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Exploring varsity sport readiness in college cricket: A content analysis of the stated purpose of existing college cricket clubs

Authors: Martin Barrett¹and Jeffrey R. Farr²

¹Department of Recreation and Parks Management, Frostburg State University, Frostburg, MD, USA

²Department of Hospitality and Sport Management, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, USA

Corresponding Author:

Martin Barrett

101 Braddock Road

Frostburg, MD 21532

[email protected]

301-687-4475

Martin Barrett, PhD is an Assistant Professor of Sport Management at Frostburg State University in Frostburg, MD. His research interests focus on the emergence and development of non-traditional sports.

Jeffrey R. Farr, PhD is an Assistant Professor of Sport Management at The University of Alabama in Tuscaloosa, AL. His research interests focus on understanding the relationships between families and youth sport participation.

Exploring varsity sport readiness in college cricket: A content analysis of the stated purpose of existing college cricket clubs

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this study was to explore the readiness of cricket to be elevated from the auspices of student-run structures on university campuses to the varsity level. To do so, a content analysis of college cricket club purpose statements was conducted to establish why such groups facilitate cricket activities. Content from 35 publicly accessible college cricket club constitutions was collected and the textual data analyzed using a process of emergent coding. The results of the content analysis established increasing awareness of and interest in cricket and bringing people together as the two most frequent purpose statements within the sampled college cricket clubs. Furthermore, a purpose typology based on three dimensions – performance, participation, and promotion – was created by aggregating the discreet statements into likeminded themes. Just over two-thirds of the sample disclosed performance as part of their purpose, which points to how most college cricket clubs are organized around competition and performance; thus, demonstrating an assumed readiness for, or at least alignment with the emphasis of, varsity-level athletics. However, campus recreation professionals supporting college crickets should recognize how these groups often have a multi-faceted purpose that extends to participation and promotion, which means college cricket clubs are well-placed to play a central role in popularizing the sport in the United States, as well as contributing to institution-level priorities such as student recruitment and retention.

Key words: college sport, club sport, cricket, purpose statements, sport development

INTRODUCTION

Cricket is a fast-growing sport in the United States. Today, there are more than 200,000 playing cricketers in America, double that in New Zealand (34). There are also now an estimated 10 to 20 million cricket fans across the country (37). Moreover, revenue in the US cricket market is projected to reach $90 million this year (34). Much of this growth is arguably attributable to the establishment of a sustainable professional men’s cricket tournament – Major League Cricket – which started in 2023, as well as the United States co-hosting the 2024 International Cricket Council T20 World Cup alongside the West Indies. Cricket is also set to be featured in the Los Angeles Olympics in 2028. Another salient factor in the growth of cricket stateside is the “transformative influence of South Asians, who, with their unwavering passion and dedication, have brought their love and expertise of cricket to these regions from their home nations” (17). For instance, as of 2022 the United States was home to about 4.8 million Indian Americans (30).

At US colleges and universities, cricket exists at the sub-varsity level in the form of club sports, student organizations, and intramural activities. The exact number of colleges and universities boasting active cricket clubs is unclear. In 2017, American College Cricket – the then governing body of the sport at the collegiate level – claimed to have 70 member colleges across both the United States and Canada (2). Yet, college cricket in the United States has a rich history. Notably, robust cricket competition existed on the campus of Haverford College from the early 1850’s with the college competing in one of the first reported intercollegiate contests against the University of Pennsylvania in 1864 (15). The first intercollegiate cricket governing body was established in 1881 when the University of Pennsylvania, along with four other institutions – including Haverford College, formed the Intercollegiate Cricket Association (25).

More recently, however, a new governing body came to the fore – the Collegiate Cricket League (CCL). In December 2024, the CCL announced a first-of-its-kind 10-over tournament to take place in Spring 2025 culminating with national finals, $50,000 in available prize money for teams, and a coveted trophy (28). Furthermore, the tournament is set to rival the global exposure of the NCAA (28). CCL’s strategy is built on a desire to establish cricket as a varsity sport at US colleges and universities through the investment of media and sponsorship revenues that will enable schools to offer scholarships and invest in state-of-the-art facilities (28).

Elevating college cricket to a varsity sport – albeit outside the purview of the NCAA – raises important questions about the current structures and systems of organized cricket on college campuses and, therefore, the readiness of a critical mass of institutions to make this leap. Varsity-level college sport in the United States is a cultural phenomenon. Intercollegiate athletic departments articulate through their mission statements the intent to achieve both academic and athletic excellence (40). However, intercollegiate athletics also serves a plethora of additional purposes including positive contributions to increased enrollment, increased national exposure, and strengthened ties to alumni and the university community (29). Certain aspects of varsity and club sport programs at the college level are alike. For instance, college sport clubs have performance or competition-based goals (7). Moreover, Warner, Dixon, and Chalip (41) describe how both sport contexts bring together individuals with common interest in sport and provide avenues to develop elite athletes. Also, club sport participants experience growth through their extra-curricular involvement – mostly through gains in leadership skills, time-management, and school pride associated their roles as club sports leaders (11). However, distinct differences exist between the purpose of varsity and club sport programs. As examples, college sport clubs have administrative goals such as increasing participation numbers, as well as social goals such as network building (7). In this way, club sport shares similarities with student organizations, which “create opportunities for leadership development, learning, student engagement, and fostering of shared interests” (43). Student organizations exist in multiple forms including – but not limited to – academic organizations, community service organizations, and multicultural organizations (10). Importantly, sporting activities on college campuses are governed through all three systems: varsity sport, club sport, and student organizations.

While the vision of CCL is ambitious, the increasing popularity and growing demand for cricket means the sport is seemingly well-placed to make further breakthroughs in the evolving landscape of college sports. The purpose of this research is to understand the current state of organized cricket structures on US college and university campuses. Specifically, this research is guided by the following research questions:

RQ1. For what purpose(s) are organized cricket activities facilitated on US college campuses?

RQ2. To what extent do the purpose(s) of the groups facilitating organized cricket activities differ based on their classification?

In answering these research questions, inferences are then made on the potential synergy between existing college cricket activities and possible future varsity-level college cricket activities. Thus, the outcome of this research is to provide an assessment of the short-term readiness of college cricket to become elevated as a recognized intercollegiate varsity sport, which has implications for not only those who organize such activities on campus but also those who govern the sport.

METHODS

Research Design

This research adopted a qualitative research design with a goal to elicit a “comprehensive summarization, in everyday terms, of specific events experienced by individuals or groups of individuals” (22). The method used to achieve this goal was a document content analysis. In broad terms, content analysis is the analysis of the content in a message where the message forms the basis for drawing inferences and conclusions about the content (27, 31). The central premise of content analysis is to distil words into fewer content-related categories (9).

Data Collection

As previously mentioned, the exact number of colleges and universities boasting active cricket clubs is unclear. Therefore, the first step within the data collection process was to establish a current baseline of active college cricket clubs (i.e., the total population). To complete this initial step, an extensive multi-pronged search of secondary data sources was conducted. This search for cricket clubs began by searching for evidence of intercollegiate competition, which was conducted by visiting the website of the National College Cricket Association (i.e., hereafter referred to as NCAA; a governing body currently responsible for convening an annual amateur national championship that is preceded by qualifying regional championships). Beyond searching for evidence of competitive cricket activities, further internet search engine and social media key word searches were conducted (e.g., “university cricket club” and “college cricket club”). These key word searches enabled a snowball effect whereby the published activities of college cricket clubs disclosed details of involvement by other college cricket clubs. Finally, targeted searches of specific colleges and universities with large numbers of international students were conducted. This targeting was justified by how cricket participation and fandom in the United States is dominated by the Indian diaspora – both in terms of the growing native-born Indian American population (i.e., second- and third-generation immigrants), but also foreign-born nationals who relocate stateside (see 21, 33). The term “active” was operationalized as evidence of facilitation of at least one cricket-related activity by the club across the 2024-25 academic year inclusive of summer 2024 (i.e., June 1, 2024 to March 1, 2025).

This initial data collection step, which was a precursor to the main data collection, was conducted over the month of February 2025. The outcome yielded a total of 106 active college cricket clubs. As shown in Figure 1, these active college cricket clubs were geographically dispersed but with concentrated hubs in the Boston, New York, DC, Chicago, and Los Angeles metropolitan areas. This total population was further divided into three classification categories. Specifically, 55 college cricket clubs existed within the institution’s club sport program, 42 college cricket clubs existed as registered student organizations, and nine college cricket clubs appeared to be either unaffiliated with their host institution or their status regarding governing authority was not disclosed.

Figure 1

Note. Cluster map of 106 active college cricket clubs identified by the researchers via an extensive multi-pronged search of secondary data sources.

The next data collection step involved accessing the most recent constitutions for the active college cricket clubs. These documents were sourced via the host institution’s website either through their dedicated club sport program pages or their registered student organization databases. Importantly, publicly accessible constitutions were not available for all college cricket clubs in the total population. In fact, 35 constitutions were accessed to form the sample population. Within this sample population, 22 college cricket clubs existed as registered student organizations alongside 13 within the institution’s club sport program.

With 35 constitutions accessed, the next step was extracting consistent content from each document. Organizational purpose is multi-faceted. At a basic level, purpose defines the remit and scope of business activities (18). Purpose also extends the what to the why by articulating an organization’s reason for being (14). Importantly, constitutions often vary according to the needs of each organization (8). While variance was evident within the constitutions sampled for this research, the information provided within Article II relative to organizational purpose provided the most consistent and relevant source from which to interpret the stated purpose of said clubs and student groups. Article II content within the sampled constitutions ranged anywhere from a minimum of 18 words to a maximum of 77 words.

To prepare the data for analysis, the Article II content for each of the college cricket clubs in the sample population was standardized into a series of discreet one-sentence statements. Importantly, this data preparation step did not alter the meaning of the Article II content; rather the focus was a grammatical one through the elimination of run-on sentences that included two or more independent ideas presented together without proper use of punctuation or conjunctions. In sum, data collection yielded 102 statements and 1,752 words of textual data for analysis. This process was akin to how Krippendorff (20) defines sampling versus context units in content analysis. Specifically, the Article II content are considered the sampling units (N=35), whereas the statements formed the context units (N=102).

Data Analysis

Of utmost importance with content analysis is reliability. Ultimately, “different people should code the same text in the same way” (42). The following passage outlines the decisions made by the researchers to ensure reliability.

Based on the variation within the Article II content, the researchers agreed to use a multiple classification system whereby each context unit could be assigned to more than one category or recording unit (19). In the absence of an existing content analysis dictionary, the researchers also agreed to develop inferred categories. Specifically, with an emergent coding approach, categories are established following some preliminary examination of the data (35). The researchers then adhered to the steps outlined by Haney and colleagues (13) in conducting emergent coding in content analyses. First, the researchers reviewed the statements and independently formed a checklist. Second, the researchers met (virtually) to reconcile differences in the checklists. Third, the researchers agreed to use a consolidated checklist to independently apply coding. The checklist included 12 specific features of the data that communicated a reason why the clubs facilitated cricket activities on campus (i.e., open codes). Based on relationships among the specific features, the open codes were combined to create three axial codes. Figure 2 provides a summary of the coding categories – both open and axial – that emerged through the data analysis process, along with representative quotes from the textual data.

Figure 2

Note. Coding framework including 12 open and three axial codes derived from a series of consensus meetings held between the researchers.

The fourth step in the emergent coding process was to tally the frequency at which the open codes were evident in the data. This process was completed independently by the researchers using manual coding whereby each of the context units were categorized under one or more of the 12 checklist items. As per Roaché’s (32) method, a 94.83% agreement was calculated (i.e., 110 agreements and 116 total coding decisions). To reconcile these differences, the researchers met one more time and reached consensus on 114 recording units. While a third reviewer or adjudicator was not involved, the researchers resolved disagreements through open discussion whereby the researchers took notice of which codes were used by the other researcher and listened to their rationale for using a code before the disagreement was reconciled (6). The open code tallies were then aggregated using the axial codes to place each of the sample college cricket clubs into one of seven categories based on their purpose (i.e., a sort of purpose typology). The seven typologies included: 1) Performance only, 2) Participation only, 3) Promotion only, 4) Performance and Participation, 5) Performance and Promotion, 6) Participation and Promotion, and 7) Performance, Participation, and Promotion. Each college cricket needed just one open-coded purpose statement in any of the axial coding categories to be labelled as adopting that broader level purpose.

RESULTS

Purpose of Existing College Cricket Clubs

Regarding the open coding of purpose statements and as shown in Table 1, almost two thirds of the sampled college cricket clubs disclosed as their dominant remit and scope to increase awareness and interest in cricket (n=22, 62.86%). There were a further five specific purposes that emerged from the sample that were relatively common (i.e., evidence across one-third to one-half of the sampled college cricket clubs). These purposes included bringing people together (n=18, 51.43%), providing cricket as recreation (n=16, 45.71%), improving the cricket skills of players (n=14, 40.00%), competing against other teams (n=12, 34.29%), and introducing cricket to new players (n=12, 34.29%).

When aggregated to the axial coding level, the analysis (see Table 2) establishes that over one-third of the sample had a purpose that spanned across participation, performance, and promotion (n=13, 37.14%), which represents the most common typology. None of the sampled college cricket clubs had a one-dimensional purpose focusing exclusively on performance. In fact, a majority (n=30, 85.71%) of sampled college crickets had a multi-faceted purpose that extended across at least two of the three purpose categories.

Variation in Purpose by Classification

As can be seen in Table 3, there are two typologies where some variation existed based on classification. First, a greater proportion of college cricket clubs classified as student organizations had a three-pronged purpose (n=10, 45.45%) compared to college cricket clubs classified as club sports (n=3, 23.08%). Second, more college cricket clubs classified as club sports disclosed a dual performance and promotion purpose (n=3, 23.08%) compared to college cricket clubs classified as student organizations (n=0, 0%). Beyond this variation, the distribution of college cricket clubs classified as club sports and student organizations had similar results across the remaining five typologies.

DISCUSSION

In the context of this research, readiness for varsity status would imply that a critical mass of existing college cricket clubs exists with a purpose akin to those of a varsity sport program (i.e., an emphasis on performance). The findings establish that just over two-thirds of the existing college cricket clubs sampled disclose “performance” as part of their purpose, which means their reason for being centers around supporting competitive, extramural opportunities. These findings are consistent with Czekanski and Lower’s (7) study, which identified performance or competition-based goals as one of four distinct themes emerging from collegiate sport club functions. However, when looking at the discreet purpose statements, only two of the sampled college cricket clubs included mention of athletic excellence as part of their purpose (e.g., to win a national championship). Another key omission from the purpose statements sampled, that is also evident within varsity sport, is reference to academic success. This finding is perhaps expected given how club sports and student organizations exist as extracurricular activities (i.e., optional, non-academic activities), whereas varsity sport at least purports a self-perpetuating cocurricular existence (i.e., school-sponsored programs that enhance students’ learning experiences outside the traditional classroom setting). Overall, college cricket clubs appear not to be skewed towards performance as their central purpose. Instead, many college cricket clubs disclose the intent to have a performance arm to their organization, but one that operates in tandem or combination with a multi-faceted purpose.

