day and quantity of hours per shift that employees within each of these categories are typically scheduled, and worker demographics are provided.

Concessions

Concession stand workers are responsible for preparing and serving food and beverages. “Quick serve” foods are usually prepared and then held in a warming bin or warming rollers (e.g., pizza, popcorn, hot dogs). Some facilities might possess a deep fryer, which would allow workers to prepare items such as fries, mozzarella sticks, etc. Concessions workers work when customer traffic is heaviest (evenings and weekends), except for periods when school is out of session such as winter break. High school and college aged employees are common. Post college aged adults working part-time, perhaps around another full-time day job, also staff the concessions operation. One person will be on duty most of the time. During the periods of peak customer traffic, such as public skating sessions during the winter months, two people could be scheduled to work at the same time. Shift duration is commonly 4-6 hours. There could be 6-8 employees on the roster in this area.

Skating staff

The skate staff would consist of counter/desk workers who are responsible for collecting admission fees and distributing “skate passes” to patrons participating in public skating sessions. Skate passes are often colored stickers the patron can wear on their clothing so that staff can easily see they paid their admission fee for that public skating session. They would also distribute rental skates to patrons who do not own their own set of skates. The other type of worker in the skating staff category is the “skate guard.” These individuals ensure those who enter the ice have paid their admission, indicated by the skate pass they are wearing. They also watch for and report any injuries or incidents of dangerous behavior to management. This worker group commonly consists of high school and college age individuals. Their work schedule aligns with public skating sessions, which are typically on Saturday and/or Sunday. With a two-hour skating session, for instance, workers could be scheduled for a 3.5 to 4-hour shift. This duration allows for them to be on duty before customers arrive and allows for post-session cleanup, putting skates away, etc. The roster could consist of 4-8 employees in this category. 1-2 skate guards would be on duty for each session (2 during the busiest winter sessions) as well as 1-2 counter/desk workers (2 during the busiest winter sessions).

Pro shop staff

Merchandise such as tape, water bottles, mouthguards, sticks, helmets, and other equipment is commonly sold in the “pro shop.” These workers are responsible for operating the register and assisting customers. Some light cleaning within the area is periodically assigned. In some facilities, skate sharpening is offered, and the pro shop employees will sharpen customers’ skates. During slow periods, the pro shop staff often is charged with sharpening the rental skates that will be used during the public skating sessions. The pro shop would be open during the evening and weekends. This worker group commonly consists of high school and college age individuals. The shift duration could last from 4-6 hours. On weeknights, one person would likely be on duty. During the weekends, especially the times around public skating sessions, two people could be on duty. There could be 4-6 people on the roster within this worker category.

Fitness center workers

The facility in this case study has a fitness center on site. The fitness center would include equipment that would commonly be found at commercial fitness centers, such as treadmills, elliptical trainers, and free weights. Monthly and/or annual memberships could be sold. This area could be open from early morning until late evening (6am-11pm) seven days a week. Fitness center workers would ensure members have checked in, engage in light cleaning duties and conduct minor troubleshooting of equipment. These workers do not conduct personal training sessions. During the weekday mornings and afternoons, the workers would mostly consist of senior citizens or other post-college aged adults. High school and college aged individuals would typically work evening and weekend hours. Because this area is staffed seven days a week from early morning to late evening, 6-8 individuals could be on the roster for this position. One worker would be working at a time for a shift typically lasting 4-6 hours.

After hours reception desk

These workers would be on duty after regular business hours on weekdays and on weekends. This person would likely distribute keys for the locker rooms to hockey teams, provide information to basic inquiries (e.g., assigned locker room number), answer phone calls, and serve as a point of contact for patrons who report a circumstance in need of attention, such as cleaning up a spill, restocking paper products in restrooms, etc. The desk worker would contact the manager on duty and/or other worker groups to address the need. In some facilities, the desk worker might assume duties such as collecting fees and distributing passes for public skating patrons. Workers in this group could range from high school or college students to post college aged individuals and senior citizens. One person at a time would be on duty and there could be 3-4 people on the roster in this category.

