This study examines the ongoing decline of lacrosse officials in the Midwest by exploring how stakeholder behavior, organizational support, and personal motivations affect officials’ decisions to continue or leave the profession. The goal is to identify key factors contributing to attrition and provide practical recommendations for improving retention.
Methods:
A mixed-methods survey design was used to collect data from 55 lacrosse officials who had officiated in the Midwest within the past five years. Participants responded to a series of closed-ended questions assessing demographics, officiating experience, and interactions with coaches, fans, and players. Open-ended responses were also collected to contextualize and support quantitative results. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, and illustrative quotes were used to reinforce common trends.
Results:
Most participants were White males over the age of 40, with more than a decade of officiating experience. While abuse from players was reported less frequently, officials indicated that verbal abuse from coaches and fans occurred often and significantly impacted their officiating experience. Additionally, officials expressed mixed feelings about the support they receive from associations and assignors. Despite these challenges, most participants reported a strong personal connection to the game and cited their passion for lacrosse and desire to give back as primary reasons for continuing. A subset of respondents, however, acknowledged that negative experiences have made them consider leaving the profession.
Conclusions:
Findings highlight the important role personal passion plays in keeping officials engaged despite a lack of institutional support and ongoing negative stakeholder interactions. Without meaningful changes to reduce abuse and increase organizational support, the officiating pipeline will remain vulnerable. The study also raises concerns about the lack of demographic diversity in lacrosse officiating, warranting further exploration.
Applications in Sport:
The results have practical implications for lacrosse governing bodies, assignors, and administrators. Improving sideline behavior, increasing compensation, offering mentorship, and expanding recruitment efforts to underrepresented groups could significantly improve retention and build a more sustainable and inclusive officiating workforce.
Key Words: officiating, lacrosse, referee retention, stakeholder behavior, sport management
INTRODUCTION
The shortage of sports officials, particularly in youth and high school sports, is a pressing issue that threatens organized athletics’ operational integrity and sustainability. The National Federation of High School Associations (NFHS) found that around 50,000 individuals have stopped serving as high school officials since the onset of the pandemic in 2020 (Niehoff, 2022). This decline can be attributed to several interrelated factors, including occupational stress, abuse from spectators, insufficient support systems, and inadequate training opportunities for officials.
Literature Review
The shortage of sports officials is increasingly attributed to the rising incidence of verbal and physical abuse directed at referees by players and spectators. Research indicates that abusive behavior, particularly at the grassroots level, significantly contributes to high turnover rates, with negative experiences reducing officials’ willingness to continue in the profession (Dawson et al., 2021; Rayner et al., 2016). Dawson et al. (2021) highlight the alarming decline in the number of qualified officials, stressing that this culture of abuse not only affects officials but also threatens the integrity of competitive sports. Additionally, issues such as harassment and discrimination, especially against female officials, further intensify attrition, creating a hostile environment that undermines the overall health of sports communities (Marshall et al., 2022; Webb et al., 2020).
In addition, the lack of adequate support, resources, and effective training opportunities exacerbates attrition, as many organizations fail to provide the necessary infrastructure to sustain officials’ careers (Webb et al., 2020; Tingle et al., 2014). Insufficient professional development and an aging workforce further compound the issue, necessitating innovative strategies to attract and retain younger officials (Ryan et al., 2014; Barnhill et al., 2018; Pierce et al., 2021). This literature emphasizes the multifaceted challenges in officiating and highlights the critical need for systemic changes to address the issues of abuse, support, and recruitment.
The Decline of Lacrosse Officials
The decline of lacrosse officials in the Midwest has raised concerns regarding the sustainability of officiating in growing sports leagues. In recent years, the shortage of qualified officials has emerged as a critical issue. Lacrosse, a sport that has enjoyed significant regional growth in the Midwest, now faces challenges similar to those observed in other sports arenas (Ridinger et al., 2017). The decline in the number of lacrosse officials not only impedes game integrity but also affects the overall development of the sport. Existing literature has shown that multifaceted factors, including motivational changes, psychosocial stressors, and insufficient support structures, play essential roles in the retention and attrition of referees (Livingston & Forbes, 2016; Ridinger, 2015).
Negative Stakeholder Behavior
The decline in the number of lacrosse officials in the Midwest can be tied to negative stakeholder behavior, particularly from parents, coaches, and fans. This trend is troubling, as officials play a critical role in maintaining the integrity and safety of the game. The psychological impact of abuse from various stakeholders on referees cannot be overstated. Studies indicate that officials often experience significant stress and mental health challenges due to verbal abuse and aggression directed at them during games, which can lead to a decline in their overall job satisfaction and motivation (Breslin et al., 2022; Giel & Breuer, 2021).
It is important to note that the abuse received by officials, from players, coaches, and spectators, is frequently normalized within many sports environments. Research in sports such as rugby and football demonstrates that officials often report feeling overwhelmed by hostility from these groups (Webb et al., 2019; Webb et al., 2018). This hostility not only affects the officiating experience but can also deter potential new referees from entering the field. Furthermore, the retention rates of officials are directly influenced by the social interactions they have with these stakeholder groups, and the lack of positive reinforcement or sportsmanship has been shown to exacerbate dropout intentions (Giel & Breuer, 2021).
The influence of these stressors is particularly notable in the context of youth sports, where the pressure from parents and coaches can create a toxic atmosphere for officials trying to enforce rules and manage games. Coaches, in their roles, often have a substantial impact on how players perceive referees, which in turn affects the emotional atmosphere during matches (Webb, 2020). If coaches model negative behaviors, such as disrespect towards referees, it can lead to a cycle of abuse where players mimic these actions, further isolating officials and intensifying their negative experiences (Webb et al., 2018).
Interventions aimed at increasing awareness and promoting mental health support among referees are essential in addressing this decline. Recommendations have been made for mental health training for stakeholders to improve the overall environment surrounding officiating and reduce instances of abuse (Breslin et al., 2022). Additionally, stakeholder education on the consequences of negative behaviors towards officials can help reshape perspectives and foster a more respectful sporting culture. Such measures would not only help in maintaining a robust pool of lacrosse officials but also promote a healthier, more inclusive environment for all participants in the sport.
Abuse Abuse, both verbal and physical, is a significant contributor to officiating attrition, with numerous studies highlighting its impact on officials’ mental health and intentions to quit. Brick et al. (2022) found that nearly all Gaelic Games officials surveyed (94.29%) had encountered verbal abuse, and almost one in four (23.06%) had experienced physical abuse during their careers. Verbal abuse was shown to be frequent and directly linked to mental health issues and quitting intentions, with distress acting as a mediating factor. Similarly, Webb et al. (2018) documented the prevalence of both verbal and physical abuse in rugby league, finding that emotional abuse (i.e., intimidation, swearing, and threats) and physical aggression (i.e., pushing and hitting) significantly reduced job satisfaction. These hostile environments, particularly when abuse is persistent and unaddressed, contribute to officials leaving their roles.
The impact of abuse on officiating extends across various sports and levels. For instance, Ridinger et al. (2017) revealed that 42% of 2,485 high school referees identified abuse as the most significant challenge in their roles, and 10% cited abuse as a factor in their intention to quit. This aligns with findings from Kavanagh et al. (2021), who reported that abuse in youth soccer led to emotional exhaustion and burnout among officials. Tingle et al. (2014) also noted that the normalization of verbal abuse within sports culture exacerbates the negative effects on officials, especially for newcomers lacking support systems. Collectively, these studies underscore the need for sports organizations to implement proactive abuse prevention measures and institutional support to mitigate attrition and improve the officiating experience.
Unsupportive Interactions Unsupportive social dynamics play a critical role in officials’ decisions to leave their positions. Warner et al. (2013) examined the effects of problematic peer interactions and inadequate mentoring in sports such as lacrosse, revealing how these relational shortcomings contribute to officiating attrition. When officials lack meaningful support from mentors or peers and feel disconnected from a broader officiating community, their engagement and satisfaction decline. The Referee Retention Scale (Ridinger et al., 2017) identifies several social factors that contribute to retention, including several factors that address a sense of community and mentoring support. These elements reflect the importance of fostering interpersonal relationships that reinforce a positive officiating experience (Table 1).
Table 1 Key Factors Contributing to Referee Retention
Factor Name
Description
Administrator Consideration
Level of perceived fairness and consideration from assigners and administrators
Mentoring
Support and encouragement from a mentor or a friend to become involved with officiating
Sense of Community
Perceived sense of belonging to a supportive community of officials
Lack of Stress
Infrequent encounters with stressful situations related to officiating
Note. Adapted from Ridinger, L. L., Kim, K. R., Warner, S., & Tingle, J. K. (2017). Development of the Referee Retention Scale. Journal of Sport Management, 31(5), 514–527.
In addition to interpersonal issues, organizational shortcomings also undermine retention efforts. Warner et al. (2013) highlighted how insufficient policy frameworks and administrative neglect exacerbate attrition, particularly when officiating structures fail to proactively address the evolving needs of officials. The Referee Retention Scale provides a methodological foundation for identifying these structural deficiencies. Notably, factors such as “Administrator Consideration” and “Lack of Stress” underscore the role of fair management practices and manageable work environments in referee satisfaction. Furthermore, Livingston and Forbes (2016) and Ridinger (2015) emphasize the necessity of aligning recruitment and retention strategies with officials’ motivations and expectations. Collectively, these findings stress that without intentional and sustained institutional support, officiating organizations risk ongoing loss of personnel due to preventable burnout and disengagement.
Referee Retention
Research on referee retention has provided useful insights into the systemic and individual challenges impacting officiating roles. Ridinger et al. (2017) developed the Referee Retention Scale to assess factors such as job satisfaction, perceived organizational support, and the prevalence of abuse, all of which are directly linked to declining retention rates. Their work underscores that referee attrition is often precipitated by issues that extend beyond the administrative domain and delve into psychosocial and environmental stressors. Similarly, Livingston and Forbes (2016) investigated the evolving motivations of amateur sport officials and confirmed that changes in personal goals and external support diminish retention levels over time. Their study, although centered on Canadian officials, provides a framework that is applicable to the Midwest context, where similar socio-organizational dynamics are at play.
Ridinger (2015) compared the experiences of baseball umpires and lacrosse officials, revealing common constraints such as economic shortages and inadequate mentorship. This comparative analysis highlights that lacrosse officials, in particular, face challenges that are exacerbated by limited training opportunities and the absence of community-based support systems. In other research pertinent to community sports, Baxter et al. (2021) examined the experiences of female volunteer officials, outlining barriers and motivators that resonate with broader issues affecting retention. Although focused on gender-related dimensions of officiating, their findings reinforce the notion that organizational policies and social support are crucial to sustaining a committed officiating workforce.
The literature clearly indicates that the decline of lacrosse officials in the Midwest is a complex phenomenon influenced by issues of retention, support deficiency, and exposure to abuse. By synthesizing insights from multiple studies, this review stresses the importance of a comprehensive strategy that includes recruitment, retention, and preventive measures to improve the working environment for lacrosse officials. Future research and policy changes informed by these findings will be crucial in reversing the downward trend and ensuring the long-term sustainability of lacrosse officiating.
Conclusion
Despite a growing body of literature on officiating attrition, few studies have examined the distinct cultural and geographic dynamics affecting lacrosse officials in emerging regions like the Midwest. The reviewed research highlights a multifaceted crisis, with lacrosse serving as a representative case of the broader challenges afflicting youth and high school sports. Across regional and national contexts, verbal abuse and safety concerns have emerged as key contributors to attrition. In the Midwest, the shortage of lacrosse officials is impeding sport development and compromising game quality.
National survey findings from NASO and NFHS reinforce the severity of the crisis, revealing that a majority of new officials depart within three years due to burnout, safety concerns, and undervaluation. While recent initiatives, such as the NFHS National Officials Consortium Summit and the #BecomeAnOfficial campaign, represent positive steps forward, the literature suggests that these efforts must be part of a broader, coordinated strategy. Interventions focused on stakeholder education, mental health support, structured mentorship, and the public acknowledgment of officials’ contributions are necessary to reverse current trends. Sustaining officiating in lacrosse will require systemic change, cultural realignment, and a renewed commitment to valuing those who enforce the rules and protect the integrity of the game.
METHODS
Purpose
The purpose of this study is to examine the underlying causes of the declining number of lacrosse officials in the Midwest. Specifically, it seeks to determine how stakeholder interactions, support structures, and personal motivations influence officials’ decisions to remain active in the field. The study is designed to inform retention strategies and stakeholder education efforts.
Methodology
Participants
Participants in this study were 55 lacrosse officials who officiated games across the Midwest region of the United States. Eligibility criteria required participants to have officiated lacrosse at any level (youth, high school, college, or club) within the past five years in a Midwest state. Participants were predominantly male and white, and ranged in age from 25 to 72 years old, with officiating experience spanning from less than 1 year to over 30 years. Participation was voluntary, and no compensation was provided.
Procedures
Data was collected via an anonymous online survey distributed through Qualtrics. Recruitment was conducted through email invitations sent to lacrosse officiating associations, assignors, and personal networks within the officiating community, as well as through social media posts targeting officials in the Midwest. The survey remained open for three weeks, with one reminder sent midway through the collection period. Prior to data collection, the study received Institutional Review Board (IRB) approval from Madonna University. Participants provided informed consent at the beginning of the survey.
The survey consisted of both closed and open-ended questions. Closed-ended items collected demographic information (age, gender, race/ethnicity, years of officiating experience) and information on perceived challenges in officiating (e.g., pay, scheduling, respect from stakeholders). Open-ended questions invited participants to elaborate on their experiences, including reasons for continuing or discontinuing officiating and suggestions for improving the officiating experience.
Data Analysis
Quantitative data were analyzed using descriptive statistics (frequencies, percentages, means) to summarize participant demographics and the prevalence of key issues identified by officials. Open-ended responses were reviewed to identify illustrative quotes that reinforced or provided examples of the quantitative findings. Qualitative responses were not formally coded or thematically analyzed but were used to add narrative context to the statistical results.
RESULTS
A total of 55 lacrosse officials from the Midwest region completed the survey. Participants ranged in age from 23 to 67 years (M = 45.8, SD = 11.2), with the majority identifying as male (85%) and White/Caucasian (94%). Officials reported working across multiple states, most commonly Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Ohio, and Wisconsin. On average, participants had 14.3 years of officiating experience, with nearly all officiating at the youth and high school levels (92%). Additionally, 64% reported officiating collegiate lacrosse, and 9% officiated at the professional level.
Officials were asked about their experiences with negative interactions from various stakeholders. Verbal abuse from coaches was reported as occurring “sometimes” by 58% of respondents and “often” by 16%. Similar patterns emerged regarding fans and parents, with 49% reporting “sometimes” and 22% reporting “often” experiencing verbal abuse. Abuse from players was less frequent, with 51% of officials reporting “rarely” and 38% reporting “sometimes.” Despite these negative interactions, officials rarely reported fearing for their personal safety, with 74% indicating “never” and 18% “rarely” feeling unsafe while officiating.
Perceptions of support from officiating associations were mixed. While 42% of respondents felt “often” supported by their associations, 33% reported “sometimes” feeling supported, and 25% “rarely.” When asked how often they considered quitting due to negative experiences, 56% reported “never” considering leaving officiating, 24% “rarely,” 11% “sometimes,” and 9% “often.”