Promotion was another salient theme within the purpose statements sampled, which refers to how college cricket clubs’ reason for being focuses on promoting and popularizing the sport. Czekanski and Lower (7) refer to such goals as “administrative” in nature as they relate to the function of the club. Nevertheless, Czekanski and Lower (7) also highlighted goals such as increasing the number of participants as another distinct theme within club sport organizations. The results of this research establish how over two-thirds of the sampled college cricket clubs see themselves as cricket-specific community sport development agencies, which are organizations responsible for increasing participation rates in sport and building capacity to facilitate sporting opportunities (26). In fact, the scope of the “community” to which college cricket clubs bear responsibility ranged from city to region to the nation. As an example, one sampled college cricket club disclosed within their purpose the goal to “promote the sport of cricket at the university and the USA.” These are grand purposes for organizations that are traditionally under-resourced or self-financed on a pay-to-play model basis. For context, a national sport governing body like USA Lacrosse invests over $2 million a year in the sport’s development (39).

A lack of research exists that is dedicated to understanding how the classification of student-led groups impacts the purpose of such groups. This research responds to that dearth of research – albeit in the very specific context of cricket. Ultimately, this research found that students organized around a sport activity have a mostly consistent reason for being irrespective of their classification as a club sport or student organization. Perhaps this absence of distinct variation is indicative of how most recreational sport departments – the departments responsible for supervising club sports – are housed within the division of student affairs (11), which also where student organizations report. Using the University of Wisconsin-Madison as an example, both registered student organizations and sport clubs follow student organization resource and policy guides (36). In addition, both registered student organizations and sport clubs must have officers as students and consist of 75% student membership (36). Yet, the results of this research point to some subtle differences between the purpose of college cricket clubs classified as club sport organizations versus student organizations. Interestingly, two of the 13 club sport college cricket clubs sampled included no mention of performance within their purpose statement. This finding is perhaps explained by the variability in Article II language and how some club sport college cricket clubs chose to articulate their reason for being (14); rather than the remit and scope of business activities (18). In this way, competition and performance is implied, if not stated.

CONCLUSION

Irrespective of the readiness of the existing organized college cricket structures, cricket has a difficult path to achieving varsity status. Notably, and given its traditional team sport nature, cricket is unlikely to receive a federal Title IX exemption like esports (see 3). Therefore, any attempts to elevate cricket to varsity status would likely need to be through a strategic elevation of women’s cricket first. And while not within the scope specifically of this research, any cursory glance into college cricket activities will unearth an almost exclusively male dominated space. Furthermore, interest and participation in cricket among women and girls is low in the USA as the sport has “suffered from an inadequate domestic structure and a lack of investment and organizational interest in developing a more inclusive and welcoming environment” (38). So, while little promise exists in elevating college cricket to varsity status in its current form, this research does point towards a readiness for increased emphasis and investment in competitive men’s college cricket. The challenge, as stated, is the viability of an elevation to varsity status or whether the elevation occurs within the parameters of the existing club sport model.

One of the limitations of this research is the inability to secure constitutions for a greater proportion of the total population of existing college cricket clubs. One way the researchers considered accounting for this was to collate mission statements from other sources such as social media profiles and bios. However, to uphold the integrity of the content analysis and ensure the data being analyzed was comparable, a decision was made to stick exclusively to the content found within constitutions. The authors also recognize how there could be a disconnect between what college cricket clubs disclose in their constitutions versus what happens in reality; like how Chelladurai (5) differentiates between the stated and real goals of sport organizations. Future research should explore any possible differences between the actual activities of college cricket clubs versus how college cricket clubs are formalized constitutionally. Also, this research was framed from the perspective of college cricket clubs and their readiness for varsity-level sport. Therefore, future research should also look to understand the perceptions of those working within varsity sport – so intercollegiate athletic administrators – on the path forward for college cricket in the United States.

APPLICATIONS IN SPORT

Those entities responsible for convening intercollegiate competition – whether that be the CCL or NCCA – should, if not already, look to the purpose of individual college cricket clubs when canvasing for increased participation in intercollegiate competition. This research, if generalizable across the total population of college cricket clubs nationally, suggests few if any of these organized cricket structures consider performance as their only purpose. Ultimately, college cricket clubs are heterogenous in relation to their core activities and reason for being (i.e., many are not operating as pseudo-varsity, non-scholarship athletic programs).

This research also has relevance to USA Cricket in their continued attempts to guide the development of the sport nationally. Notably, USA Cricket recognizes that the sport has not yet found a way to integrate effectively into colleges, but had also committed to develop a plan that promotes the meaningful engagement of cricket by colleges across the nation (37). That plan appears to be the establishment of CCL, which has been developed by the National Cricket League USA but in partnership with USA Cricket (see 28). Importantly, this research suggests USA Cricket and CCL’s plan does tap into multiple priorities of existing college cricket clubs – namely through the provision of additional extramural competition, as well as the increased awareness of cricket that planned media exposure will bring.

This research also suggests that many college cricket clubs adopt a “grow the game” in addition to or instead of a “high performance” philosophy. As a result, universities and colleges may also be well-placed to support other strategic themes within USA Cricket’s Foundational Plan such as to increase participation, which again was a salient reason for being for many college cricket clubs in the sample. This purpose has potential value given how students at institutions of higher education appear more willing and likely to get involved in all kinds of organizations when compared to other settings and life stages (23). Such participation objectives could be achieved collectively through, for example, a refresh and revamp of the NIRSA/ICC Campus Cricket Program, which contributed to 40 colleges and universities offering intramural cricket to nontraditional audiences over a two-year period (16).

This research also has relevance to campus recreation professionals supporting the efforts of college cricket clubs. Given the multi-faceted role of college cricket clubs across performance, participation, and promotion dimensions, these organizations are contributing against multiple strategic priorities of higher education institutions. Given how many colleges and universities are removing diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) programs, perhaps non-varsity college sport is an indirect means through which higher education institutions can continue to promote DEI among their student bodies. Cricket has potential as a unifier – especially for the South Asian population in North America (see 1). But, as mentioned, the results of this research suggest college cricket clubs are organized to proactively grow the game among non-traditional audiences and bring people together from different ethnic and cultural backgrounds in the process. Alternatively, non-varsity college sport is likely to boost student retention rates, as well as a potential increase in international student enrollment moving forward (i.e., a lucrative market in the face of the domestic enrollment cliff). One institution that clearly recognizes this potential is Wichita State University who worked with the local Parks and Recreation agency to construct a cricket field to help the circa 3,100 international students on campus to feel more at home (24). As such, campus recreation professionals should look to highlight the purpose and resulting outcomes of college cricket clubs when advocating for fair allocation of institutional funds to support such activities.

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George Minoso2025-05-16T10:54:51-05:00August 16th, 2025|General, Research|Comments Off

Navigating Anxiety and Aspiration: Mental Health and Intrinsic Motivation Among Black Former Student-Athletes at a Division I HBCU

Authors: Michael M. Bivins EdD

Mark Mitchell, DBA

Founder and President of Pride and Strive Inc., Mount Laurel, NJ, USA.

Editor’s Note: The address information for the Corresponding Author has been updated.

Corresponding Author:

Michael M. Bivins, EdD, MS,

One Academy Drive

Daphne, AL 36526

[email protected]

646-330-2157

Michael M. Bivins, EdD, is the founder and educator for Pride and Strive Inc. He is also an adjunct faculty member at the United States Sports University. His research interests include various health-related issues, including nutrition and the mental health of student-athletes.

Navigating Anxiety and Aspiration: Mental Health and Intrinsic Motivation Among Black Former Student-Athletes at a Division I HBCU

ABSTRACT

Purpose: An individual’s mental health can influence their decision-making and thought processes. For National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) student-athletes, their mental health can impact their academic success. This study examined how mental health and intrinsic motivation influenced the academic success of seven Black former student-athletes at an HBCU (Historically Black Colleges and Universities). The mental health of student-athletes can play a significant role in their intrinsic motivation. Methods: Using qualitative analysis, the researcher interviewed former student-athletes who participated in semi-structured interviews analyzed using NVivo 12 of their experiences as a Black male and female student-athletes at an HBCU. The study consisted of seven Black student-athletes who played football or basketball for at least one year at an HBCU. The HBCU chosen represented NCAA Division Ⅰ in the Mid-Eastern Athletic Conference (MEAC). The researcher meticulously organized the qualitative study using the software NVivo 12, ensuring a comprehensive and reliable research process. Results: The data collected were rigorously analyzed to identify themes that emerged from the interviews. The data revealed four themes: 1) Anxiety, 2) Self-Motivation, 3) Social Life, and 4) Support from coaches and administration. Conclusions: The seven former student-athletes identified different factors contributing to their mental health and motivation for academic success. The overall environment at the HBCU, family support, and interactions with non-student athletes, coaches, faculty, and staff played a significant role in their psychological well-being and success. The researcher proposed recommendations for future research to explore the mental health issues of student-athletes at other institutions.

INTRODUCTION

Many student-athletes nationwide compete in the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA). Their goal is to get an education while competing in their respective sport. According to the National Collegiate Athletic Association (n.d.), the NCAA is divided into Divisions Ⅰ, Ⅱ, and Ⅲ. NCAA Division Ⅰ has more than 300 colleges/universities and over 6,000 teams, with opportunities for over 170,000 student-athletes.

Black student-athletes comprise most football and basketball players competing within NCAA Division Ⅰ. Ingraham (2020) noted that Black student-athletes make up sixty percent of basketball and football rosters while only representing eleven percent of the other sports rosters. Many studies examined Black student-athlete perspectives of competing within the NCAA Division Ⅰ athletics over the years. Numerous studies highlighted how Black student-athletes felt exploited by their colleges/universities. The exploitation of college athletes has been a topic of discussion for many years (Van Rheenen & Atwood, 2014). As exploitation can take different forms, the common theme for many student-athletes included athletic and economic factors. There is also a lack of educational emphasis from their college/university (Logan et al., 2017).

The college experience and motivation to succeed will vary from person to person, and everyone will have the goals they want to achieve. Many student-athletes must endure different obstacles that can strain their mental health. Some mental health problems include depression, anxiety, and dealing with different traumas. For black student-athletes, a supportive college environment can be essential to their athletic and academic success.

Over the past few years, mental health has been an essential topic of discussion among many people. Student-athletes are uniquely juggling their education and competing in their sport. Many student-athletes compete in the NCAA to get an excellent education at their respective institutions. The word student-athlete reminds everyone that students in the NCAA are at their college mainly for educational purposes. Student-athlete is a term that lawyers of the NCAA created in 1955 to avoid the notion that the players were employees (Posner & Schneider, 2021). This study examined the mental health and intrinsic motivation of seven black former student-athletes who competed in an HBCU (Historically Black Colleges and Universities) football and basketball program. The study examined the student-athletes intrinsic motivation and their influence by mental health factors, which included anxiety, stress, and social pressures.

Students have different levels of intrinsic motivation when dealing with the obstacles and challenges they may face during their transition into college (Daniels & Araposatathis, 2005). The mental health of student-athletes can play a significant role in their intrinsic motivation. This study looked at former student-athletes who provided an in-depth analysis of their experiences as Black male and female student-athletes at an HBCU. As many HBCUs compete within the NCAA Division Ⅰ athletics, it is common for top African American student-athletes to ultimately choose to attend larger PWIs (Predominantly White Institutions) (Hill, 2019). To date, very limited research has examined the mental health of Black former student-athletes who competed at an NCAA Division Ⅰ HBCU. As there are a small number of HBCU Division Ⅰ football and basketball programs, this study provided a research gap into the perspective of a small population compared to Black former student-athletes who competed at a PWI.

The Environment of Black Student-Athletes

According to Beamon (2014), African American student-athletes at PWIs face difficulties that include social and academic integration and various forms of racism.

One of the biggest stereotypes cited in the study was the perception that African American students at PWIs are only there for their athletic ability and not academics. The stereotype was toward both African American student-athletes and non-athlete African American college students. Tran et al. (2021) stated that student-athlete status might be an advantage for White student-athletes but a disadvantage for Black student-athletes when considering their peers’ perception of their academic success and intelligence.

In a study, Beamon (2014) noted that many African American student-athletes experienced racism beyond the classroom. Respondents revealed that sports did not necessarily bring different races and cultures together. Many respondents have felt a racial divide in the locker room. Experiencing racism can contribute to the mental health burden of Black individuals in the United States (Volpe et al., 2020). Cooper and Newton (2021) Mentioned that discriminatory incidents are not isolated to athletics but shared through academic and social spaces. Moreover, Museus et al. (2018) stated that college students are more contented and have a better sense of belonging when around people from the same cultural background.

Self -Determination Theory and Intrinsic Motivation

Self-determination theory (SDT) is a theory that explores human motivation and personality, where an individual can achieve self-determination through various factors (Ryan & Deci, 2000). The theory investigates an individual’s growth tendencies and inner psychological needs, which are the foundation of self-motivation. Within SDT, three essentials influence individual satisfaction. They include competence, relatedness, and autonomy (Ryan & Deci, 2000). However, it is essential to note that environmental factors can sometimes act as barriers, hindering self-motivation, social functioning, and overall personal well-being (Ryan & Deci, 2000).

Motivation consists of energy, direction, and persistence, which all contribute to the activation of an intention (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Furthermore, motivation has a high value due to the results that occur from it (Ryan & Deci, 2000). People are motivated by different factors with varied experiences and consequences (Ryan & Deci, 2000). There are different types of motivation that one may experience. Intrinsic motivation is an inherent form of motivation that leads to personal satisfaction (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Legault (2016) described intrinsic motivation as the engagement in activities or behaviors that are intrinsically satisfying. Intrinsic motivation is the highest level of self-determination (Holopainen et al., 2021). Intrinsic motivation is a natural inclination toward assimilation, mastery, and interest important to cognitive and social development (Ryan & Deci, 2000). People can be motivated by the value of an activity (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Another form of motivation Ryan and Deci (2000) noted is extrinsic motivation. Extrinsic motivation is the performance of an activity to achieve a separable outcome (Ryan & Deci, 2000).

The Mental Health of the Black Student-Athlete

According to the NCAA, a recent study showed that mental health issues are still a significant concern among all NCAA student-athletes (Johnson, 2022). As Black students transition from high school into college, the accumulation of stress associated with the transition becomes a concern (Brittian et al., 2009). All student-athletes, generally, have been viewed as at risk for anxiety, depression, substance use, eating disorders, and performance-related stress (Kilcullen et al., 2022). African Americans tend to suffer from diseases related to mental illnesses, such as stress and anxiety, disproportionately (Reid & Smalls, 2004). According to Armstrong et al. (2015), only 20% of college students with mental health issues seek help from the provided services. Student-athletes underutilize their health and counseling services more than non-student-athletes (Armstrong et al., 2015). The opposing views on seeking mental health help are prevalent in African American communities (Alvidrez et al., 2008).

