ISSN: 1543-9518

Reducing absenteeism and turnover among part-time labor in community sport settings: A case study example and project guidelines for sport management students

Authors: Michael J. Diacin1

1Department of Kinesiology, Health, and Sport Sciences, University of Indianapolis, Indianapolis, IN, USA

 

Corresponding Author:

Michael J. Diacin, Ph.D.

1400 E. Hanna Ave.

Indianapolis, IN 46227

(317)791-5703

[email protected]

Michael J. Diacin, Ph.D., is an Associate Professor in the sport management program at the University of Indianapolis. His research interests focus on sport management pedagogy, experiential learning, and consumer incentives within spectator and participatory sport organizations.

ABSTRACT 

Part-time employees are critical to the daily operation at many sport and recreation focused businesses. Managers at many sites regularly deal with turnover and absenteeism among part-time workers. Absenteeism among the part-time workforce is problematic when less than a full staff is present to perform critical tasks. It negatively impacts customers through longer wait times and employees through increased workload. Therefore, managers in these settings should be making attempts to retain quality employees for as long as possible and offset the detrimental consequences of absenteeism. Managers could develop initiatives to ensure attendance from employees scheduled to work at times of peak customer presence as well as incentivize employees to replace absent workers on short notice. Therefore, the purpose of this work is to provide students with a case study situated within the possible employment setting of community-based sport and recreation facilities and complexes and have them develop initiatives to improve attendance and longevity of employment among part-time workers.

The application to sport management is that current students could likely work in businesses that employ part-time, seasonal workers. Commercial sport and recreation facilities and complexes exist in many locations; therefore, there is a strong likelihood that current sport management students will be working in these settings after graduation. Furthermore, they could benefit from imagining themselves overseeing a labor force of part-time workers and developing initiatives aimed at those part-time workers ranging from high school aged students to senior citizens. As future managers in these settings, students could be challenged to find ways to reduce absenteeism, fill staff shortages created by absenteeism on short notice, and retain quality workers for longer durations. The efficiency and effectiveness of the operation is highly dependent upon part-time workers; as a result, it would be worthwhile to develop initiatives to best ensure the operation is running at a maximum level of efficiency and effectiveness.

KEYWORDS: management, incentives, employees

INTRODUCTION 

Commercial sport and recreation businesses may range from single buildings to expansive multi-sport complexes. These complexes might be referred to as “sports campuses.” The size of these sites could range from an indoor facility measuring 50,000 square feet to a larger complex measuring hundreds of acres. The activities that take place within could include any assortment of team-based and individual activities. Basketball, hockey, tennis, gymnastics, soccer, flag football, cornhole, and pickleball are among the activities conducted at these sites. Regarding ownership and management of these facilities and complexes some might be owned by a municipality and managed by the municipality’s sport and recreation division. Some municipalities choose to outsource the daily management to a private company while other facilities and complexes are privately owned.

At many of these sites, a core of full-time managers directs the overall operation. The quantity of full-time employees could vary based upon the size and scope of the operation. A common aspect within these facilities and complexes is that the full-time managerial core depends on a team of part-time employees who execute many significant tasks related to customer service and maintenance. The part-time staff includes people from different age groups ranging from high school aged students to senior citizens. They receive an hourly wage, and some might receive fringe benefits such as free use of the facility (e.g., swimming pool, fitness equipment). With rare exception, part-time employees do not receive health insurance, retirement contributions, and/or other benefits that are often provided to full-time workers.

An operation in which part-time employees are heavily relied upon presents challenges to the management. Despite being counted on to execute important tasks, part-time workers are not highly compensated, nor do they receive the same benefits given to full-time staff. Unlike full-time staff, the job might not be their primary focus nor primary source of income. This population could be more likely to leave if other opportunities become available or not report for duty if other circumstances arise. Consequently, reliability and retention of part-time employees have consistently been identified as a critical issue facing managers that work in commercial sport and recreation settings (McCole, Jacobs, Lindley, & McAvoy, 2012). Consequences resulting from frequent absenteeism and rapid turnover of part-time employees could negatively impact the operation in numerous ways; therefore, management should attempt to be proactive to best mitigate the negative effects associated with frequent absenteeism and rapid turnover.

Although turnover is an inevitable aspect associated with operating any business, lessening the amount of turnover can be beneficial. The cost associated with turnover can be significant. McKinney, Bartlett, and Mulvaney (2007) identified the consumption of time and financial resources as consequences of turnover. First, there could be a cost to announce vacancies through sites that charge for posting them (e.g., classified listings in the local newspaper, websites targeting job seekers). In addition, there would be a cost associated with additional wages being paid out because a new hire could be working alongside another employee to learn the job. Since that new hire is earning a wage while working alongside another employee earning a wage, the aspect of paying two wages to do one job exists until the new hire has been fully trained and able to do a job on their own.

In addition, the cost of time spent by management on screening and interviewing candidates could be significant. Although part of the job, these activities command time, and frequent turnover means that the managerial staff is frequently spending time on screening and interviewing activities to fill vacancies. If management consistently spends time on these activities, the time spent on other aspects of the operation decreases. In a setting where there are small quantities of managerial staff and each manager “wears many hats,” retention of part-time workers would benefit management because less of their time would be dedicated to finding replacements for departed employees.

Frequent absenteeism and turnover could be especially problematic because of the negative impact to an operation when inexperienced staff is working shorthanded. For example, absenteeism could add to the workload and stress to the employee who did show up for work. In addition, there could also be a negative consequence for customers, as staff shortages could result in negative outcomes such as longer lines and wait times. If customers repeatedly have negative experiences, they might be motivated to go elsewhere to pursue their leisure interests.

On the other hand, a fully staffed operation with an experienced workforce benefits coworkers and customers. When a full contingent of experienced employees is working, no one is placed in a position of having to cover for the absent worker. In addition, the accumulation of experience increases efficiency and effectiveness within the operation. Shorter lines and shorter wait times benefit the customer. Ensuring the customer has a positive experience is critical to securing their ongoing patronage. Although absenteeism and turnover will occur, management should strive to incentivize those employees to work when scheduled as well as remain for an entire busy season (McCole et al., 2012). Management could establish various initiatives to minimize absenteeism and turnover. The details of those initiatives are expanded upon in the following section.

INITIATIVES TO REDUCE TURNOVER AND OFFSET STAFF SHORTAGES 

Commercial sport and recreation facilities are highly reliant on part-time labor to execute many important tasks. There are many circumstances that would cause these employees to miss their scheduled shift on short notice or leave the job altogether. Regardless of the legitimacy of the reason for absenteeism, such occurrences negatively impact both part-time and managerial staff, as well as customers. Therefore, a full complement of staff is needed to ensure maximum efficiency and effectiveness occurs on any given day.

These facilities and complexes are also potential employment settings for sport management students. Graduates may begin as mid-level managers in community-based sport and recreation facilities and complexes as a first job in the sport industry after graduation. Because sport management students could be working in a setting where turnover and absenteeism could be frequent, it would be worthwhile for them to engage in an exercise before entering the setting that would challenge them to think proactively and create a program designed to reduce incidents of frequent turnover and absenteeism. Although they will never eliminate absenteeism and turnover, they should be thinking proactively to minimize absenteeism as well as increase longevity among part-time employees.

Therefore, the purpose of this case study exercise is to provide students with an opportunity to engage in a managerial challenge within the possible employment setting of community-based sport and recreation facilities/complexes. It is designed to help students understand the challenges of working in settings where there is a high level of reliance upon part-time labor as well as challenge them to create a proposal designed to entice potential part-time workers to stay for a particular duration, fulfill their scheduled shifts, and/or assist in situations of absenteeism by filling shifts left open by an absent employee. The initiative could focus on a period as short as a single day to an entire peak season lasting several months. The proposal might also include focus on performance-based initiatives. For this case study exercise, the student could take the role of a mid-level manager. This mid-level manager would supervise part-time staff and reports to a higher-level full-time staff member, such as a General Manager. The proposal would be presented to the General Manager (the course instructor and/or an invited guest such as a manager of a local facility or complex).

Although it would take time and effort to create and manage such initiatives, the benefit to colleagues, customers, and the business resulting from fewer incidents of absenteeism and turnover could make the initiative worth the effort and expense. These types of facilities and complexes could generate revenues in the hundreds of thousands to several million dollars. Expenses such as utilities, maintenance, personnel, and equipment/supplies will use up most of the revenues. Therefore, the financial resources available would be limited as the quantity of dollars available for this case study exercise would be $12,000 to $18,000 annually ($1,000 to $1,500 monthly), with the fiscal year starting September 1 and ending August 31 the following year.

“Survive the Day” Initiatives

This initiative is designed to offset staffing shortages that occur when a part-time worker calls off on short notice or does not show up without any notice given. It is intended to ensure enough employees are present to execute various tasks. This initiative could be focused upon accomplishing two ideals. They are to 1) incentivize the people who are scheduled that day to show up for their shift and 2) if someone must call off, incentivize someone who wasn’t originally scheduled to take the place of the worker who called off on short notice or did not show up for work (e.g., “no call, no show”).

“Survive the Season” Initiatives

Although open for business year-round, the amount of customer activity within commercial sport and recreation facilities and complexes fluctuates based on the season. The greatest amount of customer traffic occurs during the winter months (early December through late February). Ice surfaces have been booked from the late afternoon (4pm) until late night (1am) on weekdays and booked from 6am to 1am on Saturday and Sunday. Youth association and high school hockey teams are conducting their games in the early evening. Adult leagues occupy the latter hours. In addition to the presence of these user groups, youth and high school games bring a greater amount of spectator traffic as friends, classmates, and family members of the participants attend the contests. It is also the period when public skating attendance peaks. As many as 300 customers could be admitted for a two-hour session on a Saturday or Sunday afternoon.

The ice surfaces are booked for similar hours during the months of September and October. Practice and scrimmages are typically conducted. These activities bring user groups but do not bring spectator traffic. Public skating is offered but would bring a fraction of the traffic seen during the winter months. To ensure employees are present to cover the hours in which user groups are present, a “survive the season” initiative could be designed to incentivize part-time employees to stay with the job from September through February. Contingencies could also be added. For example, employees would need to work a specified quantity of shifts/hours (especially on weekends). In addition, limits to the number of times an employee is absent from a scheduled shift, especially weekends, could be implemented.

Recognition for Performance Initiatives

This initiative would focus on rewarding employees for engaging in certain behaviors outside of the attendance-based actions. Employees who engage in quality work would be rewarded for doing so. Support for recognizing employees was revealed by Kellison, Kim, and Magnusen (2013) as they surveyed 522 part-time college aged (18-23 years old) campus recreation center employees from eleven universities to gain insight regarding factors that influenced their intentions to continue working in a part-time capacity at their respective university recreation centers. Recognition was identified as a key factor that positively influenced intentions to remain with the job/organization. Because many of the part-time workers in this case study exercise are in the age range of 18-23, these findings lend support to attempting recognition-based initiatives that have potential to retain employees.

Many organizations have a performance-based initiative in place, commonly referred to as an “employee of the month” program. This is often a competition-based system where one person is selected from the entire staff and receives the award. Various challenges to implementing initiatives where an employee is rewarded in this fashion exist. First, there is a challenge to objectively measuring and documenting the employee’s work. Because many of the part-time support staff members working in commercial sport and recreation settings do not engage in tasks that are easily quantifiable, measuring “good work” could be subject to opinion and perspective. Second, there are different employee groups, each engaging in different tasks. For instance, some of the workers are front of the house workers who are frequently interacting with customers. Others would be considered back of the house workers who do not regularly engage with customers. Consequently, there would be difficulty in comparing the performance of front of the house to back of the house workers because of the differences in their jobs. As a result, it would be the responsibility of the manager to establish parameters, standards, and/or benchmarks for each employee group.

Although an initiative for rewarding good deeds/good work is well-meaning, a system that relies on opinion, relationships, and other subjective criteria could result in more employees feeling less valued if they perceive they earned the reward but were passed over. Instead of having a competition among all employees working different jobs, an alternative is to establish the initiative so that each employee would be able to “control their own destiny.” That means each employee could receive the reward if certain benchmarks and/or standards are reached. If the commitment is made to proceed with such an initiative, an objective system of measurement is needed so that the employee could clearly understand what is expected to obtain the reward. Otherwise, employees could perceive the initiative as subjective, biased, and/or arbitrary.Regardless of the initiative(s) chosen, the proposal should include the following content:

  • The parameters/standards/actions that the employee will take (e.g., filling in for an absent employee, working “x” number of peak busyness shifts over a particular period) to receive the reward.
  • The rewards that will be given.
  • The costs are associated with implementing the initiative.
  • Argument behind why this initiative is feasible in this setting and with this workforce.
  • Identification of potential obstacles for success; why could this initiative be implemented and still not provide the desired results?

PROJECT DETAILS

The following sections for this case study exercise include further description of the setting, operating schedule, manager and part-time worker job descriptions and categories. The quantity of part-time workers hired for each area and the quantity of workers from each category that is on duty at a given time is provided. In addition, the times of day and days of week they typically work as well as the duration of their shifts are indicated.

Facility Setting and Description

The facility that will be utilized for this case study is a multi-purpose facility in which the terms “ice arena” or “hockey arena” might be used. The activities that commonly take place would be ice sports such as hockey, figure skating, and recreational skating. The facility is approximately 180,000 square feet. Two arenas that each house an ice surface of 85×200 feet are the primary activity spaces. When the ice is removed, activities can be conducted on the concrete floor. During off-peak months, various events and programs such as trade shows, exhibitions, and circuses could be conducted.

Each arena consists of stationary spectator seating in the form of metal bleachers with a seating capacity of 1,000. Each arena has six locker rooms (four for hockey teams, one for referees and one additional room to be used on an “As Needed” basis (e.g., for girls participating on boys’ youth hockey teams). There are storage areas and a large garage area where the ice resurface machines are housed. Other areas not accessible to the public include mechanical rooms where the ice cooling equipment is housed. Public areas would consist of a large lobby in which numerous benches and tables are present for the convenience of the patrons. Accessible from the lobby is the concession stand, pro shop (equipment and merchandise sales), arcade, office space, fitness center, restrooms, and two multi-purpose rooms where staff meetings, birthday parties, and team banquets could be held.

Facility Operating Schedule

Many sport and recreation related businesses are open for business seven days a week and typically see most customer activity during weeknights (after 5pm, Monday through Friday) and weekends. On weekends, activity could start as early as 6am and continue as late as midnight or 1am during the peak season. This is when staff is most needed to cover these hours. The amount of customer activity will be at its peak from early December until early March. This is the peak period for youth hockey games, which increases the amount of spectator traffic as family members attend the contests. High school programs could rent space for their practices and games as well. Their games bring additional spectator traffic. It is also peak season for public skating sessions. A public skating session on a weekend afternoon during the winter months could attract as many as 300 paying customers for a two-hour window of skating time. 

Regular business hours (e.g., Monday-Friday from 8am-5pm) are typically the periods with the least amount of customer activity. During this time, most maintenance and cleaning activities occur. Deliveries from vendors also occur during this time. Therefore, there is a need for management and custodial personnel to be present during times of minimal customer activity.