Qualitative responses provided further insight into officials’ motivations and concerns. Officials frequently cited a love for the game, a desire to give back to the sport, camaraderie with fellow officials, and ensuring opportunities for young athletes as primary reasons for continuing to officiate. One participant explained, “I won’t stop until my body no longer allows me to officiate,” while another noted, “If associations or assignors supported officials more, I’d feel better about continuing.” Conversely, low pay, spectator abuse, insufficient support from associations, and the physical demands of officiating as they age were commonly cited factors contributing to potential attrition.
Discussion
The findings of this study provide a nuanced look into the factors influencing lacrosse officials’ retention in the Midwest. Despite frequent reports of verbal abuse from coaches, players, and fans, many respondents reported continuing to officiate due to intrinsic motivations such as a love of the sport and a desire to give back. This aligns with prior research emphasizing passion and sport commitment as key drivers of officiating persistence. Finding joy in officiating can lead to better psychological outcomes, fostering an environment where officials are more likely to continue their engagement with the sport (Carson et al., 2020).
However, respondents also highlighted significant deterrents to retention, including low compensation, lack of recognition, poor treatment from stakeholders, and limited support from assigning organizations. These challenges are consistent with broader officiating literature identifying unsupportive environments and abuse as predictors of attrition. Research supports the notion that the challenges of managing player dynamics and external pressures, such as crowd noise, significantly impact officials’ performance and mental states (Carter et al., 2024). Therefore, the emotional and psychological investment in sport, empowered by both passion and commitment, is essential in nurturing a sustained career in officiating.
Interestingly, while many officials expressed dissatisfaction with aspects of the officiating experience, few indicated plans to immediately stop officiating, suggesting a complex interplay between commitment, tolerance for negative experiences, and practical constraints.
The demographic homogeneity of the sample raises additional concerns. The overwhelming representation of older White men suggests potential gaps in recruitment or retention efforts targeting women and racial minorities. Given lacrosse’s growing popularity and emphasis on inclusion, this lack of diversity warrants further investigation and intervention.
Collectively, these findings reinforce the need for officiating associations and lacrosse governing bodies to implement more robust training, mentorship, and support systems. Addressing verbal abuse, improving communication, and recognizing officials’ contributions may improve retention. Ultimately, sustaining a high-quality officiating workforce requires addressing both systemic challenges and individual experiences.
Future Research
While this study offers valuable insight into the experiences of lacrosse officials in the Midwest, it also highlights several opportunities for future research. First, the demographic composition of respondents (predominantly White, male, and middle-aged or older) suggests a need to explore barriers to entry and advancement for underrepresented groups in officiating. Investigating the experiences of women, racial minorities, and younger officials could help identify structural or cultural factors limiting diversity in the officiating pipeline.
Additionally, future research could expand beyond the Midwest to assess whether similar trends exist nationally or vary by region. Comparative studies across different competitive levels (youth, high school, collegiate, professional) may also reveal distinct challenges and support mechanisms. Finally, longitudinal research could track officials over time to better understand career trajectories, burnout risk, and retention strategies. Together, these avenues of inquiry can build a more comprehensive understanding of officiating challenges and inform evidence-based recruitment and retention initiatives.
CONCLUSIONS
This study sheds light on the complex realities facing lacrosse officials across the Midwest, revealing a profession challenged by inadequate pay, lack of respect from key stakeholders, inconsistent scheduling practices, and minimal institutional support. Despite these hurdles, officials overwhelmingly cited their love of the game, passion for supporting athletes, and commitment to the sport as primary motivators for continuing their work. This finding underscores a critical dynamic: lacrosse officiating, particularly in under-resourced regions, is being sustained largely by the intrinsic dedication and personal investment of its officials rather than by systemic support or professional incentives.
Without this fierce passion for the sport, it is likely that attrition would be even higher. Many participants described tolerating negative treatment, logistical difficulties, and low compensation solely because of their deep-rooted connection to lacrosse. While this dedication is admirable, it raises serious concerns about sustainability and burnout. The profession cannot rely indefinitely on goodwill and personal sacrifice without addressing the structural and cultural issues contributing to official dissatisfaction and turnover.
These findings highlight the urgent need for action to support and retain lacrosse officials and ensure the sport’s long-term sustainability. Ultimately, this study emphasizes that lacrosse officiating in the Midwest stands at a crossroads.
APPLICATION IN SPORT
The findings of this study have clear implications for lacrosse governing bodies, officiating associations, assignors, coaches, and athletic administrators seeking to address the shortage of officials. First, targeted efforts to reduce verbal abuse and improve sideline behavior are critical for creating a more supportive environment that encourages retention. Educational workshops for coaches, parents, and athletes focused on respecting officials may help shift cultural norms and reduce negative interactions.
Second, the study highlights the need for stronger mentoring and peer support systems within officiating communities. Developing formal mentorship programs that connect new officials with experienced referees could foster a greater sense of belonging and resilience, improving retention among newer and younger officials. Assigning bodies should prioritize community-building activities, recognition initiatives, and accessible professional development opportunities to sustain engagement.
Additionally, improving compensation and scheduling practices may directly influence retention by addressing key logistical frustrations reported by officials. Providing consistent game assignments, clear communication, and timely pay can increase satisfaction and encourage officials to remain active longer.
Finally, the demographic homogeneity observed in this study signals an urgent need to broaden recruitment efforts to underrepresented groups, including women and racial minorities. Intentional outreach, training scholarships, and inclusive recruitment messaging may help diversify the officiating pipeline and ensure the sport’s continued growth. Implementing these strategies can help sport leaders, administrators, and policy makers foster a more sustainable, inclusive, and supportive officiating environment in lacrosse and beyond.
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This commentary examines the evolving landscape of coaching, focusing on the transformative integration of artificial intelligence, advanced analytics, and real-time performance tracking. These technologies enhance athlete monitoring, optimize decision-making, and redefine coaching pedagogy. However, the rapid adoption of data-driven methodologies presents challenges, including resistance among experienced coaches and ethical considerations regarding athlete privacy. This commentary explores strategies for effectively integrating coaching tools into coaching while preserving the critical human elements of mentorship and decision-making. As the digital age reshapes sports, embracing innovative technologies is essential for meeting athletes’ complex, evolving needs and achieving performance goals. This integration ensures a balance between innovation and the enduring human elements of coaching, elevating the profession to unprecedented levels of effectiveness and impact.
In the evolution of coaching, technology has transitioned from rudimentary tools to sophisticated systems that have transformed the way athletes are trained and developed (Zhang et al., 2023). Early coaching methodologies heavily relied on basic instruments such as stopwatches, tape measures, and handwritten training logs to assess performance metrics and track progress (Sohail et al., 2022). These tools, while limited, served as the foundation for the integration of technology into coaching practices. Video analysis, introduced in its nascent stages, provided groundbreaking insights into athletes’ movements, enabling coaches to refine techniques with unprecedented precision (Cronin et al., 2019). Similarly, the advent of heart rate monitors and early biomechanical sensors marked the initial shift toward data-driven decision-making in athletic training (Goudsmit et al., 2022).
As technology evolved, so did its application in sports. The introduction of analytics into coaching practices in the 1970s marked a significant turning point (Passmore & Woodward, 2023). One notable example is the Oakland Athletics’ pioneering use of statistical analysis under General Manager Billy Beane, a methodology that revolutionized talent evaluation and team composition in professional baseball (Abisaid & Cassidy, 2017). Popularized as the “Moneyball” approach, this strategy demonstrated the potential of empirical data to transcend traditional methods and optimize performance, sparking a broader analytics revolution across various sports (Gin, 2018). Building on this foundation, modern coaching now incorporates advanced technologies such as wearable devices, artificial intelligence (AI), virtual and augmented reality, and machine learning algorithms to deliver real-time performance analytics, injury prevention insights, and skill acquisition strategies (Catapult, 2023; Müller et al., 2022; Wang et al., 2024).
Despite these advancements, the adoption of technology in coaching presents challenges, particularly among seasoned professionals accustomed to traditional practices (Judge et al., 2024). Resistance to change underscores the importance of balancing innovative tools with the human elements of coaching, including mentorship, trust, and the nuanced understanding of individual athletes’ needs (Passmore & Woodward, 2023). Effective integration of technology requires not only familiarity with innovative tools but also an appreciation of how these tools can complement established coaching principles, rather than supplant them. Additionally, data analytics plays a crucial role in helping athletes evaluate their performance by providing insights into key metrics, enabling personalized training strategies and enhancing decision-making to improve outcomes (Bennett & Szedlak, 2023).
This commentary explores the historical evolution, current applications, and future potential of technology in coaching, offering a comprehensive framework for understanding its transformative role in improving athlete performance and competitive outcomes. By examining how technology integrates with and enhances traditional coaching practices, the work aims to provide actionable insights for leveraging innovation while preserving the foundational principles that define the profession and the commitment to maximizing athlete potential. This dual focus ensures that coaches can navigate the rapidly advancing digital landscape without compromising the interpersonal connections essential to athlete development (Bishop et al., 2023).
Current Roles of Technology in Coaching
The integration of advanced technologies, particularly analytics and AI, has significantly transformed the landscape of sports coaching, enabling precise, evidence-based approaches to athlete development (Catapult, 2023; Zhang et al., 2023). These tools allow coaches to analyze extensive datasets, offering actionable insights for decision-making, personalized training design, and effective athlete monitoring (Baraniuk, 2015; Zhang et al., 2023). Historically, coaching was driven by intuition, anecdotal evidence, and experiential knowledge (Sohail et al., 2022). The advent of AI and advanced analytics has augmented these traditional methods, introducing unparalleled precision and efficiency into coaching practices (Judge et al., 2024). Furthermore, these advances in technology empower athletes to self-reflect on their performance by providing real-time, data-driven insights that foster deeper understanding and targeted improvements (Bennett & Szedlak, 2023).
Modern performance analytics tools provide granular assessments of key metrics, including speed, distance, exertion levels, and tactical patterns (Judge et al., 2021). These insights enable tailored interventions that optimize training regimens and improve competitive tactical strategies that engage coaches and athletes in a collaborative process (Talha & Sohail, 2023). Wearable technologies, such as GPS trackers and heart rate monitors, deliver real-time data on physiological responses and recovery profiles, enhancing injury prevention and facilitating optimal workload management (Catapult, 2023; Müller et al., 2022). Additionally, cloud-based platforms streamline communication between coaching teams and athletes by enabling seamless sharing of playbooks, video analyses, and tactical adjustments (Cronin et al., 2019).
These innovative technologies bridge the gap between practice and competition by enabling targeted skill development, data-driven decision-making, and tailored performance optimization (Catapult, 2023; Stanescu, 2018). Data metrics and AI in sport go beyond what a coach can see by providing in-depth, quantifiable insights into an athlete’s biomechanics, performance trends, and recovery patterns, enabling a more comprehensive understanding of strengths and areas for improvement that might otherwise be overlooked (Bishop et al., 2023).
Despite these advancements, it is critical to maintain a balance between technology and traditional coaching practices. Over-reliance on automated systems can undermine essential human elements such as emotional intelligence, trust, and mentorship, which are fundamental to effective coaching (Goudsmit et al., 2022). Coaches must critically assess and integrate tools that align with their methodologies and philosophies while preserving the interpersonal dynamics that underpin athlete development (Judge et al., 2024). By synthesizing advanced technologies with traditional coaching principles, practitioners can create comprehensive training environments that address the physical, cognitive, and emotional dimensions of athletic performance (Passmore & Woodward, 2023).
This section underscores the importance of blending coaching tools with evidence-based practices to maximize their impact while safeguarding the human-centric essence of coaching. Integrating wearable sensors, cognitive training platforms, and collaborative digital tools into coaching workflows ensures an integrated approach that meets the multifaceted demands of modern sports (Catapult, 2023). This integration is essential for meeting modern athletes’ expectations in highly competitive environments. Furthermore, the data-centric revolution is complemented by the potential for greater customization and enhanced feedback mechanisms, which together can pave the way for more effective coaching interventions and superior athletic performance (Zhang et al., 2023) (See Table 1).
The National Basketball Association (NBA) initiated the Launchpad program, selecting companies to develop basketball technologies. For instance, SkillCorner utilizes computer vision and machine learning to generate player tracking data from existing video feeds, enabling detailed analysis of player movements and strategies. Similarly, Springbok Analytics employs AI-based technology to transform MRI data into 3D digital twins, quantifying an athlete’s musculature for precision health and performance optimization (NBA, 2023).
Moreover, the NBA has partnered with Sony’s Hawk-Eye Innovations to deploy 3D optical tracking technology, capturing real-time movements of players and the ball in three dimensions with sub-second latency. This system enhances officiating accuracy and provides detailed performance data (Hawk-Eye Innovations, 2023). These technological advancements serve as a bridge to previously elusive performance metrics, enabling granular analysis of biomechanical efficiency, tactical awareness, and psychosocial factors. Such insights not only inform but also revolutionize training regimens, allowing coaches to create hyper-personalized programs tailored to the physiological and psychological profiles of individual athletes (Catapult, 2023).
Beyond sport-specific tools, technology has made significant strides with AI in enhancing athletes’ mental performance. For example, AI-driven applications such asNeuroTrainerandMentalEdge provide personalized cognitive training programs to improve focus, decision-making, and mental resilience, while tracking vital internal metrics such as confidence and concentration (MentalEdge, 2023; NeuroTrainer, 2023). These platforms deliver tailored mental health and performance support, complementing physical preparation with robust psychological strategies (Talha & Sohail, 2023). Monitoring the physical and psychological attributes of athletes provides coaches with a holistic understanding of how best to prepare practice and training opportunities that simulate competitive settings (Passmore & Woodward, 2023).
Similarly, predictive modeling through AI enables coaches to anticipate performance trends and design hyper-personalized training regimens. Tools such as IBM Watson’s Sports Performance Analytics analyze vast datasets to identify patterns, forecast outcomes, and provide initiative-taking adjustments to maximize developmental trajectories (IBM, 2023). Platforms like Megalabs AI further demonstrate the potential of AI in sports training by using advanced algorithms to assess athlete performance and suggest data-driven interventions (Megalabs, 2023). By leveraging historical data and advanced algorithms to forecast future performance trends, injury risks, and game outcomes, coaches and athletes can strategically prepare for competition with greater precision and foresight (Megalabs, 2023).
Balancing Technology with Traditional Coaching Practices
As technology advances, maintaining a balance between its application and the humanistic core of effective coaching is paramount (Judge et al., 2024). While technological tools offer unprecedented data-driven insights into athlete performance, they remain insufficient substitutes for the interpersonal connections, mentorship, and empathy that underpin successful coaching relationships (Carson & Collins, 2016; Driska et al., 2017). These humanistic elements are indispensable in cultivating trust, resilience, and holistic growth in athletes, outcomes that technology alone cannot achieve. The integration of technology must enhance, not replace, the relational dynamics essential to coaching (Rajasinghe et al., 2022). Research underscores that the mentorship and emotional intelligence of coaches are critical in navigating the psychological and emotional challenges faced by athletes, fostering a foundation for long-term development and achievement (Carson & Collins, 2016). Thus, while technology can serve as a powerful adjunct in optimizing training and performance, it must be grounded in and guided by the human-centered principles of the coaching process (Driska et al., 2017). This balance not only ensures effective athlete development but also reinforces the irreplaceable role of coaches as mentors and leaders in the evolving landscape of sports.