Armstrong et al. (2015) also stated that the stigma of seeing a counselor is a weakness within the athletic subculture. The NCAA has recognized that their student-athletes mental health should become more emphasized (Henry, 2022). The NCAA has also acknowledged coaches’ role in helping student-athletes get the support and treatment they may need (Nocera, 2016). There is a high probability that student-athletes on every college campus have some form of mental health issue, and Noncognitive characteristics of student-athletes have influenced academic performance (Comeaux & Harrison, 2011).

Lindberg (2021) alluded to a crisis in the NCAA where there continues to be a significant percentage of student-athletes who ask for help managing stress and anxiety. Furthermore, a survey conducted in 2015 found that 30% of student-athletes reported feeling overwhelmed (Lindberg, 2021). Coaches and parents of student-athletes usually emphasize performance over personal growth and character (Lindberg, 2021).

Sense of belonging

Penner et al. (2021) noted that a sense of belonging, and a positive environment are essential to a student’s mental health and potential for academic achievement. In a study, Penner et al. (2021) stated that having a friendly and supportive faculty/staff contributed to a sense of belonging. A warm and friendly environment from other students on campus will also contribute to a sense of belonging. According to O’Keeffe (2013), a sense of belonging is also a contributing factor when considering the retention rates of all students. O’Keeffe (2013) noted that the institution must create an environment where students feel welcomed and accepted. The Need to Belong Theory states that belonging should be essential in all humans and cultures (Baumeister & Leary, 1995). Baumeister and Leary (1995) maintained that belongingness should entail an individual having a certain minimum quantity and quality of social contacts and interactions.

According to Baumeister and Leary (1995), belongingness has two main features. The first feature is frequent contact and interactions with others. The second and equally important feature of belongingness is the feeling that a bond or relationship becomes marked by stability, emphasizing the importance of long-term connections in the Need to Belong theory.

METHODS

Subjects and Instrumentation

For the study, the participants were Black male and female, former student-athletes who played football or basketball for at least one year at an HBCU. The HBCU selected represented NCAA Division Ⅰ in the Mid-Eastern Athletic Conference (MEAC). For research, a selection of seven participants represented students from different graduating years. The graduating years for the student-athletes ranged based on the year the participants entered college. The graduating years were essential to the study because they gave the researcher an idea of how the student-athletes viewed their HBCU over the years regarding their mental health and intrinsic motivation.

The instrument used was an interview guide. Conducting in-depth interviews was essential for this study because it helped understand the student-athlete’s experiences.

The study employed semi-structured interviews, a method in which the researcher asked the participants questions related to two broad topics. The researcher chose the approach to foster a more natural and open conversation, respecting the individuality of each participant and enabling the researcher to understand the student-athlete’s experiences better.

RQ1: What influence did faculty and staff at the HBCU have on Black male and female student-athletes when examining their mental health and intrinsic motivation to succeed academically?
RQ2: How has the overall environment at the HBCU helped the student manage their mental health and intrinsic motivation for academic success?

Table 1 indicates a summary of demographic information of the participants.

Table 1:

Demographic of Participants

Characteristic	Number
Gender
Female	2
Male	5
Sport
Men’s Basketball	2
Women’s Basketball	2
Football	3
Graduated
Men’s Basketball	1
Women’s Basketball	2
Football	3

Table 2 represents the sport and year the participants left the institution.

Table 2:

Year Student Left Institution

Year	Sport
2009	Football
2010	Football
2013	Football
2016	Men’s Basketball
2019	Women’s Basketball
2020	Women’s Basketball
2021	Men’s Basketball

Table 3 represents the age of the participants at the time of the interview.

Table 3:

Age of Participants (at the time of interviews)

Participant	Age
Football Athlete 1	35
Football Athlete 2	35
Football Athlete 3	31
Male Basketball Player One	31
Female Basketball Player One	25
Female Basketball Player Two	24
Male Basketball Player Two	23

Validity and Reliability

The researcher ensured the trustworthiness of the data collected and used peer debriefings from an expert in the mental health field and another experienced qualitative researcher to validate interpretations, increase objectivity, and minimize researcher bias. Peer debriefing helped in the formation of unbiased questions during the interviews. Furthermore, the researcher used reflexibility and approached the interviews with an open mind. Although not a former student-athlete, the researcher attended two HBCUs. The researcher needed to put any personal experiences of past interactions with HBCU student-athletes aside to ensure transparency and trustworthiness of the data collected.

NVivo 12 was chosen for qualitative research because it helped the researcher identify patterns in the participants’ responses. Further, NVivo helped the researcher identify any connections or relationships in the participants’ overall experiences. The themes that were developed were analyzed based on the patterns revealed by analyzing the software.

Procedures and Data Analysis

The researcher employed purposive sampling to select participants for the study. The selection of participants involved carefully judging who best fit the study’s criteria. Specifically, the researcher contacted eight (8) Black former student-athletes who had previously played football and basketball at the selected HBCU. Seven of the participants responded and agreed to take part in the research.

The Institutional Review Board (IRB) approved the study of the participation of former student-athletes. Before the interviews, the researcher sent the participants an informed consent document to be signed and returned. The researcher also sent the participants a demographic questionnaire to be answered and returned. The researcher constructed a total of 14 open-ended questions for the interviews. The researcher asked follow-up questions that allowed the participants to elaborate honestly. With permission from participants, the researcher video-recorded the interviews and used Zoom recording software. The former student-athletes provided consent for recording. The average interview length was 20 minutes.

Data were analyzed to identify themes that emerged from the interviews. During the interviews, the researcher took additional notes for reference. The interviewer transcribed the data using transcription software. NVivo 12 was used to organize and analyze the data. To ensure the accuracy of the data, the author checked all transcripts and video-recorded interviews. When analyzing, the researcher identified codes. The codes were then further analyzed to identify themes within the data.

RESULTS

After the researcher conducted and analyzed the interviews, five themes emerged. The themes included the following:

Anxiety (Research Questions One)
Self-Motivation (Research Questions Two)
Social Life (Research Question Two)
Support from coaches and administration (Research Question One)

Table 4 indicates the themes that emerged and representative quotes of the participants interviewed.

Table 4:

Themes and Representative Quotes

Theme Overview	Representative Quotes
Theme 1: Anxiety
Codes for anxiety included: overwhelmed, balancing school and athletics, mental health services, and religion.	“I actually had to go to the wide receiver coach and tell him that I had to remove myself from off of the team because I felt my grades were [suffering].”
	“So, when you are a student athlete at the division one level, you are waking up at four o’clock in the morning working out. Then, you have to get study hall hours.”
	“Having better [mental health] services was probably the biggest thing that I would change about my experience.”
	“Pray. [I] Definitely pray.”
Theme 2: Self-Motivation
Codes for self-motivation included: Intrinsic motivation, and family support.	“I’ve just learned to be mentally tough. And that was definitely instilled in me from a young age.”
	“Oh yeah. So that was the easiest part for me. My family. I was just trying to be the first in my family to graduate college, which I have done.”
Theme 3: Social Life
Codes for social life included: non-student-athletes, HBCU culture, and other student-athletes.	“Being around other people [non-student-athletes] … It’s real fun.”
	“Everything was so positive … Everybody.
	“I did hang out with the [other] athletes of course.”
Theme 4: Support from coaches and faculty members
Codes for the support from coaches and faculty members included: Scheduling, academic advisors, coaches, and support from professors.	“No [scheduling conflict]. My own advisors pretty much set everything up for me.”
	“There would be times when I would turn to one of the academic advisors, who was there [for support].
	“I was fortunate enough to have a coach who … cared about what you were doing off the field.”
	“I did rely on my assistant coach … She was amazing … I had really bad anxiety during that time.”

Theme and Codes

Note. The figure represents the four codes that relate to the theme.

All participants in the study mentioned experiencing some form of anxiety throughout their collegiate careers. Two of the seven participants used their religion, where they relied on prayers to get through some of their challenges. With the anxiety that the student-athletes experienced, the participants felt overwhelmed. All Participants mentioned it was often challenging to balance school and athletics. Female basketball player one was overwhelmed by the demands of her sport and not getting what she felt was the HBCU experience she always wanted. The theme of anxiety connects to research question one. It appeared that the administration, coaches, and faculty did not have a significant influence on the participants to seek mental health assistance, as five of the seven participants were not aware of mental health services offered.

Theme and Codes

Note. The figure represents the two codes that relate to the theme

The theme of self-motivation was associated with research question two. The overall environment did not hinder the participant’s goals for academic success, as six of the seven participants expressed the need to take advantage of their opportunity to get a college degree while doing what they loved in their sport. Football athlete three mentioned that his self-motivation came from different areas in his life. One thing that motivated him was feeling like he did not do well academically in high school. He wanted to prove that he could do better academically at the collegiate level. Four of the seven participants mentioned their families and used them as intrinsic motivation to succeed academically. Football athlete two and Football athlete three mentioned that they got their intrinsic motivation to succeed academically from seeing people within their family graduate with their college degrees. They wanted to continue with the success they already saw in their families.

Theme and Codes

Note. The figure represents the three codes that relate to the theme

As there was a high demand for the participants to manage athletics and academics, most participants mentioned that having a social life was essential. Research question two was associated with the theme of social life. There were positive interactions with others on campus. Six of the seven participants in the study mentioned that they had friends who were non-student-athletes. Male basketball player one and male basketball player two mentioned that they appreciated many non-student-athletes during college.

Female basketball player two mentioned that she had good relationships with other students in her major department as she believed that healthy relationships with others were important. Football athlete three and male basketball player one also mentioned they had good relationships with student-athletes and non-student-athletes.

Theme and Codes

Note. The figure represents the four codes that relate to the theme

Support from coaches and faculty members was one of the most compelling themes related to research question one. Six of the seven participants appreciated the support they received from their coaches and faculty members. All participants mentioned that support was necessary for their mental health and overall success. The support came in different forms that included scheduling, mentorship, and mental well-being.

DISCUSSION

Research Question One: What influence did faculty and staff at the HBCU have on Black male and female student-athletes when examining their mental health and intrinsic motivation to succeed academically?

The study’s findings revealed that faculty and staff had an impact on their student-athletes. Consistent with prior research by Penner et al. (2021), the friendly and supportive faculty/staff contributed to a sense of belonging. There was tremendous encouragement from the participant’s coaches and professors to excel in their education. In addition to the support from coaches and professors, two participants also mentioned that academic advisors played a tremendous role in their academic development. The study was consistent with the self-determination theory. As Ryan and Deci (2000) cited, competence, relatedness/connectedness, and autonomy are three conditions of the Self-Determination Theory (SDT) that influence intrinsic motivation. The support of faculty and coaches indicated autonomy and competence. Autonomous supportive teachers enhance their students’ intrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000).

All participants in the study mentioned that they experienced some form of anxiety and felt overwhelmed as a student-athlete. As the mental health of student-athletes is important, it is also vital to examine how they deal with their mental health issues. College faculty and administration should continue to take note of their role in minimizing the psychological distress of their students. Consistent with prior research conducted by Johnson (2022), mental health issues were a significant concern among the student-athletes.

It is important to note that two of the seven participants were female. There was a notable difference in the gender dynamics regarding mental health issues. In contrast to the male participants, the female participants heavily relied on their coaches for emotional support when they felt they missed their families. In addition, female basketball player one was the only participant who utilized the mental health services offered. The study revealed that the female participants were slightly more mindful of their psychological well-being.

At HBCUs, the significant presence of Black coaches and faculty members, in contrast to PWIs, has a profound cultural influence on their students. As Klopfenstein (2005) noted, culturally similar teachers can positively influence students of the same culture. The warmer relationship between coaches and their student-athletes at HBCUs, as reported by Murty et al. (2014), further underscores this cultural influence. Many participants expressed their gratitude for the support their coaches provided.

Collectively, the student-athlete’s narratives support faculty and staff’s critical role in their academic development. Five of the seven participants heavily relied on their coach’s support and mentioned that their coaches played a significant role in their academic development. Academic advisors also played a critical role and helped the student-athletes get through challenging tasks. The positive feedback and interactions from coaches, faculty, academic advisors, and family members helped the former student-athletes achieve autonomy and competence. The participants believed they were in an environment that fostered their ability to achieve their academic and athletic goals. According to the SDT, a competent individual would feel like they can master a task and have the confidence to succeed and grow (Ryan & Deci, 2020). Ryan and Deci (2020) stated that there is a link between intrinsic motivation and the fulfillment of the needs for autonomy and competence. This study highlights the influence of staff and faculty at the HBCU in encouraging the student-athlete’s intrinsic motivation to succeed academically.

Research Question Two: How has the overall environment at the HBCU helped the student manage their mental health and intrinsic motivation for academic success?

The participants benefited from the social life outside of athletics, and there was interaction and support from non-student-athletes on campus. Most participants appreciated the HBCU culture; they felt it was an overall supportive environment. The study revealed consistent findings with prior research conducted by Museus et al. (2018), which found that college students are more contented and have a better sense of belonging when around people from the same cultural background.

The study revealed that positive interactions with teammates and other student-athletes from different sports on campus were critical for success. In the SDT, people have a high sense of relatedness when they experience connections with other people, enhancing their sense of belonging (Ryan & Deci, 2020). Communication and support of other student-athletes were effortless due to the commonalities that they shared. In addition to the positive interactions with other student-athletes, participants also felt connected with non-student-athletes.

The study indicated that student-athletes who have connections and gain support from non-student-athletes can have a positive impact. The positive interaction with non-student-athletes on campus also enhanced a sense of belonging. The sense of belonging enhanced the participant’s intrinsic motivation because the interactions with others did not add stress, anxiety, or other mental health issues. A high sense of belonging can increase a student’s motivation, academic engagement, and confidence (Kelly et al., 2024).

The participants demonstrated high self-motivation, as six of the seven participants had high levels of intrinsic motivation to succeed in academics, leading to their college degrees. The participants wanted a promising career after college. The theme of self-motivation emphasized the role of outside influences, such as family and friends, on student-athletes. The interviews did not reveal that the participants had a high athletic identity. When student-athletes perceive themselves as having high levels of athletic identity, there is a negative correlation between their academic motivation and grade point averages (GPA) (Bimper, 2014).

None of the participants mentioned that they experienced any form of racism on campus. Previous studies cited that Black student-athletes experience racism at PWIs. Beamon (2014) stated that Black student-athletes felt negatively stereotyped at their PWI. Tran et al. (2021) stated that the perception of a student-athlete at PWIs is positive for White student-athletes and negative, with a disadvantage for Black student-athletes when considering their peers’ perception of their academic success and intelligence. The study participants did not feel negatively stereotyped as being academically inferior.