Full-Time Manager Descriptions

The facility is overseen by a general manager and additional full-time, salaried assistant managers. The general manager and assistant managers participate in various aspects of the operation. It is not uncommon for each assistant manager to not only have a primary responsibility regarding some managerial aspect, but also “wear many hats” and participate in other aspects of the operation. For example, one of the assistant managers might be responsible for overseeing tasks in connection with human resources. This person would be responsible for writing and disseminating job descriptions, screening applicants, and conducting interviews. The other assistant managers could be responsible for overseeing facility maintenance/cleanliness, the concessions operation, the pro shop/retail operation and/or marketing/programming. In addition, full-time managers participate in other aspects of the operation as they should be able to step in and assist anywhere on an “as needed” basis. This would include driving the ice resurface machine, operating cash registers, distributing rental equipment, and spot cleaning.

At least one of the full-time, salaried staff members are present when the building is open for business. This would include coverage during regular business hours as well as weeknights and weekends. It is possible that during peak times of business, more than one manager could be present. It would not be uncommon for 4-5 full-time management members to be employed at this type of facility.

Part Time Staff Descriptions

Perry (2018) identified different categories of employees that seek part-time employment in commercial sport and recreation facilities and complexes. The first category consists of individuals who are looking for some work to keep busy and gain supplementary income. A retired individual, perhaps a senior citizen, would fall into this category. The second category consists of post-college aged workers with full-time jobs who want or perhaps need a second job to help pay bills, accumulate extra savings, etc. The third category would consist of high school and college aged individuals who are looking to gain work experience and obtain income. This demographic is typically working around their schooling.

Regardless of the demographic, these jobs are often not the primary focus in the employee’s life. Other aspects are higher on the priority scale; therefore, employees might not alter other life aspects (e.g., primary job, school, family commitments) to work these jobs. Because the employee is not intending to make a career out of the part time job in this setting, this could have an impact upon attendance and performance.

These part-time workers fulfill “front of the house” and “back of the house” positions. In this setting, front of the house positions consists of duties such as cash handling/cash register operation, serving food products, collecting participation fees, distributing rental equipment, monitoring customer conduct, and being present in the event customers have questions and/or need assistance. Front of the house positions that often exist in the setting include concessions, skate staff, pro shop/merchandise sales, and front desk workers/receptionists.

Back of the house employees largely contribute to the cleanliness and upkeep of the facility. In this setting, custodians and ice resurfacing machine drivers/building attendants are common types of back of the house workers. They have little interaction with customers and in the case of custodians, often work when few to no customers are present in the facility.

These employees are paid an hourly wage and could work as little as 10 hours a week or as many as 40 hours a week. Accumulated hours are monitored so that the employee does not exceed 40 hours a week. If 40 hours in a week are exceeded, overtime compensation of one and a half times the employee’s standard hourly wage would be paid. In many cases, the hourly wage could be at or slightly above the locally mandated minimum wage.

For this case study exercise, seven part-time worker categories exist, consisting of several front and back of the house positions. Several people are on the roster within each worker category. Not everyone who has been hired and appears on the roster is working at the same time. Saturday and Sunday will be the busiest days requiring the greatest amount of part-time worker participation. Key duties, the time of day and quantity of hours per shift that employees within each of these categories are typically scheduled, and worker demographics are provided.

Concessions

Concession stand workers are responsible for preparing and serving food and beverages. “Quick serve” foods are usually prepared and then held in a warming bin or warming rollers (e.g., pizza, popcorn, hot dogs). Some facilities might possess a deep fryer, which would allow workers to prepare items such as fries, mozzarella sticks, etc. Concessions workers work when customer traffic is heaviest (evenings and weekends), except for periods when school is out of session such as winter break. High school and college aged employees are common. Post college aged adults working part-time, perhaps around another full-time day job, also staff the concessions operation. One person will be on duty most of the time. During the periods of peak customer traffic, such as public skating sessions during the winter months, two people could be scheduled to work at the same time. Shift duration is commonly 4-6 hours. There could be 6-8 employees on the roster in this area.

Skating staff

The skate staff would consist of counter/desk workers who are responsible for collecting admission fees and distributing “skate passes” to patrons participating in public skating sessions. Skate passes are often colored stickers the patron can wear on their clothing so that staff can easily see they paid their admission fee for that public skating session. They would also distribute rental skates to patrons who do not own their own set of skates. The other type of worker in the skating staff category is the “skate guard.” These individuals ensure those who enter the ice have paid their admission, indicated by the skate pass they are wearing. They also watch for and report any injuries or incidents of dangerous behavior to management. This worker group commonly consists of high school and college age individuals. Their work schedule aligns with public skating sessions, which are typically on Saturday and/or Sunday. With a two-hour skating session, for instance, workers could be scheduled for a 3.5 to 4-hour shift. This duration allows for them to be on duty before customers arrive and allows for post-session cleanup, putting skates away, etc. The roster could consist of 4-8 employees in this category. 1-2 skate guards would be on duty for each session (2 during the busiest winter sessions) as well as 1-2 counter/desk workers (2 during the busiest winter sessions).

Pro shop staff

Merchandise such as tape, water bottles, mouthguards, sticks, helmets, and other equipment is commonly sold in the “pro shop.” These workers are responsible for operating the register and assisting customers. Some light cleaning within the area is periodically assigned. In some facilities, skate sharpening is offered, and the pro shop employees will sharpen customers’ skates. During slow periods, the pro shop staff often is charged with sharpening the rental skates that will be used during the public skating sessions. The pro shop would be open during the evening and weekends. This worker group commonly consists of high school and college age individuals. The shift duration could last from 4-6 hours. On weeknights, one person would likely be on duty. During the weekends, especially the times around public skating sessions, two people could be on duty. There could be 4-6 people on the roster within this worker category.

Fitness center workers

The facility in this case study has a fitness center on site. The fitness center would include equipment that would commonly be found at commercial fitness centers, such as treadmills, elliptical trainers, and free weights. Monthly and/or annual memberships could be sold. This area could be open from early morning until late evening (6am-11pm) seven days a week. Fitness center workers would ensure members have checked in, engage in light cleaning duties and conduct minor troubleshooting of equipment. These workers do not conduct personal training sessions. During the weekday mornings and afternoons, the workers would mostly consist of senior citizens or other post-college aged adults. High school and college aged individuals would typically work evening and weekend hours. Because this area is staffed seven days a week from early morning to late evening, 6-8 individuals could be on the roster for this position. One worker would be working at a time for a shift typically lasting 4-6 hours.

After hours reception desk

These workers would be on duty after regular business hours on weekdays and on weekends. This person would likely distribute keys for the locker rooms to hockey teams, provide information to basic inquiries (e.g., assigned locker room number), answer phone calls, and serve as a point of contact for patrons who report a circumstance in need of attention, such as cleaning up a spill, restocking paper products in restrooms, etc. The desk worker would contact the manager on duty and/or other worker groups to address the need. In some facilities, the desk worker might assume duties such as collecting fees and distributing passes for public skating patrons. Workers in this group could range from high school or college students to post college aged individuals and senior citizens. One person at a time would be on duty and there could be 3-4 people on the roster in this category.

Building attendant/ice resurface machine driver

Building attendants are responsible for resurfacing the ice for each new user group. In between ice resurfacing duties, they are responsible for surface cleaning in locker rooms, restrooms, spectator seating areas, and lobbies/foyers. Restocking restrooms and mopping up spills are among cleaning and light maintenance duties that a building attendant would be expected to perform. They are scheduled during times when user groups are present in the building; therefore, the schedule consists of mostly evening and weekend work. Building attendants are required to be a minimum of 18 years old because the job includes operation of the ice resurfacing machine. Middle-aged individuals working around a primary job could also be working in this role. One person would be scheduled to work in this capacity on a weeknight; however, two people could be scheduled to work on weekends during peak times. The shift duration would likely be 7-8 hours. There could be 4-6 employees on the roster.

Custodial

Custodians are responsible for the overall cleanliness of the facility. Much of their time is spent cleaning and restocking restrooms and locker rooms, emptying trash bins and cleaning spectator seating areas. These employees typically work when the building is not full of customers so that they can engage in deep cleaning activities. Working during regular business hours (e.g., Monday-Friday 8am-5pm) is common. They could also be scheduled for late night/early mornings on Friday night into Saturday morning and Saturday night into Sunday morning as the facility will typically be full of customers when the doors open on weekend mornings. Worker demographics could vary, ranging from post college age to semi-retired individuals. Some of these employees might be working this job along with another job. There could be 2-4 people employed in this category, with one person on duty at a time. A typical shift duration could be 4-8 hours. If a special cleaning or maintenance project is planned, more than one worker from this category could be scheduled.

APPLICATION TO SPORT MANAGEMENT

Regarding the application of this work to the educational setting, sport management students could find this case study exercise useful because it gets them to imagine themselves working in a setting and engaging in challenges they could face once they enter the workforce as a full-time, managerial employee. Commercial sport and recreation facilities and complexes exist all over the world; therefore, there is at least some likelihood that some will work in these settings. Therefore, it is important to expose students to situations they could experience within possible employment settings. Having students generate content that could be used in an actual setting would be useful because many could be overseeing part-time workers from various demographics and life situations at their respective workplaces.

Students who work in these settings will not only be faced with challenges related to staffing but could also be working in settings where there are not large amounts of financial resources available to them. Many of these facilities and complexes are smaller “mom and pop” businesses that do not generate massive amounts of revenue. Therefore, they will have to find ways to address a challenge with a limited amount of money (in this case study $1,000-$1,500 monthly limit) at their disposal.

The content students create in association with this case study could take the form of a written proposal and/or an oral presentation. In order to give them the opportunity to create the most extensive proposal possible, it is suggested that students create content for each of the three initiatives (survive the day, survive the season, and performance). As a middle level manager who was hired by a superior, the student would report to that individual or perhaps several individuals who occupy a higher position in the organizational chart. For this case, the student could present the content to the instructor of the course who would represent the upper-level member of management. It is suggested that if feasible, managers from a local facility or complex be invited to participate in the presentation of the proposal. Their presence and scrutiny would add an additional layer of authenticity to the endeavor. Furthermore, the instructor might wish to reach out to managers of local facilities and complexes to see if they would like for students to create a proposal specifically for their operation. The manager would possibly first appear as a guest speaker and share details of the operation with the students. Students could use that visit to ask questions and gain a better understanding of the operation and then develop a plan for that manager.

Regarding the execution of the students’ proposal in the “real world,” it is likely that costs and personnel limitations would be presented as reasons as to why these ideas would not reach the execution stage. Therefore, part of the challenge for students is to create a plan that would be financially feasible for a small business as well as a plan that could be executed by a single manager or perhaps a small managerial team of 2-4 people. In closing, it is hoped that this case study exercise will benefit faculty seeking content to add to their courses. This case study could be executed within courses focusing on human resources management, facility management, and/or financial management. Because a large quantity of these operations exists, it is possible that students will secure employment in them. Therefore, this endeavor can help to further prepare students for managing a predominately part-time workforce within commercial sport and recreation facilities and complexes.

REFERENCES 

  1. Kellison, T. B., Kim, Y. K., & Magnusen, M. J. (2013). The work attitudes of millennials in collegiate recreational sports. Journal of Park and Recreation Administration, 31(1), 78-97.
  2. McCole, D., Jacobs, J., Lindley, B., & McAvoy, L. (2012). The relationship between seasonal employee retention and sense of community: The case of summer camp employment. Journal of Park and Recreation Administration, 30(2), 85-101.
  3. McKinney, W. R., Bartlett, K. R., & Mulvaney, M. A. (2007). Measuring the costs of turnover in Illinois Public Parks and Recreation Agencies: An exploratory study. Journal of Park and Recreation Administration, 25(1), 50-74.
  4. Perry, P. M. (2008). Finding great part-time workers. NSGA Retail Focus, 61(2), 10-11, 22.

2025-12-05T10:58:04-06:00June 3rd, 2026|Contemporary Sports Issues, General, Leadership, Research, Sports Management, Sports Studies|Comments Off on Reducing absenteeism and turnover among part-time labor in community sport settings: A case study example and project guidelines for sport management students
Read More

BOOK REVIEW: Moawad, T (2020). It takes what it takes: How to think neutrally and gain control of your life. HarperOne.

Author: Barrett Snyder

Corresponding Author:

Barrett Snyder

[email protected]

EDITOR’S NOTE: This article was written while the author was a student. The author has since graduated. The author holds an M.S. Exercise Science degree from West Chester University of Pennsylvania

Before his name appeared on a bestselling book, Trevor Moawad was already shaping champions behind the scenes. Dubbed “The World’s Best Brain Trainer” by Sports Illustrated in 2017, he spent years redefining mental conditioning at the highest levels of sport. From IMG Academy to a nine-season run with Nick Saban at Alabama, his résumé spanned elite college programs, pro teams like the Memphis Grizzlies and Miami Dolphins, and military units such as the U.S. Navy SEALs.

Moawad gained wider recognition through his work with NFL quarterback Russell Wilson, whom he met in 2012. He soon became a core member of Wilson’s performance team, and their relationship evolved into a close friendship and business partnership. In 2018, they co-founded Limitless Minds, a company focused on building sustainable mindset habits.

Despite years of working with world-class athletes, Moawad didn’t publish his first book until 2020: It Takes What It Takes: How to Think Neutrally and Gain Control of Your Life—a work I consider essential reading for anyone interested in mental performance, both in sports and in life. The book is divided into twelve chapters, covering topics such as planning, visualization, self-awareness, handling pressure, and leadership. While every chapter offers valuable insight, this review highlights the three that best capture Moawad’s message and resonated most with me: Chapter 1, “It Takes Neutral Thinking”; Chapter 3, “It Takes Hard Choices”; and Chapter 4, “It Takes a Verbal Governor.”

Chapter 1 introduces the cornerstone of Moawad’s philosophy: neutral thinking. Rather than leaning into overly positive or negative mindsets, it centers on the present and what can be controlled in the moment. Neutral thinking accepts that the past is irrevocable—it can’t be changed with mantras or platitudes. Moawad warns of a common bias in performance: “We elevate the past. We give it too much importance. We serve the past when we should be giving it berth.” That line stayed with me. Like many, I often overanalyze past decisions and dwell on mistakes. Moawad’s perspective challenged me to let go of that habit. Neutral thinking encourages us to move forward without being anchored by what came before. The past may be real, but it’s not predictive. In a culture often drawn to blind optimism, Moawad’s approach felt both grounding and liberating.

In Chapter 3, Moawad poses a powerful question: is choice an illusion? Often, he argues, it is. Success isn’t about what you feel like doing—it’s about what must be done. “A lot of times we feel as if we have choices to make about where we want to go and what it takes to get there. The reality is that what it takes to succeed is not really a choice,” he writes. He illustrates this idea with everyday decisions: sleep or binge Breaking Bad? Jack and Coke or water? Time with your kids or video games? These moments reveal how easily we confuse comfort with choice—and how small, daily decisions shape long-term outcomes. To illustrate this further, Moawad offers one of the book’s most memorable lines: “When I started working with the Alabama football team, I would hold a bag of Doritos in one hand and an apple in the other. ‘Do you really need a nutritionist to tell you which of these things is better for you?’” What first sounds like a joke lands as one of the book’s most honest truths: we usually know the better option—we just don’t always choose it.