Coaches must adopt a strategic approach to technology, utilizing it to complement their expertise rather than overshadowing it. For instance, wearable devices provide critical performance metrics, but their true value lies in a coach’s ability to interpret these data points and translate them into actionable insights (Catapult, 2023; Goudsmit et al., 2022). This equilibrium ensures that the art of coaching, characterized by intuition, adaptability, and emotional intelligence, remains integral to athlete development. Over-reliance on technology risks diluting these people skills, potentially leading to standardized approaches that overlook individual athlete needs (Sperlich et al., 2023). Coaches must critically evaluate the relevance and utility of each technological tool to ensure it aligns with their objectives and enhances the natural flow of training sessions. Coaches must also help athletes make sense of the data in a way that supports their technical, tactical, mental, and physical growth (Judge et al., 2024).
Table 2 illustrates the critical balance between integrating new coaching technologies and preserving traditional practices, emphasizing the importance of maintaining personal connections, leveraging intuitive experience, and fostering holistic athlete development alongside the adoption of innovative tools.
The Role of Relationships in Coaching
At its core, coaching is built on trust, empathy, and mentorship. These human-centric attributes enable coaches to inspire athletes, navigate challenges, and provide a sense of purpose that transcends physical performance (Judge et al., 2024). Unlike technology, which focuses on quantifiable metrics, the human aspects of coaching address intrinsic motivation, emotional intelligence, and adaptive problem-solving (Rajasinghe et al., 2022). Studies have shown that a strong coach-athlete relationship significantly influences athlete satisfaction, engagement, and performance (Passmore & Woodward, 2023). Consequently, even as technology becomes increasingly integrated into coaching, preserving the integrity of these interpersonal dynamics is essential.
Integrating Human-Centered and Data-Driven Approaches
The most effective coaching strategies blend human intuition with technological precision. While data can provide valuable performance insights, its utility is contingent on the coach’s ability to interpret and apply it within the broader context of athlete development. For example, injury prevention algorithms may flag overreaching and or overtraining risks, but the coach’s awareness of an athlete’s mental state and external stressors can provide critical context for tailoring interventions (Goudsmit et al., 2022). By combining the quantitative power of technology with the qualitative insights derived from interpersonal relationships, coaches can address athletes’ holistic needs and support the growth and nurturing of the athlete-coach relationship (Passmore & Woodward, 2023).
Challenges in Balancing Innovation with Tradition and the Road Ahead
Despite its transformative potential, over-reliance on technology can undermine essential coaching principles. Automated systems and analytics platforms, while efficient, risk depersonalizing the coaching experience (Driska et al., 2017). Algorithms often lack the flexibility to accommodate the unique, context-dependent variables that human coaches intuitively recognize (Sperlich et al., 2023). Furthermore, the adoption of technology poses a learning curve for seasoned coaches accustomed to traditional methods, highlighting the need for ongoing education and training in technological applications (Passmore & Woodward, 2023). Addressing these challenges requires fostering a culture of collaboration between coaches, sports scientists, and data analysts, ensuring that technological integration enhances rather than detracts from the human aspects of coaching.
The future of coaching is set to be fundamentally transformed by advancements in technologies such as AI and advanced analytics, which offer unparalleled opportunities to revolutionize strategic planning, optimize athlete performance, and redefine the landscape of sports development. The successful integration of these tools requires maintaining the balance between leveraging technological innovation and preserving the coach’s pivotal role as a mentor, strategist, and leader. Coaches who master the art of blending traditional practices with support from innovative technology will not only thrive but also redefine the coaching profession by offering their athletes a multidimensional support system.
Concurrently, the sports industry is increasingly incorporating technology through the strategic employment of data scientists and analysts within collegiate and professional teams. Roles such as Performance Science Analysts and Data Scientists are becoming essential, as teams leverage these professionals to collect and analyze performance data. This analysis translates complex metrics into actionable insights, informing strategic decisions and personalized training interventions (Indeed, 2023).
The convergence of AI-driven cognitive training tools and the integration of data science technology into coaching methodologies signifies a change in thinking in the sports industry. By leveraging these advancements, coaches can cultivate athletes who are not only physically adept but also possess the cognitive agility required for high-level competition. This integrated approach to athlete development is redefining performance optimization in modern sports.
Applications in Sport
The integration of technology into coaching represents a transformative frontier, providing tools that enhance precision in performance analysis and training methodologies. Yet, the heart of coaching remains deeply rooted in its human elements—empathy, trust, adaptability, and connection. By combining technological advancements with time-honored practices, coaches can create a dynamic, holistic, and sustainable approach to athlete development. This balance not only elevates athletic performance but also ensures that coaching continues to be a profoundly human-centered profession.
The rise of the Sport Scientist as a key position within collegiate and professional teams exemplifies this evolution. Sport Scientists collect and analyze vast amounts of data, ranging from biomechanical efficiency to cognitive performance metrics, translating these insights into actionable strategies for coaches. Their role bridges the gap between data-driven innovation and the human-centric principles of coaching, creating a collaborative environment where technology enhances, rather than replaces, the core values of mentorship and personal connection.While advancements in technology offer unprecedented opportunities to optimize athlete performance, successful coaches understand that these tools are only as effective as the human insight guiding their use. The essence of coaching lies in forming meaningful relationships, delivering individualized motivational strategies, and fostering resilience, qualities that remain inherently human. By integrating traditional coaching expertise with advanced technological tools, coaches can unlock their athletes’ full potential, cultivating a harmonious environment where data and human-centered guidance coalesce to achieve excellence. The future of coaching lies in this symbiotic relationship, ensuring that innovation complements, rather than competes with, the enduring principles of mentorship and connection.
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Jason N. Hughes, Ph.D., is an Assistant Professor of Sport Management at Elizabeth City State University in Elizabeth City, NC. His research interests include sport specialization, perfectionism, and athletic burnout.
Colby B. Jubenville, PhD., is a Professor of Sport Management at Middle Tennessee State University. His research interests include student success, leadership, and emotional intelligence in business.
Mitchell T. Woltring, Ph.D., is an Associate Professor at the University of South Alabama. His research interests include student-athlete success and service learning.
Helen J. Gray, Ph.D., is the Associate Dean of Academic Affairs at North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University. Her research interests include sport management, youth sport, and pedagogy in sport, leisure, and tourism.
ABSTRACT
Sport specialization has become increasingly popular among athletes aiming to gain a competitive edge. Despite its prevalence, there is a notable lack of research exploring the psychological impacts of sport specialization. One area that remains insufficiently studied in relation to sport specialization is perfectionism—a psychological trait known to influence both positive and negative outcomes in sports. The primary purpose of this study was to examine the previously unexplored relationship between the time in which an athlete specializes in sport with perfectionism concerns and strivings. A series of one-way ANOVAs were conducted to investigate the relationship between time of sport specialization based on the Developmental Model of Sport Participation and perfectionistic strivings and concerns. The results of the analyses showed that there was not a relationship between sport diversification and perfectionism. However, participants did score high on perfectionistic concerns despite adhering to proper diversification, participants showed higher scores in perfectionistic concerns than strivings. This suggests that athletes, parents, and coaches need to be aware that sport diversification may not be a buffer against negative psychological consequences. The results suggest that sport specialization’s psychological repercussions are confined to whether the athlete is concurrently engaged in sport specialization
Key Words:perfectionistic concerns, perfectionistic strivings, athletes, sport diversification, athletic development
INTRODUCTION
Early sport specialization among young athletes has surged, drawing increased scholarly attention. Research suggests that youth athletes are engaging in sport specialization at rates from 17% to as high as 41% (4, 30). In response, researchers have emphasized the need to examine both motives and the consequences of. Sport specialization refers to rigorous, year-round training focused on a single sport to the exclusion of others (21). Motivations for why athletes choose to specialize include improving specific skills, securing financial reward, and aiming for professional success (37). Ironically, researchers argue that this approach might hinder rather than help these goals. The consensus among experts is that well-rounded athletic development is better achieved through sport diversification, which involves engaging in multiple sports (37).
Advocates of sport specialization assert it plays a vital role in developing elite-level skills through deliberate practice. They argue that athletes who concentrate on one sport can attain greater proficiency than those who play multiple sports (37). Supporting this claim, one study found that both current and former elite soccer players dedicated more time to deliberate, soccer-specific training than non-elite athletes who were sport-diversified (14). This study suggested that deliberate practice during sport specialization significantly contributed to elite athlete status (14). Moreover, research on elite soccer players suggests that specialization enhances motivation, dedication, and enjoyment, leading to increased focus and commitment to improvement (36).
Critics of early sport specialization challenge its effectiveness, arguing that intense skill development at a young age may yield ambiguous results. A study on Russian swimmers found no performance advantage for early specializers compared to those who specialized later; in fact, those who specialized later showed greater progress (2). This suggests that early specialization may not be universally beneficial. Instead, it might be more appropriate in certain sports such as women’s gymnastics, diving, women’s basketball, figure skating, and dance, where early peak performance occurs before full body maturation (22). Furthermore, a 2023 meta-analysis found that world-class athletes engaged in multi-sport diversification, started their main sport later, and accumulated less main sport deliberate practice (19).
The pursuit of athletic scholarships and professional contracts remains a major motivator for sport specialization among young athletes. (24). Yet, the actual probability of attaining such rewards is notably low. Studies show that only 2% of high school athletes received a college scholarship, with an even lower percentage (1.2 % for females and 1.1% for males) obtaining full scholarships. The prospect of reaching professional levels is even less likely. The NCAA reports that only 0.9% – 5.1% of collegiate athletes make the professional ranks, depending on the sport. In high-profile sports like college football and basketball, only 1.34% of athletes advance to play professionally (29). Despite these sobering statistics, many athletes continue to specialize with the hope of achieving collegiate and professional success.
Another key criticism of sport specialization revolves around the potential harmful and unintended consequences, particularly of physical and psychological health. The most cited concern of sport specialization is the prevalence of injuries. Sport specialization may expose athletes to increased risk of overuse injuries due to the frequency of repetitive motions, higher training volumes, and voluminous competitions (26, 31, 22, 12, 11). While physical injuries are often the focus, there is limited comprehensive epidemiological data on the emotional and psychological impacts of sport specialization (32). Previous research suggests that specialization can contribute to an increase in social isolation, overdependence, athletic burnout, reduced enjoyment, heightened dropout rates, and a decline in motivation (25, 27, 33, 28).
A compelling psychological construct within the context of sport specialization is perfectionism. Perfectionism is defined as having “a commitment to exceedingly high standards combined with a tendency to critically appraise performance accomplishments” (15, 20). It is conceived as a multidimensional personality disposition construct capturing an individual’s pursuit of flawlessness in achievement and their concerns about failing to meet these high standards (13). Contemporary researchers posit that perfectionism overlaps a wide domain of ranges that fall in line with two higher-order dimensions: perfectionistic concerns and perfectionistic strivings (33). Perfectionistic concerns reflect the extent to which individuals are concerned about failing to achieve the standards that are placed on them by themselves or others, leading them to engage in harsh self-evaluation, which can negatively affect athletic performance (25). Moreover, perfectionistic concerns were positively correlated with burnout, rumination, fear of failure, amotivation, and performance-avoidance (21). The higher order of perfectionistic strivings is linked with self-oriented striving, where one places high goals on oneself intrinsically, and the setting of very high personal performance standards (18).
Overall, research suggests that athletes who engaged in diversification were more likely to achieve sporting success. One survey of 376 Division-1 intercollegiate athletes revealed that, apart from the sport of swimming, 83% of college athletes reported participating in various sports, and many had different initial sporting experiences from their current sport (26). Diversification offers opportunities to cultivate a more versatile skill set essential for athletic success. Among elite athletes, those who participated in multiple sports during their formative years (ages 0-12) required less specialized training to acquire high-level skills in their chosen sport (1). Experts opine that early diversification, followed by specialization in later adolescence, leads to increased enjoyment, fewer injuries, and prolonged participation (2, 16, 35), which ultimately contributes to overall sport success (2).
A framework for understanding sport involvement can be found in the Developmental Model of Sport Participation (DMSP). The DMSP is a framework that outlines pathways for youth sport involvement, emphasizing how participation can lead to different outcomes such as lifelong engagement, elite performance, or dropout. It integrates developmental, psychological, and social factors to guide sport programming and coaching practices. By outlining various pathways of sport participation, the DMSP provides insights into how individuals’ involvement in sports can potentially unfold over time. Young athletes enter the model in one of two ways: the sampling pathway or the early specialization pathway. In the early sport specialization pathway, athletes starting from age six to adulthood specialize in one sport characterized by a high deliberate amount of practice, a low deliberate amount of play, and focus on one sport. The other pathway, the sampling pathway, involves a high amount of deliberate play, a low amount of deliberate practice, and involvement in multiple sports in the initial stage (7).
According to the DMSP, athletes who enter the sampling pathway, there are four main stages of development that align with specific ages and developmental needs. In the first stage, called the “sampling years”, there is an emphasis on deliberate play and sport diversification by participating in the sampling of multiple sports. The goal of the sampling years is that during this stage, youth athletes can either participate in sport sampling, meaning they play multiple sports, or they intensively participate in only one sport. This occurs approximately at the ages of six to twelve years old. Proceeding this stage, at approximately age thirteen, serious athletes transition into the “specializing years”. The second stage of progression is called the “specializing years”, which happens around adolescence, during the ages of thirteen to fifteen years old, when youth athletes begin to focus on a smaller number of sports. While fun and enjoyment are still crucial features of their participation, sport-specific specialization starts in this phase, characterized by deliberate play, balanced practice, and a reduction in the involvement of other sports. During this stage, youth athletes can take three routes: continue participating in sport as a recreational activity, they can progress to the investment stage or opt to discontinue altogether (7). The final stage, known as the” investment phase”, occurs at 16+ years of age. This stage is characterized by a high amount of deliberate practice, a low amount of deliberate play, and an increased focus on one sport (7). During this stage, the athlete becomes committed to high-performance goals in a specific sport where strategic, competitive, and skill development are the primary focus (22).
To date, there has been insufficient research that has investigated the effects that specializing in sport might have on perfectionism. Thus, this study sought to investigate if there was a difference between athletes who specialized early or later in their athletic careers using the DMSP as a framework to construct our study (7, 8, 9). For this study, two research questions are being assessed. Research question I hypothesized that there is a significant difference between the time in which an athlete specialized in a sport during the sampling years (ages 6-11), specializing years (ages 12-14), investment years (ages 15-17), or post-investment years (ages 18+) with perfectionistic concerns. Research question II hypothesized that there is a significant difference between the time in which an athlete specialized in a sport during the sampling years, specializing years, investment years, and post-investment years. A series of one-way ANOVAs were conducted, one for each research question.
METHODS
Participants
A total of 416 student-athletes (156 males, 260 females) from Division-1 colleges and universities participated in this study. Participants ranged in age of 18-25 years (M = 20.24, SD = 1.36), and competed in 15 overall sports. Participants were recruited following approval from the primary researcher’s institutional review board. Recruitment was conducted through an online survey administered via SurveyMonkey.com. Inclusion criteria stipulated that respondents must concurrently compete or be a member of an intercollegiate athletics team at a Division-1 NCAA institution. Participants were recruited from various Division-1 NCAA schools representing all the Power Five and Group of Five conferences. Data collection from participants took place over a period of years beginning in 2018 and ending in 2024.