This study highlights HBCUs’ relevancy and cultural role to Black students, whether student-athletes or non-student-athletes. Shuler et al. (2022) noted that many Black students believe that HBCUs are culturally relevant and safe environments that are free from any racial hostility they perceive at PWIs. Furthermore, students who attend HBCUs are more likely to graduate and achieve advanced degrees (Shuler et al., 2022). As noted in the study, there is a heavy emphasis on academic achievement from coaches, faculty, and administration.

CONCLUSIONS

This study examined the mental health and intrinsic motivation of Black former student-athletes at one selected HBCU. The former student-athletes represented NCAA Division Ⅰ. Results indicated that family support and positive interactions with others on campus, including non-student-athletes, faculty, and coaches, can positively impact a student-athlete’s mental health. The research conducted highlighted the relevancy of the self-determination theory. When examining an individual’s potential for academic success, there is an emphasis on components of the theory (relatedness, autonomy, and competence) throughout the study. The NCAA must continue to encourage their institutions to accentuate the importance of managing the mental health of their student-athletes. Implementing policies that underline the importance of mental health services and resources can improve well-being. A limitation of this study is the selection of one HBCU. As the college experience can vary from person to person, researchers can expand this study to former NCAA Division Ⅰ student-athletes who attended other HBCUs. In addition, expanding to HBCU NCAA Division II and III would help get the perspective of student-athletes who compete at different levels. Another limitation was a focus on student-athletes who competed in football and basketball. Future research must consider student-athletes from various sports to build on this study’s findings. In addition, future research should explore the mental health and intrinsic motivation of Black former student-athletes who attended PWI compared to those who attended HBCUs. As there are different methodological approaches, a cross-sectional comparison with Black former student-athletes at PWIs and HBCUs would help understand the differences in the student’s environment, psychological health, and interactions with others.

APPLICATIONS IN SPORT

The NCAA can use this study to continue encouraging their student-athletes to use their schools’ mental health services. Additionally, this study can encourage the NCAA and other institutions to implement and update policies supporting mental health awareness. Administrators at HBCUs can use the information presented in this study to develop and implement policies geared toward their student-athletes. Moreover, this study can help faculty members and coaches better understand their role in helping student-athletes increase their psychological well-being and motivation to succeed academically.

George Minoso2025-08-11T08:11:47-05:00August 9th, 2025|General, Sports Health & Fitness, Sports Medicine, Sports Studies, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|Comments Off

The Novelty of New Stadiums: Evidence from 40 Years in Major League Baseball

Authors: Richard Flight¹and Mark Mitchell²

Mark Mitchell, DBA

Professor of Marketing

Associate Dean, Wall College of Business

NCAA Faculty Athletics Representative (FAR)

Coastal Carolina University

P. O. Box 261954

Conway, SC 29528

[email protected]

(843) 349-2392

Richard Flight, PhD is Associate Professor of Marketing at Coastal Carolina University in Conway, SC. He previously worked in minor league baseball with the Memphis Redbirds and Birmingham Barons as well as Division I college athletics at Samford University.

Mark Mitchell, DBA is Professor of Marketing at Coastal Carolina University in Conway, SC. He has served for 10 years as the NCAA Faculty Athletics Representative (FAR). He has conducted much research on minor league sports.

The Novelty of New Stadiums: Evidence from 40 Years in Major League Baseball

ABSTRACT

Purpose: The purpose of this study is to advance a new model to estimate the stadium novelty effect for newly-built Major League Baseball (MLB) stadiums over the last 40 years. Unlike prior studies that use nominal annual attendance data, this study uses marginal attendance change to capture the impact new stadiums have on attendance when mitigating (or controlling for) the impact that team performance has on attendance.

Methods: The incidence of the construction of new MLB stadiums is identified over a 40+ year period. Using a difference-in-differences (DiD) method, a base attendance model is estimated. Then, the new stadium construction observations are added to capture the effect they have on predicted attendance. Unique to this study, marginal change in attendance is used rather than change in (absolute) nominal attendance. Year-over-year percentage change in attendance helps nullify key deficiencies in prior studies such as stadium size disparities and variations in market size. Additionally, this research combines the effects of extensive team performance variables and player salaries to control for non-stadium externalities which also impact attendance.

Results: There have been 23 new MLB stadiums built from 1980-2023. Stadiums for expansion teams or team relocations are not included in this study. Collectively, the MLB teams that built new stadiums see, on average, a 29.6% increase in attendance during the first year in the new stadium with effects lasting up to 21 years. When controlling for other factors (player salaries, winning percentage and other team statistics) the novelty effect is significant (b = .216) in multiple regression analysis.

Conclusion: Teams that build new baseball stadiums can expect an increase in attendance when controlling for team performance and player salaries. This effect holds even while some new stadiums were purposefully built to have fewer fans and offer a ‘closer-to-game’ fan experience. In other cases, the addition of luxury boxes reduced the number of available seats but added a class of seats that demand a premium price from consumers. This strategy allowed teams to cultivate new fans and new revenue streams for their teams.

Application in Sport: A baseball stadium is a fixed asset with an anticipated lifespan. No stadium lasts forever in its original form. At some point, a stadium must be remodeled or replaced to meet the needs of current consumers or fans may shy away from attending games. New stadiums can help grow attendance, diversify the fan base, and develop new revenue streams to help teams compete financially in Major League Baseball.

Key Words: stadium novelty effect; Major League Baseball; attendance; new stadium construction; franchise expansion

The Novelty of New Stadiums: Evidence from 40 Years in Major League Baseball

INTRODUCTION

Ballpark managers, team owners, and city officials often cite lagging attendance as the prime reason to build new sport facilities and stadiums. They argue an out-of-date stadium discourages fan attendance and recommend the investment in new-and-improved stadiums. A key goal associated with building a new facility is revenue growth by increasing fan attendance with the promise of an enhanced fan experience, often with an expanded premium ticket and entertainment options. These new facilities often offer operating efficiencies with the use of new technology to lower operating costs and boost profit margins for stadium operators (28).

Historically, when a team builds a new stadium their observed attendance goes up (35). Anecdotally, a new facility brings greater enthusiasm from not only the fan base but also from media partners, advertisers, and players that see grandeur in the new stadium. For example, the Atlanta Braves moved from Turner Field (located in downtown Atlanta) to then-named SunTrust Park (located in the northern suburbs) in 2017. Total attendance for the first season at Sun Trust Park increased approximately 24% over the final season at Turner Field. The new stadium offered a comprehensive gameday experience including dining and shopping that went beyond a traditional baseball game. Further, the suburban location was more accessible to many fans, including expanded parking facilities (32). Though fan attendance can sometimes decline after the opening year (38), the average attendance per game in Atlanta’s SunTrust Park actually increased in year two and year three (3).

The purpose of this study is to advance a new method to estimate the Stadium Novelty Effect in Major League Baseball by examining newly-built MLB stadiums and the associated attendance figures over a 40+ year period. First, a brief description of relevant literature is provided. Next, the study methods are presented as well as the data analysis plan. Finally, the findings are presented and the implications for baseball team owners and communities are advanced.

THE IMPACT OF NEW STADIUMS IN SPORT

Fan Attendance and the Fan Experience

The phenomenon of attributing increased fan attendance to the introduction of a new stadium is known as the Stadium Novelty Effect (2, 7, 8, 14, 18, 27). This effect, also referred to as the Honeymoon Effect (4), has been observed in numerous applications including: European soccer (10, 35); baseball (6); basketball (5); and hockey (18).

There is broad agreement that attendance tends to increase with the introduction of a new stadium. There is less agreement on the duration of this positive impact on attendance. In early literature by Noll (26), the stadium novelty effect was estimated to last somewhere between seven and eleven years. More recently, Hamilton and Kahn (16) estimate a much shorter three-year duration of this temporary surge in attendance. Others suggest the temporary upward shift is followed by a return to the original attendance levels with limited long-term benefits (14, 36). Howard and Crompton (18) conclude that the initial stadium novelty effect is limited often to just a single year with eventual declines after the first year in the new facility after studying NFL, MLB, NBA and NHL leagues. Most recently, Bradbury (5) suggested a new stadium will bring an initial surge in attendance that breaks down over the initial ten-year period.

One motivation for new stadium construction and renovation is the fan’s experience based upon the facility and its service environment. It must be noted, however, that sport fans can vary in their degree of fandom and their subsequent expectations during game attendance. Both Hoehn and Szymanski (17) and Porat (30) detail a spectrum from casual to involved or committed. Meanwhile, Samra and Wos (33) provide a fan typology including temporary, devoted, and fanatical.

A seminal question to ask is ‘how do fans derive value from the ballpark experience?’ To varying degrees fans value the quality of on-the-field performance. They also value the experience of a game delivered in a safe, clean, and exciting environment provided by a new stadium. Frequently the call for greater amenities is made in the argument for building a new stadium. In fact, it is asserted that new stadiums may become attractions within themselves regardless of team performance (1, 18). The new stadium setting incorporates features that modern, state-of-the-art facilities are expected to have. The ‘stadium as an attraction’ position suggests that fans immerse themselves in the new stadium atmosphere regardless of team performance. In essence, the team’s performance may not be great, but the atmospherics of the stadium creates a pleasurable experience worth the cost and worthy of repeatedly returning for another game. In short, some fans place greater value on the on-field product, whereas others place it on the atmosphere and conditions of the stadium.

While fan experience is vital, the fan base’s devotion to the team and team brand will certainly influence their willingness to attend games. Some teams are known to have loyal fans and seemingly have little trouble reaching stadium capacity. The Chicago Tribune ranked all 30 major league baseball teams by team value (34). Not surprisingly, there is a significant correlation (r = .66) between this team valuation and average team attendance since 1980 (3). These estimated team valuations are provided in Table 1.

Table 1: MLB Teams Ranked by Team Valuation (with Corresponding Fan Attendance)

Rank	Team	2024 Valuation ($B)	Average Home Attend (1980-2023)
1	New York Yankees	5.59	2,986,328
2	Arizona Diamondbacks	4.28	2,353,169
3	Los Angeles Dodgers	3.75	3,333,426
4	Chicago Cubs	3.67	2,619,327
5	Boston Red Sox	3.6	2,583,650
6	San Francisco Giants	3.21	2,501,129
7	New York Mets	2.48	2,486,904
8	St. Louis Cardinals	2.235	2,998,742
9	Philadelphia Phillies	2.22	2,339,642
10	Houston Astros	2.19	2,167,333
11	Atlanta Braves	2.165	2,297,852
12	Los Angeles Angels	2.04	2,737,988
13	Washington Nationals	2.0	1,760,801
14	Texas Rangers	1.84	2,285,151
15	San Diego Padres	1.65	2,084,153
16	Seattle Mariners	1.62	2,009,274
17	Chicago White Sox	1.54	1,845,744
18	Toronto Blue Jays	1.53	2,460,458
19	Minnesota Twins	1.52	1,982,394
20	Baltimore Orioles	1.46	2,425,704
21	Cleveland Indians	1.375	1,843,168
22	Colorado Rockies	1.36	2,769,199
23	Detroit Tigers	1.33	2,144,746
24	Cincinnati Reds	1.325	2,016,894
25	Oakland Athletics	1.3	1,769,573
26	Milwaukee Brewers	1.29	2,132,008
27	Pittsburgh Pirates	1.26	1,679,759
28	Miami Marlins	1.14	1,464,552
29	Kansas City Royals	1.1	1,845,441
30	Tampa Bay Rays	1.03	1,400,312

New Stadiums in MLB

While an expensive and disrupting proposition, building a new stadium is somewhat common in Major Lague Baseball. From 1980-2023, 23 new stadiums were built for non-expansion or relocation teams. Additionally, 5 other new stadiums were built for new franchises (including the Montreal Expos move to Washington, DC). The timing of new stadium constructions between 1980 – 2023 is presented in Figure 1. An overview of the stadiums themselves is provided in the Appendix.

Figure 1: Newly-Built Major League Baseball Stadiums by Year (1980-2023)

Over a thirty-year span the positive impacts of the new stadium effect have been measured by researchers using a variety of methods. Calculating the aggregate impact of new stadiums in Major League Baseball, Fort (11) provides a methodology typical of this research that specifies the difference between the first year in the new stadium and the previous five-year’s averages for those teams that built new stadiums. Fort (11) finds the change in attendance for a select period to be a positive net increase of 624,000 fans for teams that built new stadiums. Conversely, those teams that did not build new stadiums realized a net increase of 96,000 fans over the same time period.

While this common approach speaks to the impact new stadiums have on league attendance, debate continues as to the team and market specific nature of the stadium novelty effect and how to best measure them. Recently, van Ours (35) employed a ‘difference-in-differences’ (DiD) method with a sample of 8 Dutch stadiums. Here, the researchers used a control group to establish an initial model, then introduced new stadium data and observed the change or difference between the two in a two-way fixed effect regression.

This study also uses the ‘difference in differences’ (DiD) method. Unlike prior studies that use attendance per team while also employing time-dependent independent variables, this study uses percentage change in attendance from the immediate prior year for each team including those with new stadiums. Using marginal (or percentage) change in attendance from the prior year marks a deviation from prior studies that use nominal annual attendance as the dependent variable with additional prior years attendances as independent variables. Using prior attendance as independent variables, as in time series modeling, generates significant multi-collinearity concerns and effectively overfits most lagged time series or autoregressive moving average (ARIMA) models. Using nominal change in attendance from one year prior does not carryover anticipated attendance which tends to overfit the model. Further, the use of marginal annual change mitigates the effects of wide variations in both stadium and market sizes across the vast time horizon studied here.

METHODS

This study uses Major League Baseball attendance records, team on-field performance, and new stadium construction data from the 1980 through 2023 playing seasons. In all, 30 teams are represented in the total data set with 23 new stadiums built during that 40+ year time span. The initial subject pool includes Major League Baseball (MLB) team attendance and performance data from 1979 through 2023 which were accessed and downloaded from the data aggregator baseball-reference.com (a depository for sports performance data). The data analysis plan for this study consisted of three stages.

Stage One

The purpose of Stage One is to collect team performance and fan attendance data. Refinements will be made to the data where warranted. For example, team relocations or the awarding of expansion teams do not offer a before-and-after scenario to analyze the stadium novelty effect. So, the data for these years will be excluded. In addition, data attached to seasons that experienced work stoppages are also excluded as it is assumed attendance figures tied to these reasons are atypical for a variety of reasons (such as fan resentment, etc.). Finally, fan attendance data during the COVID-19 period were eliminated as fan attendance limits, public health concerns, and lingering fan apprehension to attend group events impacted game attendance.

Stage Two

The purpose of Stage Two is to develop a base model to predict fan attendance in the absence of a new stadium using the difference-in-difference methodology. Then, team performance and team salary data for each year and team is regressed on the percentage change in team attendance from year to year (the dependent variable). This model can be used to predict attendance and will be later extended to include the effects of new stadiums in Stage Three.

Stage Three

The purpose of Stage Three is to add new stadium attendance observations to the base model along with the addition of a dummy variable to identify these figures as attached to the introduction of a new stadium. It is here that the final results are calculated and the summary findings advanced.