Chapter 4 offers the most immediately actionable advice: “What if we could get people to just stop saying stupid sh— out loud?” The brain absorbs negativity more easily than positivity, and voicing our struggles makes them more harmful than merely thinking them. As someone prone to verbalizing self-doubt, I found Moawad’s message powerful—what we say out loud can reinforce the very negativity we’re trying to overcome. Moawad draws on research to show how negative self-talk can undermine performance, citing the infamous error by Red Sox first baseman Bill Buckner in the 1986 World Series. Nineteen days earlier, Buckner had said aloud, “The dreams are that you’re gonna have a great series and win. The nightmares are that you’re gonna let the winning run score on a ground ball through your legs.” Whether or not it affected the outcome, Moawad argues the fear was already present—and that’s the point: stop saying stupid sh— out loud.

As someone who values academic literature, I’ll note the book includes little scholarly research beyond a few selected studies. Rooted mainly in Moawad’s anecdotal experience, it isn’t meant as an academic work—and while it may lack empirical depth, that feels secondary to its purpose. In terms of content and accessibility, the book’s heavy use of sports examples may be a barrier for some. Readers less interested in athletics might find the frequent game and athlete references less relatable. While Moawad includes a few business and everyday examples, the book is firmly rooted in sports. Still, its core lessons extend well beyond the field, which is why I ultimately recommend it to all audiences.

Moawad concludes the book by returning to his core principle of neutral thinking, offering a memorable metaphor: “The idea of living neutral is putting a comma at the end of the event…and knowing that the next words will determine how the sentence continues.” That image reshaped how I view setbacks—a reminder that the story isn’t over unless I decide it is. Moawad’s message is clear: we hold the pen, and with it, the power to shape what comes next.

2025-10-10T11:45:06-05:00May 13th, 2026|Book Reveiws, Contemporary Sports Issues, Leadership|Comments Off on BOOK REVIEW: Moawad, T (2020). It takes what it takes: How to think neutrally and gain control of your life. HarperOne.
Read More

Accreditation, Curriculum, and Competition: An Explanatory Case Study of Sport Sales Education in Undergraduate Sport Management Programs

Authors: Joshua S. Greer1, Nicholas Zoroya2, and Tim Wilson3

1Cumberland University

2Wayne State University

3Middle Tennessee State University

 

Corresponding Author:

Joshua S. Greer

[email protected]

Joshua S. Greer. https://orcid.org/0009-0005-2890-1673

We have no known conflict of interest to disclose.

ABSTRACT 

This explanatory mixed-methods case study explored the relationship between accreditation, curriculum design, and student performance in sport sales education within undergraduate sport management programs. Using archival data from the 2024–2025 National Collegiate Sports Sales Championship (NCSSC), the study compared outcomes among 25 institutions, including COSMA- and non-accredited programs. Quantitative analysis found no significant relationship between accreditation status and Top-10 finishes in either the Ticket Sales or Corporate Partnerships divisions (p > .05). Qualitative findings indicated that student performance was more closely associated with experiential learning depth, faculty expertise, and the integration of customer relationship management and analytics tools. Grounded in Experiential Learning Theory, Competency-Based Education, Human Capital Theory, and Communities of Practice, the study concludes that accreditation provides useful structure but does not independently predict competitive success. Program-level factors such as applied pedagogy, simulation-based learning, and industry partnerships appear to be stronger indicators of professional readiness and employability in sport sales.

KEYWORDS: Experiential Learning Theory, Competency-Based Education, Human Capital Theory, Communities of Practice

INTRODUCTION 

The goal of supporting positive outcomes for younger people (i.e., generativity; Erikson, 1950) is one that is both widely and cross-culturally relevant, yet despite this, the understanding for how to best support young people and the strategies employed to do so are still in flux. Only recently have developmental psychology and social research begun to place an emphasis on fostering positive outcomes for youth, as opposed to the prevention of negative outcomes and problematic behaviors (Larson, 2000). Within the areas of social and developmental research, this emphasis has led to the creation of diverse approaches to and philosophies of developmental youth programming (Lerner et al., 2011), which often provide opportunities for life skill development (i.e., explicit positive youth development). That said, the translation of such knowledge to spaces where youth development is view as a secondary priority, such as sport, tends to be challenging (Jones et al., 2011).  The primary aim of the present pilot study was to test a grounded theory of implicit positive youth development through sport by examining the impact of peer, coach, and parental relationships on youth sport experiences in a small, single-organization sample. In doing so, the present study offers a novel examination of the collective social climate (i.e., PYD climate) and its relationship to athlete developmental outcomes. We hypothesized the following:

  • Athletes’ perceptions of positive outcomes obtained through sport participation (e.g., social skills, goal setting skills) will be predicted by positive changes to the ratings of the coach-athlete relationship, peer cohesion, and parental involvement across a sport season.

At two time points (e.g., beginning of the season, end of the season), athletes’ ratings of their relationships with their coach, peer cohesion, and parental involvement were collected.  Subsequently, athletes’ perceptions of skill development across four areas (e.g., personal and social skills, cognitive skills, goal setting, initiative) were regressed on changes to the relationship variables. Both the coach-athlete relationship and parental involvement were shown to significantly predict social skill development, not only offering partial support for a theory of implicit PYD through sport and underscoring the critical developmental role of relationship building in sport but also pointing to the need for stakeholders to prioritize a high-quality social climate in the sport context to better support youth development.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Historically, adolescence and adolescent development has been regarded as a period during which youth are at risk and laden with problematic behaviors (Benson et al., 2006), therefore implying that the role of adults was to manage and prevent the problems that arise from adolescent development, also known as a deficit-focused approach to youth development (Clonan et al., 2004; Lerner, 2005). However, preventing such problems through a focus on treatment or intervention often failed to yield positive results (Catalano et al., 2008). Appearing concurrently with positive psychology’s focus on human strengths and flourishing, positive youth development theory offered that youth are “resources to be developed,” presenting a path toward positive youth outcomes through youth enrichment and the promotion of adolescent strengths (Lerner, Almerigi, et al., 2005). Positive youth development is a broad term, but generally refers to “processes, approaches, and instances” (Lerner et al., 2011) which seek to optimally prepare young people for adulthood, with the targeted outcomes being well-being and the fulfillment of their potential (Catalano et al., 2008). Contexts which aim to support positive youth development vary widely, to include agricultural programming (Lerner, Lerner, et al., 2005), volunteer and service programming (McBride et al., 2011), tutoring (Worker et al., 2019), aquatics (Storm et al., 2017), adventure-based programming (Sibthorp & Morgan, 2011), and sport (Bruner et al., 2021).

Youth sports are generally touted as tools for healthy and positive development, yet research aimed at validating this claim or understanding the processes by which it occurs is ambiguous (Holt et al., 2017). PYD theory was developed outside of the sport context (Lerner, Lerner, et al., 2005) and researchers have struggled to apply PYD models and measures to sporting contexts (Jones et al., 2011). One reason for this may be that PYD researchers have failed to acknowledge keyfeatures of the sport environment (Holt et al., 2017). In a systematic review of qualitative data, Holt and colleagues (2017) proposed that PYD through sport occurs via two distinct pathways. In the first, programs offer explicit education to youth sport participants aimed at life skill development. In the second pathway, PYD occurs implicitly via positive relationships with coaches, peers, and parents (i.e., the creation of a ‘PYD climate’). Holt and colleagues concluded that further research is needed to not only investigate the validity of this framework but also understand additional nuances for when and how PYD may occur through explicit and implicit factors. The need for further research was bolstered by a systematic review of sport-based PYD programming, conducted by Whitley and colleagues (2019), who concluded the benefit of explicit PYD programming in sport is not clear enough to support the implementation of a standardized intervention. Therefore, while the field’s understanding of how to best implement explicit PYD programming through sport is still evolving, there also exists a need to test the proposed model of implicit PYD through positive relationships within sport. While the specific role positive relationships play in supporting PYD within sport is unclear, it is generally accepted that these relationships are all valuable, if not necessary, for positive athlete outcomes (Burns et al., 2019).

Coach-Athlete Relationship

Arguably the primary relationship in the sporting context (Jowett, 2017), the dyadic relationship between coach and athlete has been shown to be instrumental to numerous athlete outcomes. In a systematic review of the coach-athlete relationship literature, Nikolina and Đorić (2023) reported that a positive coach-athlete relationship was not only predictive of increased motivation, satisfaction, and performance, but also protective from athlete stress, burnout, and negative affect. Davis and Jowett (2014) have reported that the quality of the coach-athlete relationship is directly related to athlete positive and negative affect. Furthermore, in a systematic review of the literature, McShan and Moore (2023) found that a positive coach-athlete relationship, as reported by coaches, was associated with coach’s beliefs of fostering an environment supportive of athlete life skill development. In Holt and colleague’s (2017) grounded theory of implicit PYD, the authors posit that strong, positive relationships between athletes and coaches can create a developmentally supportive social environment.

Peer Cohesion

Paralleling the coach-athlete relationship research, research on the role of peer relationships in the sport environment have shown these relationships to be highly influential on athlete experiences and outcomes (Smith & Ullrich-French, 2020).  Peer support has been shown to be related to elite sport participation, athlete motivation, and reduced withdrawal from sport (Sheridan et al., 2014). Additionally, researchers have shown that peer cohesion is not only associated with performance (Carron et al., 2002; Filho et al., 2014), but also athlete need satisfaction and learning (Erikstad et al., 2018). Furthermore, Smith and Ulrich-French (2020) have posited that peer relationships in the sport context are likely to be influential to individual athlete development, to include character, moral, social, and life skill development. In proposing strong peer relationships as influential of an implicit PYD climate, Holt and colleagues (2017) highlighted how strong peer relationships in the sport context often result in feelings of belongingness and support, which may provide developmental benefit.

Parental Involvement

While not always directly involved in the training environment, researchers have shown that parents are highly influential to youth athletes’ experiences and outcomes in sport. Youth who perceive their parents as satisfied with their performance and who experience low parental pressure are more likely to report sport enjoyment and positive affect (Dorsch et al., 2021). Additionally, parental involvement has also been associated with youth sport enjoyment, perceptions of competence, and self-esteem (Dorsch et al., 2021). Parental involvement in sport has also been found to be associated with youth athlete need satisfaction (Felber Charbonneau & Camiré, 2020). Furthermore, parental involvement in sport has also been connected to athletes’ development, to include socialization and value adoption (Danioni et al., 2017). In their grounded theory model, Holt and colleagues (2017) highlighted the reinforcing role that parental involvement plays to creating a PYD climate; while coaches may be responsible for delivering lessons and values to athletes in the sport context, the authors noted that it is important that parents support, not contradict, these messages.

Study Aims

In their grounded theory model, Holt and colleagues (2017) posited that these three relationships (i.e., coaches, peers, parents) collectively create a social climate supportive of implicit positive youth development. Therefore, the primary aim of the present study was to examine the impact of peer, coach, and parental relationships on youth sport experiences and youth athletes’ perceptions of developmental skills gained, thereby piloting a test of Holt and colleagues’ (2017) grounded theory model. Should these relationships be predictive of positive youth development, it could be expected that athletes who experience positive changes to these relationships (e.g., increased peer cohesion, increased parental involvement) across a sport season should also receive increased benefit from their participation compared to athletes whose relationships did not improve. As such, we hypothesized that athletes’ perceptions of positive outcomes obtained through sport participation (e.g., social skills, goal setting skills) would be predicted by positive changes to the ratings of their peer relationships, coach-athlete relationships, and parental involvement across a sport season.

METHODS 

Participants

Participants included 67 youth athletes from a competitive soccer club in the northwest region of the United States. In total, 41 athletes (Mage = 11.85) completed data collection at both time points. Participants represented 13 teams from four separate age categories. Additionally, 65.9% of the athletes identified as white and 61.0% of the athletes identified as boys.

Measures

Coach-Athlete Relationship Questionnaire (CART-Q)

To measure athlete perceptions of their relationship with their coach, the Coach-Athlete Relationship Questionnaire (CART-Q; Jowett & Ntoumanis, 2004) was utilized. The 11-item scale measured the nature of the athlete’s relationship with their coach (a = 0.97). Using a seven-point Likert scale, athletes rated their agreement with statements such as, “I trust my coach.”

Youth Sport Environment Questionnaire (YSEQ)

Athletes’ perceptions of their relationship with teammates were measured utilizing the Youth Sport Environment Questionnaire (YSEQ; Eys et al., 2009). The scale, which has been shown to be both valid and reliable, measured group cohesion and peer relationship quality. The YSEQ contains 16 statements, such as, “I am happy with my team’s level of desire to win” (a = 0.93). Athletes rated their agreement with these statements utilizing a seven-point Likert scale.

Parental Involvement in Sport Questionnaire (PISQ)

The Parental Involvement in Sport Questionnaire (PISQ; Lee & MacLean, 1997) is a valid and reliable 19-item scale (a = 0.87), which captures athletes’ perceptions of parental involvement across three subscales: directive behavior, praise and understanding, and active involvement. Utilizing a five-point Likert scale, athletes rated their level of agreement with statements such as, “Do your parents push you to practice harder?”

Youth Experience Survey for Sport (YES-S)

Employed only at the second time point, the short form Youth Experience Survey for Sport (YES-S; MacDonald et al., 2012; Sullivan et al., 2015) is 16-item scale that measured the perceptions of athletes’ experiences participating in sport across the previous season, and was utilized in the present study to operationalize PYD. The scale measures whether athletes perceived any benefit to their participation across four subscales: personal and social skills (a = 0.78), cognitive skills (a = 0.78), goal setting (a = 0.81), and initiative (a = 0.71). Athletes rated their agreement with statements such as, “I learned to push myself” on a five-point Likert scale.

Procedure

Ahead of the start of the summer season, the first author attended the club’s tryouts and parent meetings to share information about the study and recruit participants. During this time, parental consent was obtained through the completion of a written consent form and household demographic survey. The first survey was completed electronically one month into the summer season.  Subsequently, 14 weeks later, the research team returned to conduct the second survey during the final week of the fall season. At both time points, the surveys collected demographic information, athlete perceptions of relationships with their coach, peer cohesion, and parental involvement. At the second time point, the survey collected measurements of athletes’ perceptions of their experiences playing sport across the previous season, particularly focused on skills gained.

The dataset contained 0.3% missingness, and results of an MCAR test were not significant (X2(1386) = 0.00, p = 1.00), suggesting data was missing at random. For cases with missingness, scales were prorated based on completed items. Descriptive statistics were calculated for each scale and notable demographic differences are reported in Table 1. For each of the relationship variables (i.e., CART-Q, PISQ, YSEQ), a difference score was calculated (MT2 – MT1) to measure changes in these relationships across the season. While the utilization of difference scores has been criticized for its negative, summative impact on reliability (Edwards, 1994), researchers have noted that difference scores can be an appropriate choice in research, particularly for nonrandomized, theory-driven analyses (Castro-Schilo & Grimm, 2018). Assumptions testing revealed issues regarding multicollinearity as there was a high correlation between coach-athlete relationship and the peer cohesion change scores (r = 0.801), which resulted in unstable beta coefficients. This instability indicated that the presence of the peer cohesion variable in the model was distorting the estimation of other predictors, undermining the reliability and interpretability of the model. As such, the peer cohesion variable was removed from primary analyses. Following this, we regressed the four subscales of the YES-S (i.e., personal and social skills, cognitive skills, goal setting skills, initiative) on changes in relationship quality across the season, while controlling for age, race, and gender.