Measures
Participants completed a demographic questionnaire, a self-perceived sport specialization questionnaire, a questionnaire of subscales of perfectionistic concerns and strivings, and a questionnaire asking when athletes specialized in sports.
Perfectionism
Multiple measures were employed to assess the higher-order constructs of perfectionistic striving and perfectionistic concerns, following recommendations from previous studies (33, 34). The foundation for this study was provided by Hewitt and Flett’s Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (H-MPS) (20) and Gotwals and Dunn’s Sport Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (Sport-MPS-2) (17). Components from both inventories were amalgamated to form a 7-point Likert scale. The combined measures exhibited strong reliability (α = .892), consistent with previous findings (20, 17).
Perfectionistic Concerns. To assess perfectionistic concerns accurately, three subscales were employed in the study. Two subscales from the Sport Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale-2 (Sport-MPS-2) (17) were utilized. The first subscale, titled “concerns over mistakes,” comprised eight items and assessed participants’ reactions to failure in competition, such as feeling like a failure as a person. The second subscale, “doubts about actions,” consisted of six items aimed at capturing participants’ uncertainties about the adequacy of their pre-competition practices. Additionally, a segment of Hewitt and Flett’s Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (H-MPS) (20) was integrated to gauge fear of negative social evaluations. This segment, extracted from the “socially prescribed” perfectionism subscale, encompassed 15 items probing participants’ perceptions of others’ expectations of perfectionism from them, such as “People expect nothing less than perfectionism from me.”
Perfectionistic Strivings: Perfectionistic strivings encompass self-oriented striving and the establishment of high personal performance standards. To assess this higher-order construct, two subscales were employed from both the Sport Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (Sport-MPS-2) (17) and the Hewitt & Flett Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (H-MPS) (20). To measure self-oriented perfectionism, the five-item self-oriented perfectionism subscale from the H-MPS was utilized. This subscale includes items such as “One of my goals is to be perfect in everything I do.” For the assessment of high personal performance standards, the seven-item personal standards subscale from the Sport-MPS-2 was employed. Example items from this subscale include “I hate being less than the best at things in my sport.” (17). Evidence supporting the internal consistency of these subscales has been provided, with reliability coefficients (α) exceeding .74 for both the H-MPS and the Sport-MPS-2 (10, 17)
Sport Specialization
In line with established methodologies (4, 22), a self-perceived questionnaire was utilized for this study. The questionnaire consisted of a three-point scale classification method, whereby respondents classified themselves as high, moderate, or low in terms of sport specialization. The questionnaire’s questions included: “Have you quit other sports to focus on one sport?”, “Do you train more than eight months out of the year in one sport?”, and “Do you consider your primary sport more important than others?” Respondents indicated their responses to these questions using a categorical classification system, where “yes” responses were assigned a value of 1 and “no” responses were assigned a value of 0. Based on the cumulative score from these questions, individuals were classified into different levels of specialization: a score of 3 denoted high specialization, a score of 2 indicated moderate specialization, and a score of 0 or 1 signified low specialization.
Time of Sport Specialization
To align with the Developmental Model of Sport Specialization, participants were asked three questions aimed at determining when they specialized in their current sport. Specifically, athletes were asked if they engaged in any other sport besides their current primary sport during their sampling years (ages 6-11), specializing years (ages 12-15), investment years (ages 15-17), and post-investment years (ages 18+).
Data Analysis
All data were assessed with IBM SPSS Statistics. A series of one-way ANOVAs were employed for this study.
RESULTS
Results for Perfectionistic Concerns
For research question I, the research sought to investigate the hypothesis that there is a significant difference between the time in which an athlete specializes in a sport during elementary/primary school, middle school, high school, or college with perfectionistic concerns. Descriptive results from the participants for perfectionistic concerns and time of sport specialization can be found in Table 1.
A one-way between-subjects ANOVA was conducted to compare the effect of when an athlete specializes in sport on perfectionistic concerns in elementary/primary school, middle school, high school, or college as conditions. There was not a significant effect on perfectionistic concerns for the four specialization time frames [F (3, 413) = .996], p > .05. Therefore, concerning the first research question, it was determined that the timing of specialization in sport did not exhibit any association with perfectionistic concerns among the participants. Regardless of whether athletes specialized during their sampling years, specializing years, investment years, or post-investment years, there was no discernible correlation with perfectionistic concerns, despite the athletes exhibiting high scores on this measure.
Results for Perfectionistic Strivings
For research question II, the research sought to investigate the hypothesis that there is a significant difference between the time in which an athlete specializes in a sport during sampling years, specializing years, investment years, and post-investment years with perfectionistic strivings. Descriptive results from the participants for perfectionistic strivings and the time of sport specialization can be found in Table 3.
A one-way between-subjects ANOVA was conducted to compare the effect of when an athlete specializes in sport on perfectionistic strivings in the sampling years, specializing years, investment years, post-investment years. There was not a significant effect on perfectionistic strivings for the four specialization time frames [F (3, 413) = .805], p > .05. As it pertains to research question II, it was found that the time in which the participants specialized in sport was not a significant predictor of perfectionistic strivings. The analysis revealed that regardless of whether participants specialized in their primary sport during sampling years, specializing years, investment years, and post-investment years, there was no observable association with perfectionistic strivings.
DISCUSSION
The primary aim of these analyses was to investigate the relationship between the timing of sport specialization and perfectionism. Contrary to our hypotheses, the results indicated that regardless of the stage of sport specialization, there was no significant association observed with either perfectionistic concerns or perfectionistic strivings. Although this was not the primary focus, participants in the study displayed elevated scores on perfectionistic concerns overall.
One potential explanation for the lack of differentiation between groups, despite athletes scoring high on perfectionistic concerns, could be attributed to the similarity in experiences among athletes. It is hypothesized that athletes may have had comparable sporting experiences, particularly since a significant portion of participants specialized during college (N = 235, ≈ 56%). This similarity in experiences might have led to the development of perfectionistic concerns in a uniform manner across the sample.
Another potential reason for the absence of variation is due to the smaller number of participants who experienced early specialization in sampling and specialization years (N= 85, ≈ 20%) as compared to the high number of athletes who specialized later in investment and post-investment stages (N= 331, ≈ 80%). Our sample, however, parallels previous studies about when athletes tend to specialize, suggesting that sport diversification might not be a buffer or contributor to psychological constructs, either negative or positive ones. For example, a study found that athletes who engaged in sport diversification had no discernible difference in the measurement of mental toughness (5). It might be that psychological constructs develop over time and have a myriad of factors that contribute to their development, and that sport specialization and diversification play a small role, if any.
The athletes in our study exhibited elevated levels of perfectionistic concerns but not perfectionistic strivings. According to the Development Model of Sport Participation, the ages of 13-15, yet even athletes who engaged in sport diversification prior to this stage still reported elevated perfectionistic concerns. These findings may contradict arguments that support sport diversification as a safeguard against negative psychological outcomes. However, it is important to consider that the participants in our study were current Division-1 NCAA athletes who were actively specializing in sport and no longer engaged in diversification. This suggests that concurrent sport specialization is more important than the stage of specialization.
Given these findings, further longitudinal research on sport specialization and the timing of specialization is warranted. Understanding how specialization impacts athletes’ psychological well-being over time, particularly in comparison to those who engage in sport diversification, could provide valuable insights into the potential risks and benefits associated with different approaches to sport participation.
These findings collectively suggest that the timing of sport specialization may not be a critical factor in determining psychological outcomes such as mental toughness or perfectionism among athletes. Instead, other variables such as individual personality traits, coaching styles, and environmental influences may play a more substantial role in shaping these psychological characteristics.
Since our sample was limited to Division-1 college athletes and contained few individuals who specialized early, future research should examine athletes in sports where early specialization is the norm, such as gymnastics and figure skating, to explore differences between early and later specializers. Additionally, our findings imply that sport diversification may not act as a preventive measure against future psychological issues. Any psychological effects of sport specialization appear more closely tied to the current intensity and environment of specialization than to the specific age at which specialization began.
LIMITATIONS
While the present study contributes to the overall knowledge regarding athletes’ perceptions regarding sport specialization and perfectionism, this study is not without limitations. The sample included only Division-1 NCAA college athletes, a population considered “elite” due to their high level of athletic achievement. This homogeneity may have limited the variability of responses and reduced generalizability to broader athletic populations, such as youth, high school, or recreational athletes. Given their success, these athletes may also be more resilient to the negative effects of sport specialization and perfectionism, which may not be the case in less experienced or less accomplished athlete groups.
Secondly, the classification of athletes into low, medium, or high levels of specialization relied on the widely used Jayanthi scale, which includes only three items. While this scale is prominent in the literature, its brevity may limit the depth and accuracy with which an athlete’s specialization history is captured. It may overlook key dimensions such as training intensity, emotional investment, or motivational drivers behind specialization, potentially leading to overly simplistic classifications.
Third, the study utilized a cross-sectional and retrospective design based on self-report surveys. Participants were asked to recall past experiences and report on them at a single point in time, introducing potential recall bias and limiting the ability to draw causal inferences. A longitudinal design, tracking athletes’ specialization and perfectionism over time, would likely yield more robust and temporally sensitive data.
Finally, purposive-homogeneous sampling was used, selecting participants from a distinct and specific subpopulation. While this method allows for targeted recruitment and can yield insights from a well-defined group, it may introduce researcher selection bias and limit generalizability. That said, this study was not designed to generalize to the broader population but rather to provide insight into a specific group of athletes who have achieved a high level of competitive success.
CONCLUSION
While the results of the study were contrary to our research hypothesis, the results of this study are not without merit. Findings from the current study add to the literature but also provide areas to be further studied. Athletes are continuing to specialize in sport at an increasing rate, despite current research showing that sport specialization is a non-adaptive behavior that yields very little benefit while carrying many potential negative consequences. Sport management professionals, coaches, parents, and athletes should be fully aware of the consequences of sport specialization, both physically and psychologically, before having athletes become specialized. The results of the present study indicate that even if an athlete follows the Development Model of Sport Participation by practicing proper sport diversification by the recommended age, it might not be enough to blunt the effects of maladaptive perfectionism, even if they reach the highest levels of competition, such as Division-1 athletics. Our results suggested that there was no difference between the athletes who specialized early or later in their athletic career.
APPLICATIONS IN SPORT AND FUTURE RESEARCH
Sport specialization continues to provoke debate among scholars, coaches, and parents, particularly regarding its efficacy and developmental impact. Similarly, perfectionism remains a focal point in sport psychology research, with ongoing research surrounding its adaptive and maladaptive dimensions. The current study aimed to add to the current body of knowledge for the sport community regarding both perfectionism and sport specialization.
The Development Model of Sport Participation Model serves as a guiding framework for
for coaches, athletes, and researchers to examine the implications of sport specialization and diversification. This study aimed to enhance understanding of how DMSP related to perfectionism in sport. The results of the analysis indicated that there was not a significant relationship between when an athlete specializes in sport, whether in their sampling, specialization, investment or post-investment years with perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns. While the null hypothesis was accepted, the finding still offer valuable insight for scholars, coaches and parents. Notably, even among elite Division-1 athletes are prone to maladaptive perfectionism, despite engaging in sport diversification properly. The lack of differentiation based on specializing timing raises concerns, given perfectionism association with negative psychological outcomes. Although these athletes achieved the highest levels of success, suggesting resilience, it remains uncertain whether similar patterns, or more severe psychological consequences, would manifest in less accomplished or younger athletes lacking the same resilience or comparable coping mechanisms. The need to further investigate this issue is clear.
The physical consequences of sport specialization remain well documented, but its psychological ramifications warrant more research. Our findings support earlier research that the timing of sport specialization may be less impactful than concurrent sport specialization. Coaches and parents may benefit from using this information to better support athletes’ mental health, particularly while engaging in sport diversification. Despite an overwhelming percentage of participants adhering to DMSP principles, nearly all were engaged in specialization at the time of data collection and still reported elevated perfectionistic concerns. In a similar study also involving college athletes, there was no discernible difference found in mental toughness between early sport specializers and those who diversified (5). Similarly, our current study indicates that the stage of sport specialization, whether early or late in an athlete’s career, does not predict perfectionism tendencies.
Athletes are continuing to specialize in sport at an increasing rate, despite current research showing that sport specialization is a non-adaptive behavior that yields very little benefit while carrying many potential negative consequences. Furthermore, one can surmise that Name, Image, and Likeness in college athletics, with increased financial incentives and opportunities, may exacerbate the rate of sport specialization in the future, since athletes no longer need to reach the professional levels to reap financial reward. Sport management professionals, coaches, parents, and athletes should be fully aware of the consequences of sport specialization, both physically and psychologically, before having athletes become specialized.
The study sets a foundation for future research on sport specialization, albeit with limitations. Participants retrospectively reflected on past experiences, and the study’s cross-sectional design may have drawbacks. A longitudinal approach, tracking athletes during active participation, could yield more precise insights. Additionally, the exclusive focus on Division-1 NCAA athletes may limit generalizability; exploring athletes across various levels and ages is imperative. Furthermore, investigating specialization dynamics in different sports, particularly those requiring early specialization like gymnastics, versus those promoting diversification, is crucial. Moreover, exploring how team sports compare to individual sports regarding specialization and perfectionism would add depth to understanding these phenomena. This study sought to explore an emerging area of research in sport specialization. Overall, this study provides a basis for further research as well as provides future suggestions by offering additional opportunities to further investigate the effects of sport specialization on perfectionism.
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Wei Qian Lim1, MS, David Smith2, Eric D. Magrum2, PhD, The George Washington University1, Washington, DC James Madison University2, Harrisonburg, Virginia
Editor’s Note: Table 1 was incorrectly published. This has been corrected. Tables 2 and 3 were reformatted during the revision process.
Abstract Purpose: This study examines the validity and reliability of a commercially available velocity-based training device, GymAware, when measuring barbell velocity during submaximal power cleans. While GymAware has been validated for slower movements, limited research has assessed its accuracy at higher velocities, particularly in Olympic weightlifting derivatives. Methods: Ten resistance-trained participants completed two sets of five repetitions at 40%, 50%, and 60% of their perceived one-repetition maximum in the power clean. Mean and peak barbell velocity were recorded using GymAware and compared to a motion capture system as the criterion measure. Data were analyzed for reliability using intraclass correlation coefficients and validity through correlation and regression analysis.
Results: Mean velocity measurements from GymAware demonstrated strong agreement with motion capture across all loads, with correlations exceeding 0.85 and an intraclass correlation coefficient of 0.85, indicating good reliability. However, peak velocity measurements exhibited greater variability, with a systematic overestimation of 0.37 m/s and a lower reliability coefficient (0.31). Linear regression models confirmed that GymAware accounted for 88% of the variance in mean velocity but only 44% in peak velocity, suggesting less precision in high-velocity movements.
Conclusion: GymAware provides reliable and valid measurements of mean barbell velocity but has limitations in accurately assessing peak velocity during rapid weightlifting movements. Coaches and practitioners should prioritize mean velocity when utilizing velocity-based training for performance monitoring.