PRESENTATION OF DATA ANALYSIS

Stage One – Refining the Sample Size

Team performance and attendance data were downloaded by team and year from 1980-2023 (inclusive). 26 teams played from 1980-1992, with expansion to 28 teams in 1993, and then again to 30 teams in 1998. Counting each team during this time span, there are 1,288 observations in the initial data set. As previously noted, this study uses a ‘difference-in-differences’ or DiD approach. Bradbury (5) states “a primary concern with DiD comparisons is the selection of control units that are devoid of treatment effects; therefore, it is imperative to exclude observations of teams that may be experiencing novelty influences from existing venues or entering new markets through team relocations and league expansions.” For this reason, new stadium observations were omitted for expansion franchises, including Colorado (1993), Florida (1993), Tampa Bay (1998), and Arizona (1998). Additionally, the relocation of the Montreal Expos to Washington, DC in 2005 was also omitted given the new stadium in a new market had no comparable previous season attendance data.

Impact of Labor Disputes. During the timeline of the study, there were two significant work stoppages (1981 and 1994) due to labor-management disputes. These years pose two challenges observed in the data.

During each strike year, the dependent variable (percent change in attendance) was (on average) noticeably lower than expected.

During the year following the 1981 strike (1982), the dependent variable was (on average) noticeably greater than expected.

These two anomalies lead to an uncontrollable externality that isn’t explained by performance, marketing, or stadium effects and warrant exclusion. As such, the seasons of 1981, 1982, and 1994 are excluded from this analysis.

Impact of COVID-19 Global Pandemic. The 2020 MLB regular season was reduced to 60 games and played without fans. The post-season was played at neutral sites (Globe Life Field Arlington, TX; Minute Maid Park in Houston, TX; Petco Park in San Diego, CA; and Dodger Stadium in Los Angeles, CA). Given the lack of fans (and attendance data), the 2020 season was excluded from this analysis.

Impact of Pent-Up Demand Following Global Pandemic. The lingering effects of COVID seem to decline during the 2022 season as evidenced by the spike in game attendance. This behavioral change by fans caused the dependent variable (percent change in attendance) to be greater than expected for the 2022 season. As illustrated in Figure 2, the reader will note the high and low spikes in average percent change in attendance. These ‘dips’ and ‘spikes’ represent externalities outside the scope of this study. As such, the 2022 season was also excluded from this analysis.

Figure 2: Average Percent Change in MLB Attendance by Year (1980-2023)

Tracking the Revisions to the Sample. Collectively, five MLB seasons (1981, 1982, 1994, 2020, and 2022 we excluded from this analysis for the reasons noted above. Additional data adjustments included accounting for individual abnormal ‘outlier’ observations. Individual observation outliers are identified using Mahalonabis Distance2 analysis (15). In doing so, 117 observations are found to be structurally outside of the norm and were also excluded from this analysis. The final data set consists of 1,001 observations for study analysis. A summary of refinement process that affected the sample size is provided in Table 2.

Table 2: Summary of the Refined Sample Size Used in This Analysis

	Existing Stadiums	New Stadiums	TOTAL
All Years	1,206	23	1,228
Excluding franchise expansion, relocations, strike and COVID effected years.	1095	23	1118
Final sample excluding outliers.	978	23	1,001

Stage Two – Creating the Base Model to Predict Attendance (Without New Stadium Data)

Following a difference-in-differences (DiD) methodology (see 5, 35), this stage creates a base model to predict attendance in the absence of any new stadiums. This base model specifies the predictive ability of team variables (such an on-field player performance and player salaries) on attendance. Team performance and salary data from each eligible team and year (i.e., where no new stadium or major stadium renovations occurred) is regressed on the percentage change in attendance (dependent variable). This base model will first be used to predict attendance while later this base model will be extended to include the effect of new stadiums.

While year-over-year marginal change in attendance is the dependent variable, the independent variables include team statistics for offense, defense, and pitching as well as total player payroll (see Table 3 for list of variables). Prior literature has incorporated a limited selection of performance variables and team salary and lagged prior year attendance to predict attendance. Our approach is to incorporate 28 performance variables simultaneously:

Team (4 variables)

Offense (13 variables)

Pitching (6 variables)

Defense (5 variables)

By doing so, the model is able to construct a broader test of variables which may affect attendance. As an economic growth component, payroll suggests that greater player payrolls translate into better on-field performance which impacts attendance (21). It should be noted that the model specification does not incorporate time dependent variables as one might find in a time series analysis. Thus, there is not a controlling element for economic inflation or timely building trends that may emerge over a 40-year time horizon. While league expansion has taken place, study does not use new stadiums as there is no pre- and post-construction paired data.

Table 3: Independent Variables Used in Base Model

Variable Categories	Variable	Description
Team:	Salary	Estimated player payroll. (Standardized)
	Win Percentage	Total wins divided by games played.
	Home Win Percentage	Total wins divided by games played at home only.
	Run Difference	Average difference in runs scored vs runs allowed.

Offense:	Runs Scored per game	Average runs scored per game.
	Hits	Number of hits in the year.
	Doubles	Number of doubles in the year.
	Triples	Number of triples in the year
	Home Runs	Number of home runs in the year.
	Runs Batted In	Number of Runs-Batted-In in the year.
	Stolen Bases	Number of bases stolen in the year.
	Caught Stealing	Times caught stealing in the year.
	Batter Walks	Number of walks in the year.
	Batter Strike Outs	Total batter strike outs in the year.
	Team Batting Average	Number of hits divided by at bats for the team.
	On-Base Percentage	Times reached base divided by plate appearances.
	Slugging Percentage	Percentage of hits weighted by based reached.

Pitching:	Runs Allowed Per game	Average runs allowed per game.
	Team ERA	Average runs given up divided by 9.
	Hits Allowed	Hits allowed by pitchers in a year.
	Home Runs Allowed	Home runs allowed in a year.
	Walks Allowed	Walks allowed in the year.
	Strike Outs Pitched	Strike outs pitched in the year.

Defense:	Defensive Efficiency	Estimate of balls in play that result in converted outs.
	Assists	Assists made in the year.
	Errors Committed	Errors committed in the year.
	Double Plays Turned	Double Plays made in the year.
	Fielding Percentage	(Putouts + Assists) / (Putouts + Assists + Errors)

Using IBM’s SPSS (version 29.0.1.0) a liner regression is performed using a stepwise entry method for variable selection. This method allows the most attractive variables to be entered into the model first, while consecutively testing, dropping, and adding variables until the best-fitting model emerges.

Stage Three – Creating the Extended Model to Include New Stadium Data

Once a base model is estimated, new stadium attendance observations are added to the sample along with a dummy variable coded for new stadium observations. As noted earlier, 23 new stadiums (observations) are added during this stage which are reflected in this new variable. The new variable that is built into the model during this stage accounts for the presence of a new stadium, coded by ‘1’ while all other observations (existing stadiums) are coded ‘0’. If the stadium novelty effect exists, then the regression coefficient (beta) for the new dummy variable will be significant and the model fit (r2) will improve. Similar to Stage Two, the dependent variables were retained by using a stepwise entry method for variable selection. This stage provides a comparative model directed by the difference-in-difference approach.

RESULTS

Predictive Models

Base Model Without New Stadium Data. A primary goal of this study is to measure the stadium novelty effect while controlling for the influence of team performance and player salaries. During Stage Two, a base model is estimated using a stepwise regression which retained the best predictive variables and strongest model fit. The sample under investigation for base-mode specification has 978 observations resulting in an adjusted r2 fit of .198 and significant F statistic. (see Table 4).

Table 4: Base Model Fit Statistics and Coefficient Estimates

R	R Square	Adjusted R Square	Std. Error of the Estimate
0.450	0.202	0.198	0.155

	Sum of Squares	Df	Mean Square	F	Sig.
Regression	5.579	5	1.116	46.429	<.001
Residual	22.012	916	.024
Total	27.591	921

	Unstandardized Coefficients (Beta)	Std. Error	Standardized Coefficients (Beta)	t	Sig.	VIF
(Constant)	-.977	.113		-8.627	<.001
Winning Percentage	.957	.084	.372	11.345	<.001	1.35
Salary	-.043	.007	-.251	-5.862	<.001	2.112
Strikeouts / Game	.025	.007	.159	3.648	<.001	2.189
Hits	.000	.000	.102	3.146	.002	1.197
Stolen Bases	.000	.000	.083	2.645	.008	1.120

Extended Model Including New Stadium Data. Upon the addition of new stadium observations during Stage Three, the extended model demonstrates an increase in model fit (r2) from .198 to .230. Moreover, the new stadium dummy variable is significant (.001) and strong when compared to the other variable’s standardized betas, at .216, only “winning percentage” and “batting average” serve as better predictors of changes in attendance from year to year. (see Table 5).

Table 5: Extended Model (with New Stadium Variable) Fit Statistics and Coefficient Estimates

R	R Square	Adjusted R Square	Std. Error of the Estimate
.486	0.236	0.230	0.157


	Sum of Squares	Df	Mean Square	F	Sig.
Regression	7.085	7	1.012	41.199	<.001
Residual	22.921	933	.025
Total	30.006	940


	Unstandardized Coefficients (Beta)	Std. Error	Standardized Coefficients (Beta)	t	Sig.	VIF
(Constant)	-.730	.072		-10.201	<.001
Winning Percentage	.950	.093	.359	10.240	<.001	1.502
New Stadium	.274	.037	.216	7.480	<.001	1.016
Salary	-.050	.007	-.277	-6.627	<.001	2.138
Strike Outs / Game	.023	.007	.139	3.362	<.001	2.075
RBIs	.000	.000	.151	3.937	<.001	1.789
Walks (Hitter)	.000	.000	-.109	-3.019	.003	1.600
Stolen Bases	.000	.000	.073	2.396	.017	1.124

The Magnitude of Stadium Novelty Effects

In this study we define the year prior to a new stadium as a “base-year” and then compare attendance in the new stadium to the base-year. This comparative process found an average change in attendance of 29.6% during the first year of play in a newly-constructed stadium. This 29.6% increase in attendance equates to an average increase of 762,263 fans for a new stadium’s inaugural season. Meanwhile, average marginal change for each successive year remains positive until year 21 as illustrated in Figure 3. By comparison, the average annual change in attendance increases for non-new stadium observations was just 2.36%, or an average increase of 63,553 fans for the study timeframe.

Figure 3: Average Percentage Change in Fan Attendance by Stadium Age

As other studies indicate, attendance attributed to a new stadium is greatest during the first year and diminishes over time. In fact, based on study data new MLB attendance appears to decay at a rate of 1.19% per year after the introduction of the new stadium given the correlation of stadium age (in years) and percent change in attendance (r = .84). While it is unclear if all the factors contribute to attendance decay, it is plausible that the newness or novelty of the stadium diminishes while its new amenities become outdated and/or worn out. This study appears to provide a longer and slower decline in attendance extending Noll (26) that finds the stadium novelty effect is between seven and eleven years and dismisses the one-to-three-year effects that Hamilton and Kahn (16), Voight (36), Greenberg and Gray (14), and Howard and Crompton (18) all find.

A novelty of these findings is the approach used by defining the dependent variable as percent change in attendance in an effort to remove externalities that cannot be controlled across franchises. Annual attendance models using nominal annual attendance fail to capture the effect of stadium size variations and the size of the attendance variable which overweighs time-series data and can capture a very large portion of systemic error from year to year.

The Impact of On-Field Team Performance

This study further advances the current literature on stadium novelty effects by testing numerous team performance variables. Prior studies included a limited number of team performance variables such as “winning percentage” or “playoff appearances” (22). This study’s initial variable pool of 28 performance-related variables offers a more exhaustive list of performance metrics to (assumedly) better capture the influence of team performance on attendance in the presence of stadium novelty effects. In doing so, we find that five variables play a significant role in determining attendance, including: (a) winning percentage (b=.354, <.001); (b) strikeouts per game (b=.139, <.001); (c) RBIs (b=.151, <.001); (d) walks by hitter (b=-.109, .003); and (e) stolen bases (b=.073, .017). Meanwhile, team player salary (b=-.277, <.001), while a significant variable, appears to be negatively associated with attendance change. This finding is unusual and unexpected based on common perceptions that higher paid athletes tend to attract more attention.

As noted, a team’s winning percentage is found to be a key performance driver to attendance. As one can imagine, teams that perform better attract more fans. Data suggests that there is a significant correlation (r = .477) between winning percentage and home attendance figures (3). Likewise, “team ERA” is negatively associated with attendance (r = -.208) and “team batting average” is positively correlated with attendance (r = .221). In short, fans generally show up in greater numbers when teams improve on-field performance. On average, teams realize a modest 1.2% increase in home winning percentage a year after the new stadium is built, which is consistently found in other research (see 19, 20, 29, 31, 37).

CONCLUSIONS

This research builds further support for the impact new stadiums have on short-term fan attendance and financial outcomes. The building of a new stadium can be expected to increase season attendance by 29.3% for the first year of play. That elevated first-year attendance does not last forever. Rather, it tends to decline by approximately 1% per year for the next 20 years. During this entire 20-year span, overall fan attendance tends to remains higher than would have been predicted had the new stadium not been built in the first place.

By (a) modifying the dependent variable to a percent change in attendance and (b) including many more performance indicators as dependent variables, this study adds to the richness of the ongoing research into stadium novelty effects. Limitations of the study include the lack of multi-sport applications as this study focuses on Major League Baseball and does not include other professional sports such as soccer, football, or basketball. In addition, it does not include developmental and/or non-professional leagues.

Moreover, we do not account for cultural trends that may occur promoting or detracting from new stadium construction. Notably, over the time horizon, stadiums have moved from large capacity multi-use facilities to smaller ‘baseball-only’ spaces. Also, there is an increasing trend to re-locate stadiums outside of dense urban areas, Finally, the trend of sprawling multi-business complex models has also added to the art of new stadium construction. Today, new stadiums are built with an economic ecosystem surrounding the facility to include dining, entertainment, and other hospitality venues such as hotels. Finally, the model outlined in this research, while demonstrating sufficient fit statistics, fails to capture all the variation in marginal attendance change on a year-over-year basis. As such, future research should seek to include additional independent variables that can improve the model.

Stadium novelty effects are real and substantial. This study presents a new method to be used to measure and predict their impact on total attendance in any sport and at any level (college, professional, etc.).

APPLICATION IN SPORT

A baseball stadium is a fixed asset with an anticipated lifespan. No stadium lasts forever in its original form. At some point, a stadium must be remodeled or replaced to meet the needs of current consumers or fans may shy away from attending games. New stadiums can help grow attendance, diversify the fan base, and develop new revenue streams to help teams compete financially in Major League Baseball. While, new stadiums represent new branding opportunities, they also offer teams the opportunity to reach new audiences with improved and updated amenities. These benefits likely translate to greater financial outcomes for the team, however the financial debate is complicated affecting many stakeholders. While team owners may be obvious benefactors, the financial incentives offered by local governing bodies reflect a mutual perceived benefit from the broader tax-paying community.