Table 1

Sample Characteristics and Descriptive Statistics

   CART-QYSEQPISQYES-S Social SkillsYES-S Cog. SkillsYES-S Goal SettingYES-S Initiative
Variablen%T1 – M(SD)T2 – M(SD)T1 – M(SD)T2 – M(SD)T1 – M(SD)T2 – M(SD)T2 – M(SD)T2 – M(SD)T2 – M(SD)T2 – M(SD)
Age            
1037.35.61(1.24)*5.97(1.47)*4.25(2.01)*5.08(1.98)*2.39(0.18)2.91(0.45)3.58(0.52)3.67(0.58)4.25(0.58)4.58(0.52)
11922.05.46(1.73)6.36(0.39)4.74(1.52)5.53(0.83)3.02(0.60)3.13(0.52)4.00(0.60)3.69(1.05)4.00(0.85)4.50(0.45)
122048.86.10(0.40)5.96(0.85)5.10(0.75)5.30(0.91)*2.92(0.60)3.25(0.74)*4.17(0.75)3.53(1.16)3.93(0.90)4.25(0.59)
13922.05.71(1.04)*5.15(1.26)* †4.69(1.40)4.89(1.18)3.16(0.69)3.30(0.58)4.03(0.57)3.56(0.69)4.25(0.57)4.43(0.66)
Gender            
Boy2561.06.03(0.61)6.17(0.69)†4.91(1.03)*5.26(0.89)*2.92(0.62)*3.24(0.66)*4.12(0.66)3.72(0.85)4.11(0.71)4.43(0.41)
Girl1639.05.56(1.43)5.41(0.99)†4.81(1.42)5.22(1.25)3.01(0.62)3.17(0.62)3.96(0.89)3.35(1.19)3.90(0.94)4.27(0.76)
Race            
White2765.95.77(1.13)5.97(0.83)4.75(1.21)*5.24(1.03)*2.95(0.61)3.14(0.57)4.07(0.69)3.52(1.04)3.99(0.85)4.43(0.54)
Black12.4          
Asian49.85.50(1.38)5.41(1.85)4.77(1.85)*5.30(1.64)*2.74(0.90)3.29(0.90)4.00(0.35)3.94(0.43)3.94(0.43)3.94(0.66)
Hispanic49.86.27(0.45)5.86(1.12)5.50(0.89)5.55(0.74)2.99(0.57)3.41(0.83)4.50(0.41)4.25(0.54)4.69(0.47)4.63(0.32)
Other512.26.13(0.31)5.65(1.20)5.05(0.83)4.99(1.04)2.99(0.45)3.31(0.52)3.80(0.89)3.15(1.29)3.80(0.94)4.15(0.74)
Total41100.05.84(1.02)5.87(0.99)4.87(1.18)*5.24(1.03)*2.96(0.62)*3.21(0.64)*4.06(0.67)3.58(1.00)4.03(0.80)4.37(0.57)

Notes. n = 41; CART-Q = Coach-Athlete Relationship; PISQ = Parental Involvement; YSEQ = Ratings of Peer Cohesion; YES-S = Perceptions of Developmental Experiences, *Difference is significant between time points; †Difference is significant between groups.

RESULTS

The model examining personal and social skills was significant and explained 45.4% of variance in the outcome (R2 = 0.454, F(5,34) = 5.664, p < 0.001).

Regression Results for Perceptions of Social Skills Gained by Athletes

    95% CI 
VariablebbSELLULp
Intercept 0.7741.268-1.8023.3500.546
Gender-0.129-0.1750.184-0.5500.1990.348
Age0.3690.2910.1100.0670.5150.012
Race-0.024-0.0080.042-0.0940.0780.858
DCART-Q0.4820.2500.0740.0990.4000.002
DPISQ0.3260.3820.1600.5800.7070.022

Notes. n = 41; R2= 0.454, F(5,34) = 5.664, p < 0.001; DCART-Q = Change in Coach-Athlete Relationship; DPISQ = Change in Parental Involvement.

**When ran independently due to the existing multicollinearity, change to peer cohesion was also a significant predictor of personal and social skills (R2 = 0.317, F(4,35) = 4.063, p = 0.008).

Within this model, both changes to the coach-athlete relationships (b= 0.482, p = 0.002) and changes to parental involvement (b= 0.326, p = 0.022) across the season were significant predictors of personal and social skills. Additionally, the covariate age was also a significant predictor of personal and social skills (b = 0.369, p = 0.012). The model examining cognitive skills explained 25.1% of the variance, however was only marginally significant (R2 = 0.251, F(5,34) = 2.275, p = 0.069). Within this model the change in coach-athlete relationship was a statistically significant predictor (b= 0.403, p = 0.022), whereas changes to parental involvement was not (b= 0.158, p = 0.330).

Table 3

Regression Results for Perceptions of Cognitive Skills Gained by Athletes

    95% CI 
VariablebbSELLULp
Intercept 2.0482.221-2.4656.5610.363
Gender-0.155-0.3150.323-0.9720.3420.337
Age0.1430.1690.193-0.2240.5610.389
Race-0.066-0.0320.074-0.1820.1190.670
DCART-Q0.4030.3120.1300.0480.5760.022
DPISQ0.1580.2770.280-0.2920.8450.330

Notes. n = 41; R2= 0.251, F(5,34) = 2.275, p = 0.069; DCART-Q = Change in Coach-Athlete Relationship; DPISQ = Change in Parental Involvement.

** When ran independently due to the existing multicollinearity, change to peer cohesion was not a significant predictor of cognitive skills.

The models predicting goal setting skills (R2 = 0.183, F(5,34) = 1.528, p = 0.207) and initiative (R2 = 0.185, F(5,34) = 1.542, p = 0.203) were not statistically significant.

DISCUSSION 

The present study provides partial support to Holt and colleague’s (2017) proposition that there is an implicit pathway of PYD in sport that takes place through positive relationships. In particular, changes to the coach-athlete relationship significantly predicted youth athletes’ perceptions of social skills and cognitive skills gained; and changes to perceptions of parental involvement also predicted social skills gained. Additionally, when analyzed separately due to issues of multicollinearity, changes to peer cohesion also significantly predicted social skill perceptions. As such, data in the current study reinforce the importance of relationships within the sport environment, and extend previous research by highlighting their value to the specific area of PYD through sport.

While research has shown the coach-athlete relationship to be associated with motivation (Adie & Jowett, 2010), collective-efficacy (Hampson & Jowett, 2014), and team cohesion (Turman, 2003), its role in the social and cognitive development of athletes is less understood. That said, research has shown that coaches seem to intuitively understand the developmental value of a positive coach-athlete relationship as coaches have reported a positive relationship with their athletes led to social and emotional development and resilience (White & Bennie, 2015). Furthermore, Davis and colleagues (2019) proposed a bidirectional relationship between communication skills and the coach-athlete relationship, where communication skills not only helped to improve the relationship, but also improved as a product of a high-quality coach-athlete relationship. When examining the more expansive literature on the impact of a high-quality relationships, researchers have documents that teacher-student relationships can promote cognitive development (Davis, 2003) and social adjustment (Dong et al., 2021) through positive and trusting learning environments. Data in the current study suggest coaches hold a responsibility to ensure the development and sustainment of positive relationships in the sport environment to support similarly positive developmental outcomes for youth athletes. This is particularly important as social skills have been shown to be associated with academic performance (Sung & Chang, 2010), increased mental health (Greenberg et al., 2003), wellbeing (Sancassiani et al., 2015), and self-esteem (Riggio et al., 1990).

The present study also highlights the important yet specific role that parents play in positive youth development through sport. Parental styles have been shown to be associated with social skill development; youth with democratic and permissive parents have been shown to score higher on social skills measures than those with neglectful or authoritative parents (Salavera et al., 2022). As such, it could be hypothesized that parents with more developmentally supportive parenting styles are more likely to be involved in their child’s sport and supportive of their child’s social skills. That said, data in the current study suggests the need to delineate the roles of parents and coaches, as these relationships may provide different benefits for youth. For example, Knight and colleagues (2011) reported that athletes consistently prefer parents to fill a supportive and encouraging role, as opposed to a coaching role. This is supported by data in the current study in that while change to parental involvement predicted athletes’ perceptions of social skill development, it did not predict their cognitive skill perceptions.

Finally, it is important to note that girls rated their relationship with their coach significantly lower than their peers who identified as boys; and older athletes were also significantly less likely to rate their coach-relationships higher than younger athletes. As such, should there exist any developmental benefit to high-quality, coaching relationships, the present findings would suggest that girls and older youth athletes are less likely to receive those benefits. Given that a positive coach-athlete relationship can be protective from poor mental health outcomes for girl athletes specifically (Massey et al., 2024), it is important that positive coach-athlete relationships are prioritized for female athletes, particularly adolescent female athletes. Furthermore, it is generally accepted that as athletes get older, the sporting environment shifts from a focus on fun to a focus on competition. Be that as it may, research has shown that the true shift lies within how athletes are treated; Kipp and Bolter (2020) found that while both older and younger athletes equally perceived their sporting environments to be focused on effort and learning, older athletes were more likely to report being punished or disciplined for mistakes. It is possible that such climates explain the decreasing trend of the coach-athlete relationship observed in the present study. Speaking strictly to the proposed developmental role of the coach-athlete relationship within sport, the present findings would offer that sports become less beneficial and developmentally supportive over time.

Despite the present study’s value to the literature base on PYD through sport, its small, homogenous sample limits its generalizability. In addition to being predominantly white, the sample derived from a singular, pay-to-play soccer organization within an affluent community. Additionally, the present sample predominantly identified as boys, which may parallel youth sport participation trends, but limits the generalizability of the findings to non-boy athlete populations. The age rage of the sample was also limited, clustered into the soccer organizations U11 and U13 age groupings, and as such, the findings may be in part reflective of the natural development occurring in this age range.

Furthermore, most athletes in the present study were satisfied with their relationship with their coach and peers, and the mean parental involvement score was slightly above the midpoint of the scale. Depending on sport or community context, it is possible that more athletes would report more dissatisfaction with these relationships or less parental involvement, thereby affecting the nature of the findings. With respect to age and gender differences, it is possible that these differences could be explained by confounding variables, such as coach gender, competition level, or position, which could not be differentiated in the present study due to the small sample size. Lastly, while multicollinearity necessitated the removal of the peer cohesion variable from the analyses, it should be acknowledged that doing so also limits the completeness of the model by excluding a theoretically important dimension of the sport environment, and one which should continue to be examined in this line of research.  As such, future studies should not only continue to examine the nuanced roles of parents and coaches in sport-based PYD, but also peer relationships, and doing so in larger and more diverse samples.

CONCLUSION 

The social context of the sport environment, which includes coaches, parents, and peers, plays a significant role in shaping athletes’ perceived development through sport. In the present study, athletes’ perceived social skill development was significantly predicted by positive changes to the coach-athlete relationship and parental involvement. The quality of the coach-athlete relationship also emerged as a meaningful predictor of athletes’ perceived cognitive development, highlighting the broader developmental impact of adult figures in the sport context. Furthermore, while peer cohesion was omitted in analyses due to multicollinearity, its interconnectedness with the coach-athlete relationship should be acknowledged, and researchers should continue to utilize it as a variable of interest as theory would dictate. Taken together, these findings underscore the importance of considering the full network of sport-based relationships when seeking to support athletes’ development through sport participation.

APPLICATIONS IN SPORT

In addition to providing support for Holt and colleagues’ (2017) theory of implicit PYD through sport, the present study highlights the interconnected nature of youth sport’s social context. We offer the following recommendations to stakeholders seeking to utilize these findings to develop their youth sport organization’s PYD climate:

  • Provide coaches with education and training that supports their development of communication and relationship-building skills (see Barnett et al., 1992; Jowett & Cockerill, 2003).
  • Provide education and clear expectations for parents’ involvement in the organization, as well as opportunities for involvement (see Knight et al., 2011).

Prioritize relationship building and psychological safety at the outset of the season, to include team-building activities and the development of team norms, rituals, and goals (see Carron et al., 1997; Senécal et al., 2008).

REFERENCES 

1. Adie, J. W., & Jowett, S. (2010). Meta‐perceptions of the coach–athlete relationship, achievement goals, and intrinsic motivation among sport participants. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 40(11), 2750-2773. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2010.00679.x

2. Barnett, N. P., Smoll, F. L., & Smith, R. E. (1992). Effects of enhancing coach-athlete relationships on youth sport attrition. The Sport Psychologist, 6(2), 111-127. https://doi.org/10.1123/tsp.6.2.111

3. Benson, P. L., Scales, P. C., Hamilton, S. F., & Sesma Jr., A. (2006). Positive youth development so far: Core hypotheses and their implications for policy and practice. Search Institute Insights & Evidence 3(1), 1-13.

4. Bruner, M. W., McLaren, C. D., Sutcliffe, J. T., Gardner, L. A., Lubans, D. R., Smith, J. J., & Vella, S. A. (2021). The effect of sport-based interventions on positive youth development: A systematic review and meta-analysis. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 16(1), 368-395. https://doi.org/10.1080/1750984X.2021.1875496

5. Burns, L., Weissensteiner, J. R., & Cohen, M. (2019). Supportive interpersonal relationships: a key component to high-performance sport. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 53(22), 1386-1389. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2018-100312

6. Carron, A. V., Colman, M. M., Wheeler, J., & Stevens, D. (2002). Cohesion and performance in sport: A meta analysis. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 24(2), 168–188. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.24.2.168

7. Carron, A. V., Spink, K. S., & Prapavessis, H. (1997). Team building and cohesiveness in the sport and exercise setting: Use of indirect interventions. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 9(1), 61–72. https://doi.org/10.1080/10413209708415384

8. Castro-Schilo, L., & Grimm, K. J. (2018). Using residualized change versus difference scores for longitudinal research. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 35(1), 32-58.

9. Catalano, R. F., Toumbourou, J. W., & Hawkins, J. D. (2008). Positive youth development in the United States: History, efficacy, and links to moral and character education. In L. Nucci & T. Krettenauer (Eds.) Handbook of moral and character education. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203114896

10. Christiansen, E. D., & von Eye, A. (2005). Positive youth development, participation in community youth development programs, and community contributions of fifth-grade adolescents: Findings from the first wave of the 4-H study of positive youth development. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 25(1), 17-71. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431604272461

10. Clonan, S. M., Chafouleas, S. M., McDougal, J. L., & Riley-Tillman, T. C. (2004). Positive psychology goes to school: Are we there yet? Psychology in the Schools, 41(1), 101–110. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.10142

11. Danioni, F., Barni, D., & Rosnati, R. (2017). Transmitting sport values: The importance of parental involvement in children’s sport activity. Europe’s Journal of Psychology, 13(1), 75–92. https://doi.org/10.5964/ejop.v13i1.1265 

12. Davis, H. A. (2003). Conceptualizing the role and influence of student-teacher relationships on children’s social and cognitive development. Educational Psychologist, 38(4), 207-234. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15326985EP3804_2

13. Davis, L., & Jowett, S. (2014). Coach–athlete attachment and the quality of the coach–athlete relationship: Implications for athlete’s well-being. Journal of Sports Sciences, 32(15), 1454–1464. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2014.898183

14. Davis, L., Jowett, S., & Tafvelin, S. (2019). Communication strategies: The fuel for quality coach-athlete relationships and athlete satisfaction. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 2156. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02156

15. Dong, Y., Wang, H., Luan, F., Li, Z., & Cheng, L. (2021). How children feel matters: Teacher–student relationship as an indirect role between interpersonal trust and social adjustment. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 581235. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.581235

16. Dorsch, T. E., Wright, E., Eckardt, V. C., Elliott, S., Thrower, S. N., & Knight, C. J. (2021). A history of parent involvement in organized youth sport: A scoping review. Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology, 10(4), 536. https://doi.org/10.1037/spy0000266

17. Edwards, J. R. (1994). Regression analysis as an alternative to difference scores. Journal of Management, 20(3), 683-689.