Application in Sports: Velocity-based training offers an efficient method for tracking performance and adjusting training loads. GymAware’s ability to measure mean velocity reliably makes it a useful tool for monitoring training adaptations and providing immediate feedback to athletes. However, practitioners should be cautious when interpreting peak velocity data, particularly in high-velocity Olympic weightlifting derivatives, and consider alternative methods for precise assessment.
Introduction Resistance training is a well-documented modality for improving force production, power, lean body mass, and overall athletic performance (10-11,13,20,27). For these reasons resistance training has become synonymous with athlete preparation. Before the technological renaissance, tracking athletes’ progress and assessing program effectiveness was almost entirely comprised of assessing progressive overload via number of repetitions completed or through the manipulation of external load lifted (15,19,22). However, these more traditional methods come with several challenges, making it difficult to assess program effectiveness. Specifically, athlete’s perceived exertion, range of motion, and different pacing strategies can confound practitioners’ ability to assess meaningful changes as it relates to physiological adaptations resultant resulting from training (12,18,19,22). Because of this, numerous efforts have been made to leverage technological tools to enhance the assessment of training efficacy.
Recent technological advancements have popularized the tracking of barbell velocity, termed velocity-based training (VBT), and highlighted its usefulness in gauging training efficacy. VBT is utilized for a multitude of reasons, including but not limited to predicting 1 repetition maximum (1RM) without the accumulation of excessive fatigue and increased risk of injury, monitoring training performance and neuromuscular fatigue, and providing immediate kinematic feedback potentially leading to enhanced training outcomes (1,3,-4,7,-8,10-11,18,23,24,26,28). As with any technological tool, measures of validity and reliability are paramount to assess the meaningfulness of the data provided. Providing reliable data is important for coaches and athletes alike, to accurately assess the physiological changes associated with training programs, as well as make appropriate alterations when needed.
For over 20 years, GymAware (GYM) has been considered the gold standard of linear positional transducers (LPT). LPT’s function by measuring displacement of a barbell as well as the time taken to complete said displacement. By using this data, the LPT computes several variations of barbell velocity and power (average, peak, etc.) (17). Previous research suggests that the GYM is both highly valid and reliable at slow velocities (0.3-0.7 m/s) . (3-5,7-9,14,15,21). However, few studies have examined the reliability and validity of the GYM during low load, high velocity weightlifting or plyometric movements (0.7+ m/s). Studies that have investigated GYM at these velocities report that the GYM system typically underreports peak velocity and power outputs at lower loads and higher velocity (2,6,14).
Askow et al. (2) examined the reliability and validity of GYM software at both 60 and 80% of 1RM back squats. They found that GYM tends to underestimate peak velocity by 11.6% and software is not the most accurate measure of barbell velocity during high velocity movements. Despite this, Askow and his team of researchers still reported high levels of reliability at high velocities (2). Orange et al. (17) reported excellent reliability for both peak and mean velocity measurements at a range of different percentages of 1RM in the back squat and bench press with interclass correlations (ICCs) ranging from 0.96 to 0.99. Lorenzetti et al. (14) found that GYM was both reliable and valid at tracking bar velocity at 70% of 1RM and during a ballistic jump squats; however, they found much higher reliability and validity at lower velocities when compared to the high velocity jump squat plyometrics. A systematic review of LPTs and linear velocity transducers (LVT) corroborated these findings and reported that LPTs, including the GYM, were valid and reliable in measuring velocity during powerlifting and weightlifting movements . (25). Another review on the subject highlights the need for independent investigations of velocity-based sensors to examine higher velocity lifts such as Olympic weightlifting derivatives (1.2-1.6 m/s) (16). Due to their unique utility and force-velocity characteristics, weightlifting movements , such as the snatch, clean and jerk, are routinely utilized in sport performance settings around the globe. An essential element of these lifts is how fast the weight moves. Few studies have compared such devices to a criterion measure, namely motion capture (25). However, existing research on devices like the GYM Power Tool suggests high validity and reliability when measuring velocity during high-velocity barbell movements. Orange et al. (17) reported excellent reliability of GYM for back squats and bench presses, with ICCs ranging from 0.96 to 0.99 for velocity, suggesting that it could similarly perform well in more dynamic lifts. There is limited research on the reliability and validity of LPDT when measuring velocity during Olympic lift derivatives. Thus, the current study will address the gap in the literature and extend our understanding of the validity and reliability of VBT devices at higher velocities. Specifically, the purpose of this study is to examine the reliability and validity of GYM compared to Qualisys Motion Capture during the power clean.
Methods The study was carried out with 10 participants (Table 1). Participants had at least one year of prior experience strength training, defined as an average of two training sessions per week. Subjects were between the ages of 18-40, technically proficient in the clean, not pregnant, free of known cardiovascular, metabolic, or renal disease, and free of injuries. After giving written consent, technical proficiency in the clean was determined during a familiarization session prior to data collection.
Table 1. Participant Characteristics
Sex
Age (years) (mean ± SD)
Height (m) (mean ± SD)
Weight (kg) (mean ± SD)
Predicted 1RM (kg) (mean ± SD)
Male (n=5)
23.4 ± 4.4
1.74 ± 0.06
83.3 ± 9.8
106.6 ± 24.5
Female (n=5)
22.0 ± 0.7
1.62 ± 0.06
72.6 ± 22.6
61.2 ± 17.0
Total (n=10)
22.7 ± 3.1
1.68 ± 0.09
78.0 ± 17.4
83.9 ± 31.1
For a clean, participants had to lift the barbell in one smooth move from the floor, catching the barbell in a front rack position. Feet were to be shoulder width apart or just outside shoulder width at the catch. The participants were cued to move the weight as quickly as possible while staying under control. Participants with working weights lighter than what could be provided with bumper plates, the lift began from a hang at mid-shin height.
During the familiarization session participants were asked to complete a health history questionnaire before height and weight were taken. After a general warm up that consisted of 50 jumping jacks, 10 bodyweight squats, 5 jump squats and 5 cleans with the empty barbell, the participants provided a perceived 1RM (ex. 200 lbs.). 50% of the participants’ perceived 1RM was loaded onto the barbell (ex. 50% of 200 lbs. = 100 lbs.). The participant was then asked to perform 1 set of 5 repetitions, at which point the research team determined if technical proficiency was sufficient (binary yes or no).
Participants who met the inclusion criteria and demonstrated proficiency in the clean were invited back for a lifting session. The session began with the same general warm-up detailed above. Participants whose schedules permitted both sessions to be completed consecutively (familiarization + lifting) were not asked to perform the warmup prior to the lifting session. In total, participants completed six sets: two sets of five repetitions at 40%, 50%, and 60% of perceived 1RM (ex. 200lbs 1RM: 40% = 80lbs, 50% = 100 lbs., and 60% = 120lbs). Each set began with the signal “You may begin your lift.” Participants were instructed to fully stop and/or set down the bar at the end of each repetition for at least a one count to prevent the use of momentum and allow for a distinct ending to each repetition. This was reinforced with a count of “one” between each repetition. Participants were given three minutes to rest between each set. Qualisys motion capture system was used as a gold standard/criterion reference. The motion capture set-up consisted of six cameras: three from the Miqus M3 series and three from the Oqus series. Six reflective markers were attached to the barbell. Two markers were attached to either end of the bar, while four markers were attached in square configuration on the collar of the barbell (Figures 1 and 2). The data were recorded with the software QTM 2020-2 Build 5710, with a frequency of 100 Hz. The limits for standard deviation for wand length calibration were 0.3 and 0.5 mm.
The GYM RS, placed on the ground between the pad and platform, was tethered to the shaft of the barbell close to the four reflective markers (see Figures 1 and 3). The GYM RS device was connected via Bluetooth to the free version of the GYM iOS application (Version 4.0.1). GYM RS records at 50 Hz. Peak and mean velocity (m/s) for each repetition were hand recorded from the application into a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet.
Velocity data were exported from the Qualisys Track Manager (QTM) software to Microsoft Excel. The beginning of the lift was determined by the inflection of barbell velocity denoted by an increase of 0.01 m/s for three consecutive frames. The end of the concentric portion of the lift was determined by the first maximum velocity value or crest of velocity curve. Corresponding with GYM, mean concentric velocity (m/s) was determined by averaging marker velocities over the entire concentric portion of the lift. Peak concentric velocity (m/s) was calculated by averaging the individual velocities of each marker over a sample period of 20 milliseconds immediately preceding peak velocity.
Participants stood on a wooden platform with the barbell resting on black foam pads on either side of the platform. Unless the participant’s working weight utilized change plates or the empty bar, the clean started from the black foam pads. If not, the clean started from a hang at mid-shin height. The materials were a 20 kg bar, Rouge change plates between 0.5 and 5 kg, 2.5 and 5 lb. plates, as well as 25 and 45 lb. bumper plates. Working weights for each participant were calculated to get as close to 40%, 50%, and 60% of perceived 1RM.
Results Data was collected for 10 participants during a single data collection session. Subjects completed six sets: two sets of five repetitions at 40%, 50%, and 60% of perceived 1RM. Mean and peak velocity was recorded using GYM and Qualisys motion capture software for each repetition. There was a total of 60 data points per participant, resulting in 600 total data points. 3.1 Validity
Figure 4. Scatter plots expressing the peak and mean bar velocities at 40, 50, and 60% of one repetition maximum as measured by GYM and Qualisys motion capture systems. Error is defined as the difference between the GYM measurements and Qualisys measurements, with cooler colors representing less error and hotter colors representing more error. Dashed line represents a perfect linear fit that assumes no variance between the two devices. All correlations were statistically significant with a p<0.05
Scatter plots for peak velocity at each percentage of 1RM showed varied levels of correlation between GYM and Qualisys. At 40% of 1RM r=0.706, at 50% r=0.512, and at 60% r=0.703. Each of the aforementioned correlations reached statistical significance at the 0.05 level and indicate a moderate correlation between the GYM and Qualisys measurements of bar velocity. 50% of 1RM demonstrated the highest variability (Figure 4).
The mean velocity measurements between the two systems demonstrated stronger correlations across all load percentages. At 40% r=0.958, at 50% r=0.938, and at 60% r=0.871. All correlations were statistically significant (p<0.05) and indicate a consistent, strong relationship between GYM and Qualisys when assessing mean bar velocity (Figure 4). GYM software tended to overpredict peak barbell velocities at all intensities by 0.37 m/s on average, while only over predicting mean barbell velocity by 0.09 m/s (Figure 5).
Table 2. Comparison of Linear Regression Model Results for GYM and Qualisys Motion Capture System at Different Percentages of Perceived One Repetition Max
Load (%1RM)
R2
F-statistic
Mean Velocity (MV)
Peak Velocity (PV)
Mean Velocity (MV)
Peak Velocity (PV)
40%
0.92
0.50
1073.66
97.15
50%
0.88
0.26
723.49
34.83
60%
0.76
0.51
301.48
101.32
All data
0.88
0.44
2086.1
234.72
*All data was significant with a p-value<0.001.
A linear regression model indicated a significant relationship between mean and peak bar velocity as reported by the GYM when compared to Qualisys tracking software. Mean velocity linear regression: F (1,293) = 2086.61, p<0.001, R2 = 0.88. Peak velocity linear regression: F (1,293) = 97.15, p < 0.001, R2 = 0.44. This model indicates that across all percentages of 1RM tested, GYM software was able to account for 88% of the variance in mean bar velocity and only 44% of peak bar velocity. When parsed out and compared by loads, the data highlights a closer relationship between mean velocity measures as compared to peak velocity measures (Table 2.) At 40% 1RM: Mean velocity: F (1,293) = 1073.66, p < 0.001, R² = 0.92; Peak velocity: F (1,293) = 97.15, p < 0.001, R² = 0.50. At 50% 1RM: Mean velocity: F (1,293) = 723.49, p < 0.001, R² = 0.88; Peak velocity: F (1,293) = 34.83, p < 0.001, R² = 0.26. At 60% 1RM: Mean velocity: F (1,293) = 301.48, p < 0.001, R² = 0.76; Peak velocity: F (1,293) = 101.32, p < 0.001, R² = 0.51. 3.2 Reliability
Table 3. Intraclass Correlation Coefficients for mean and peak barbell velocity measurements.
Mean Barbell Velocity
Peak Barbell Velocity
ICC (95% CI)
0.848 (0.341-0.941)
0.306 (-0.092-0.632)
F-statistic
23.6
4.8
p-value
0.00261
0.128
The ICCs were calculated to assess the reliability of mean and peak barbell velocity measurements. A two-way random-effects model with absolute agreement (ICC (A,1)) was used for both metrics. Mean barbell velocity had an ICC of 0.848 (0.341–0.941), with an associated F-test indicating statistical significance (F (296, 4.22) = 23.6, p = 0.00261). These calculations indicate good reliability. Peak barbell velocity had an ICC of 0.306 (-0.092–0.632), with a non-significant F-test (F (299, 2.69) = 4.8, p = 0.128). This ICC value indicates poor reliability. The coefficients of variation (CV) were calculated to assess the relative variability in mean and peak values for both GYM and Qualisys datasets. For the mean values, the CV was 17.06% for GYM and 20.46% for Qualisys. For the peak values, the CV was 10.75% for GYM and 15.37% for Qualisys, with GYM showing the lowest relative variability among all measures.
Discussion The findings of this study offer valuable insight into the reliability and validity of GYM as a VBT tool. While GYM demonstrated strong validity in tracking mean barbell velocity across all intensities, it was substantially less accurate when assessing peak barbell velocity. These results highlight important considerations for practitioners when using GYM as a training tool. There was a strong correlation observed between GYM and Qualisys for mean velocity measurements, highlighting the reliability of GYM. The ICC for mean velocity (0.848) reflects good reliability, supporting its use by coaches and athletes where consistent data is essential for assessing training adaptations and adjusting programs accordingly. This finding demonstrates that GYM’s mean velocity measure is capable of providing practitioners with insightful data that can reliably indicate changes in athletes’ performance capabilities. For example, this means that a positive change of 0.15 m/s in an athletes mean clean velocity at a given load is likely due to changes in the athletes’ performance capabilities, as opposed to the measurement error associated with the VBT tool. This is rather important when competitive success has such slim margins and even more important when resistance training programs are dictated by real time data collected by VBT tools. These findings are consistent with prior research that has identified GYM as a reliable tool for monitoring barbell velocity during traditional resistance training exercises (17). Importantly, this examination focused on high velocity movements, hence the loads of 40-60%, and extended the range of velocities studied within the literature. Despite this, GYM had a moderate correlation and systematically overestimated barbell velocity limiting its application. GYM had a mean bias of +0.37 m/s when assessing peak velocity suggesting that GYM may not offer the precision required for accurately evaluating peak velocity during rapid, explosive movements. What is perhaps more concerning is the poor ICC for peak velocity (0.306), indicating low reliability for this metric.. For example, if an athlete were to improve peak barbell velocity by 0.15 m/s, the same amount as with their mean velocity, we wouldn’t be able to confidently attribute this change to a performance improvement due to the low reliability.