As noted above, the introduction of a new stadium tends to trigger a large increase in first year attendance (over 29%) and while that figure tends to decline over time, the net result is that total attendance tends to stay higher than it would have been in the absence of new stadium construction for the next 20 years. This suggests local governments should be willing to consider some level of public financing for stadium construction for a minimum of 20 years, and possibly longer.

For teams that played in the 1980 MLB season, 6 teams continue to play in their original (albeit updated) stadiums: Boston Red Sox; Chicago Cubs; Kansas City Royals; Los Angeles Angels; Los Angeles Dodgers; and Oakland Athletics. Sixteen MLB teams have occupied 2 stadiums over this period while 3 teams have played in 3 different home stadiums over this 40+ year period. One team (the Montreal Expos) relocated to Washington, DC.

At the time of this writing, 3 new MLB ballparks have been projected including the Oakland A’s new park in Las Vegas with an estimated price tag of $1.75 billion as well as new parks in Tampa Bay and Kansas City. Meanwhile, the Chicago White Sox are exploring new park opportunities (9, 12). Beyond Major League Baseball, new stadium construction is viewed as an integral part of any team brand and fan-base strategy. At least five new Minor League Baseball parks have been built since 2020 including: Beloit Sky Carp’s ABC Supply Stadium; Kannapolis Cannon Ballers’ Atrium Health Ballpark; Worcester Red Sox’ Polar Park; Rocket City Trash Pandas’ Toyota Field; and the Wichita Wind Surge’s Riverfront Stadium (23, 25). It will be interesting to see the impact of these new stadiums on fan attendance in their respective cities.

The issue of new stadium construction and/or the massive remodel of existing baseball stadiums is also taking place in NCAA Division I baseball. The Board of Regents of Georgia State University (located in downtown Atlanta) have approved the construction of a new downtown baseball stadium in the footprint of the old Atlanta-Fulton County Stadium. The new stadium will allow the team to play closer to campus than their current stadium which is located 12 miles from their center-city location (13). Old Dominion University will play its entire 2025 baseball season in away games and/or nearby minor league stadiums (as available) as it remodels its on-campus baseball stadium (24).

Over the last decade, many schools in the Southeastern Conference (such as the University of Florida, University of Kentucky, Mississippi State University, and the University of South Carolina) have greatly expanded, or even replaced, their college baseball stadiums. This wave of stadium updates is expected to continue and spread to other sports and facilities. These new stadiums may possibly extend the research on stadium novelty effects into college sports.

Sports fans have many options for their time, attention, and entertainment dollar. Teams cannot assume casual fans will continue to attend games just because it is part of the local culture. Increasingly demanding fans want an updated fan experience, even in historical stadiums like Wrigley Field in Chicago or Fenway Park in Boston. This study demonstrates that overall attendance goes up when new MLB stadiums are built. While this spiked year-one attendance may decline modestly each year, this ‘decline’ is from an elevated number of fans due to the introduction of new stadium in prior years. So, in an interesting way, the ‘bonus attendance’ of the new stadium provides the cushion (or pays for) the modest reductions in attendance over time. Then, at some point in the future, the team may begin discussions of replacing their now 30-year-old stadium (again).

CONCLUDING REMARKS

When baseball fans wax poetically about their memories of MLB games from their childhoods, these descriptions are not limited to their favorite players. Embedded in these memories are the sights-and-sounds of the stadium, such as the glow of the lights for a night game, the call of the popcorn vendors, or the smell of a hot dog cooking on the grill. Enhancing the in-stadium fan experience is an integral part of success in the sports industry of today.

As noted earlier, 3 MLB teams have played in 3 different home stadiums over the timeframe of this study:

Atlanta Braves: Atlanta-Fulton County Stadium to Turner Field to the current Truist Park.

Minnesota Twins: Metropolitan Stadium to the Hubert Humphry Metrodome to the current Target Field.

Texas Rangers: Arlington Stadium to The Ballpark at Arlington to the current Globe Life Field.

It will be interesting to see the lifespan of these newer stadiums. When Atlanta-Fulton County Stadium, Metropolitan Stadium and Arlington Stadium were all originally constructed, no one could dream of the day when these shining new stadiums would be replaced. Living decades in the future, we know ‘the rest of the story.’ These stadiums have been replaced … and their replacement stadiums have been replaced. The long-term cycle continues.

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George Minoso2025-05-16T09:56:27-05:00July 26th, 2025|General, Sport Education, Sports Facilities, Sports Management|Comments Off

From Classroom to Kickoff: A Case Study on the Perceived Value and Career Impact of Experiential Learning at the Super Bowl for Sport Management Students

Joshua S. Greer¹, Jason Grindstaff², Noa Stroop³

Dr. Joshua S. Greer serves as an Assistant Professor and Program Director for both the graduate and undergraduate Sport Management programs at Cumberland University. He also fulfills the role of Internship Coordinator for Exercise Science and Sport Management within the Jeanette C. Rudy School of Nursing and Health Professions. Dr. Greer holds a B.S. from the University of Tennessee at Martin, an M.Ed. from Bethel University, and an Ed.D. from the United States Sports Academy. His academic interests focus on experiential learning, sport marketing, and industry engagement, aiming to prepare students for dynamic careers in the sport industry.

Dr. Jason S. Grindstaff is the Interim Dean of the Jeanette C. Rudy School of Nursing and Health Professions at Cumberland University, where he has been a faculty member since 2010. He has taught across undergraduate and graduate programs in Exercise & Sport Science and has held leadership roles including Program Director for the Master of Sport & Exercise Science, Executive Director of the Honors Program, and Chair of the Academic Integrity Board. Dr. Grindstaff earned his B.A. from Dakota Wesleyan University, two M.S. degrees and a Ph.D. from the University of Tennessee, Knoxville, and an M.B.A. from Cumberland University.

Dr. Noa D. Stroop is an Assistant Professor of Business at Cumberland University. He completed both his B.S. and M.B.A. at Tennessee Technological University and earned his D.B.A. from Trevecca Nazarene University. Dr. Stroop’s professional background includes roles as a consultant, coach, and business leader. At Cumberland, he focuses on delivering practical, student-centered business education, integrating real-world applications into his teaching.

Joshua S. Greer. https://orcid.org/0009-0005-2890-1673

We have no known conflict of interest to disclose.

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Joshua S. Greer, 230 Foxfire Road, Paris, Tennessee 38242. Email: [email protected]

Abstract
Experiential learning is a foundational component of sport management education, offering students the opportunity to apply theoretical knowledge in real-world settings. Grounded in Kolb’s Experiential Learning Theory, this case study investigates the perceived value and career impact of an immersive experiential learning opportunity at the NFL Super Bowl. Using a mixed-methods approach, data were collected from 11 undergraduate and graduate sport management students through a structured survey instrument. Paired samples t-tests were used to assess the alignment between students’ pre-event expectations and their post-event perceptions, while Pearson correlation analysis examined relationships between networking confidence and career-related outcomes.

Results revealed that students’ actual experiences exceeded their expectations in terms of professional development (t(9) = 3.67, p = 0.005), while expectations regarding a competitive edge remained consistent with post-event perceptions (t(9) = -0.56, p = 0.591). Strong positive correlations were found between networking confidence and key career outcomes, including meaningful connections (r = 0.84, p = 0.002) and perceived job prospects (r = 0.90, p < 0.001). These findings emphasize the importance of structured, high-impact experiential learning opportunities in developing students’ professional readiness and self-efficacy.
The study offers actionable insights for educators and program administrators, emphasizing the need to set realistic expectations while maximizing long-term career development through experiential learning. Recommendations include expanding access to immersive experiences and integrating reflective components to reinforce the value of applied learning in sport management curricula.

Key Words: experiential learning, sport management education, Super Bowl, career development, student perceptions, networking confidence, Kolb’s Experiential Learning Theory, applied learning, professional readiness, event-based learning

From Classroom to Kickoff: A Case Study on the Perceived Value and Career Impact of Experiential Learning at the Super Bowl for Sport Management Students
Experiential learning has emerged as a cornerstone of sport management education, offering students practical experiences that bridge theoretical knowledge with the complexities of real-world practice. Grounded in Kolb’s Experiential Learning Theory, this pedagogical approach has informed the design of various instructional strategies, including capstone projects, industry simulations, and problem-based learning (Bower, 2013). The incorporation of experiential components within sport management curricula not only fosters the development of technical and interpersonal skills but also enhances students’ employability by immersing them in authentic, applied contexts (DeLuca & Fornatora, 2020; Faure & Ray, 2021).

This case study explores the perceived value and career impact of participating in an immersive experiential learning opportunity at the NFL Super Bowl for sport management students. Specifically, it investigates the extent to which guided, real-world experiences influence students’ confidence in pursuing careers in the sport industry and examines the alignment between their pre-event expectations and the professional benefits perceived post-participation. Utilizing survey data from student participants, the study contributes to the expanding literature on experiential learning in sport management education by providing empirical insights into its efficacy. The findings offer practical implications for educators, curriculum developers, and industry stakeholders seeking to enhance student career readiness through intentionally designed, high-impact experiential learning initiatives.

Literature Review
In response to the growing complexity and competitiveness of the sport industry, academic institutions have increasingly recognized the need to integrate experiential learning into sport management curricula. Traditional lecture-based instruction, while foundational, often falls short in preparing students for the multifaceted demands of the professional sport environment. As a result, experiential learning has emerged as a critical pedagogical approach, bridging the gap between theoretical instruction and real-world application. Grounded in Kolb’s Experiential Learning Theory, this educational strategy encompasses internships, client-based projects, event planning, consulting practicums, and blended learning environments—all of which immerse students in authentic industry settings. A growing body of literature demonstrates that such experiences not only enhance technical and interpersonal competencies but also foster critical career readiness attributes, including problem-solving, adaptability, communication, and leadership (Faure & Ray, 2021; Barefoot et al., 2023; Song et al., 2021). Furthermore, structured experiential opportunities facilitate professional networking, mitigate employment anxiety, and strengthen students’ confidence in their career trajectories (Chan, 2023; Wei & Fu, 2024). This case study explores the multidimensional value of experiential learning within sport management education, emphasizing its role in cultivating career preparedness, professional identity, and industry engagement through both in-person and virtual platforms.

Experiential Learning in Sport Management
Research continues to highlight the value of experiential learning in cultivating core competencies in sport management students. For instance, Faure and Ray (2021) demonstrated that student participation in a National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) championship event served as a meaningful capstone experience, sharpening real-time problem-solving and organizational skills. Similarly, interdisciplinary, problem-based learning environments have been found to improve oral communication and data analysis capabilities through engagement with complex, profession-relevant scenarios (Song et al., 2021). Additionally, applied improvisation exercises have been shown to facilitate the development of meta-skills—such as adaptability and collaboration—that are increasingly valuable across sport management domains (Barefoot et al., 2023). Service-learning models, which build upon traditional internships by embedding guided engagement, offer further opportunities for students to apply classroom learning while contributing to societal needs (Gipson et al., 2023).
The integration of experiential learning within sport management programs is inherently multifaceted. Educators utilize various strategies—including internships, guided field-based projects, and blended learning environments—to address the evolving demands of the sport industry. Structured activities such as facility inspections and managerial interviews provide students with hands-on experiences that mirror operational realities within sport organizations (Diacin, 2018). Concurrently, hybrid learning models that combine in-person instruction with digital tools support flexibility in pedagogy and promote consistent engagement across experiential initiatives (Lower‐Hoppe et al., 2019). Recommendations for improving experiential learning practices, particularly internships—emphasize the need for continual assessment and innovation to better align educational outcomes with industry expectations (Brown et al., 2018; Sattler, 2018).
Collectively, these approaches highlight the significance of experiential learning as both a theoretical framework and a practical mechanism for enhancing professional preparedness in sport management. As the field continues to evolve in response to industry shifts, experiential learning remains essential for equipping graduates with the critical thinking, decision-making, and reflective capacities necessary for sustained career success.

The Importance of Experiential Learning in Sport Management Curricula
The integration of experiential learning into sport management curricula is increasingly acknowledged as a critical component for preparing students to navigate the complexities of a dynamic and competitive job market. Faure and Ray (2021) emphasize the effectiveness of capstone experiences in promoting student readiness, noting that hands-on learning cultivates both confidence and professional competence. In alignment with this perspective, Southall et al. (2003) contend that the inherently competitive nature of the sport industry demands a strong experiential foundation to ensure that graduates possess the practical skills and applied knowledge necessary for success. Gipson et al. (2023) further reinforce the value of immersive learning opportunities—such as internships and structured, guided-learning projects—as essential mechanisms for bridging the gap between theoretical instruction and real-world application. These experiences not only deepen student engagement but also foster critical thinking, adaptability, and problem-solving capabilities, which are essential for sustained professional growth in the sport industry.

A growing body of research supports the idea that experiential learning aligns with the industry’s increasing demand for professionals who can seamlessly apply their knowledge in various sport-related contexts. Traditional lecture-based instruction, while foundational, often falls short in equipping students with the practical skills required to navigate the complexities of sport management. By contrast, experiential learning models encourage students to engage in active learning environments, allowing them to develop competencies in areas such as leadership, teamwork, communication, and adaptability—skills that are highly valued by employers in the field.

Methodologies and Strategies in Experiential Learning
A variety of experiential learning strategies have been implemented across sport management programs, each offering unique benefits to students. One such method is the use of client-based projects, particularly in sport sales courses. Pierce (2018) illustrates how these projects not only engage students but also simulate real-world sales environments, fostering practical experience in negotiations, client relations, and revenue generation. Similarly, Bower (2013) discusses the application of Kolb’s Experiential Learning Theory in organizing events such as golf scrambles, which provide students with opportunities to engage in hands-on event management and problem-solving.

Guided-learning projects and internships are among the most effective experiential learning strategies in sport management education. These initiatives allow students to work directly with sport organizations, gaining firsthand exposure to industry challenges and operations. Coffey and Davis (2019) note that these experiences are particularly valuable for student-athletes, as they help translate their on-field teamwork and leadership skills into professional settings. Additionally, guided-learning projects often involve community engagement, which enhances students’ understanding of corporate social responsibility and the broader impact of sport organizations.

Faculty mentorship and supervision also play a crucial role in the success of experiential learning programs. Deluca and Fornatora (2020) argue that faculty guidance during applied coursework is vital for maximizing learning outcomes, as instructors help students navigate complex projects and reflect on their experiences. This perspective is echoed by Pierce and Petersen (2010), who emphasize the importance of assessing student learning outcomes in experiential settings to quantify the effectiveness of these educational experiences. Assessment tools such as reflective journals, portfolio development, and performance evaluations ensure that experiential learning remains structured, and outcome driven.