Building attendant/ice resurface machine driver

Building attendants are responsible for resurfacing the ice for each new user group. In between ice resurfacing duties, they are responsible for surface cleaning in locker rooms, restrooms, spectator seating areas, and lobbies/foyers. Restocking restrooms and mopping up spills are among cleaning and light maintenance duties that a building attendant would be expected to perform. They are scheduled during times when user groups are present in the building; therefore, the schedule consists of mostly evening and weekend work. Building attendants are required to be a minimum of 18 years old because the job includes operation of the ice resurfacing machine. Middle-aged individuals working around a primary job could also be working in this role. One person would be scheduled to work in this capacity on a weeknight; however, two people could be scheduled to work on weekends during peak times. The shift duration would likely be 7-8 hours. There could be 4-6 employees on the roster.

Custodial

Custodians are responsible for the overall cleanliness of the facility. Much of their time is spent cleaning and restocking restrooms and locker rooms, emptying trash bins and cleaning spectator seating areas. These employees typically work when the building is not full of customers so that they can engage in deep cleaning activities. Working during regular business hours (e.g., Monday-Friday 8am-5pm) is common. They could also be scheduled for late night/early mornings on Friday night into Saturday morning and Saturday night into Sunday morning as the facility will typically be full of customers when the doors open on weekend mornings. Worker demographics could vary, ranging from post college age to semi-retired individuals. Some of these employees might be working this job along with another job. There could be 2-4 people employed in this category, with one person on duty at a time. A typical shift duration could be 4-8 hours. If a special cleaning or maintenance project is planned, more than one worker from this category could be scheduled.

APPLICATION TO SPORT MANAGEMENT

Regarding the application of this work to the educational setting, sport management students could find this case study exercise useful because it gets them to imagine themselves working in a setting and engaging in challenges they could face once they enter the workforce as a full-time, managerial employee. Commercial sport and recreation facilities and complexes exist all over the world; therefore, there is at least some likelihood that some will work in these settings. Therefore, it is important to expose students to situations they could experience within possible employment settings. Having students generate content that could be used in an actual setting would be useful because many could be overseeing part-time workers from various demographics and life situations at their respective workplaces.

Students who work in these settings will not only be faced with challenges related to staffing but could also be working in settings where there are not large amounts of financial resources available to them. Many of these facilities and complexes are smaller “mom and pop” businesses that do not generate massive amounts of revenue. Therefore, they will have to find ways to address a challenge with a limited amount of money (in this case study $1,000-$1,500 monthly limit) at their disposal.

The content students create in association with this case study could take the form of a written proposal and/or an oral presentation. In order to give them the opportunity to create the most extensive proposal possible, it is suggested that students create content for each of the three initiatives (survive the day, survive the season, and performance). As a middle level manager who was hired by a superior, the student would report to that individual or perhaps several individuals who occupy a higher position in the organizational chart. For this case, the student could present the content to the instructor of the course who would represent the upper-level member of management. It is suggested that if feasible, managers from a local facility or complex be invited to participate in the presentation of the proposal. Their presence and scrutiny would add an additional layer of authenticity to the endeavor. Furthermore, the instructor might wish to reach out to managers of local facilities and complexes to see if they would like for students to create a proposal specifically for their operation. The manager would possibly first appear as a guest speaker and share details of the operation with the students. Students could use that visit to ask questions and gain a better understanding of the operation and then develop a plan for that manager.

Regarding the execution of the students’ proposal in the “real world,” it is likely that costs and personnel limitations would be presented as reasons as to why these ideas would not reach the execution stage. Therefore, part of the challenge for students is to create a plan that would be financially feasible for a small business as well as a plan that could be executed by a single manager or perhaps a small managerial team of 2-4 people. In closing, it is hoped that this case study exercise will benefit faculty seeking content to add to their courses. This case study could be executed within courses focusing on human resources management, facility management, and/or financial management. Because a large quantity of these operations exists, it is possible that students will secure employment in them. Therefore, this endeavor can help to further prepare students for managing a predominately part-time workforce within commercial sport and recreation facilities and complexes.