These findings agree with previous research that has identified similar discrepancies in GYM’s accuracy. In Lorenzetti et al. (14), the GYM device showed a higher root mean square error (RMSE) of 0.06 m/s when assessing peak barbell velocity during ballistic jump squats compared to slower squat movements. This higher RMSE suggests that the device was less accurate in measuring peak velocity during higher velocity, explosive jumps. The study found the mean difference between GYM and the reference method (motion capture) to be -0.05 m/s, further indicating potential measurement errors in high-velocity movements. These results highlight that peak velocity measurements may be prone to greater variability in ballistic exercises. Additionally in Askow et al. (2), the GYM device consistently underestimated peak barbell velocities by 11.6% (or -0.13 m/s) when compared to a more accurate criterion measure. This bias was particularly evident during high-velocity movements, indicating that the device may not be as precise for measuring peak velocity in such contexts. The underestimation suggests a systematic error that could limit the utility of GYM for tracking performance improvements in peak velocity during explosive lifts. These values along with our data showcase that GYM may not be an effective tool at assessing peak barbell velocity at lower loads/higher barbell velocities.
This study also reinforces the importance of context when interpreting data from VBT devices. Contrary to our ICC data, the coefficients of variation (CV) highlight the consistency of GYM for both mean velocity (17.06%) and peak velocity (10.75%). Interestingly, this statistic suggests that peak velocity is more reliable when compared to mean velocity; however, this is likely due to the systematic overestimation of both peak and mean barbell velocity by GYM. Utilizing both ICC and CV’s the data supports the notion that GYM has strong reliability for mean velocity, however peak velocity measures capture by GYM leave something to be desired. These data suggest that practitioners should use mean barbell velocity measurements to achieve the best results, especially when utilizing VBT to monitor fatigue, track progress, and adjust training intensity in real time. Should practitioners have a penchant for peak velocity measures, the authors strongly encourage practitioners to run in-house statistics to understand what constitutes a meaningful change as compared to a change within the VBT’s measurement error. Findings align with the broader literature discussing VBT devices and explore a gap in the literature by examining high-velocity movements while highlighting aspects that have practical significance. Future investigations should explore GYM’s performance with other high velocity movements such as the snatch or jerk, to better understand its broader applications. Importantly, while these results contribute to the growing body of evidence, it is important to situate the use of VBT within the broader training context and provide guidance to practitioners.
Application in Sport The authors contend that reliable VBT tools can be leveraged by practitioners. First, VBT tools provide a cost-effective and time efficient avenue to collect data and highlight changes as a result of the training prescription. VBT data may be leveraged as biofeedback and a load modulation technique but only in synchrony with more traditional loading prescription (% of 1RM/% of set/rep best). Important to note, these strategies utilize VBT tools as a secondary data stream to inform when load changes may be needed and not as a primary load prescriber. Coaches must retain load prescription responsibilities, while utilizing their eyes and ears (in addition to VBT tools) to skillfully make load adjustments when needed. Practitioners must also bear in mind that VBT tools are inaccurate when estimating 1RM, therefore other methods for estimating are necessary. Perhaps the most compelling reason for utilizing VBT tools resides in their ability to potentiate participant performance. The presence of VBT devices may improve athlete motivation and training intent, which is paramount for optimal training. While VBT tools generally provide a positive return on investment, the practitioners’ eyes and ears should remain the primary data source which guide training decisions while VBT tools serve a supportive role. Based on available data, it would be shortsighted to rely solely on VBT tools to make real-time training decisions.
In conclusion, this study demonstrates that GYM provides reliable and valid measurements for mean barbell velocity during submaximal power cleans. As a result, practitioners may leverage GYM’s strengths, particularly its ability to provide immediate feedback and monitor mean velocity, while remaining cognizant of its limitations for high-velocity movements. This approach may allow for the effective integration of VBT tools to enhance training decisions, outcomes and athletic performance.
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Richard O. Segovia, PhD, EdD, is an adjunct professor and dissertation chair at Liberty University in Lynchburg, VA, and an academic evaluator at Western Governors University in Salt Lake City, Utah. Dr. Segovia’s research interests focus on learning and teaching, combat sports, law enforcement practices, and educational leadership
LAW ENFORCEMENT USE OF FORCE: A NARRATIVE REVIEW ON THE UTILITY OF MARTIAL ARTS IN AMERICAN POLICING
ABSTRACT
Problem: The lack of real-life fight training can yield inappropriate physical and psychological stress responses that result in unreasonable use of force by law enforcement officers. Purpose: This narrative review synthesizes the peer-reviewed literature on police assaults, use of force, law enforcement training, and martial arts in law enforcement with some focus on Brazilian jiu-jitsu (BJJ) training and the literature’s methodological issues to provide evidence on the potential utility of martial arts training as a critical force options component mitigator of risk and liability. Method: A qualitative narrative review was appropriate and implemented for this study. Results: This narrative review examines Brizin and Kernspecht’s general theory of combat, which is principally concerned with utilizing various strategies and tactics to achieve desired outcomes, and analyzes law enforcement training, martial arts in law enforcement, and methodological issues found in the literature. In addition, assaults on law enforcement officers and unreasonable use of force are discussed in detail, including culturally relevant examples from recent police use of force encounters. Conclusion: Robust and rigorous force options training, particularly martial arts training, can play a significant role in giving officers confidence when dealing with high-stress situations and could reduce the amount of inappropriate application of force by a police officer, which often results in injury or death of a suspect, or severe liability to the officer’s employer. Application in Sport: For coaches and those who train police officers in the philosophical and physical benefits of martial arts, integrating martial arts, such as Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu as a force option, may improve their defense and restraint skills and decision-making involving force use.
Key Words: Brazilian jiu-jitsu, police officer training, general theory of combat, feedback, dialogue
OVERVIEW
This narrative review explores the potential utility of martial arts, specifically Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu (BJJ), as a force option for law enforcement officers. Law enforcement agencies face increasing pressure to reduce excessive use of force, particularly in encounters with violent subjects. Previous studies have shown that officers often lack the necessary hand-to-hand combat skills to safely de-escalate situations without resorting to lethal methods (Torres, 2020; Renden et al., 2015). In these high-stress and violent encounters, effective conflict-resolution skills are critical for protecting both officers and suspects.
Despite the increasing incorporation of martial arts into police training programs, gaps remain in the literature regarding its long-term benefits. Research indicates that martial arts training can build confidence and improve decision-making under pressure. Yet, the full potential of such training is still underexplored in the context of law enforcement (Renden et al., 2015). This review aims to bridge that gap by analyzing the role martial arts, particularly BJJ, can play in improving officer safety, restraint techniques, and decision-making processes.
The general theory of combat logic suggests that successful conflict resolution occurs when there is alignment between the engagement’s purpose and the combatant’s resources or characteristics (Brizin & Kernspecht, 2014). This principle underpins martial arts training, which equips officers with the necessary physical and mental skills to navigate confrontations swiftly and effectively. By synthesizing the existing literature, this review provides an overview of key areas, including:
Assaults on Police Officers and Unreasonable Uses of Force: Examining notable cases and the impact of inadequate training.
Combat Training and the Use of Force Continuum: Discussing current practices and historical evolution.
Martial Arts Training in Law Enforcement: Assessing police officer preparation and development
Current Status of Martial Arts Training in Law Enforcement: Assessing the current status and impact
Research Involving Martial Arts Training in Law Enforcement: Current studies related to the topic
Martial Arts Training Specifically for Police Officers: Analysis of current police officer training
Recommendations for Future Research: Identifying gaps and challenges in the existing literature.
The database searches were conducted using Google Scholar, Criminal Justice Database (ProQuest), and Criminal Justice Abstracts, selected for their relevance to criminal justice, education, and law enforcement. This review provides evidence-based recommendations for integrating martial arts into law enforcement training to enhance safety and minimize the unnecessary use of force.
Methods
A narrative review was selected as the appropriate methodology for this study, which aims to address the research question: How does martial arts training impact law enforcement officers in terms of use-of-force decision-making, officer safety, and overall effectiveness in American policing?
The initial search was conducted using three electronic databases: Google Scholar, Criminal Justice Database (ProQuest), and Criminal Justice Abstracts. A total of 193 articles and books were identified through this search, which included the key terms: “Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu,” “law enforcement training,” “use of force,” “force options,” and “martial arts.” After removing duplicates and screening for relevance, the pool of sources was narrowed to 88 studies that specifically addressed martial arts training in law enforcement. These studies were retrieved and reviewed in detail, and their reference lists were further screened for additional relevant sources, though no new sources were identified.
Full-text access was obtained for all 73 records that met the inclusion criteria, and after a comprehensive screening of titles and abstracts, these studies were included in the final review. The studies examined in this review cover general martial arts training for law enforcement, with many focusing on applying BJJ in the field. Key topics included the regulation of chokeholds, improvements in officer mental health, training, conditioning, and psychological and cognitive benefits for law enforcement officers.
This study’s protocol followed a structured methodological framework, which consisted of the following stages:
Identifying and Collecting Relevant Studies: Literature searches were performed using three databases: Google Scholar, Criminal Justice Database (ProQuest), and Criminal Justice Abstracts. The initial search terms, such as “Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu,” “law enforcement training,” and “use of force,” were established to conduct further searches across the databases. The collected studies were then screened for relevance to the research question, focusing specifically on martial arts training in law enforcement. After duplicates were removed, studies were assessed based on their eligibility criteria. Reference lists were further examined for additional sources, although no new studies were added.
Study Selection: Inclusion and exclusion criteria were defined to filter relevant literature. To qualify, studies had to: (i) be from a peer-reviewed journal, a conference presentation, or a published thesis; (ii) be published in English; (iii) include documented analysis related to police use of force, officer lived experiences, martial arts training, law enforcement practices, stress mitigation, and sports performance; and (iv) be either quantitative or qualitative in nature. No restrictions were placed on the time frame, geographical location within the United States, or study population. Conflicting literature was analyzed by a colleague to reach a consensus for inclusion. After the initial title and abstract screening, a more in-depth selection occurred through full-text screening.
Charting the Data: Once selected, data were extracted and charted according to various categories such as author, title, journal, publication year, geographical location, purpose, sample size, methodology, intervention type, outcomes, key findings, and barriers. These data points were organized, grouped into subtopics, and validated for accuracy. The studies were categorized based on the following subtopics: (i) assaults on police officers and unreasonable uses of force, (ii) combat training and the use of force continuum, (iii) martial arts training in law enforcement, (iv) current status of martial arts training in law enforcement, (v) research involving martial arts training in law enforcement, and (vi) martial arts training specifically for police officers.
Summarizing and Synthesizing the Results: A thematic analysis was conducted to describe the reviewed literature and identify areas that have been well-researched and areas that require further exploration. Patterns and trends were analyzed across geographic locations within the United States and decades of publication. Results were categorized into themes to identify similarities, and barriers and gaps in the literature were highlighted. Based on these findings, recommendations for future research were provided.
Narrative Review
The historical beginning points of police departments’ preparation in the utilization of less lethal force can be followed to the 19th century, precisely when the London city police launched the practice of outfitting their law enforcement officers with truncheons, commonly known as “Billy clubs” (Clede & Parson, 1987). The club served as a customary implement utilized by law enforcement officers in both the United Kingdom and the United States during the 19th and 20th centuries. During the 1960s, the civil rights movement in the United States witnessed extensive demonstrations that were frequently met with resistance from local law enforcement agencies, resulting in the dissemination of graphic depictions of police excessive force (Kaminski & Martin, 2000). In the early 1970s, there was an increase in preference for employing nonviolent methods of subject control instead of relying on physical force like clubbing to subdue suspects (Torres, 2020). Policymakers held the perspective that this particular approach would serve as a more favorable means of enhancing the rapport between the community and law enforcement, with a focus on public perception.
The new programs caused enhancements in several crucial domains. The policing landscape in the United States is characterized by a wide range of agencies, including many municipal, county, and state entities and federal organizations like the FBI, DEA, ATF, and Secret Service. The decentralized structure of policing in the United States has several consequences, including overlapping responsibilities, diverse funding sources, and varied training programs (Kaminski & Martin, 2000). Police departments exhibit various needs and possess varying financial resources to address these requirements. Consequently, there was a need to enhance the scope, funding, and duration of the physical defense training programs initiated during the 1970s. It should be noted that the initial programs suffered from a notable deficiency in the level of proficiency exhibited by the trainers. These trainers derived from martial arts backgrounds founded on Aikido, Karate, or Judo philosophies. According to Kaminski and Martin (2000), although these systems showed efficacy within gymnasiums and dojos, their effectiveness in real-world scenarios was frequently lacking. In addition, the growing accessibility of non-lethal resources such as pepper spray, tasers, and batons has led to a tendency among officers to rely on these tools instead of prioritizing comprehensive hand-to-hand combat training (Bowen, 2018). Ultimately, the initial fervor surrounding martial arts training frequently diminished, leading to the discontinuation of programs that necessitated consistent practice for optimal results, primarily due to financial limitations.
During the 1990s, martial arts training saw a remarkable spike in interest. According to Reaves (2013), during the decade’s initial years, 2% to 20% of police academies incorporated unarmed martial arts training into their curriculum for cadets. According to Reaves (2013), as of 2013, the percentage stood at 99%, with individuals dedicating an average of 60 hours to training. Torres (2020) reported that nearly all individuals, 94%, have learned ground fighting, while approximately half, 49%, have been schooled in pressure point techniques. In addition to receiving hand-to-hand defensive training in police academies, it is common for officers to engage in ongoing training either through department-provided programs or personal initiatives. According to a study conducted by Morin et al. (2017), nearly half of employed law enforcement officers underwent training within the previous 12-month period.
Inadequate defensive and offensive combat training has historically posed significant physical risks for officers and suspects. This issue began to be addressed more systematically in the mid-1970s with the development of the use of force continuum, which aimed to mitigate these risks (Desmedt & Marsh, 1990; Graves & Connor, 1992). This section synthesizes the literature on this issue. Key themes from the literature include use of force decision-making, officer safety, mental health and well-being, and community relations.
Cases of Assaults on Police Officers and Unreasonable Use of Force
The evolution of the problem associated with the physical risks that can occur stemming from a lack of effective combat training is perhaps best reflected in notable cases of police being injured or killed in the line of duty while amid a physical altercation, as well as those involving suspects being victimized by poor restraint and combat skills on the part of officers that led to their injury or death. Not all such cases reach national recognition, though several examples have emerged in the past several decades that highlight gaps in the tactical training of law enforcement officers (Aborisade & Oni, 2021; Akinyetun, 2021; O’Brien et al., 2019). Lyons (2017) systematically reviewed the literature on injury profiles of law enforcement officers involved in such physical altercations in North America. The authors were particularly concerned with high-risk areas in the body where officers sustained injuries, which could be used to understand better how to train them to defend themselves during conflicts effectively. Results from a synthesis of 16 studies demonstrated that the most injured areas occurred in the upper extremities and involved soft-tissue strains and sprains.
Cases involving the unreasonable use of force by police officers also reflect gaps in current approaches to the defensive tactics training of law enforcement officers in the United States. While these cases are numerous and exhaustive and often are either not reported or do not gain national media attention, some have been more culturally relevant in recent years and illustrate the negative outcomes that can occur when police are either not equipped to defend themselves without harming a suspect or are assaulted due to a lack of defensive tactics training skills (Akinyetun, 2021; Bowleg et al., 2022; Sosoo et al., 2022). The cases of Rodney King, Edward Bronstein, and George Floyd each represent some deficit in the training of a law enforcement officer when faced with a less-than-compliant individual (Bowleg et al., 2022; Maltsev et al., 2020; Sosoo et al., 2022). Though such cases also contain racial and sociocultural connotations, they reveal areas in which martial arts training might have potentially protected the person police were dealing with.