The Role of Blended Learning in Experiential Education
As technology continues to reshape education, blended learning approaches have gained traction in sport management programs. Lower-Hoppe et al. (2019) propose that combining online and face-to-face instruction can optimize learning outcomes by accommodating diverse learning styles while maintaining the integrity of experiential projects. This approach is particularly relevant in sport event management courses, where students can engage in virtual simulations, case studies, and live event planning.
Blended learning also facilitates greater accessibility to experiential opportunities, particularly for students who may face geographic or financial barriers to participating in traditional internships. Online platforms enable students to engage with sport professionals, analyze real-time industry data, and develop strategic solutions to contemporary sport management issues. By integrating digital tools with hands-on experiences, educators can create a more inclusive and effective learning environment.

Networking Opportunities
Experiential learning has emerged as a crucial pedagogical strategy to enhance both networking and career readiness among students. In particular, work-integrated learning opportunities—including internships, consulting practicums, and co‐curricular activities enable students to develop career readiness attributes by providing direct exposure to workplace practices and professional networks. Chan (2023) argues that exposing students to diverse, real‐world situations through hands-on learning not only develops essential work readiness skills but also creates networking opportunities that can significantly influence career outcomes. Similarly, Mayorga (2019) demonstrates that higher education institutions can effectively develop career readiness through incubator programs that immerse students in authentic, situational learning environments, thereby facilitating connections with industry professionals.

Structured experiential initiatives also foster networking by placing students in scenarios where practical skills blend with professional interactions. Jackson and Bridgstock (2020) highlight that work-integrated learning activities, such as internships, guided field experiences, and practicum placements, are instrumental in forging meaningful interactions with industry practitioners. This interaction is further emphasized by Akpan (2016), who shows that consulting practicums effectively equip students with the necessary career skills while simultaneously providing platforms for networking with experienced professionals. Prather (2007) documents that internships allow students to experience a connected learning environment where classroom theory is continuously integrated with workplace practices, thus promoting both skill acquisition and the expansion of professional networks.

The design and implementation of experiential learning modules play a critical role in fostering career readiness by promoting reflective practices that enhance self-assessment and informed decision-making. Wart et al. (2020) and Aithal and Mishra (2024) emphasize that hands-on experiences coupled with structured reflection enable students to refine their professional identities and clarify their career goals. These reflective processes are vital not only for the development of technical competencies but also for cultivating essential soft skills such as communication, adaptability, and leadership, which are crucial for effective professional networking.

In addition to traditional in-person experiences, the incorporation of virtual platforms into experiential learning offers expanded opportunities for career development. Combs, Joyce, and Bynum (2024) demonstrate that digital environments can effectively support networking by connecting students with mentors and industry professionals, particularly when geographic or logistical barriers limit face-to-face interaction.

Experiential learning also addresses the psychological dimensions of career preparation, such as employment anxiety and self-efficacy. Wei and Fu (2024) and Chen and Tang (2024) advocate for the integration of experiential teaching into career planning curricula to reduce employment-related stress and reinforce professional confidence. Exposure to realistic workplace scenarios and ongoing interaction with industry professionals helps students contextualize their academic knowledge, navigate relational dynamics, and build meaningful networks.
Taken together, experiential learning offers a multidimensional approach to career readiness by simultaneously developing technical and interpersonal competencies, promoting reflective growth, and fostering network-building. Through a variety of mechanisms—including internships, consulting practicums, hands-on projects, and virtual platforms, students gain direct exposure to professional expectations and establish critical industry connections. This holistic framework enhances not only students’ employability but also their long-term capacity to succeed within the dynamic landscape of the sport management profession.

Conclusion
As the sport industry grows in complexity and competitiveness, the need for experiential learning in sport management education becomes increasingly imperative. This study emphasizes how experiential learning bridges the gap between academic instruction and real-world application through methodologies such as internships, capstone projects, guided-learning experiences, and blended learning environments. The integration of these strategies has demonstrated significant benefits, including the enhancement of critical thinking, adaptability, and industry-specific competencies.

Participation in large-scale events, such as the Super Bowl, represents a pinnacle of experiential learning, offering students a rare opportunity to immerse themselves in high-stakes, professional environments. These experiences provide not only technical skill development but also instill confidence, professional identity, and career direction. The value of faculty mentorship, structured assessment tools, and intentional curricular design further amplifies the effectiveness of experiential initiatives, ensuring that they are both impactful and aligned with industry expectations.

Looking ahead, continued research is essential to evaluate the long-term career benefits of experiential learning and to identify best practices for maximizing its impact. Expanding partnerships between academic institutions and sport organizations will be crucial in offering meaningful, scalable, and inclusive experiential opportunities. Ultimately, embedding experiential learning deeply within sport management education equips students with the tools they need to transition from the classroom to the kickoff—prepared, confident, and career-ready.

Materials and Methods
Participants
The total number of 11 participants were included in this study. The gender distribution was as follows: 7 participants (63.6%) were female, and 4 participants (36.4%) were male. Of these, 6 participants (54.5%) were graduate students, including 4 (66.7%) females and 2 males (33.3%).

Instrument
From Classroom to Kickoff: Evaluating the Career Benefits of Super Bowl Experiential Learning Survey (attached)
Data Treatment and Analysis
Statistical analyses were conducted to address the research questions and evaluate the perceptions of sport management students regarding the career benefits of participating in the NFL Super Bowl experiential learning opportunity. Descriptive statistics were used to summarize participant responses. Paired samples t-tests were conducted to compare students’ expectations before the event with their perceived outcomes (e.g., professional development, competitive edge, career benefits). Pearson correlation analysis was used to explore the relationships among key outcome variables such as confidence in career pursuits, networking effectiveness, and perceived career impact. Open-ended responses were analyzed thematically to supplement quantitative findings and provide deeper insight into students’ overall satisfaction and willingness to recommend the experience.

Results and Discussion
Student Expectations and Perceived Outcomes
The results of the paired samples t-tests revealed several important findings related to students’ expectations and perceived outcomes from their Super Bowl experiential learning experience. A significant difference was found between students’ expectations of gaining hands-on learning (Q1) and their perceptions of professional development after the experience (Q2), t(9) = 3.67, p = 0.005. This suggests that students felt their actual experience exceeded their initial expectations regarding professional development.

In contrast, no significant difference was found between students’ expectations of gaining a competitive edge in the job market (Q11) and their perceptions following the event (Q12), t(9) = -0.56, p = 0.591. This indicates that students’ expectations were generally aligned with their perceived benefits in this area. However, a highly significant difference was observed between students’ expectations of receiving direct career opportunities, such as job offers or interviews (Q13), and their reported outcomes (Q14), t(9) = 6.00, p < 0.001. This suggests that while students were optimistic about immediate career benefits, those expectations were not fully met in the short term.

Networking Confidence and Career Perceptions
The Pearson Correlation analyses revealed several statistically significant associations between students’ self-reported networking confidence and career-related perceptions, highlighting the potential impact of experiential learning within sport management education. A strong positive correlation was observed between students’ confidence in their networking abilities (Q10) and their belief that participation in the Super Bowl experience would enhance their future job prospects (Q5), r = .90, p < .001. This suggests that students who expressed higher levels of confidence in their networking skills were more likely to view the experience as a meaningful contributor to their professional development.

Similarly, a strong positive correlation was found between networking confidence (Q10) and students’ beliefs that the professional connections formed during the event would support future opportunities, such as employment, internships, or graduate assistantships (Q9), r = .77, p = .009. This indicates that students who perceived greater utility in their networking efforts also reported higher levels of self-assurance in their ability to build professional relationships. In addition, a strong correlation was identified between networking confidence (Q10) and the extent to which students reported making meaningful professional connections during the event (Q8), r = .84, p = .002. These findings collectively suggest that students who felt more confident in their networking capabilities were also more likely to report engaging in valuable professional interactions.

Career Readiness and Perceived Professional Development
Beyond networking-specific outcomes, further analysis revealed significant relationships involving overall career readiness and perceived professional development. Students who felt more prepared for a career in sport management (Q3) were more likely to recommend the Super Bowl experience to others (Q15), r = .80, p = .005. A strong correlation was also found between the alignment of students’ assigned tasks and their perception that the experience met their expectations for professional development (Q6), r = .88, p < .001. Notably, students who believed the Super Bowl experience gave them a competitive advantage in the job market were significantly more likely to report already receiving tangible career benefits, such as internship offers or job interviews (Q13), r = .89, p < .001. One additional correlation between networking confidence and perceived competitive advantage (Q10 and Q12)—approached statistical significance, r = .60, p = .066, suggesting a potentially meaningful relationship that could be more clearly established in studies with larger sample sizes. Collectively, these findings highlight the interconnectedness of networking confidence, career preparedness, and the perceived value of high-impact experiential learning. The strength and consistency of the correlations support the notion that participation in major sporting events such as the Super Bowl can meaningfully enhance students’ professional development trajectories within the field of sport management.

Conclusion
The present study contributes to the growing body of literature emphasizing the value of experiential learning in sport management education by examining student perceptions of professional development, career readiness, and networking outcomes resulting from participation in the NFL Super Bowl. The findings emphasize the importance of high-impact learning experiences in enhancing students’ confidence, career awareness, and perceived marketability within the competitive sport industry. Quantitative analyses revealed that students’ expectations regarding hands-on learning and professional development were not only met but exceeded, as demonstrated by significant increases in post-event perceptions. While students’ expectations regarding competitive advantage remained consistent, the anticipated short-term career outcomes such as job offers or interviews were not fully realized. This discrepancy suggests a need to frame experiential learning as a catalyst for long-term, rather than immediate, professional advancement.

The strong and consistent correlations between networking confidence and several career-related outcomes highlight the pivotal role of self-efficacy in professional relationship-building. Students who reported higher levels of networking confidence were more likely to form meaningful connections, perceive the experience as professionally valuable, and anticipate long-term career benefits. These findings align with existing research that underscores the importance of confidence and social capital in career development among emerging sport professionals.
Additionally, the alignment between assigned tasks and students’ expectations was a significant predictor of overall satisfaction and perceived professional growth. This supports the argument that carefully structured and intentional experiential learning opportunities are critical in maximizing the educational and professional value of such events. This study affirms the potential of large-scale sport events like the Super Bowl to serve as transformative learning environments that foster career readiness, enhance networking abilities, and solidify students’ commitment to pursuing careers in sport management. Future research should consider longitudinal approaches to evaluate the enduring effects of these experiences on actual career outcomes, including job placement, graduate school enrollment, and professional advancement. Additionally, expanding sample sizes and incorporating multi-institutional data could strengthen generalizability and provide further insights into best practices for experiential learning program design.

Research Limitations and Implications
While this study offers meaningful insights into the perceived benefits of Super Bowl experiential learning, several limitations should be acknowledged. First, the small sample size (n = 11) limits the generalizability of the findings. Although the data revealed significant patterns and correlations, the results may not fully represent the experiences of a broader population of sport management students. Future studies with larger and more diverse participant pools would enhance the reliability and applicability of these findings. Despite these limitations, the findings have important implications for sport management education. Experiential learning at large-scale events like the Super Bowl can play a critical role in enhancing students’ career preparedness, particularly in the areas of networking and professional confidence. Academic programs should continue to prioritize and expand these opportunities, while also integrating reflective components that help students connect their experiences to broader career goals.

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George Minoso2025-05-05T10:49:36-05:00July 18th, 2025|General, Leadership, Sport Education, Sports Management|Comments Off

Correlation Between Post-Injury Mental Health Symptoms and Rehabilitation Adherence in Collegiate Athletes

Luis Torres^1, Fredrick A. Gardin², Shala E, Davis³ and Colleen A. Shotwell⁴

¹Department of Kinesiology, Montclair State University
²Department of Exercise Science, East Stroudsburg University

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Luis Torres, Department of Kinesiology, Montclair State University, 1 Normal Ave, Montclair, NJ 07043. Email: [email protected].

Correlation Between Post-Injury Mental Health Symptoms and Rehabilitation Adherence in Collegiate Athletes

ABSTRACT

Purpose: To explore the correlation between post-injury mental health symptoms and rehabilitation adherence in collegiate athletes to gain knowledge that would improve rehabilitative recommendations. Methods: 19 National Collegiate Athletic Association athletes (M age: 20.58 ± 1.31) were assessed for depressive and anxious symptoms using the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS) after injury. Once they were cleared for full sports participation, they were administered the HADS again and the Rehabilitation Adherence Questionnaire (RAQ) to measure their perceptions of adherence to their rehabilitation programs. Results: A significant correlation was found between the two administrations of the HADS (R = .55, P = .03), but no significant correlations were found between RAQ scores and any of the HADS scores. Conclusions: Although the findings of this study did not establish a significant correlation between post-injury depression and anxiety symptoms and self-perceptions of rehabilitation adherence, strong evidence still exists to believe that poor mental health may be associated with poor rehabilitation adherence. Applications in Sport: Members of the collegiate athlete care team should be aware that the common underreporting of mental health symptoms in this population might make it difficult to establish the relationship between these symptoms and their recovery process after an injury. A holistic recovery approach should be considered in any injury recovery processes to allow collegiate athletes to heal both physically and psychologically.

Keywords: depression, anxiety, injury, recovery

Abbreviations: NCAA, National Collegiate Athletic Association; HADS, Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale; RAQ, Rehabilitation Adherence Questionnaire

Introduction

Depression and anxiety remain as the leading mental health conditions among collegiate athletes, with as many as 30% and 50% of National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) athletes reporting depression and anxiety, respectively, in a 2011 survey from the National College Health Association (NCAA, 2024).More recently, the American College of Sports Medicine (2024), in their 2021 statement on mental health challenges for athletes, found that the prevalence for depression and/or anxiety in this population ranges between 25% to 35% and only 10% of collegiate athletes with a known mental health condition seek help from a mental health professional. The reasons for this prevalence are multi-faceted given that collegiate athletes often maintain a strong athletic identity that is reluctant to ask for help and are faced with the societal perception of athletes always having to be immensely resilient during all hardships (Chang et al., 2020; Sarac et al., 2018; Tomalski et al., 2019; Wayment et al., 2017; Weigard et al., 2012; Wolanin et al., 2016). Collegiate athletes balance academic demands with their time-intensive and stress-inducing athletic demands while encountering issues relevant to sexuality, gender, hazing, bullying, sexual misconduct, body image, and sport transition (Greenleaf et al., 2009; Petrie et al., 2008; Putukian, 2016). The notion that athletes may be at a decreased risk for mental health conditions due to increased levels of exercise and other personality traits that can aid in athletic success has been shown to be a misconception (Chang et al., 2020).Furthermore, collegiate athletes are exposed to an abundance of additional unique risk factors for depression and anxiety when compared to non-athlete collegiate student counterparts (Demirel, 2016; Ghaedi et al., 2014; Hagiwara et al., 2017; Hanton et al., 2013; McGuire et al., 2017).