18. Erikson, E. H. (1950). Childhood and society. W. W. Norton & Co.

19. Erikstad, M. K., Martin, L. J., Haugen, T., & Høigaard, R. (2018). Group cohesion, needs satisfaction, and self-regulated learning: A one-year prospective study of elite youth soccer players’ perceptions of their club team. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 39, 171–178. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2018.08.013

20. Eys, M., Loughead, T., Bray, S. R., & Carron, A. V. (2009). Development of a cohesion questionnaire for youth: The Youth Sport Environment Questionnaire. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 31(3), 390-408. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.31.3.390

21. Felber Charbonneau, E., & Camiré, M. (2020). Parental involvement in sport and the satisfaction of basic psychological needs: Perspectives from parent–child dyads. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 18(5), 655–671. https://doi.org/10.1080/1612197X.2019.1570533

22. Filho, E., Dobersek, U., Gershgoren, L., Becker, B., & Tenenbaum, G. (2014). The cohesion–performance relationship in sport: A 10-year retrospective meta-analysis. Sport Sciences for Health, 10(3), 165–177. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11332-014-0188-7

23. Greenberg, M. T., Weissberg, R. P., O’Brien, M. U., Zins, J. E., Fredericks, L., Resnik, H., & Elias, M. J. (2003). Enhancing school-based prevention and youth development through coordinated social, emotional, and academic learning. American Psychologist, 58(6-7), 466. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.58.6-7.466

24. Hampson, R., & Jowett, S. (2014). Effects of coach leadership and coach–athlete relationship on collective efficacy. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 24(2), 454-460. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0838.2012.01527.x

25. Holt, N. L., Neely, K. C., Slater, L. G., Camiré, M., Côté, J., Fraser-Thomas, J., MacDonald, D., Strachan, L., & Tamminen, K. A. (2017). A grounded theory of positive youth development through sport based on results from a qualitative meta-study. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 10(1), 1-49. https://doi.org/10.1080/1750984X.2016.1180704

26. Jones, M. I., Dunn, J. G., Holt, N. L., Sullivan, P. J., & Bloom, G. A. (2011). Exploring the ‘5Cs’ of positive youth development in sport. Journal of Sport Behavior, 34(3). https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2011-17095-003

27. Jowett, S. (2017). Coaching effectiveness: The coach–athlete relationship at its heart. Current Opinion in Psychology, 16, 154–158. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2017.05.006

28. Jowett, S., & Cockerill, I. M. (2003). Olympic medalists’ perspective of the athlete–coach relationship. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 4(4), 313–331. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1469-0292(02)00011-0

29. Jowett, S., & Ntoumanis, N. (2004). The Coach–Athlete Relationship Questionnaire (CART‐Q): Development and initial validation. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 14(4), 245-257. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0838.2003.00338.x

30. Kipp, L. E., & Bolter, N. D. (2020). Motivational climate, psychological needs, and personal and social responsibility in youth soccer: Comparisons by age group and competitive level. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2020.101756

31. Knight, C. J., Neely, K. C., & Holt, N. L. (2011). Parental behaviors in team sports: How do female athletes want parents to behave? Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 23(1), 76-92. https://doi.org/10.1080/10413200.2010.525589

32. Larson, R. W. (2000). Toward a psychology of positive youth development. American Psychologist, 55(1), 170–183. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.170

33. Lee, M., & MacLean, S. (1997). Sources of parental pressure among age group swimmers. European Journal of Physical Education, 2(2), 167-177. https://doi.org/10.1080/1740898970020204

34. Lerner, R. M. (2005). Promoting positive youth development: Theoretical and empirical bases. Washington, DC: National Academies of Sciences.

35. Lerner, R. M., Almerigi, J. B., Theokas, C., & Lerner, J. V. (2005). Positive youth development A view of the issues. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 25(1), 10–16. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431604273211

36. Lerner, R. M., Lerner, J. V., Almerigi, J. B., Theokas, C., Phelps, E., Gestsdottir, S., Naudeau, S., Jelicic, H., Alberts, A., Ma, L., Smith, L. M., Bobek, D. L., Richman-Raphael, D., Simpson, I., 37.

37. Lerner, R. M., Lerner, J. V., Lewin-Bizan, S., Bowers, E. P., Boyd, M. J., Mueller, M. K., Schmid, K. L., & Napolitano, C. M. (2011). Positive youth development: Processes, orograms, and problematics. Journal of Youth Development, 6(3), 38–62. https://doi.org/10.5195/JYD.2011.174

38. MacDonald, D. J., Côté, J., Eys, M., & Deakin, J. (2012). Psychometric properties of the youth experience survey with young athletes. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 13(3), 332-340. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2011.09.001

39. Massey, W. V., Veliz, P. T., Zarrett, N., & Farello, A. (2024). Thriving through sport: The transformative impact on girls’ mental health. Women’s Sport Foundation.

40. McBride, A. M., Johnson, E., Olate, R., & O’Hara, K. (2011). Youth volunteer service as positive youth development in Latin America and the Caribbean. Children and Youth Services Review, 33(1), 34–41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2010.08.009

41. Nikolina, K., & Đorić, V. (2023). Relations of coach-athlete relationship quality and athlete psychosocial functioning: A systematic review. SportLogia, 19(1). https://doi.org/10.7251/SGIA2319002K

42. Riggio, R. E., Throckmorton, B., & Depaola, S. (1990). Social skills and self-esteem. Personality and Individual Differences, 11(8), 799-804. https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(90)90188-W

43. Salavera, C., Usán, P., & Quilez-Robres, A. (2022). Exploring the effect of parental styles on social skills: The mediating role of affects. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(6), 3295. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19063295

44. Sancassiani, F., Pintus, E., Holte, A., Paulus, P., Moro, M. F., Cossu, G., Angermeyer, M. C., Carta, M. G., & Lindert, J. (2015). Enhancing the emotional and social skills of the youth to promote their wellbeing and positive development: A systematic review of universal school-based randomized controlled trials [Special issue]. Clinical Practice and Epidemiology in Mental Health, 11, 21-40. https://doi.org/10.2174/1745017901511010021

45. Senécal, J., Loughead, T. M., & Bloom, G. A. (2008). A season-long team-building intervention: Examining the effect of team goal setting on cohesion. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 30(2), 186-199. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.30.2.186

46. Sheridan, D., Coffee, P., & Lavallee, D. (2014). A systematic review of social support in youth sport. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 7(1), 198-228. https://doi.org/10.1080/1750984X.2014.931999

47. Sibthorp, J., & Morgan, C. (2011). Adventure‐based programming: Exemplary youth development practice. New Directions for Youth Development, (130), 105-119. https://doi.org/10.1002/yd.400

48. Smith, A. L., & Ullrich-French, S. (2020). Peers and the sport experience. In G. Tenenbaum & R. C. Eklund (Eds.) Handbook of sport psychology (pp. 410–428). John Wiley & Sons, Inc. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119568124.ch19

49. Storm, M. K., Williams, K. N., Shetter, E. M., Kaminsky, J., Lowery, C. M., Caldas, S. V., & Winch, P. J. (2017). Sink or swim: Promoting youth development through aquatics programs in Baltimore, Maryland. Journal of Park & Recreation Administration, 35(1), 66-79. https://doi.org/10.18666/JPRA-2017-V35-I1-7295

50. Sullivan, P. J., LaForge-MacKenzie, K., & Marini, M. (2015). Confirmatory factor analysis of the Youth Experiences Survey for Sport (YES-S). Open Journal of Statistics, 5(05), 421. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojs.2015.55044

51. Sung, Y. Y., & Chang, M. (2010). Which social skills predict academic performance of elementary school students. Journal on Educational Psychology, 3(3), 23-34. https://doi.org/10.26634/jpsy.3.3.1078

52. Turman, P. D. (2003). Coaches and cohesion: The impact of coaching techniques on team cohesion in the small group sport setting. Journal of Sport Behaviour, 26(1), 86-104. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2003-01497-007

53. White, R. L., & Bennie, A. (2015). Resilience in youth sport: A qualitative investigation of gymnastics coach and athlete perceptions. International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching, 10(2-3), 379-393. https://doi.org/10.1260/1747-9541.10.2-3.379

54. Whitley, M. A., Massey, W. V., Camiré, M., Boutet, M., & Borbee, A. (2019). Sport-based youth development interventions in the United States: A systematic review. BMC Public Health, 19, 1-20. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-019-6387-z

55. Worker, S. M., Iaccopucci, A. M., Bird, M., & Horowitz, M. (2019). Promoting positive youth development through teenagers-as-teachers programs. Journal of Adolescent Research, 34(1), 30-54. https://doi.org/10.1177/0743558418764089

Appendix A
Supplemental Materials

Table 4

Correlation Matrix of Study Variables

Variables1234567
1. Age       
2. CART-Q-0.34*      
3. PISQ0.150.23     
4. YSEQ-0.140.66**0.31*    
5. Social Skills0.140.62**0.35*0.47**   
6. Cognitive Skills-0.050.40*0.160.160.66**  
7. Goal Setting0.030.43**0.130.42**0.57**0.70** 
8. Initiative-0.100.53**0.180.47**0.51**0.40*0.70**

Notes. * Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (two-tailed). ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (two-tailed); CART-Q = Coach-Athlete Relationship; PISQ = Parental Involvement, YSEQ = Peer Relationships

Table 5

Regression Results for Perceptions of Goal Setting Skills Gained by Athletes

   95% CI for B  
VariablebSELLULbp
Intercept2.0531.862-1.7315.836 0.278
Gender-0.2280.271-0.7790.322-0.1400.405
Age0.1860.162-0.1430.5150.1960.259
Race0.0110.062-0.1150.1370.0280.863
DCART-Q0.2300.1090.0080.4510.3690.042
DPISQ0.1750.235-0.3020.6510.1240.462

Notes. R2= 0.183, p = 0.207; DCART-Q = Change in Coach-Athlete Relationship; DPISQ = Change in Parental Involvement

** When ran independently due to the existing multicollinearity, change to peer cohesion was not a significant predictor of cognitive skills.

Table 6

Regression Results for Perceptions of Initiative Gained by Athletes

   95% CI for B  
VariablebSELLULbp
Intercept4.0001.3151.3286.671-0.1203.043
Gender-0.1380.191-0.5270.2500.062-0.723
Age0.0420.114-0.1910.2740.0350.365
Race0.0100.044-0.0790.0990.3890.221
DCART-Q0.1710.0770.0150.3270.0872.224
DPISQ0.0860.166-0.2510.423-0.1200.520

Notes. R2= 0.185, p = 0.203; DCART-Q = Change in Coach-Athlete Relationship; DPISQ = Change in Parental Involvement

** When ran independently due to the existing multicollinearity, change to peer cohesion was not a significant predictor of cognitive skills.

2026-04-09T15:25:29-05:00April 9th, 2026|Contemporary Sports Issues, Leadership, Research, Sports Coaching, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|Comments Off on Accreditation, Curriculum, and Competition: An Explanatory Case Study of Sport Sales Education in Undergraduate Sport Management Programs
Read More

The Role of Sport Relationships in Positive Youth Development

Authors: Jim P. Arnold1 and William V. Massey1

1Department of Kinesiology, College of Health, Oregon State University

 

Corresponding Author:

Jim P. Arnold

[email protected]

Jim P. Arnold https://orcid.org/0009-0004-2282-1915
William V. Massey, Ph.D. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4002-3720
We have no known conflicts of interest to disclose.

ABSTRACT 

Purpose. Research on positive youth development (PYD) through sport remains unclear and speculative (Whitley et al., 2019). It has been suggested that sport-based PYD can occur implicitly through positive relationships (Holt et al., 2017). The present pilot study examined the impact of changes in the coach-athlete relationship, peer cohesion, and parental involvement on PYD outcomes across a sport season in a sample of youth soccer participants (N = 41, Mage = 11.85, 61% boys).

Methods. Athletes responded to surveys rating their relationships with coaches, parents, and peers at two time points, and additionally reported their perceptions of developmental skills gained across the sport season. A difference score was calculated for each relationship variable to measure change across the season. Four developmental outcomes (i.e., personal and social skills, cognitive skills, goal setting skills, initiative) were regressed on changes in relationship quality across the season, while controlling for age, race, and gender.

Results. Changes to the coach-athlete relationship (b= 0.482, p = 0.002) and parental involvement (b= 0.326, p = 0.022) were significant predictors of perceptions of social skill development (R2 = 0.454, F(5,34) = 5.664, p < 0.001), supporting a relationship-based model of PYD in sport. Significant age and gender differences in ratings of the coach-athlete relationship were also discovered.

Conclusions. The present study not only offers partial support to a Holt and colleagues’ (2017) theory of implicit PYD through sport but also highlights the need important developmental role of relationship building in in the sport context.

Applications in Sport. Organizations should prioritize positive sport relationships through education, training, and programming, as poor or absent relationships may undermine the envisioned benefits of sport. In particular, the present study highlights the need for positive parental involvement, which may require stakeholders to work with parents to define their role expectations.

KEYWORDS: youth sport, positive youth development, sport relationships, coaching, parental involvement

INTRODUCTION 

The goal of supporting positive outcomes for younger people (i.e., generativity; Erikson, 1950) is one that is both widely and cross-culturally relevant, yet despite this, the understanding for how to best support young people and the strategies employed to do so are still in flux. Only recently have developmental psychology and social research begun to place an emphasis on fostering positive outcomes for youth, as opposed to the prevention of negative outcomes and problematic behaviors (Larson, 2000). Within the areas of social and developmental research, this emphasis has led to the creation of diverse approaches to and philosophies of developmental youth programming (Lerner et al., 2011), which often provide opportunities for life skill development (i.e., explicit positive youth development). That said, the translation of such knowledge to spaces where youth development is view as a secondary priority, such as sport, tends to be challenging (Jones et al., 2011).  The primary aim of the present pilot study was to test a grounded theory of implicit positive youth development through sport by examining the impact of peer, coach, and parental relationships on youth sport experiences in a small, single-organization sample. In doing so, the present study offers a novel examination of the collective social climate (i.e., PYD climate) and its relationship to athlete developmental outcomes. We hypothesized the following:

  • Athletes’ perceptions of positive outcomes obtained through sport participation (e.g., social skills, goal setting skills) will be predicted by positive changes to the ratings of the coach-athlete relationship, peer cohesion, and parental involvement across a sport season.