Combat Training and Use of Force Decision-Making
How police officers were trained to approach and manage physical altercations on duty has also evolved since the mid-1970s (Desmedt & Marsh, 1990; Graves & Connor, 1992). During their attendance in a police academy, cadets are trained in the use of force and de-escalation tactics (Torres, 2020). Concerning the latter, officers are provided with psychological and communicative skills and tools to help reduce the severity or tension of a conflict without using physical force (Akinyetun, 2021). In most circumstances, de-escalation is a preliminary step to prevent a physical altercation and protect the officer and the suspect (Ivanovski & Nedev, 2022). When de-escalation is ineffective, officers are trained to use an appropriate amount and mode of force (Ivanovski & Nedev, 2022). In police training, force is considered to be the amount of effort necessary to warrant compliance on the part of a subject (Heusler & Sutter, 2020). The subjectivity of the concept of force and what constitutes an appropriate amount is one factor that has led to physical injury and police excessive force in many cases.
Some concepts involving force and tactical training among police cadets are similar to Eastern martial arts principles. For example, officers are taught to balance the needs of security with the ethical rights and well-being of a suspect and to avoid inflicting physical harm unless necessary (Vera Jimenez et al., 2019). Additionally, officers are taught to use physical force as a means of self-defense primarily and as a means of restraint secondarily (Ivanovski & Nedev, 2022). The history of using force dates back to the emergence of established law enforcement in the United States, which has essentially existed since its conception (Aborisade & Oni, 2021). However, the use of force and the physical training of officers did not stem from the aim of protecting officers but, instead, from the fear that officers would abuse their power (Vera Jimenez et al., 2019). Therefore, the history and evolution of the tactical training of officers have been grounded in the ethical use of force, self-defense, and de-escalation.
The use of force continuum dates back to the late 19th century to help officers determine the amount of force to apply based on the level of risk present in a given situation. Over time, this continuum has evolved considerably due to the development of new threats and risks to officers and civilians, such as the more widespread availability of firearms and the emergence of modern technologies and weapons that can potentially cause harm or death (Staller et al., 2019; Torres, 2020). There is no universal or standard model of the use of force continuum, and debates have existed in the literature regarding the effectiveness of policies surrounding this concept (Terrill & Paoline III, 2013). For example, Terrill and Paoline III examined the less lethal use of force policy that emerged following the high-profile Graham v. Connor case that reached the Supreme Court and involved the reasonableness of using force during an arrest. Terrill and Paoline III (2013) revealed that one in five law enforcement agencies do not have or implement a use-of-force continuum or a robust policy, and there is considerable variance in force tactics that are used between different agencies and what is considered to be an appropriate amount of force based on the level of risk that is present. This lack of consistency is one factor that may lead to cases of unreasonable use of force by police officers and also represents the necessity for implementing a tactical force model that protects both officers and suspects.
Researchers have recently been concerned with re-examining the use of force continuum following numerous nationally relevant cases in which either suspects or police officers have been severely injured or died during a physical altercation (Staller et al., 2019; Torres, 2020). McLean et al. (2022) conducted a recent investigation on this topic, in which they presented a historical and conceptual analysis of the use of force continuum and its connection to cases of police assaults or excessive force. The authors concluded that, contradictory to previous research, resistance on the part of the suspect is not the only driver of decisions involving the use of force (McLean et al., 2022; O’Brien et al., 2019; Staller et al., 2019). Instead, the perception of threat is also a significant factor that influences such decisions and one that has been neglected in both police defensive tactics training and the peer-reviewed literature. The implementation of martial arts training, such as BJJ, may help to address this limitation based on its psychological and philosophical principles that can help officers potentially identify and perceive a threat more accurately and then appropriately use force to restrain a suspect while safely defending themselves (Facinek & Kosc, 2021).
Martial Arts and Officer Safety
While tactical training has been a component of law enforcement training throughout its history, martial arts training has only recently been considered a viable element of the preparation and development of police officers. One of the major developments in the integration of martial arts and general law enforcement training occurred in 2009, when Canada’s constable, Al Arsenault, first introduced the fusion of arrest and control tactics that are standard in the training of police officers with various aspects of martial arts, such as Judo (Arsenault & Hinton, 2014). This officer had been training in the martial arts since the 1980s but first developed a formal model of integrated martial arts and standard police tactical training when he began to train police officers in Judo in the early 21st century and developed several training centers throughout Western Canada for officers seeking specialized skill development (Arsenault & Hinton, 2014). Judo is a martial art that emphasized throws and disabling suspects without harming them, as well as using maximum efficiency for the mutual welfare and benefit of both the attacker and defender (Heusler & Sutter, 2020). The training centers quickly became popular and have become a staple in Canadian law enforcement.
While martial arts training in law enforcement has become more popularized in recent years, there have been limited peer-reviewed studies examining its impact on outcomes like the safety of police officers, the safety of suspects, and the impact such training has on deterring physical altercations between the two. However, some studies have indirectly evaluated the utility and feasibility of martial arts training for police officers (Renden et al., 2015; Staller et al., 2019; Vera Jimenez et al., 2019). For example, Renden et al. (2015) sought to determine whether officers who had training in martial arts performed more effectively in self-defense and arrest scenarios when experiencing low and high anxiety levels than those who did not. A sample of officers who were and were not trained in martial arts took part in a weekly intervention in which they were taught self-defense and arrest skills based on Karate, BJJ, and Krav Maga principles. Results demonstrated that officers who had additional experience beyond the training program demonstrated the highest levels of performance under high anxiety conditions. However, the intervention significantly improved the self-defense and arrest skills of both groups. These findings illustrate the effectiveness of holistic interventions that combine principles of multiple martial arts in officers’ self-defense and arrest skills and the potential applicability of such a training program to applied scenarios involving actual suspects.
While these findings demonstrate the benefits of martial arts training for police officers, including interventions that contain elements of BJJ, there have been some limitations of such interventions in the literature. For example, results from the Renden et al. (2015) study demonstrated that their martial arts intervention did not significantly prevent participants from performing worse under high anxiety conditions compared to low anxiety conditions. The presence of anxiety within a potential physical altercation or circumstance that has escalated appears to have a universally negative impact on police officers, regardless of their martial arts experience (O’Brien et al., 2019). The negative impact of anxiety on performance has been documented widely in the literature across numerous disciplines and contexts (Khatsaiuk et al., 2021; O’Neill et al., 2019; Staller et al., 2019). This impact reflects the need to prepare officers more effectively to negotiate high-tension situations in the line of duty, and the integration of principles of martial arts within standard police training may help address this limitation (Staller et al., 2019).
Interplay Between Martial Arts and Improved Community Relations
Implementing widespread and standardized martial arts training can potentially improve the strained relationship between the public and law enforcement (Parks, 2022). The implementation of enhanced training programs has been found to have a positive impact on the likelihood of reducing fatal encounters between law enforcement officers and suspects, consequently resulting in a decrease in mortality rates and an improvement in the overall sense of safety and self-confidence among police personnel (Parks, 2022; Renden et al., 2015). According to Parks (2022), enhancing the efficacy, accountability, and self-assurance of the police force can contribute to a greater level of public confidence, thereby reinforcing the prevailing perception of law enforcement.
Considering some of the altercations with racial subtext that have gained national attention in recent years, researchers have also sought to investigate the extent to which martial arts training may effectively remedy police interactions involving people of color that occur in the field. Parks (2022) presented a review and conceptual paper documenting the need and potential advantages of martial arts training to mitigate violence caused by perceived or actual racial bias by or toward law enforcement personnel. The author noted the disproportionate number of cases that involve White officers and African-American suspects, which appears to be indicative of at least one of two factors, including racial bias in the perception of a threat on the part of law enforcement personnel and/or an increased real threat of violence on the part of African-American suspects (Parks, 2022). Due to the ability of martial arts to integrate psychosocial training and reduce stress and anxiety during physical altercations, martial arts training may help improve decision-making on the part of officers and more accurately perceive the threat level.
Current Status of Martial Arts Training in Law Enforcement
Based on the accumulation of evidence associated with martial arts training in law enforcement, researchers have synthesized the existing literature through systematic reviews and meta-analyses to draw broader and generalized conclusions about the utility of such interventions. Duarte and Ferraz (2022) conducted one of the most recent systematic reviews on martial arts and combat sports training among law enforcement officers. The authors found just five studies across five academic databases that met the inclusion criteria. However, despite the small body of evidence on this topic, the authors found that martial arts and combat sports training were associated with significant and consistent improvements in tactical performance and reductions in injury rates, anxiety, and stress. These findings confirm studies showing the positive effects that martial arts training can have on physical performance, mental health, and the ability to manage stress and anxiety (Duarte & Ferraz, 2022; Kukić et al., 2019; Staller et al., 2019). Whether or not such training significantly enhances these outcomes among law enforcement in applied situations and outside of simulated environments warrants further investigation in the literature.
Literature from outside the United States has revealed the positive impacts of martial arts training on law enforcement personnel’s general health and well-being, irrespective of its influence on actual performance during arrest and control scenarios in the field. For example, martial arts training has been a key component of the training of police officers in many Eastern countries for centuries and has also been widely adopted throughout central European countries like Serbia (Kukić et al., 2019). Facinek and Košč (2021) documented the impacts of martial arts training on the general fitness and mental health/well-being of police officers in Slovakia, where such training has been implemented for multiple decades. According to these authors, martial arts training involving Taekwondo, Judo, and Aikido has been linked with Slovakian officers’ increased fitness and mental health (Facinek & Košč, 2021). Thus, it is probable that martial arts training is also associated with improved performance in applied circumstances, though further research is needed to understand these impacts.
Researchers have recently increased efforts to understand how martial arts training can improve law enforcement officers’ self-defense and restrain skills, psychological outcomes, and general well-being. Fully embracing a specific martial art also generally warrants the adoption of a particular philosophy and set of values that can correspond to an enhanced sense of spiritual and mental health (Heusler & Sutter, 2020). Thus, martial arts training can have many advantages besides improving combat and defense skills (Maltsev et al., 2020). These benefits appear to align with the physical requirements of police work and law enforcement in general.
Torres (2020) conducted a recent investigation of the psychological impacts of martial arts training on confidence, motivation, apprehensiveness, and use of force self-efficacy among more than 1,000 patrol officers in the United States. Results demonstrated that martial arts training significantly predicted high levels of perceived self-efficacy involving the use of force, motivation, and (low) apprehensiveness. These findings provide insight into the multidimensional benefits of martial arts training and the ability of martial arts to improve self-efficacy regarding the use of force decision-making and agree with previous research on this topic to illustrate the diverse benefits of martial arts and how they potentially are conducive to optimal police performance (Heusler & Sutter, 2020). Many of the most essential benefits are psychological.
Martial arts may offer more complete and holistic training than that currently offered in police academies (Schaeffer, 2024). There are four sources of self-efficacy: past successful experiences, physical mastery of the task, verbal persuasion, and vicarious experience (Bandura & Walters, 1977). Through martial arts training and embracing the core principles and philosophies, each of these four sources is present (Xu et al., 2020).
Recent studies have shown that teaching individual techniques within martial arts disciplines is associated with improved physical abilities needed to perform law enforcement duties effectively. For example, Khatsaiuk et al. (2021) conducted an intervention to examine the effects of a martial arts technique known as Katsumoto on the explosive force of 62 Ukrainian police officers. Results demonstrated that the technique significantly improved this outcome based on kinematic data generated from electrodes placed on officers’ bodies while they performed various defense and restrain maneuvers. These findings align with several other studies demonstrating the benefits of specialized martial arts technical training on law enforcement skills (Staller et al., 2021). Martial arts training can be integrated with typical police training at the academy level and through additional skill development opportunities throughout the career of law enforcement personnel.
A trend in the literature associated with martial arts training among law enforcement is that most programs that incorporate such training offer relatively watered-down versions of an amalgam of disciplines, such as Karate, Kung-Fu, and Judo. These programs usually take the form of additional training opportunities for officers during overtime hours, in which basic movements are taught and practiced. Therefore, while martial arts training appears to offer improvements in many physical and psychological skills, such training could potentially be more effective if a single discipline was taught and mastered instead of just physical techniques from several different forms of martial arts.
Another problem with the lack of emphasis on the psychological and philosophical aspects of martial arts training is that, in such cases, less emphasis is placed on the cognitive skills, such as awareness, how to perceive a threat, and how to manage anxiety, and this can still result in ineffective decision-making in tense and high-anxiety situations. This may be one of the reasons why studies have shown that officers with martial arts technical training implement significantly better use-of-force decisions in low anxiety conditions, but officers with and without such technical training demonstrate impaired performance in high anxiety conditions (Ermasova et al., 2020; Renden et al., 2015). A more comprehensive training focusing on just one discipline could theoretically improve officers’ physical and mental skills and more adequately prepare them for high-tension situations while on duty.
Martial Arts and the Mental Health and Well-Being of Officers
While martial arts training among American law enforcement began to emerge in the 1980s and 1990s, it was in the early 2000s that the first literature related to this topic was produced (Hect, 2016). This evidence primarily pertained to widely practiced martial arts such as karate and kung-fu techniques for self-defense or to restrain a suspect. With the emergence of BJJ in the law enforcement community, especially with the Gracie combatives program and Gracie University’s partnership with various law enforcement agencies, police seem to be shifting to grappling as their primary means of subduing a suspect. However, only recently have the first studies associated with BJJ training concepts such as neck restraints (choking) begun to appear in scholarly journals (Hickman et al., 2021).
No recent studies have been published in scholarly, peer-reviewed journals that have exclusively examined the impacts of BJJ training on law enforcement personnel. Some dissertations associated with this topic have been produced but have not yet been published in peer-reviewed journals (Harmon, 2022; Rinderer, 2022). For example, Harmon (2022) conducted a qualitative, exploratory study investigating the perceptions of law enforcement personnel concerning the feasibility of BJJ training. The twelve participants unanimously agreed that BJJ training was likely to be effective and feasible as a supplement to traditional training efforts used within police academies. Additionally, Rinderer (2022) examined the perceived feasibility of BJJ training for rehabilitating from post-traumatic stress disorder for law enforcement personnel. Once again, there was general agreement that BJJ training was perceived to be both feasible and likely beneficial in addressing issues related to post-traumatic stress disorder, such as inhibitions in engaging in physical altercations with suspects resulting from past traumatic experiences.
Several of the most essential effects of martial arts training, including BJJ, are psychological and cognitive. Based on the findings of recent studies, there is evidence showing that martial arts training is likely to be beneficial for law enforcement personnel in terms of physical and psychological outcomes. Context-specific evidence is needed based on the tendency for different areas across the United States, as well as different police departments within these areas, to have varying philosophies and policies regarding officer physical training and conditioning.
Martial arts training offers a range of physical and mental benefits and a large body of evidence that supports its efficacy among law enforcement personnel (Figueiredo et al., 2020). For example, a study highlights the therapeutic value of BJJ, noting its ability to provide hard sparring sessions with minimal physical risk, thereby offering psychological benefits and stress relief (Bueno et al., 2022). This is particularly important for police officers, who often face high-stress situations and need effective outlets for managing stress. Furthermore, limitations in previous studies that applied a conglomerate of martial arts showed that a homogenized approach lacked psychological benefits. In contrast, BJJ’s singular and evidence-based training program is particularly conducive to the mental and physical needs of police work, making it a valuable discipline for law enforcement training (Rinderer, 2022).