Unfortunately, sports injury is an often unavoidable element of collegiate athletics participation, with approximately 40% to 50% of collegiate athletes sustaining at least 1 injury requiring either medical attention or a participation restriction during their careers (Yang et al., 2014b). Injuries such as ligamentous sprains, muscular strains, skeletal fractures, joint dislocations, and concussions are relatively common (Yang et al., 2014a). Sports injuries further aggrandize the preexisting symptoms of depression and anxiety present in collegiate athletes due to the fact that a sports injury may serve as potentially one of the most physically and emotionally disturbing events that a collegiate athlete may experience during their career. Injured collegiate athletes experience enhanced risk factors of depression and anxiety such as fear of reinjury, trouble sleeping, poor concentration, emotional numbness, and injury conversation avoidance (Li et al., 2017; Padaki et al., 2018). They utilize the coping mechanisms of unrealistic wishful thinking, unhealthy venting of emotions, denial, and behavior disengagement (Wadey et al., 2014). Additively, social stressors and financial stressors have also been shown to substantially grow post-injury in collegiate athletes (Evans et al., 2012). Despite these complications, however, collegiate athletes are often still expected to adhere to sports rehabilitation exercise programs for a full recovery and timely return-to-sport.

Sports rehabilitation exercise programs are only effective for collegiate athletes when they are closely adhering to the instructions provided to them by their rehabilitative healthcare provider (Torres et al., 2023a). Poor rehabilitation adherence may prolong recovery, enhance reinjury risk, and reduce the likelihood of positive patient outcomes upon return-to-sport (Jack et al., 2010). The salient post-injury symptoms of depression and anxiety play a role in reducing rehabilitation adherence and hindering injury recovery in collegiate athletes (Baez et al., 2023; Torres et al., 2023b). However, given that as many as 98.3% of injured collegiate athletes have been reported to either overadhere and underadhere to their rehabilitation programs, more contemporary evidence is needed to further understand this extent of this role (Granquist et al., 2014). Despite the recent progress in collegiate athlete mental health screening that has been made, rehabilitative healthcare providers of injured collegiate athletes may not yet be collectively appropriately aware of the symptoms of depression and anxiety in rehabilitation. The purpose of this study was to explore the correlation between post-injury depression and anxiety and rehabilitation adherence in collegiate athletes in an effort to gain knowledge that would improve recommendations for sports rehabilitation programs.

Methods

Sampling

The sampling in this study was limited to two collegiate institutions of varying NCAA competition levels (NCAA Division II and NCAA Division III) within the Mid-Atlantic region of the United States. Demographic information on age, sex, NCAA competition level, race/ethnicity, academic eligibility level, type of sport, and type of musculoskeletal injury was collected from all participants. Participants were recruited by their athletic trainers after a sports injury had occurred and were included based on being 18 years of age or older and sustaining an acute musculoskeletal sports injury that required the inability to engage in full sports participation for at least four weeks. The purpose of this four week requirement was to ensure that the injuries sustained were significant enough to require a rehabilitation program for at least a month (Shin et al., 2010). Collegiate athletes were excluded if they had a concussion, respiratory disease, metabolic disease, cardiac disease, autonomic nervous system disease, or chronic injury of an unknown origin.

Instrumentation

Zigmond and Snaith (1983) designed the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS) as a 14-item questionnaire to measure the symptoms of depression and anxiety. The HADS consists of two subscales that are constructed of seven items for symptoms of depression (HADS-D) and seven items for symptoms of anxiety (HADS-A). Each item contains responses that are individually scored on a scale from 0 to 3 with higher scores indicating a higher level of symptom frequency (i.e., not at all, sometimes, occasionally very often, nearly all the time, etc.). The combined score of emotional distress (sum of HADS-A and HADS-D) ranges from 0 to 42 with scores of 11 or higher indicating a potential for a clinically significant mood disorder case. The total score of each participant places them into one of the following categories: non-case/normal (0 – 7), borderline case/borderline abnormal (8-10), case/abnormal (11 – 21+). Correlations ranging from .76 to .41 for the seven anxiety items (P < .01) and from .60 to .30 for the seven depression items (P < .02) have been associated with this instrument (Zigmond & Snaith, 1983). Similarly, calculated Spearman correlations between subscale scores and confirmed psychiatric ratings have shown that R = .70 for HADS-D and R = .74 for HADS-A (P < .001). The HADS has been routinely established as an instrument that performs well in assessing the symptom severity and caseness of depression and anxiety in both psychiatric and primary care patients and the general population (including collegiate athletes) (Bjelland et al., 2002).

RAQ

Fisher et al. (1988) designed the Rehabilitation Adherence Questionnaire (RAQ) as a 40-item questionnaire to measure rehabilitation adherence, while Shin et al. (2010) later redeveloped the RAQ into a 25-item questionnaire and validated it for injured athletes. The RAQ consists of six subscales: support from significant others (five items), pain tolerance (five items), scheduling (four items), self-motivation (five items), perceived exertion (three items), and environmental conditions (three items), and participants using the RAQ rate their level of agreement to each item using a four-point scale (i.e., 1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = agree, 4 = strongly agree). The responses to each statement are then summed for a total adherence score that can range from 25 – 100. Higher total adherence scores indicate that participants perceive themselves successfully adhering to and completing their rehabilitation programs as prescribed by their rehabilitative healthcare provider. Moderate to high intra-class correlation coefficients for the each of the six subscales (support from significant others = .81, pain tolerance = .64, scheduling = .72, self-motivation = .78, perceived exertion = .67, and environmental conditions = .82; P < .01) have been found for this instrument, thus indicating a high level of test-retest reliability within the RAQ (Shin et al.).

Data Collection

A non-experimental repeated-measures prospective cohort study design was used in the completion of this study. Human subjects research approval was provided from the East Stroudsburg University Institutional Review Board (protocol #ESU-IRB-041-2021) in March of 2021, with the data collecting period for this study starting in June of 2021 and ending in February of 2022. After an in-season sports injury had occurred, collegiate athletes who met the appropriate inclusion criteria were approached by their athletic trainer for voluntary participation in this study through the provision of an electronic informed consent form on their first full day of starting their rehabilitation programs. The collegiate athletes were made aware that their involvement in this study would not have any effect on their status as a student-athlete at their respective institution. Once enrolled in the study, the participants were asked to complete the HADS to measure their current post-injury depression and anxiety symptoms. Participants were then monitored throughout the duration of their rehabilitation programs until they received clearance for full sports participation from either their team physician and/or athletic trainer (i.e., at return-to-play). On the day this clearance was attained, the HADS was administered again as well as the RAQ to measure their self-perceptions of their adherence to their rehabilitation programs. All questionnaires in this study were administered through Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) compliant Google Forms on either a password-protected tablet, smartphone, or computer desktop with all collected data being deidentified, kept confidential, and storedin a password-encrypted computer.

Data Analysis

The IBM SPSS 27.0 Statistical Package was used to analyze all collected data once the data collection period was complete. Descriptive statistics were reported and Pearson product-moment correlation tests with a significance level of P < .05 were conducted among HADS and RAQ scores to attempt to further identify the relationships between post-injury depression and anxiety and rehabilitation adherence in collegiate athletes. The following criteria were used to interpret R values: little to no relationship (.00–.25), fair relationship (.25–.50), moderate to good relationship (.50–.75), and good to excellent relationship (above .75) (Portney & Watkins, 2009).

Results

The 19 participants (M age: 20.58 ± 1.31; 17 males, 2 females) in this study were primarily NCAA Division II student-athletes (73.7%), White Caucasian (63.2%), academic seniors (42.1%), and football athletes (63.2%). The participants sustained various musculoskeletal conditions such as foot/ankle injuries (36.8%), knee injuries (21.1%), hip/thigh injuries (21.1%), and shoulder injuries (21.1%) with three participants not being cleared for a return to full sports participation at the conclusion of the data collection period. The cleared participants (n= 16) took 96.63 ± 31.90 days to recover from their sustained injuries before they were cleared for full sports participation. For the completion of the post-injury HADS (i.e., HADS 1 administration), the participants (n = 19) scored an 11.58 ± 5.26, while for the completion of the return-to-play HADS (i.e., HADS 2 administration), the participants (n = 16) scored a 9.63 ± 5.83. The participants (n= 15) rated their self-perception of rehabilitation adherence to be 57.20 ± 4.95 on a scale of 25 to 100 using the RAQ. A significant positive correlation was found between HADS 1 and HADS 2 scores (R = .55, P = .03), but no significant correlations were found between RAQ and HADS 1 scores (R = .52, P = .85) or RAQ and HADS 2 scores (R = .14, P = .63).

Discussion

The mean scores of both HADS 1 and HADS 2 falling above the asymptomatic normal HADS category indicates that depressive and anxious symptoms remain a substantial presence for collegiate athletes at post-injury and return-to-play states. Furthermore, although the findings of this study did not establish a significant correlation between post-injury depression and anxiety symptoms and self-perceptions of rehabilitation adherence, there is still strong existing evidence from previous researchers to believe that poor mental health may be associated with poor rehabilitation adherence. Holt et al. (2019) organized a literature review of 34 studies on the topic of adherence to exercise therapy interventions in children and adolescents with musculoskeletal conditions among 6 different databases. The selected studies represented 1,563 participants (35% male, 65% female, 2-19 years old), 11 musculoskeletal conditions, and multiple exercise interventions. Commonly identified barriers to rehabilitation adherence in this review included time constraints, physical environment (location), and previous negative exercise experiences. Holt et al. concluded that a diversity of barriers and facilitators to exercise therapy for musculoskeletal conditions exist and current strategies to boost adherence are not consistent with contemporarily identified barriers and facilitators. They clinically referenced that making exercise enjoyable, social, and convenient may be important to maximizing rehabilitation adherence to exercise therapy in young, injured athletes.

Jack et al. (2010) developed a systematic review of 22 articles reporting on 20 independent cohort studies using the ADMED, CINAHL, EMBASE, MEDLINE, PUBMED, PSYCINFO, SPORTDISCUS, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, and PEDro databases to understand the barriers to treatment adherence in physiotherapy outpatient clinics. These researchers identified high quality studies that maintained a focus on the exploration of rehabilitation adherence in patients with musculoskeletal conditions. They found that there was strong evidence to indicate that poor treatment adherence was associated with low levels of physical activity at baseline or in previous weeks, low in-treatment adherence with exercise, low self-efficacy, depression, anxiety, helplessness, poor social support, greater number of perceived barriers to exercise, and increased pain levels during exercise. They also found that the research focused on the ability of health professionals and health organizations to address these barriers was comparatively limited. Holt et al. (2019) and Jack et al. would agree that symptoms of depression and anxiety may negatively influence rehabilitation adherence and that future study on the barriers to rehabilitation adherence is essential to the development of useful interventions by sports medicine professionals and other healthcare providers.

Brewer et al. (2013) studied the predictors of adherence to home rehabilitation exercises following ACL reconstruction in a study of 91 (58 males, 33 females) post-operative patients. These patients completed measures of athletic identity, neuroticism, optimism, and pessimism before ACL surgery and measures of daily pain, negative mood, stress, and home exercise completion for 42 days postoperatively. These researchers found that their participants reported high levels of adherence to the prescribed exercise regimen and that the participants completed fewer home exercises on days when they experience more stress or negative moods. They concluded that day-to-day variations in negative mood and stress may contribute to adherence to prescribed home exercises. This conclusion may be generalizable to athletic training settings in collegiate athletics, as past studies have supported the presence of poor rehabilitation adherence by student-athletes in these settings (Granquist et al, 2014; Fisher et al., 1988).

Evans et al. (2012) researched the stressors experienced by injured athletes during the 3 phases of their recovery from sports injury (onset, rehabilitation, return to play) and the differences in the stressors experienced by team-sport athletes as compared to individual-sport athletes with the use of semi structured interviews. The sample in this study consisted of 5 previously injured high-level rugby players and five previously injured high-level golfers. These researchers found that the athletes in their study experienced sport, medical/physical, and social and financial stressors; they also found that these same athletes reported several differences in the stressors experienced across the 3 phases of injury recovery and between team and individual-sport athletes. These researchers stressed that their findings have important implications for the design and implementation of interventions aimed at managing the potentially stressful sport injury experience and facilitating the return of injured athletes to competitive sport. This research supports the notion that certain psychosocial components of sports injury affect the ability of collegiate athletes to return to sports participation without any limitations.

Wadey et al. (2014) explored the relationship between re-injury anxiety and return-to-play outcomes in a cross-sectional research study of 335 collegiate athletes (M age = 23.5 ± 6.6) from varying NCAA competition levels. The athletes in this study completed the RIA-RE subscale of the Reinjury Anxiety Inventory (RIAI) as an assessment of reinjury anxiety and the Return to Sport After Serious Injury Questionnaire (RSSIQ) as an assessment of the perceptions of athletes on returning to sport. These researchers also assessed the presence of coping strategies in these athletes with the use of the Crocker and Graham MCOPE measure. They found a positive relationship between re-injury anxiety and heightened return concerns (R = .62, P < .01) and significant indirect effects for coping were found for wishful thinking, venting of emotions, denial, and behavioral disengagement. They suggested that future researchers should continue to examine the relationship between anxiety and return-to-play outcomes using diverse methodologies.

Conclusions

With the premise that poor mental health may be correlated to poor rehabilitation adherence, it is reasonable to suggest that rehabilitative healthcare providers should have an invested interest in utilizing effective psychosocial interventions within their programming when treating injured collegiate athletes. Additionally, they should re-evaluate their own mental health screening practices to ensure that they are screening for appropriate mental health symptoms at baseline, at post-injury, and at return-to-play, as this is now considered best practice (Baez & Jochimsen, 2023). Rehabilitative healthcare providers should also be keenly aware of the fact that underreporting and a proven reluctance to ask for help in this population may play a role in masking certain symptoms through the entire rehabilitative process. These same elements may have also played a role as to why a relationship was not established between post-injury depression and anxiety symptoms and self-perceptions of rehabilitation adherence in this study. Other study limitations, including a small, predominantly White and male sample, timing and scheduling issues in the athletic training facility, and a lack of standardization when it came to the rehabilitation programs prescribed by the athletic trainers, could also have impacted the results. Future researchers should seek to create similar studies with much larger, diverse sample sizes that explore correlations between the individual subscales of HADS-D and HADS-A and the self-perceptions of rehabilitation adherence of collegiate athletes.

Applications in Sport

Members of the collegiate athlete care team, such as coaches, athletic trainers, and other healthcare providers, should be aware that the common underreporting of mental health symptoms in this population might make it difficult to establish the relationship between these symptoms and their recovery process after an injury. A holistic recovery approach should be considered in any injury recovery processes to allow collegiate athletes to heal both physically and psychologically. Despite their inability to sometimes be vulnerable and transparent in reporting, collegiate athletes clearly struggle with their mental health and more research is needed to better understand how the more nuanced aspects of depressive, anxious, and disordered eating symptomatology affect them while they are recovering from a sports injury. The best collegiate athletic environments are those that permit collegiate athletes to report any and all mental health symptoms, concerns, and crises without any fear of consequences stemming from coaches and other relevant personnel.

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George Minoso2025-05-23T11:29:04-05:00July 4th, 2025|General, Research, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|Comments Off