REFERENCES 

  1. Kellison, T. B., Kim, Y. K., & Magnusen, M. J. (2013). The work attitudes of millennials in collegiate recreational sports. Journal of Park and Recreation Administration, 31(1), 78-97.
  2. McCole, D., Jacobs, J., Lindley, B., & McAvoy, L. (2012). The relationship between seasonal employee retention and sense of community: The case of summer camp employment. Journal of Park and Recreation Administration, 30(2), 85-101.
  3. McKinney, W. R., Bartlett, K. R., & Mulvaney, M. A. (2007). Measuring the costs of turnover in Illinois Public Parks and Recreation Agencies: An exploratory study. Journal of Park and Recreation Administration, 25(1), 50-74.
  4. Perry, P. M. (2008). Finding great part-time workers. NSGA Retail Focus, 61(2), 10-11, 22.

2025-12-05T10:58:04-06:00June 3rd, 2026|Contemporary Sports Issues, General, Leadership, Research, Sports Management, Sports Studies|Comments Off on Reducing absenteeism and turnover among part-time labor in community sport settings: A case study example and project guidelines for sport management students
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An Analysis of Carbon Emissions from College Football Recruiting Visits

Authors: Jeffrey J. Fountain1, Thomas Wuerzer2, & Peter S. Finley1

1Department of Management, Nova Southeastern University, Fort Lauderdale, FL, USA

2Department of Public Administration and Real Estate Development, Nova Southeastern University, Fort Lauderdale, FL, USA

 

Corresponding Author:

Jeffrey J. Fountain, Ph.D.

3301 College Avenue

Fort Lauderdale, FL 33314

[email protected]

954-262-8129

Jeffrey Fountain, Ph.D., and Peter Finley, Ph.D., are Professors of Sport Management at the H. Wayne Huizenga College of Business and Entrepreneurship at Nova Southeastern University. Their research interests focus on issues in college athletics.

Thomas Wuerzer, Ph.D., is Professor in the Department of Public Administration & Real Estate Development at Nova Southeastern University. His research focus is on Geographic Information Systems.

ABSTRACT 

Recruiting college football players to come play for a National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Power-5 school is highly competitive, with each school inviting recruits nationwide on official campus visits. By estimating the carbon emissions generated, this study examined the environmental impact of official recruiting visits (n = 7,045) to Power-5 schools from 2013 to 2020. Using Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to geocode recruits’ hometowns and calculate travel distances, a Recruit Visit Carbon Footprint (RVCF) was calculated to approximate the CO2eq emissions for each visit. The analysis focused on the 23 Power-5 schools with over 250 reported official visits. The findings revealed substantial variability in RVCF among schools, with 15 of the 23 schools increasing their carbon footprint in the latter years of the study. Still, the higher-spending athletic departments tended to have lower RVCFs. The findings provide valuable insights into the environmental impact of recruiting activities and highlight the importance of addressing this overlooked aspect of college sports’ carbon emissions.

KEYWORDS: Carbon Footprint, Power-5, Recruiting, Official Visit, College Football

INTRODUCTION 

As societal awareness of the environmental impact of both mega sporting events and routine contests (regular season games) has increased, many sports organizations, teams, and sponsors have come to understand the need to assess the carbon footprint they create (10). As noted by Dolf et al. (13), several researchers have stressed that sports events are worth investigating to leverage broader change because of the high-profile nature of such events, because they are capable of creating real and meaningful action (11, 19). Several athletic departments have promoted their initiatives throughout the last decade and publicized their efforts to reduce and offset their environmental impact by tracking and reducing carbon dioxide-equivalent emissions (CO2eq). The typical path toward claiming to be carbon neutral for college athletic departments is to assess the environmental impact of the day-to-day operations, home game operations, and off-campus travel for official tournaments and games. However, it is important to recognize that the carbon footprint begins long before sporting events are played; for college sports, this goes back to the initial recruitment phase of the athletes, which typically requires them to travel as part of the recruiting process.

In 2020, the Power-5 conferences included the Atlantic Coast Conference (ACC), Big 12 Conference, Big Ten Conference, Pacific 12 Conference, and the Southeastern Conference (SEC). Over the years, the number of Power-5 schools increasing their investment in recruiting athletes has grown, with 38 of the 52 public Power-5 schools reporting a significant growth in overall athletic department recruiting expenditures (37). One extreme example was the University of Georgia’s athletic department, which increased its overall recruiting budget from $308,000 in 2005 to $4.5 million by 2022 (23).