Martial Arts Training Specifically for Police Officers
Differences exist among law enforcement agencies, such as the United States Secret Service and the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), that warrant different physical and cognitive skills (Kukić et al., 2019). Street-level patrol officers are more likely to be engaged in physical altercations daily in the line of duty than other law enforcement officers, and the physical conditioning, defensive tactics skills, and cognitive ability to make a split-second decision regarding the use of force must perpetually be at a high level (Baldwin et al., 2019). For this reason, being trained in martial arts, including BJJ, is potentially more conducive to the skills required for a street-level police officer than other specialized areas of law enforcement.
Studies exist that have examined the impacts of martial arts training in various aspects of police work. However, many of these have combined different martial arts or have only used specific techniques taught within these arts rather than a comprehensive philosophical and psychological embracing of the martial art. For example, Gardner and Al-Shareffi (2022) examined the potential effectiveness of martial arts training to regulate decisions about chokeholds among police officers and the skill demonstrated in applying such holds. The authors discussed numerous recent cases of the incorrect application of chokeholds and other forms of restraint used by police officers, which led to the injury or death of suspects. According to Gardner and Al-Shareffi (2022), training police officers in martial arts may help improve decision-making regarding applying air and carotid chokes to subdue suspects safely while restricting their movement. However, the actual effectiveness of this training on this outcome was not tested. The authors recommended implementing a policy that requires police officers to be trained in martial arts to improve officers’ physical restraint skills and cognitive decision-making.
One of the dilemmas presented in both anecdotal evidence and documented in the literature of law enforcement and criminology scholars is the time and resource constraints within many police departments, which can prevent the ability to implement additional training for officers beyond what is currently standard. Physical fitness and conditioning requirements and standards differ by state. There is currently no universal or standardized training program for police officers, and martial arts training may offer an affordable and time-efficient means to bridge this gap. Zhang (2022) highlighted the importance of consistent physical education among police officers but documented many of the barriers that currently exist to doing so, such as police understaffing and the increased stress that is placed on already overworked officers regarding additional physical conditioning requirements. According to Zhang (2022), online physical education courses that contain martial arts skills may potentially be an effective medium to address these barriers and provide police officers with the physical training they need to meet conditioning requirements, as well as to enhance their defense and restraint skills. Zhang (2022) developed an online police physical education system containing PHP language, a widely-used open-source scripting language suited for web development, and an InitPHP (initialization hypertext processor) framework, a lightweight PHP framework designed to streamline and enhance the efficiency of web application development. The author suggested this system could optimize police conditioning and improve the mode of physical education and the current teaching mechanism used in the field. However, while this program may have many potential benefits over current strategies to train police officers, it has yet to be tested empirically or applied in a real sample of law enforcement personnel.
Researchers have recently documented the trend for theories and conceptual papers to be presented involving the use of force and the potential for techniques within martial arts to improve the physical conditioning and skills of police officers, but the lack of evidence demonstrating outcomes associated with these theories and concepts. McLean et al. (2022) examined police agencies, use of force regulations, training initiatives, approaches for disciplining problem officers, supervision, and dimensions and issues associated with potential solutions in the United States. Results showed that many promising ideas have been presented in the literature, though there have been few strategies that have been tested via empirical research or involving actual cases in the field (McLean et al., 2022). These findings align with other studies in which martial arts training has been promoted as a means of offering multidimensional physical and psychological benefits to officers, and these techniques have been researched using scientifically rigorous methodologies (Alispahic & Hadzikadunic, 2020; Bondarenko et al., 2020; Wang, 2020). Thus, the current need within the literature related to the physical training of police officers is to test the ideas and theories presented by researchers advocating for martial arts, including BJJ specifically.
One of the reasons that research related to martial arts and their impacts on the physical and cognitive skills of police officers has stalled is that little remains known regarding the actual feasibility of implementing a martial arts training program in specific police departments, or the experiences of police officers who have been trained in these disciplines. Before implementing interventions involving martial arts or changing policies to incorporate these practices in the general physical training of officers, evidence is needed regarding the experiences of officers who have trained in these disciplines and their perceptions of the feasibility of implementing martial arts training across an entire department (Anh, 2022). The evidence that is obtained from such research may lead to increased insight into the likely impacts of martial arts training on a police officer’s psychological and physical skills and ways in which to address potential barriers that are documented (Moreno et al., 2024). Therefore, research must be conducted in police departments and settings to make evidence-based recommendations for decision-makers in law enforcement.
While there have been no recently published studies involving the potential feasibility and impacts of martial arts training for police officers in the United States, there have been investigations of the effects of these forms of martial arts in other countries and the territory of Guam. For example, Farrer (2019) investigated the therapeutic effects of BJJ training for police officers in Guam who had been exposed to traumatic incidents. The researchers found that a holistic BJJ intervention was associated with improvements in the mental health and well-being of officers who had been involved in traumatic conflict situations while on duty or who had otherwise witnessed traumas, such as homicides. These findings agree with other studies involving both the mental and physical benefits of martial arts and how fully embracing the mental and physical aspects of martial arts and not just the techniques themselves are necessary to maximize the benefits (Farrer, 2019). One of the problems with previous studies involving the effects of police combative training is that they have focused strictly on the physical aspect of training while ignoring philosophical concepts, such as the intersection of power with knowledge and the integration of mind and body (Ban et al., 2021; Dworzecki & Nowicka, 2019). More evidence is needed regarding the effects of more comprehensive martial arts training, particularly for supporting the mental health of police officers, especially those who have suffered from post-traumatic stress following observing or being a part of a highly stressful situation while on duty.
Themes
Multiple themes emerged from this narrative review. The themes were identified and categorized, and studies were grouped into key law enforcement and martial arts training categories. Most studies produced one specific theme within the context of martial arts training while acknowledging others to a lesser degree; however, some overlap of themes emerged in studies. Table 1 groups all studies by theme, variable, citation, and geographical region.
Table 1. Summary of Themes, Variables Assessed, and Studies
Theme
Variable(s) Assessed
Studies
Use of Force Decision-Making
Cognitive processes, restraint techniques
Renden et al. (2015); Hickman et al. (2021); Staller & Körner (2021); McLean et al. (2022)
Farrer (2019); Bueno et al. (2022); Zavala & Chan (2021); Parks (2022)
Community Relations
Trust, corporation, minority interactions
Parks (2022); Chanin et al. (2018); Vera Jimenez et al. (2019); Gardner & Al-Shareffi (2022)
Results
This narrative review identified four main thematic areas in the literature on martial arts training for law enforcement: (i) use of force decision-making, (ii) officer safety, (iii) mental health and well-being, and (iv) community relations, (i) use of force decision-making, (ii) officer safety, (iii) mental health and well-being, and (iv) community relations.
Use of Force Decision-Making: Studies showed that martial arts training, including BJJ, enhances officers’ decision-making processes regarding the use of force. For example, Renden et al. (2015) found that officers trained in BJJ demonstrated improved restraint techniques and a higher level of control in high-stress situations, potentially reducing the incidence of excessive force. Additionally, Hickman et al. (2021) suggested that martial arts training helps officers make more appropriate use-of-force decisions, leading to better outcomes during confrontations. Additional support from Staller & Körner (2021) and McLean et al. (2022) emphasized the importance of ongoing development in use-of-force training to refine decision-making capabilities in dynamic and challenging situations.
Officer Safety: Research indicated that martial arts training contributes to enhanced officer safety. Torres (2020) showed a significant reduction in injuries among officers who received martial arts training, attributing this to improved defensive skills and physical preparedness. Similarly, Facinek & Kosc (2021) found that martial arts training increased officers’ ability to manage physical altercations, safely reducing the risk of injury. Lyons et al. (2017) and Heusler and Sutter (2020) further corroborate these findings by discussing physiological and training adaptations that mitigate risks and enhance defensive capabilities in policing contexts.
Mental Health and Well-Being: Among the martial arts, BJJ training was particularly associated with positive mental health outcomes for law enforcement officers. For example, Farrer (2019) suggested that officers who participated in BJJ training reported lower levels of stress and anxiety, as well as improved overall well-being. Bueno et al. (2022) supported these findings, showing that BJJ training can serve as an effective stress management tool. Zavala & Chan (2021) and Parks (2022) provide further support that integrated training programs that include martial arts can significantly enhance psychological resilience and reduce occupational stress among police officers.
Community Relations: The influence of martial arts training on community relations was also explored in the literature. Parks (2022) concluded that martial arts training promotes more controlled and less aggressive interactions with suspects, which can help build trust and cooperation between law enforcement and the community. Chanin et al. (2018) concluded that improved officer conduct resulting from control tactics training can enhance public perception of the police and foster stronger community partnerships. Vera Jiménez et al. (2019) and Gardner and Al-Shareffi (2022) add to this discussion by showing that tactical and mindful use of force can improve public perceptions of police and foster stronger community partnerships.
The findings from this review highlight the significant impact BJJ training on law enforcement practices, particularly in terms of use of force decision-making, officer safety, mental health, and community relations. The studies reviewed indicate that martial arts training can enhance officers’ physical and cognitive skills, leading to better outcomes during confrontations and improved overall well-being.
Discussion
The findings from this narrative review highlight the potential benefits of martial arts training, especially BJJ training, in enhancing law enforcement practices across four key areas: use of force decision-making, officer safety, mental health and well-being, and community relations. This section interprets those results, discusses their implications, acknowledges limitations, and outlines directions for future research.
Use of Force Decision-Making
The results consistently demonstrate that training improves officers’ decision-making processes regarding the use of force. In high-stress situations, officers trained in BJJ displayed enhanced restraint techniques and greater control, reducing the likelihood of excessive force (Renden et al., 2015; Hickman et al., 2021). These findings suggest that integrating martial arts into law enforcement training can address conflict resolution’s physical and cognitive demands, equipping officers to make better decisions under pressure. This aligns with the growing emphasis on de-escalation techniques in policing, where officers are encouraged to control confrontations without resorting to extreme measures.
Officer Safety
Officer safety emerged as a critical theme in the reviewed studies. The research indicates that martial arts training significantly reduces injury rates among law enforcement personnel. Officers who undergo regular training are better prepared to manage physical altercations, using defensive tactics that minimize harm to both themselves and suspects (Torres, 2020; Facinek & Kosc, 2021). This underscores the importance of martial arts training, particularly BJJ training, as part of comprehensive police training programs, as it improves physical fitness and defensive capabilities, leading to safer outcomes in confrontational scenarios. By reducing injuries, BJJ training can also lower medical and legal costs associated with police use of force.
Mental Health and Well-Being
It seems the mental health benefits of BJJ are quite notable. Officers frequently experience stress, anxiety, and burnout due to the nature of their work. BJJ training has been shown to alleviate these psychological burdens, providing a valuable outlet for stress relief and emotional resilience (Farrer, 2019; Bueno et al., 2022). By incorporating martial arts training into officer wellness programs, law enforcement agencies can address their personnel’s physical and mental health. The long-term effects of BJJ on mental health are particularly promising, as they contribute to reduced stress, better decision-making, and overall well-being in high-pressure environments.
Community Relations
Martial arts’ influence on community relations is perhaps the most significant finding. The literature suggests that martial arts training fosters more controlled and less aggressive interactions between law enforcement officers and the public, improving trust and cooperation (Parks, 2022; Chanin et al., 2018). This is crucial in today’s climate, where high-profile incidents of excessive force often shape public perception of law enforcement. By promoting restraint and respect, BJJ can serve as a bridge to rebuild trust between police and communities, contributing to more effective, community-centered policing.
Implications of the Research Results
The research findings strongly indicate that integrating BJJ into law enforcement training could significantly enhance officers’ decision-making skills, physical preparedness, and mental resilience. Studies consistently show that martial arts training improves control in high-stress situations, reducing the use of excessive force (Renden et al., 2015; Torres, 2020). Given the increasing public scrutiny of law enforcement, this training could be vital in preparing officers to handle complex encounters more effectively. Additionally, regular BJJ training could foster improved officer conduct, strengthen relationships with the communities they serve, and contribute to safer policing practices overall.
Limitations of the Review
This review has several limitations. Notably, the possibility of selection bias exists, as studies were identified through specific databases and may not encompass all relevant research. The methodologies of the reviewed studies also varied, making it difficult to compare findings directly. For example, some studies relied on self-reported data, which could introduce recall and response biases, potentially affecting the reliability of the results. Also, most studies focused on law enforcement practices in the United States and Europe, which limits the generalizability of the findings to other regions with different policing contexts. Future studies should address these limitations by conducting more rigorous, geographically diverse research on the long-term effects of martial arts training in law enforcement.
Recommendations for Future Research
Based on the gaps identified in the literature, future research should explore how law enforcement personnel describe their lived experiences with BJJ and other martial arts training. Qualitative studies that capture officers’ perspectives on the efficacy and feasibility of this type of training would provide valuable insights. Harmon (2022) conducted a qualitative exploratory study on the perceived efficacy of BJJ for law enforcement, but the findings are not yet published, and the study’s design limits its generalizability. Future research should focus on context-specific investigations to understand how officers perceive martial arts training as effective and logistically feasible within their units or communities (Facal, 2022). Additionally, the lack of recent phenomenological studies on this topic highlights a gap that future researchers could address. More research is needed to understand how martial arts training impacts officers’ long-term professional and personal development, particularly in regions outside of the U.S. and Europe.
Conclusion
This narrative review highlights the critical role that martial arts training can play in improving law enforcement practices. The findings suggest that integrating martial arts into training programs enhances officers’ decision-making, physical preparedness, and mental resilience, equipping them to handle high-stress situations more effectively. By reducing the likelihood of inappropriate use of force, martial arts training addresses a significant need within law enforcement, where incidents of excessive force continue to attract public scrutiny. While BJJ was frequently mentioned in the literature, the broader implications of martial arts training—including disciplines such as judo, karate, and other grappling arts—are equally relevant. These training programs not only improve officers’ physical skills but also instill the mental discipline necessary for managing violent encounters with minimal harm. This approach reduces the risk of injury to both officers and suspects while mitigating the liability law enforcement agencies face. In addition to physical benefits, martial arts training provides psychological advantages, such as reduced stress and anxiety, contributing to better decision-making and overall officer well-being. By promoting restraint, discipline, and control, martial arts can foster improved relationships between law enforcement and their communities. These findings suggest that martial arts training should be a fundamental component of law enforcement programs, potentially improving outcomes in both officer safety and public relations.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors confirm that all the research in this work has met ethical guidelines and adhered to the legal requirements of the United States of America. In addition, the principal investigator is compliant with the Collaborative Institutional Training Initiative (CITI) Program on social and behavioral researchers and social and behavioral responsible conduct of research training. Furthermore, this work was not funded, the authors declare no conflict of interest, and it did not contain studies with human participants or animals performed by the principal investigator.
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George Minoso2025-05-16T12:49:10-05:00September 5th, 2025|General, Research, Sport Training|Comments Off on LAW ENFORCEMENT USE OF FORCE: A NARRATIVE REVIEW ON THE UTILITY OF MARTIAL ARTS IN AMERICAN POLICING