At two time points (e.g., beginning of the season, end of the season), athletes’ ratings of their relationships with their coach, peer cohesion, and parental involvement were collected.  Subsequently, athletes’ perceptions of skill development across four areas (e.g., personal and social skills, cognitive skills, goal setting, initiative) were regressed on changes to the relationship variables. Both the coach-athlete relationship and parental involvement were shown to significantly predict social skill development, not only offering partial support for a theory of implicit PYD through sport and underscoring the critical developmental role of relationship building in sport but also pointing to the need for stakeholders to prioritize a high-quality social climate in the sport context to better support youth development.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Historically, adolescence and adolescent development has been regarded as a period during which youth are at risk and laden with problematic behaviors (Benson et al., 2006), therefore implying that the role of adults was to manage and prevent the problems that arise from adolescent development, also known as a deficit-focused approach to youth development (Clonan et al., 2004; Lerner, 2005). However, preventing such problems through a focus on treatment or intervention often failed to yield positive results (Catalano et al., 2008). Appearing concurrently with positive psychology’s focus on human strengths and flourishing, positive youth development theory offered that youth are “resources to be developed,” presenting a path toward positive youth outcomes through youth enrichment and the promotion of adolescent strengths (Lerner, Almerigi, et al., 2005). Positive youth development is a broad term, but generally refers to “processes, approaches, and instances” (Lerner et al., 2011) which seek to optimally prepare young people for adulthood, with the targeted outcomes being well-being and the fulfillment of their potential (Catalano et al., 2008). Contexts which aim to support positive youth development vary widely, to include agricultural programming (Lerner, Lerner, et al., 2005), volunteer and service programming (McBride et al., 2011), tutoring (Worker et al., 2019), aquatics (Storm et al., 2017), adventure-based programming (Sibthorp & Morgan, 2011), and sport (Bruner et al., 2021).

Youth sports are generally touted as tools for healthy and positive development, yet research aimed at validating this claim or understanding the processes by which it occurs is ambiguous (Holt et al., 2017). PYD theory was developed outside of the sport context (Lerner, Lerner, et al., 2005) and researchers have struggled to apply PYD models and measures to sporting contexts (Jones et al., 2011). One reason for this may be that PYD researchers have failed to acknowledge keyfeatures of the sport environment (Holt et al., 2017). In a systematic review of qualitative data, Holt and colleagues (2017) proposed that PYD through sport occurs via two distinct pathways. In the first, programs offer explicit education to youth sport participants aimed at life skill development. In the second pathway, PYD occurs implicitly via positive relationships with coaches, peers, and parents (i.e., the creation of a ‘PYD climate’). Holt and colleagues concluded that further research is needed to not only investigate the validity of this framework but also understand additional nuances for when and how PYD may occur through explicit and implicit factors. The need for further research was bolstered by a systematic review of sport-based PYD programming, conducted by Whitley and colleagues (2019), who concluded the benefit of explicit PYD programming in sport is not clear enough to support the implementation of a standardized intervention. Therefore, while the field’s understanding of how to best implement explicit PYD programming through sport is still evolving, there also exists a need to test the proposed model of implicit PYD through positive relationships within sport. While the specific role positive relationships play in supporting PYD within sport is unclear, it is generally accepted that these relationships are all valuable, if not necessary, for positive athlete outcomes (Burns et al., 2019).

Coach-Athlete Relationship

Arguably the primary relationship in the sporting context (Jowett, 2017), the dyadic relationship between coach and athlete has been shown to be instrumental to numerous athlete outcomes. In a systematic review of the coach-athlete relationship literature, Nikolina and Đorić (2023) reported that a positive coach-athlete relationship was not only predictive of increased motivation, satisfaction, and performance, but also protective from athlete stress, burnout, and negative affect. Davis and Jowett (2014) have reported that the quality of the coach-athlete relationship is directly related to athlete positive and negative affect. Furthermore, in a systematic review of the literature, McShan and Moore (2023) found that a positive coach-athlete relationship, as reported by coaches, was associated with coach’s beliefs of fostering an environment supportive of athlete life skill development. In Holt and colleague’s (2017) grounded theory of implicit PYD, the authors posit that strong, positive relationships between athletes and coaches can create a developmentally supportive social environment.

Peer Cohesion

Paralleling the coach-athlete relationship research, research on the role of peer relationships in the sport environment have shown these relationships to be highly influential on athlete experiences and outcomes (Smith & Ullrich-French, 2020).  Peer support has been shown to be related to elite sport participation, athlete motivation, and reduced withdrawal from sport (Sheridan et al., 2014). Additionally, researchers have shown that peer cohesion is not only associated with performance (Carron et al., 2002; Filho et al., 2014), but also athlete need satisfaction and learning (Erikstad et al., 2018). Furthermore, Smith and Ulrich-French (2020) have posited that peer relationships in the sport context are likely to be influential to individual athlete development, to include character, moral, social, and life skill development. In proposing strong peer relationships as influential of an implicit PYD climate, Holt and colleagues (2017) highlighted how strong peer relationships in the sport context often result in feelings of belongingness and support, which may provide developmental benefit.

Parental Involvement

While not always directly involved in the training environment, researchers have shown that parents are highly influential to youth athletes’ experiences and outcomes in sport. Youth who perceive their parents as satisfied with their performance and who experience low parental pressure are more likely to report sport enjoyment and positive affect (Dorsch et al., 2021). Additionally, parental involvement has also been associated with youth sport enjoyment, perceptions of competence, and self-esteem (Dorsch et al., 2021). Parental involvement in sport has also been found to be associated with youth athlete need satisfaction (Felber Charbonneau & Camiré, 2020). Furthermore, parental involvement in sport has also been connected to athletes’ development, to include socialization and value adoption (Danioni et al., 2017). In their grounded theory model, Holt and colleagues (2017) highlighted the reinforcing role that parental involvement plays to creating a PYD climate; while coaches may be responsible for delivering lessons and values to athletes in the sport context, the authors noted that it is important that parents support, not contradict, these messages.

Study Aims

In their grounded theory model, Holt and colleagues (2017) posited that these three relationships (i.e., coaches, peers, parents) collectively create a social climate supportive of implicit positive youth development. Therefore, the primary aim of the present study was to examine the impact of peer, coach, and parental relationships on youth sport experiences and youth athletes’ perceptions of developmental skills gained, thereby piloting a test of Holt and colleagues’ (2017) grounded theory model. Should these relationships be predictive of positive youth development, it could be expected that athletes who experience positive changes to these relationships (e.g., increased peer cohesion, increased parental involvement) across a sport season should also receive increased benefit from their participation compared to athletes whose relationships did not improve. As such, we hypothesized that athletes’ perceptions of positive outcomes obtained through sport participation (e.g., social skills, goal setting skills) would be predicted by positive changes to the ratings of their peer relationships, coach-athlete relationships, and parental involvement across a sport season.

METHODS 

Participants

Participants included 67 youth athletes from a competitive soccer club in the northwest region of the United States. In total, 41 athletes (Mage = 11.85) completed data collection at both time points. Participants represented 13 teams from four separate age categories. Additionally, 65.9% of the athletes identified as white and 61.0% of the athletes identified as boys.

Measures

Coach-Athlete Relationship Questionnaire (CART-Q)

To measure athlete perceptions of their relationship with their coach, the Coach-Athlete Relationship Questionnaire (CART-Q; Jowett & Ntoumanis, 2004) was utilized. The 11-item scale measured the nature of the athlete’s relationship with their coach (a = 0.97). Using a seven-point Likert scale, athletes rated their agreement with statements such as, “I trust my coach.”

Youth Sport Environment Questionnaire (YSEQ)

Athletes’ perceptions of their relationship with teammates were measured utilizing the Youth Sport Environment Questionnaire (YSEQ; Eys et al., 2009). The scale, which has been shown to be both valid and reliable, measured group cohesion and peer relationship quality. The YSEQ contains 16 statements, such as, “I am happy with my team’s level of desire to win” (a = 0.93). Athletes rated their agreement with these statements utilizing a seven-point Likert scale.

Parental Involvement in Sport Questionnaire (PISQ)

The Parental Involvement in Sport Questionnaire (PISQ; Lee & MacLean, 1997) is a valid and reliable 19-item scale (a = 0.87), which captures athletes’ perceptions of parental involvement across three subscales: directive behavior, praise and understanding, and active involvement. Utilizing a five-point Likert scale, athletes rated their level of agreement with statements such as, “Do your parents push you to practice harder?”

Youth Experience Survey for Sport (YES-S)

Employed only at the second time point, the short form Youth Experience Survey for Sport (YES-S; MacDonald et al., 2012; Sullivan et al., 2015) is 16-item scale that measured the perceptions of athletes’ experiences participating in sport across the previous season, and was utilized in the present study to operationalize PYD. The scale measures whether athletes perceived any benefit to their participation across four subscales: personal and social skills (a = 0.78), cognitive skills (a = 0.78), goal setting (a = 0.81), and initiative (a = 0.71). Athletes rated their agreement with statements such as, “I learned to push myself” on a five-point Likert scale.

Procedure

Ahead of the start of the summer season, the first author attended the club’s tryouts and parent meetings to share information about the study and recruit participants. During this time, parental consent was obtained through the completion of a written consent form and household demographic survey. The first survey was completed electronically one month into the summer season.  Subsequently, 14 weeks later, the research team returned to conduct the second survey during the final week of the fall season. At both time points, the surveys collected demographic information, athlete perceptions of relationships with their coach, peer cohesion, and parental involvement. At the second time point, the survey collected measurements of athletes’ perceptions of their experiences playing sport across the previous season, particularly focused on skills gained.

The dataset contained 0.3% missingness, and results of an MCAR test were not significant (X2(1386) = 0.00, p = 1.00), suggesting data was missing at random. For cases with missingness, scales were prorated based on completed items. Descriptive statistics were calculated for each scale and notable demographic differences are reported in Table 1. For each of the relationship variables (i.e., CART-Q, PISQ, YSEQ), a difference score was calculated (MT2 – MT1) to measure changes in these relationships across the season. While the utilization of difference scores has been criticized for its negative, summative impact on reliability (Edwards, 1994), researchers have noted that difference scores can be an appropriate choice in research, particularly for nonrandomized, theory-driven analyses (Castro-Schilo & Grimm, 2018). Assumptions testing revealed issues regarding multicollinearity as there was a high correlation between coach-athlete relationship and the peer cohesion change scores (r = 0.801), which resulted in unstable beta coefficients. This instability indicated that the presence of the peer cohesion variable in the model was distorting the estimation of other predictors, undermining the reliability and interpretability of the model. As such, the peer cohesion variable was removed from primary analyses. Following this, we regressed the four subscales of the YES-S (i.e., personal and social skills, cognitive skills, goal setting skills, initiative) on changes in relationship quality across the season, while controlling for age, race, and gender.

Table 1

Sample Characteristics and Descriptive Statistics

   CART-QYSEQPISQYES-S Social SkillsYES-S Cog. SkillsYES-S Goal SettingYES-S Initiative
Variablen%T1 – M(SD)T2 – M(SD)T1 – M(SD)T2 – M(SD)T1 – M(SD)T2 – M(SD)T2 – M(SD)T2 – M(SD)T2 – M(SD)T2 – M(SD)
Age            
1037.35.61(1.24)*5.97(1.47)*4.25(2.01)*5.08(1.98)*2.39(0.18)2.91(0.45)3.58(0.52)3.67(0.58)4.25(0.58)4.58(0.52)
11922.05.46(1.73)6.36(0.39)4.74(1.52)5.53(0.83)3.02(0.60)3.13(0.52)4.00(0.60)3.69(1.05)4.00(0.85)4.50(0.45)
122048.86.10(0.40)5.96(0.85)5.10(0.75)5.30(0.91)*2.92(0.60)3.25(0.74)*4.17(0.75)3.53(1.16)3.93(0.90)4.25(0.59)
13922.05.71(1.04)*5.15(1.26)* †4.69(1.40)4.89(1.18)3.16(0.69)3.30(0.58)4.03(0.57)3.56(0.69)4.25(0.57)4.43(0.66)
Gender            
Boy2561.06.03(0.61)6.17(0.69)†4.91(1.03)*5.26(0.89)*2.92(0.62)*3.24(0.66)*4.12(0.66)3.72(0.85)4.11(0.71)4.43(0.41)
Girl1639.05.56(1.43)5.41(0.99)†4.81(1.42)5.22(1.25)3.01(0.62)3.17(0.62)3.96(0.89)3.35(1.19)3.90(0.94)4.27(0.76)
Race            
White2765.95.77(1.13)5.97(0.83)4.75(1.21)*5.24(1.03)*2.95(0.61)3.14(0.57)4.07(0.69)3.52(1.04)3.99(0.85)4.43(0.54)
Black12.4          
Asian49.85.50(1.38)5.41(1.85)4.77(1.85)*5.30(1.64)*2.74(0.90)3.29(0.90)4.00(0.35)3.94(0.43)3.94(0.43)3.94(0.66)
Hispanic49.86.27(0.45)5.86(1.12)5.50(0.89)5.55(0.74)2.99(0.57)3.41(0.83)4.50(0.41)4.25(0.54)4.69(0.47)4.63(0.32)
Other512.26.13(0.31)5.65(1.20)5.05(0.83)4.99(1.04)2.99(0.45)3.31(0.52)3.80(0.89)3.15(1.29)3.80(0.94)4.15(0.74)
Total41100.05.84(1.02)5.87(0.99)4.87(1.18)*5.24(1.03)*2.96(0.62)*3.21(0.64)*4.06(0.67)3.58(1.00)4.03(0.80)4.37(0.57)

Notes. n = 41; CART-Q = Coach-Athlete Relationship; PISQ = Parental Involvement; YSEQ = Ratings of Peer Cohesion; YES-S = Perceptions of Developmental Experiences, *Difference is significant between time points; †Difference is significant between groups.

RESULTS

The model examining personal and social skills was significant and explained 45.4% of variance in the outcome (R2 = 0.454, F(5,34) = 5.664, p < 0.001).

Regression Results for Perceptions of Social Skills Gained by Athletes

    95% CI 
VariablebbSELLULp
Intercept 0.7741.268-1.8023.3500.546
Gender-0.129-0.1750.184-0.5500.1990.348
Age0.3690.2910.1100.0670.5150.012
Race-0.024-0.0080.042-0.0940.0780.858
DCART-Q0.4820.2500.0740.0990.4000.002
DPISQ0.3260.3820.1600.5800.7070.022

Notes. n = 41; R2= 0.454, F(5,34) = 5.664, p < 0.001; DCART-Q = Change in Coach-Athlete Relationship; DPISQ = Change in Parental Involvement.

**When ran independently due to the existing multicollinearity, change to peer cohesion was also a significant predictor of personal and social skills (R2 = 0.317, F(4,35) = 4.063, p = 0.008).

Within this model, both changes to the coach-athlete relationships (b= 0.482, p = 0.002) and changes to parental involvement (b= 0.326, p = 0.022) across the season were significant predictors of personal and social skills. Additionally, the covariate age was also a significant predictor of personal and social skills (b = 0.369, p = 0.012). The model examining cognitive skills explained 25.1% of the variance, however was only marginally significant (R2 = 0.251, F(5,34) = 2.275, p = 0.069). Within this model the change in coach-athlete relationship was a statistically significant predictor (b= 0.403, p = 0.022), whereas changes to parental involvement was not (b= 0.158, p = 0.330).

Table 3

Regression Results for Perceptions of Cognitive Skills Gained by Athletes

    95% CI 
VariablebbSELLULp
Intercept 2.0482.221-2.4656.5610.363
Gender-0.155-0.3150.323-0.9720.3420.337
Age0.1430.1690.193-0.2240.5610.389
Race-0.066-0.0320.074-0.1820.1190.670
DCART-Q0.4030.3120.1300.0480.5760.022
DPISQ0.1580.2770.280-0.2920.8450.330

Notes. n = 41; R2= 0.251, F(5,34) = 2.275, p = 0.069; DCART-Q = Change in Coach-Athlete Relationship; DPISQ = Change in Parental Involvement.

** When ran independently due to the existing multicollinearity, change to peer cohesion was not a significant predictor of cognitive skills.