Recruiting

Each recruit is permitted one official visit per school, extendable only if there is a change in the coaching staff, with each visit lasting no more than 48 hours or one weekend (29). Visits are classified by the funding source; when the host school covers expenses such as transportation, lodging, meals, and entertainment for the recruit and their parents or guardians, it is deemed an official visit (29). Historically, recruits were limited to five official visits; however, this cap was removed in 2023, allowing unlimited visits while maintaining the “only one visit per school” rule (30).

College football recruiting visits often feature expensive, extravagant events designed to attract recruits (12, 24, 36). The financial commitment to a recruiting weekend at Clemson University in the fall of 2019, during which the Tigers brought eleven prospects to campus (they would eventually sign ten of them), ended with a total bill of $85,000 (32). While the NCAA prohibits media from attending recruiting events or interacting with prospects while on campus, the expenditures from that weekend provided insight into the itinerary, which included travel by professional car service to and from local airports, flights to Greenville-Spartanburg, and transportation to the campus, about 40 miles away. In addition, two charter buses were used to transport prospects and their families to the finest restaurants in the area, including a steakhouse about 45 minutes from campus (32). Another example was the University of Texas spending over $280,000 during a single weekend in June 2022 to host nine recruits, including highly touted quarterback Arch Manning (20).

Carbon Footprinting

The concept and measurement of an “ecological footprint” was introduced by Wackernagel and Rees (34) and originally quantified the land and sea area necessary to support human populations. Subsequent adaptations of this concept have focused on the “carbon footprint,” which estimates the land required to sequester CO2 emissions attributable to human activities. This notion has evolved into broader assessments such as the “life cycle impact,” which evaluates the environmental impact of products and services throughout their life cycles (31).

Research by Čuček et al. (9) and Pandey et al. (31) expanded the scope of assessment to include calculating sustainability metrics and measuring energy, water, and ecological impacts. These studies defined a carbon footprint as “the quantity of Greenhouse Gases (GHGs), expressed in terms of CO2 equivalents, emitted by an individual, organization, process, product, or event within a specified boundary” (31) and as “a quantitative measurement describing the appropriation of natural resources by humans,” (9). This study adopted these definitions to evaluate the carbon footprint of prospective college football players while making their official recruiting visits to college campuses.

Attempts to measure carbon footprint related to sports have historically focused on major events and the travel of sports teams. Examples include the findings that approximately 560 tons of CO2eq was created during the 2004 Football Association (FA) Cup Final in the United Kingdom (one soccer game) (4), 1,260 tons of CO2eq for the 2004 Wales Rally (an Autosport’s event over four days) (5), and 144,120 tons of CO2eq for the stages of the Tour de France held in the United Kingdom in 2007 (the Prologue and Stage One) (6). Most studies focused solely on the carbon footprint of spectators, though a limited number of studies examined participants, such as teams and staff members.

The environmental impact of all college activities, including collegiate sports has garnered significant attention (28). However, there appears to be no available research that has explicitly focused on the environmental impact (carbon footprint) produced throughout the college football recruiting season. Therefore, the researchers sought to explore and determine the approximate carbon emissions produced during official college football recruiting visits from Power-5 schools. This study utilized the reported official recruiting visits between 2013 and 2020. Using Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to conduct spatial analysis of multimodal travel, including car and plane trips, the researchers were able to calculate the approximate travel distances and corresponding carbon footprint of each recruit.

The Recruit Visit Carbon Footprint (RVCF) was created as a proxy measure utilizing prior carbon footprinting research of sport tourism. This approach enabled a systematic exploration of three primary research questions.

RQ1: Which Power-5 schools generated the largest RVCF between 2013 and 2020?

RQ2: Did RVCF totals increase or decrease over time?

RQ3: Was there a correlation between each school’s financial, recruiting, and performance variables and their RVCF?

METHODS 

Data Collection

Data on official recruiting visits, published by 247sports.com, was collected for the years 2013 to 2020. Previous research has utilized data from 247sports.com, recognizing it as a well-established source of college football recruiting information (21, 27, 35). The dataset included dates of official school visits and recruits’ hometowns. Prior research also utilized GIS to geocode locations such as athletes’ hometowns or high school locations for analysis (1, 26, 38). GIS geocoding takes a specific location, such as addresses or towns, and references it as a mapped location. Therefore, this study geocoded each football recruit’s hometown, the location of each college visited, and the closest major airport to calculate the approximate travel distances for spatial analysis.

The study utilized ESRI ArcPRO 3.5 (Esri, Redlands, CA, USA) software with the Business Analyst extension to geocode the dataset. To focus on the highest-producing RVCF programs and to make the data set more manageable, a minimum threshold of 250 visits was established. Of the 64 Power-5 schools, 23 (35.9%) met the 250-visitor threshold, totalling 7,045 reported official visits. The travel routes for each visit were then calculated using GIS to determine the most efficient mode of travel. Driving directly to the school was the most efficient mode for 1,636 visits. Typically, these distances were around 200 miles or less to the campus. For recruits living over 200 miles from the visiting campus, if their distance from their home to an airport necessitated a long drive followed by a flight, driving was deemed more efficient due to the extensive travel time involved in flying to the campus. For the remaining 5,409 visits, air travel was deemed the most efficient mode. For these visits, three travel distances were calculated: 1) the drive from the recruits’ hometown to the nearest major airport, 2) the flight miles from that airport to the nearest major airport to the campus they visited, and 3) the drive from that airport to the campus. These distances were doubled to account for the return trip and integrated into a travel matrix to approximate CO2eq emissions from transportation.

Additionally, financial data for athletic departments (i.e., Football Revenue, Football Recruiting was sourced from the Knight-Newhouse College Athletics database (25), team performance was sourced from ESPN.com (16). The descriptions and summary statistics for these variables are provided in Table 1. Utilizing these variables allowed for additional analysis to explore potential correlations between an athletic department’s RVCF and financial data, performance data, and recruiting data.

Table 1 Descriptive Analysis of Variables: Mean and Standard Deviation
VariableDescriptionMeanSD
FB_TotalRevTotal Revenue from Football$66,518,526$25,205,244
Mens_TotalRevTotal Revenue from all Men’s Sports (including Football)$84,428,967$25,300,581
FB_MensRev%Football’s Revenue as a Percentage of all Men’s Sports Revenues77.40%11.17%
Dept_TotalRevTotal Revenue from the entire Athletic Department$125,143,966$31,108,327
FB_DeptRev%Football’s Revenue as a Percentage of the entire Athletic Department Revenues52.50%13.10%
Mens_RecruitExpTotal Recruiting Expenses from all Men’s Sports (including Football)$1,391,362$704,861
Dept_RecruitExpTotal Recruiting Expenses from the entire Athletic Department$1,878,962$855,080
FB_OpsExpTotal Operation Expenses for Football$5,683,499$2,558,649
Mens_OpsExpTotal Operation Expenses for all Men’s Sports (including Football)$8,800,193$4,035,500
Dept_OpsExpTotal Operating Expenses for the entire Athletic Department$12,787,529$5,068,156
FB_TotalExpTotal Expenses for the entire Football Program$33,846,192$11,218,516
Mens_TotalExpTotal Expenses for all Men’s Sports Programs (including Football)$53,035,310$13,927,935
FB_MensExp%Football Expenses as a Percentage of all Men’s Sports Expenses63.18%7.58%
Dept_TotalExpTotal Expenses for the entire Athletic Department$116,141,712$27,071,219
FB_DeptExp%Football Expenses as a Percentage of the entire Athletic Department Expenses63.18%7.58%
Win_PercentageFootball teams Win Percentage62.43%19.97%
    

Recruit Visit Carbon Footprint

Calculating CO2eq emissions from travel can vary depending on the methods and formulas used. In this study, the researchers approximated the RVCF utilizing established methods from prior sport tourism carbon footprint research. The framework by Franchetti and Apul (18) required three boundaries. 1) Temporal Boundary, which refers to the period used for analysis, which, in this study, included Power-5 official recruiting visits from 2013 to 2020. 2) Organizational Boundary, which defines the measured entity, ensuring that only emissions produced from the designated entity are included. Here, it refers to the travel for a single recruit’s official visit to a Power-5 school. 3) Operational Boundary, which is based on the scope of emissions, including direct emissions, indirect emissions, and indirect products. The operational boundary was set at direct emissions only for this study.