The models predicting goal setting skills (R2 = 0.183, F(5,34) = 1.528, p = 0.207) and initiative (R2 = 0.185, F(5,34) = 1.542, p = 0.203) were not statistically significant.

DISCUSSION 

The present study provides partial support to Holt and colleague’s (2017) proposition that there is an implicit pathway of PYD in sport that takes place through positive relationships. In particular, changes to the coach-athlete relationship significantly predicted youth athletes’ perceptions of social skills and cognitive skills gained; and changes to perceptions of parental involvement also predicted social skills gained. Additionally, when analyzed separately due to issues of multicollinearity, changes to peer cohesion also significantly predicted social skill perceptions. As such, data in the current study reinforce the importance of relationships within the sport environment, and extend previous research by highlighting their value to the specific area of PYD through sport.

While research has shown the coach-athlete relationship to be associated with motivation (Adie & Jowett, 2010), collective-efficacy (Hampson & Jowett, 2014), and team cohesion (Turman, 2003), its role in the social and cognitive development of athletes is less understood. That said, research has shown that coaches seem to intuitively understand the developmental value of a positive coach-athlete relationship as coaches have reported a positive relationship with their athletes led to social and emotional development and resilience (White & Bennie, 2015). Furthermore, Davis and colleagues (2019) proposed a bidirectional relationship between communication skills and the coach-athlete relationship, where communication skills not only helped to improve the relationship, but also improved as a product of a high-quality coach-athlete relationship. When examining the more expansive literature on the impact of a high-quality relationships, researchers have documents that teacher-student relationships can promote cognitive development (Davis, 2003) and social adjustment (Dong et al., 2021) through positive and trusting learning environments. Data in the current study suggest coaches hold a responsibility to ensure the development and sustainment of positive relationships in the sport environment to support similarly positive developmental outcomes for youth athletes. This is particularly important as social skills have been shown to be associated with academic performance (Sung & Chang, 2010), increased mental health (Greenberg et al., 2003), wellbeing (Sancassiani et al., 2015), and self-esteem (Riggio et al., 1990).

The present study also highlights the important yet specific role that parents play in positive youth development through sport. Parental styles have been shown to be associated with social skill development; youth with democratic and permissive parents have been shown to score higher on social skills measures than those with neglectful or authoritative parents (Salavera et al., 2022). As such, it could be hypothesized that parents with more developmentally supportive parenting styles are more likely to be involved in their child’s sport and supportive of their child’s social skills. That said, data in the current study suggests the need to delineate the roles of parents and coaches, as these relationships may provide different benefits for youth. For example, Knight and colleagues (2011) reported that athletes consistently prefer parents to fill a supportive and encouraging role, as opposed to a coaching role. This is supported by data in the current study in that while change to parental involvement predicted athletes’ perceptions of social skill development, it did not predict their cognitive skill perceptions.

Finally, it is important to note that girls rated their relationship with their coach significantly lower than their peers who identified as boys; and older athletes were also significantly less likely to rate their coach-relationships higher than younger athletes. As such, should there exist any developmental benefit to high-quality, coaching relationships, the present findings would suggest that girls and older youth athletes are less likely to receive those benefits. Given that a positive coach-athlete relationship can be protective from poor mental health outcomes for girl athletes specifically (Massey et al., 2024), it is important that positive coach-athlete relationships are prioritized for female athletes, particularly adolescent female athletes. Furthermore, it is generally accepted that as athletes get older, the sporting environment shifts from a focus on fun to a focus on competition. Be that as it may, research has shown that the true shift lies within how athletes are treated; Kipp and Bolter (2020) found that while both older and younger athletes equally perceived their sporting environments to be focused on effort and learning, older athletes were more likely to report being punished or disciplined for mistakes. It is possible that such climates explain the decreasing trend of the coach-athlete relationship observed in the present study. Speaking strictly to the proposed developmental role of the coach-athlete relationship within sport, the present findings would offer that sports become less beneficial and developmentally supportive over time.

Despite the present study’s value to the literature base on PYD through sport, its small, homogenous sample limits its generalizability. In addition to being predominantly white, the sample derived from a singular, pay-to-play soccer organization within an affluent community. Additionally, the present sample predominantly identified as boys, which may parallel youth sport participation trends, but limits the generalizability of the findings to non-boy athlete populations. The age rage of the sample was also limited, clustered into the soccer organizations U11 and U13 age groupings, and as such, the findings may be in part reflective of the natural development occurring in this age range.

Furthermore, most athletes in the present study were satisfied with their relationship with their coach and peers, and the mean parental involvement score was slightly above the midpoint of the scale. Depending on sport or community context, it is possible that more athletes would report more dissatisfaction with these relationships or less parental involvement, thereby affecting the nature of the findings. With respect to age and gender differences, it is possible that these differences could be explained by confounding variables, such as coach gender, competition level, or position, which could not be differentiated in the present study due to the small sample size. Lastly, while multicollinearity necessitated the removal of the peer cohesion variable from the analyses, it should be acknowledged that doing so also limits the completeness of the model by excluding a theoretically important dimension of the sport environment, and one which should continue to be examined in this line of research.  As such, future studies should not only continue to examine the nuanced roles of parents and coaches in sport-based PYD, but also peer relationships, and doing so in larger and more diverse samples.

CONCLUSION 

The social context of the sport environment, which includes coaches, parents, and peers, plays a significant role in shaping athletes’ perceived development through sport. In the present study, athletes’ perceived social skill development was significantly predicted by positive changes to the coach-athlete relationship and parental involvement. The quality of the coach-athlete relationship also emerged as a meaningful predictor of athletes’ perceived cognitive development, highlighting the broader developmental impact of adult figures in the sport context. Furthermore, while peer cohesion was omitted in analyses due to multicollinearity, its interconnectedness with the coach-athlete relationship should be acknowledged, and researchers should continue to utilize it as a variable of interest as theory would dictate. Taken together, these findings underscore the importance of considering the full network of sport-based relationships when seeking to support athletes’ development through sport participation.

APPLICATIONS IN SPORT

In addition to providing support for Holt and colleagues’ (2017) theory of implicit PYD through sport, the present study highlights the interconnected nature of youth sport’s social context. We offer the following recommendations to stakeholders seeking to utilize these findings to develop their youth sport organization’s PYD climate:

  • Provide coaches with education and training that supports their development of communication and relationship-building skills (see Barnett et al., 1992; Jowett & Cockerill, 2003).
  • Provide education and clear expectations for parents’ involvement in the organization, as well as opportunities for involvement (see Knight et al., 2011).

Prioritize relationship building and psychological safety at the outset of the season, to include team-building activities and the development of team norms, rituals, and goals (see Carron et al., 1997; Senécal et al., 2008).

REFERENCES 

1. Adie, J. W., & Jowett, S. (2010). Meta‐perceptions of the coach–athlete relationship, achievement goals, and intrinsic motivation among sport participants. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 40(11), 2750-2773. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2010.00679.x

2. Barnett, N. P., Smoll, F. L., & Smith, R. E. (1992). Effects of enhancing coach-athlete relationships on youth sport attrition. The Sport Psychologist, 6(2), 111-127. https://doi.org/10.1123/tsp.6.2.111

3. Benson, P. L., Scales, P. C., Hamilton, S. F., & Sesma Jr., A. (2006). Positive youth development so far: Core hypotheses and their implications for policy and practice. Search Institute Insights & Evidence 3(1), 1-13.

4. Bruner, M. W., McLaren, C. D., Sutcliffe, J. T., Gardner, L. A., Lubans, D. R., Smith, J. J., & Vella, S. A. (2021). The effect of sport-based interventions on positive youth development: A systematic review and meta-analysis. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 16(1), 368-395. https://doi.org/10.1080/1750984X.2021.1875496

5. Burns, L., Weissensteiner, J. R., & Cohen, M. (2019). Supportive interpersonal relationships: a key component to high-performance sport. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 53(22), 1386-1389. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2018-100312

6. Carron, A. V., Colman, M. M., Wheeler, J., & Stevens, D. (2002). Cohesion and performance in sport: A meta analysis. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 24(2), 168–188. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.24.2.168

7. Carron, A. V., Spink, K. S., & Prapavessis, H. (1997). Team building and cohesiveness in the sport and exercise setting: Use of indirect interventions. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 9(1), 61–72. https://doi.org/10.1080/10413209708415384

8. Castro-Schilo, L., & Grimm, K. J. (2018). Using residualized change versus difference scores for longitudinal research. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 35(1), 32-58.

9. Catalano, R. F., Toumbourou, J. W., & Hawkins, J. D. (2008). Positive youth development in the United States: History, efficacy, and links to moral and character education. In L. Nucci & T. Krettenauer (Eds.) Handbook of moral and character education. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203114896

10. Christiansen, E. D., & von Eye, A. (2005). Positive youth development, participation in community youth development programs, and community contributions of fifth-grade adolescents: Findings from the first wave of the 4-H study of positive youth development. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 25(1), 17-71. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431604272461

10. Clonan, S. M., Chafouleas, S. M., McDougal, J. L., & Riley-Tillman, T. C. (2004). Positive psychology goes to school: Are we there yet? Psychology in the Schools, 41(1), 101–110. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.10142

11. Danioni, F., Barni, D., & Rosnati, R. (2017). Transmitting sport values: The importance of parental involvement in children’s sport activity. Europe’s Journal of Psychology, 13(1), 75–92. https://doi.org/10.5964/ejop.v13i1.1265 

12. Davis, H. A. (2003). Conceptualizing the role and influence of student-teacher relationships on children’s social and cognitive development. Educational Psychologist, 38(4), 207-234. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15326985EP3804_2

13. Davis, L., & Jowett, S. (2014). Coach–athlete attachment and the quality of the coach–athlete relationship: Implications for athlete’s well-being. Journal of Sports Sciences, 32(15), 1454–1464. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2014.898183

14. Davis, L., Jowett, S., & Tafvelin, S. (2019). Communication strategies: The fuel for quality coach-athlete relationships and athlete satisfaction. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 2156. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02156

15. Dong, Y., Wang, H., Luan, F., Li, Z., & Cheng, L. (2021). How children feel matters: Teacher–student relationship as an indirect role between interpersonal trust and social adjustment. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 581235. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.581235

16. Dorsch, T. E., Wright, E., Eckardt, V. C., Elliott, S., Thrower, S. N., & Knight, C. J. (2021). A history of parent involvement in organized youth sport: A scoping review. Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology, 10(4), 536. https://doi.org/10.1037/spy0000266

17. Edwards, J. R. (1994). Regression analysis as an alternative to difference scores. Journal of Management, 20(3), 683-689.

18. Erikson, E. H. (1950). Childhood and society. W. W. Norton & Co.

19. Erikstad, M. K., Martin, L. J., Haugen, T., & Høigaard, R. (2018). Group cohesion, needs satisfaction, and self-regulated learning: A one-year prospective study of elite youth soccer players’ perceptions of their club team. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 39, 171–178. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2018.08.013

20. Eys, M., Loughead, T., Bray, S. R., & Carron, A. V. (2009). Development of a cohesion questionnaire for youth: The Youth Sport Environment Questionnaire. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 31(3), 390-408. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.31.3.390

21. Felber Charbonneau, E., & Camiré, M. (2020). Parental involvement in sport and the satisfaction of basic psychological needs: Perspectives from parent–child dyads. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 18(5), 655–671. https://doi.org/10.1080/1612197X.2019.1570533

22. Filho, E., Dobersek, U., Gershgoren, L., Becker, B., & Tenenbaum, G. (2014). The cohesion–performance relationship in sport: A 10-year retrospective meta-analysis. Sport Sciences for Health, 10(3), 165–177. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11332-014-0188-7

23. Greenberg, M. T., Weissberg, R. P., O’Brien, M. U., Zins, J. E., Fredericks, L., Resnik, H., & Elias, M. J. (2003). Enhancing school-based prevention and youth development through coordinated social, emotional, and academic learning. American Psychologist, 58(6-7), 466. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.58.6-7.466

24. Hampson, R., & Jowett, S. (2014). Effects of coach leadership and coach–athlete relationship on collective efficacy. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 24(2), 454-460. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0838.2012.01527.x

25. Holt, N. L., Neely, K. C., Slater, L. G., Camiré, M., Côté, J., Fraser-Thomas, J., MacDonald, D., Strachan, L., & Tamminen, K. A. (2017). A grounded theory of positive youth development through sport based on results from a qualitative meta-study. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 10(1), 1-49. https://doi.org/10.1080/1750984X.2016.1180704

26. Jones, M. I., Dunn, J. G., Holt, N. L., Sullivan, P. J., & Bloom, G. A. (2011). Exploring the ‘5Cs’ of positive youth development in sport. Journal of Sport Behavior, 34(3). https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2011-17095-003

27. Jowett, S. (2017). Coaching effectiveness: The coach–athlete relationship at its heart. Current Opinion in Psychology, 16, 154–158. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2017.05.006

28. Jowett, S., & Cockerill, I. M. (2003). Olympic medalists’ perspective of the athlete–coach relationship. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 4(4), 313–331. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1469-0292(02)00011-0

29. Jowett, S., & Ntoumanis, N. (2004). The Coach–Athlete Relationship Questionnaire (CART‐Q): Development and initial validation. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 14(4), 245-257. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0838.2003.00338.x

30. Kipp, L. E., & Bolter, N. D. (2020). Motivational climate, psychological needs, and personal and social responsibility in youth soccer: Comparisons by age group and competitive level. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2020.101756

31. Knight, C. J., Neely, K. C., & Holt, N. L. (2011). Parental behaviors in team sports: How do female athletes want parents to behave? Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 23(1), 76-92. https://doi.org/10.1080/10413200.2010.525589

32. Larson, R. W. (2000). Toward a psychology of positive youth development. American Psychologist, 55(1), 170–183. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.170

33. Lee, M., & MacLean, S. (1997). Sources of parental pressure among age group swimmers. European Journal of Physical Education, 2(2), 167-177. https://doi.org/10.1080/1740898970020204

34. Lerner, R. M. (2005). Promoting positive youth development: Theoretical and empirical bases. Washington, DC: National Academies of Sciences.

35. Lerner, R. M., Almerigi, J. B., Theokas, C., & Lerner, J. V. (2005). Positive youth development A view of the issues. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 25(1), 10–16. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431604273211

36. Lerner, R. M., Lerner, J. V., Almerigi, J. B., Theokas, C., Phelps, E., Gestsdottir, S., Naudeau, S., Jelicic, H., Alberts, A., Ma, L., Smith, L. M., Bobek, D. L., Richman-Raphael, D., Simpson, I., 37.

37. Lerner, R. M., Lerner, J. V., Lewin-Bizan, S., Bowers, E. P., Boyd, M. J., Mueller, M. K., Schmid, K. L., & Napolitano, C. M. (2011). Positive youth development: Processes, orograms, and problematics. Journal of Youth Development, 6(3), 38–62. https://doi.org/10.5195/JYD.2011.174

38. MacDonald, D. J., Côté, J., Eys, M., & Deakin, J. (2012). Psychometric properties of the youth experience survey with young athletes. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 13(3), 332-340. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2011.09.001

39. Massey, W. V., Veliz, P. T., Zarrett, N., & Farello, A. (2024). Thriving through sport: The transformative impact on girls’ mental health. Women’s Sport Foundation.