In order to operationalize the boundaries, calculations were used to approximate each recruit’s carbon footprint as they travelled from their hometown to their selected school for an official recruiting visit. Cooper’s (2020) approximation of the University of Tennessee’s football gameday tourism carbon footprint was used as a framework for this study. The method for approximating the carbon footprint of sport tourism was applied to the dataset to calculate the approximated total amount of CO2eq emissions produced by each recruiting visit. The total carbon footprint of each visit was calculated by considering direct emissions from transportation (car and flight miles), food consumption per day, waste per day, and hotel stays (8, 14). The EPA formula for the average gasoline-powered passenger vehicle (3.91 × 10^-4 metric tons CO2eq per mile) was applied and converted into kilograms (15). For air travel emissions, the formula (air miles × 0.24 × 1.891) combined the Blue Sky Model formula and the Carbon Fund’s radiative forcing factor (1.891) to provide a total CO2eq per person per pound figure, which was then converted to kilograms (2, 3). Hotel accommodation emissions were calculated using Filimonau’s (17) factor of 11.65 kg CO2eq per night, multiplied by two to account for the typical two-night stay during a recruiting visit. For food and waste emissions, factors from Cooper’s (7) study were used: 7.4 kg CO2eq per person per day for food and 1.1 kg CO2eq per day for waste, multiplied by two for the typical 48-hour visit. Utilizing these formulas allowed the researchers to approximate the RVCF for each reported recruiting visit.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Over the eight years, the top 23 highly-visited schools collectively emitted 2.3 million kg of CO2eq, averaging 328 kg CO2eq per recruiting visit. For context, the global average annual CO2eq emission per person is approximately 4.7 tons (4,263 kg), according to the IEA (22). Thus, the CO2eq for a single 48-hour recruiting visit represents about 7.7% of the average person’s global annual CO2eq footprint.

Table 2 provides a breakdown of RVCF variables along with the means and totals for all 23 schools to address RQ1, “Which Power-5 schools generated the largest RVCF between 2013 and 2020?” Washington State (n = 276) reported the highest total RVCF at 171,489.84 kg CO2eq, and the highest mean RVCF at 621.34 kg CO2eq. In contrast, the University of South Carolina (n = 263) had the smallest carbon footprint, with a total RVCF of 55,621.71 kg CO2eq and an average RVCF per visit of 211.49 kg CO2eq. All official visits to Washington State and South Carolina are depicted using GIS maps in Figure 1, which shows Washington State attracted several recruits from the Midwest, Florida, and Texas. At the same time, South Carolina only invited a few recruits who required a long-distance flight to visit Columbia, South Carolina.

Table 2   RVCF by school for all reported official visits from 2013 to 2020  
Schooln% Drove (No Flight)Car (No Flight)Car  (To/From Airport)FlightHotelFoodWasteMSDTotal
Washington State2762.17%564.4821,782.22137,796.796,405.954,084.79855.60621.34362.98171,489.84
Oregon2813.20%667.817,322.00150,332.796,522.004,158.79871.10604.54323.99169,874.50
Nebraska3735.90%1,437.039,203.29131,283.868,657.325,520.391,156.30421.60171.96157,258.20
Alabama37817.99%6,138.0121,504.7481,842.828,773.375,594.391,171.80330.34219.30125,025.12
Minnesota32815.55%1,543.639,279.4494,019.657,612.874,854.391,016.80360.75190.85118,326.78
Louisville3437.87%1,814.239,356.0792,166.147,961.025,076.391,063.30342.38189.87117,437.16
Oklahoma31521.27%7,627.739,318.5385,483.067,311.144,661.99976.50364.79187.59115,378.96
Tennessee35614.89%5,866.3411,129.2172,691.178,262.755,268.791,103.60293.04213.71104,321.87
Texas A&M32746.18%15,370.2818,162.7656,491.357,589.664,839.591,013.70314.50223.19103,467.35
Washington25122.31%2,329.335,626.1481,958.425,825.713,714.80778.10399.33250.68100,232.49
Ohio State30126.58%7,676.345,596.1469,715.536,986.204,454.79933.10316.82223.4995,362.10
Arkansas32515.38%4,563.0713,222.0664,152.597,543.244,809.991,007.50293.23166.9795,298.46
Indiana27315.38%3,307.9013,293.6462,085.006,336.324,040.39846.30329.34169.1389,909.57
Florida33328.53%8,658.696,782.7656,932.067,728.924,928.391,032.30258.45179.7686,063.13
Miami30139.53%3,920.904,735.8663,566.686,986.204,454.79933.10280.01263.3084,597.54
Florida State31714.20%3,929.026,600.1159,945.347,357.564,691.59982.70262.44182.3083,506.32
Auburn31335.14%9,914.5514,971.1242,452.127,264.724,632.39970.30256.25161.7180,205.21
Georgia27033.70%6,709.3215,279.3141,800.056,266.693,995.99837.00276.78196.7074,888.37
Penn State25429.53%9,210.7316,663.5938,471.375,895.343,759.20787.40289.49192.6574,787.61
Mississippi State29356.31%17,224.2017,413.1326,745.766,800.524,336.39908.30250.61176.9073,428.32
Kentucky27419.71%4,331.997,066.4249,895.236,359.534,055.19849.40264.81146.5772,557.76
LSU30038.00%7,465.215,491.1341,783.316,962.994,439.99930.00222.53146.7367,072.63
South Carolina26332.70%7,526.485,361.7631,921.566,104.233,892.40815.30211.49128.8055,621.71
Total7,04523.57%137,797.27255,161.411,633,532.66163,514.32104,265.8721,839.48328.91203.012,316,111.00
Note: Car, Flight, Hotel, Food, Waste, Mean, Standard Deviation, and Total are in kg CO2eq

To explore the second research question, “Did RVCF totals increase or decrease over time?” the dataset needed to be segmented. During this time period college football programs did not get an entirely new roster of players each year; consequently, examining each year’s change would yield varying results based on how many recruits the school needed that year. Rosters typically turn over every 4 to 5 years. Therefore, with eight years of data available, the dataset was subdivided into two four-year periods (2013-2016 and 2017-2020) to better examine changes over a longer period of time.

Table 3 shows the schools with the largest changes in their mean RVCFs. Fifteen schools experienced an increase in mean RVCF between the two time periods. Ohio State had the largest increase in mean difference (MD = 74.77 kg CO2eq), with its mean RVCF rising from 280.80 kg CO2eq in 2013-2016 to 355.57 kg CO2eq in 2017-2020. Oregon saw the largest overall increase in total RVCF, increasing 29,617.65 kg CO2eq during the latter period. Figure 2 utilizes GIS maps to depict all recruiting visits to Ohio State for each period, highlighting an expanded recruiting range that targeted more players from Texas and the Western United States. Conversely, eight schools showed a reduction in mean RVCF between the two time periods, with the University of Miami experiencing the largest decrease in mean difference (MD = -61.96 kg CO2eq). Although Washington State’s mean reduction was not as considerable as the bottom three schools, it had the largest total reduction in RVCF, decreasing by 19,562.28 kg CO2eq between the two periods.

Table 3 Largest Mean Difference in RVCF between the two time periods
 2013-2016 2017-2020 
SchoolsnTotalM nTotalM DifferenceMD
Ohio State15643,804.86280.80 14551,557.24355.57 7,752.3974.77
Penn State10225,847.68253.41 15247,683.11313.70 21,835.4460.30
Oregon12270,128.43574.82 15999,746.07627.33 29,617.6552.51
Florida St.16546,656.85282.77 15236,535.52240.37 -10,121.32-42.40
Arkansas15349,311.35322.30 17245,987.11267.37 -3,324.24-54.93
Miami15146,944.88310.89 15037,339.37248.93 -9,605.51-61.96
Note: Totals and Means are in kg CO2eq

Wuerzer et al. (38) identified county-level geographical hotspots in the United States overproducing elite college football talent, necessitating migration to other states to find available roster spots on Power-5 football teams. Consequently, Power-5 schools in regions with minimal elite talent and far from these hotspots must expand their recruiting efforts, increasing their RVCF. Schools that rely heavily on air travel for recruiting will naturally have a larger carbon footprint, as air travel is the primary contributor to total RVCF. This is evident from the top three schools with the highest total RVCF also have the lowest percentages of recruits visiting within driving distance to their campuses (Washington State (2.17%), Oregon (3.20%), and Nebraska (5.90%)). Despite this, schools still make strategic choices in their recruiting practices. For example, as shown in Figure 1, Washington State invited several recruits from Florida, a state with prominent county-level recruiting hotspots, instead of focusing on nearby regions or closer recruiting hotspots in California and Texas.

A Pearson correlation coefficient analysis was conducted to address research question three: “Were there any correlations between schools’ financial, recruiting, and performance variables and their RVCF?” The analysis identified two significant correlations, both negative: Total RVCF and Athletic Department Total Annual Revenue [r(176) = -.202, p = .007] and Athletic Department Total Annual Expenses [r(176) = -.198, p = .008]. These findings suggest that athletic departments with higher revenues and expenses tend to have lower RVCFs. This could be attributed to the fact that Power-5 programs with substantial financial resources often have well-established and highly regarded football programs, enabling them to attract top recruits from within a closer geographical range. Consequently, these programs would be less dependent on long-distance recruiting, which typically requires greater air travel, the primary contributor to a school’s RVCF, thereby lowering their overall RVCF.

Overall, these findings highlight the multifaceted nature of college football recruiting, shaped by a complex interplay of positional needs, recruits’ availability, and recruits’ geographical location. The competitive nature of Power-5 college football recruiting requires substantial time and effort to build top-tier recruiting classes, prompting many schools to expand their recruiting reach over time, which subsequently increases their RVCF. The findings show that 15 of the 23 schools increased their RVCF over the two periods. Given the fierce competition for elite talent, it is unlikely that any football program would willingly reduce its recruiting-related carbon emissions if it jeopardizes on-field performance. This creates a significant challenge for universities wanting to adopt more sustainable operations.

CONCLUSION 

This study provides a substantial initial assessment of the carbon footprint associated with college football recruiting. By utilizing GIS for recruits’ hometowns, college locations, and nearest major airports to calculate travel distances, the researchers provided an approximation of each school’s RVCF Recruiting Visit Carbon Footprint (RVCF). The findings reveal substantial variability in RVCF among schools, highlighting the different levels of environmental impact of recruiting. The study also found that higher-spending athletic departments tended to have lower RVCFs, suggesting that successful programs may not need to extend their recruiting reach as widely.

However, several limitations must be acknowledged. The data for this study came from a third-party recruiting website, thus allowing for only an approximate carbon footprint for each official visit. Also, various models and formulas can be used to estimate CO2eq emissions from travel, but each carries assumptions and biases. Moreover, policy changes during the study period, such as the NCAA’s 2016 rule change allowing schools to cover travel costs for up to two parents or guardians accompanying a recruit, could result in a higher actual carbon footprint than the reported RVCF from this study (33). More detailed research is essential for a more accurate and comprehensive understanding of the carbon emissions associated with college football recruiting. Unfortunately, without a governing body mandating standardized reporting of recruiting carbon emissions using consistent formulas, it will remain difficult to fully assess and compare the carbon emissions of different athletic departments.

APPLICATIONS IN SPORT

For universities aiming to reduce their athletic department’s carbon footprint, including all recruiting activities in their calculations is crucial. A comprehensive approach would enable the development of effective strategies that promote sustainability without sacrificing athletic success. Athletic departments can better incorporate sustainability into their planning and decision-making processes by understanding the true carbon footprint generated by each sport, school, and conference.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research was supported by a college-level seed grant focused on sustainability issues from the Huizenga College of Business and Entrepreneurship’s Societal Impact Seed Grant program.

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2025-10-13T15:18:13-05:00May 27th, 2026|Contemporary Sports Issues, Research, Sports Studies, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|Comments Off on An Analysis of Carbon Emissions from College Football Recruiting Visits
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