40. McBride, A. M., Johnson, E., Olate, R., & O’Hara, K. (2011). Youth volunteer service as positive youth development in Latin America and the Caribbean. Children and Youth Services Review, 33(1), 34–41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2010.08.009

41. Nikolina, K., & Đorić, V. (2023). Relations of coach-athlete relationship quality and athlete psychosocial functioning: A systematic review. SportLogia, 19(1). https://doi.org/10.7251/SGIA2319002K

42. Riggio, R. E., Throckmorton, B., & Depaola, S. (1990). Social skills and self-esteem. Personality and Individual Differences, 11(8), 799-804. https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(90)90188-W

43. Salavera, C., Usán, P., & Quilez-Robres, A. (2022). Exploring the effect of parental styles on social skills: The mediating role of affects. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(6), 3295. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19063295

44. Sancassiani, F., Pintus, E., Holte, A., Paulus, P., Moro, M. F., Cossu, G., Angermeyer, M. C., Carta, M. G., & Lindert, J. (2015). Enhancing the emotional and social skills of the youth to promote their wellbeing and positive development: A systematic review of universal school-based randomized controlled trials [Special issue]. Clinical Practice and Epidemiology in Mental Health, 11, 21-40. https://doi.org/10.2174/1745017901511010021

45. Senécal, J., Loughead, T. M., & Bloom, G. A. (2008). A season-long team-building intervention: Examining the effect of team goal setting on cohesion. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 30(2), 186-199. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.30.2.186

46. Sheridan, D., Coffee, P., & Lavallee, D. (2014). A systematic review of social support in youth sport. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 7(1), 198-228. https://doi.org/10.1080/1750984X.2014.931999

47. Sibthorp, J., & Morgan, C. (2011). Adventure‐based programming: Exemplary youth development practice. New Directions for Youth Development, (130), 105-119. https://doi.org/10.1002/yd.400

48. Smith, A. L., & Ullrich-French, S. (2020). Peers and the sport experience. In G. Tenenbaum & R. C. Eklund (Eds.) Handbook of sport psychology (pp. 410–428). John Wiley & Sons, Inc. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119568124.ch19

49. Storm, M. K., Williams, K. N., Shetter, E. M., Kaminsky, J., Lowery, C. M., Caldas, S. V., & Winch, P. J. (2017). Sink or swim: Promoting youth development through aquatics programs in Baltimore, Maryland. Journal of Park & Recreation Administration, 35(1), 66-79. https://doi.org/10.18666/JPRA-2017-V35-I1-7295

50. Sullivan, P. J., LaForge-MacKenzie, K., & Marini, M. (2015). Confirmatory factor analysis of the Youth Experiences Survey for Sport (YES-S). Open Journal of Statistics, 5(05), 421. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojs.2015.55044

51. Sung, Y. Y., & Chang, M. (2010). Which social skills predict academic performance of elementary school students. Journal on Educational Psychology, 3(3), 23-34. https://doi.org/10.26634/jpsy.3.3.1078

52. Turman, P. D. (2003). Coaches and cohesion: The impact of coaching techniques on team cohesion in the small group sport setting. Journal of Sport Behaviour, 26(1), 86-104. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2003-01497-007

53. White, R. L., & Bennie, A. (2015). Resilience in youth sport: A qualitative investigation of gymnastics coach and athlete perceptions. International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching, 10(2-3), 379-393. https://doi.org/10.1260/1747-9541.10.2-3.379

54. Whitley, M. A., Massey, W. V., Camiré, M., Boutet, M., & Borbee, A. (2019). Sport-based youth development interventions in the United States: A systematic review. BMC Public Health, 19, 1-20. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-019-6387-z

55. Worker, S. M., Iaccopucci, A. M., Bird, M., & Horowitz, M. (2019). Promoting positive youth development through teenagers-as-teachers programs. Journal of Adolescent Research, 34(1), 30-54. https://doi.org/10.1177/0743558418764089

Appendix A
Supplemental Materials

Table 4

Correlation Matrix of Study Variables

Variables1234567
1. Age       
2. CART-Q-0.34*      
3. PISQ0.150.23     
4. YSEQ-0.140.66**0.31*    
5. Social Skills0.140.62**0.35*0.47**   
6. Cognitive Skills-0.050.40*0.160.160.66**  
7. Goal Setting0.030.43**0.130.42**0.57**0.70** 
8. Initiative-0.100.53**0.180.47**0.51**0.40*0.70**

Notes. * Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (two-tailed). ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (two-tailed); CART-Q = Coach-Athlete Relationship; PISQ = Parental Involvement, YSEQ = Peer Relationships

Table 5

Regression Results for Perceptions of Goal Setting Skills Gained by Athletes

   95% CI for B  
VariablebSELLULbp
Intercept2.0531.862-1.7315.836 0.278
Gender-0.2280.271-0.7790.322-0.1400.405
Age0.1860.162-0.1430.5150.1960.259
Race0.0110.062-0.1150.1370.0280.863
DCART-Q0.2300.1090.0080.4510.3690.042
DPISQ0.1750.235-0.3020.6510.1240.462

Notes. R2= 0.183, p = 0.207; DCART-Q = Change in Coach-Athlete Relationship; DPISQ = Change in Parental Involvement

** When ran independently due to the existing multicollinearity, change to peer cohesion was not a significant predictor of cognitive skills.

Table 6

Regression Results for Perceptions of Initiative Gained by Athletes

   95% CI for B  
VariablebSELLULbp
Intercept4.0001.3151.3286.671-0.1203.043
Gender-0.1380.191-0.5270.2500.062-0.723
Age0.0420.114-0.1910.2740.0350.365
Race0.0100.044-0.0790.0990.3890.221
DCART-Q0.1710.0770.0150.3270.0872.224
DPISQ0.0860.166-0.2510.423-0.1200.520

Notes. R2= 0.185, p = 0.203; DCART-Q = Change in Coach-Athlete Relationship; DPISQ = Change in Parental Involvement

** When ran independently due to the existing multicollinearity, change to peer cohesion was not a significant predictor of cognitive skills.

2025-10-01T13:40:31-05:00March 18th, 2026|Leadership, Research, Sport Education, Sport Training, Sports Coaching, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|Comments Off on The Role of Sport Relationships in Positive Youth Development
Read More

From Classroom to Kickoff: A Case Study on the Perceived Value and Career Impact of Experiential Learning at the Super Bowl for Sport Management Students

Joshua S. Greer1, Jason Grindstaff2, Noa Stroop3


Dr. Joshua S. Greer serves as an Assistant Professor and Program Director for both the graduate and undergraduate Sport Management programs at Cumberland University. He also fulfills the role of Internship Coordinator for Exercise Science and Sport Management within the Jeanette C. Rudy School of Nursing and Health Professions. Dr. Greer holds a B.S. from the University of Tennessee at Martin, an M.Ed. from Bethel University, and an Ed.D. from the United States Sports Academy. His academic interests focus on experiential learning, sport marketing, and industry engagement, aiming to prepare students for dynamic careers in the sport industry.


Dr. Jason S. Grindstaff is the Interim Dean of the Jeanette C. Rudy School of Nursing and Health Professions at Cumberland University, where he has been a faculty member since 2010. He has taught across undergraduate and graduate programs in Exercise & Sport Science and has held leadership roles including Program Director for the Master of Sport & Exercise Science, Executive Director of the Honors Program, and Chair of the Academic Integrity Board. Dr. Grindstaff earned his B.A. from Dakota Wesleyan University, two M.S. degrees and a Ph.D. from the University of Tennessee, Knoxville, and an M.B.A. from Cumberland University.


Dr. Noa D. Stroop is an Assistant Professor of Business at Cumberland University. He completed both his B.S. and M.B.A. at Tennessee Technological University and earned his D.B.A. from Trevecca Nazarene University. Dr. Stroop’s professional background includes roles as a consultant, coach, and business leader. At Cumberland, he focuses on delivering practical, student-centered business education, integrating real-world applications into his teaching.

Joshua S. Greer. https://orcid.org/0009-0005-2890-1673

We have no known conflict of interest to disclose.

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Joshua S. Greer, 230 Foxfire Road, Paris, Tennessee 38242. Email: [email protected]

Abstract
Experiential learning is a foundational component of sport management education, offering students the opportunity to apply theoretical knowledge in real-world settings. Grounded in Kolb’s Experiential Learning Theory, this case study investigates the perceived value and career impact of an immersive experiential learning opportunity at the NFL Super Bowl. Using a mixed-methods approach, data were collected from 11 undergraduate and graduate sport management students through a structured survey instrument. Paired samples t-tests were used to assess the alignment between students’ pre-event expectations and their post-event perceptions, while Pearson correlation analysis examined relationships between networking confidence and career-related outcomes.


Results revealed that students’ actual experiences exceeded their expectations in terms of professional development (t(9) = 3.67, p = 0.005), while expectations regarding a competitive edge remained consistent with post-event perceptions (t(9) = -0.56, p = 0.591). Strong positive correlations were found between networking confidence and key career outcomes, including meaningful connections (r = 0.84, p = 0.002) and perceived job prospects (r = 0.90, p < 0.001). These findings emphasize the importance of structured, high-impact experiential learning opportunities in developing students’ professional readiness and self-efficacy.
The study offers actionable insights for educators and program administrators, emphasizing the need to set realistic expectations while maximizing long-term career development through experiential learning. Recommendations include expanding access to immersive experiences and integrating reflective components to reinforce the value of applied learning in sport management curricula.

Key Words: experiential learning, sport management education, Super Bowl, career development, student perceptions, networking confidence, Kolb’s Experiential Learning Theory, applied learning, professional readiness, event-based learning

From Classroom to Kickoff: A Case Study on the Perceived Value and Career Impact of Experiential Learning at the Super Bowl for Sport Management Students
Experiential learning has emerged as a cornerstone of sport management education, offering students practical experiences that bridge theoretical knowledge with the complexities of real-world practice. Grounded in Kolb’s Experiential Learning Theory, this pedagogical approach has informed the design of various instructional strategies, including capstone projects, industry simulations, and problem-based learning (Bower, 2013). The incorporation of experiential components within sport management curricula not only fosters the development of technical and interpersonal skills but also enhances students’ employability by immersing them in authentic, applied contexts (DeLuca & Fornatora, 2020; Faure & Ray, 2021).


This case study explores the perceived value and career impact of participating in an immersive experiential learning opportunity at the NFL Super Bowl for sport management students. Specifically, it investigates the extent to which guided, real-world experiences influence students’ confidence in pursuing careers in the sport industry and examines the alignment between their pre-event expectations and the professional benefits perceived post-participation. Utilizing survey data from student participants, the study contributes to the expanding literature on experiential learning in sport management education by providing empirical insights into its efficacy. The findings offer practical implications for educators, curriculum developers, and industry stakeholders seeking to enhance student career readiness through intentionally designed, high-impact experiential learning initiatives.

Literature Review
In response to the growing complexity and competitiveness of the sport industry, academic institutions have increasingly recognized the need to integrate experiential learning into sport management curricula. Traditional lecture-based instruction, while foundational, often falls short in preparing students for the multifaceted demands of the professional sport environment. As a result, experiential learning has emerged as a critical pedagogical approach, bridging the gap between theoretical instruction and real-world application. Grounded in Kolb’s Experiential Learning Theory, this educational strategy encompasses internships, client-based projects, event planning, consulting practicums, and blended learning environments—all of which immerse students in authentic industry settings. A growing body of literature demonstrates that such experiences not only enhance technical and interpersonal competencies but also foster critical career readiness attributes, including problem-solving, adaptability, communication, and leadership (Faure & Ray, 2021; Barefoot et al., 2023; Song et al., 2021). Furthermore, structured experiential opportunities facilitate professional networking, mitigate employment anxiety, and strengthen students’ confidence in their career trajectories (Chan, 2023; Wei & Fu, 2024). This case study explores the multidimensional value of experiential learning within sport management education, emphasizing its role in cultivating career preparedness, professional identity, and industry engagement through both in-person and virtual platforms.


Experiential Learning in Sport Management
Research continues to highlight the value of experiential learning in cultivating core competencies in sport management students. For instance, Faure and Ray (2021) demonstrated that student participation in a National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) championship event served as a meaningful capstone experience, sharpening real-time problem-solving and organizational skills. Similarly, interdisciplinary, problem-based learning environments have been found to improve oral communication and data analysis capabilities through engagement with complex, profession-relevant scenarios (Song et al., 2021). Additionally, applied improvisation exercises have been shown to facilitate the development of meta-skills—such as adaptability and collaboration—that are increasingly valuable across sport management domains (Barefoot et al., 2023). Service-learning models, which build upon traditional internships by embedding guided engagement, offer further opportunities for students to apply classroom learning while contributing to societal needs (Gipson et al., 2023).
The integration of experiential learning within sport management programs is inherently multifaceted. Educators utilize various strategies—including internships, guided field-based projects, and blended learning environments—to address the evolving demands of the sport industry. Structured activities such as facility inspections and managerial interviews provide students with hands-on experiences that mirror operational realities within sport organizations (Diacin, 2018). Concurrently, hybrid learning models that combine in-person instruction with digital tools support flexibility in pedagogy and promote consistent engagement across experiential initiatives (Lower‐Hoppe et al., 2019). Recommendations for improving experiential learning practices, particularly internships—emphasize the need for continual assessment and innovation to better align educational outcomes with industry expectations (Brown et al., 2018; Sattler, 2018).
Collectively, these approaches highlight the significance of experiential learning as both a theoretical framework and a practical mechanism for enhancing professional preparedness in sport management. As the field continues to evolve in response to industry shifts, experiential learning remains essential for equipping graduates with the critical thinking, decision-making, and reflective capacities necessary for sustained career success.


The Importance of Experiential Learning in Sport Management Curricula
The integration of experiential learning into sport management curricula is increasingly acknowledged as a critical component for preparing students to navigate the complexities of a dynamic and competitive job market. Faure and Ray (2021) emphasize the effectiveness of capstone experiences in promoting student readiness, noting that hands-on learning cultivates both confidence and professional competence. In alignment with this perspective, Southall et al. (2003) contend that the inherently competitive nature of the sport industry demands a strong experiential foundation to ensure that graduates possess the practical skills and applied knowledge necessary for success. Gipson et al. (2023) further reinforce the value of immersive learning opportunities—such as internships and structured, guided-learning projects—as essential mechanisms for bridging the gap between theoretical instruction and real-world application. These experiences not only deepen student engagement but also foster critical thinking, adaptability, and problem-solving capabilities, which are essential for sustained professional growth in the sport industry.


A growing body of research supports the idea that experiential learning aligns with the industry’s increasing demand for professionals who can seamlessly apply their knowledge in various sport-related contexts. Traditional lecture-based instruction, while foundational, often falls short in equipping students with the practical skills required to navigate the complexities of sport management. By contrast, experiential learning models encourage students to engage in active learning environments, allowing them to develop competencies in areas such as leadership, teamwork, communication, and adaptability—skills that are highly valued by employers in the field.


Methodologies and Strategies in Experiential Learning
A variety of experiential learning strategies have been implemented across sport management programs, each offering unique benefits to students. One such method is the use of client-based projects, particularly in sport sales courses. Pierce (2018) illustrates how these projects not only engage students but also simulate real-world sales environments, fostering practical experience in negotiations, client relations, and revenue generation. Similarly, Bower (2013) discusses the application of Kolb’s Experiential Learning Theory in organizing events such as golf scrambles, which provide students with opportunities to engage in hands-on event management and problem-solving.


Guided-learning projects and internships are among the most effective experiential learning strategies in sport management education. These initiatives allow students to work directly with sport organizations, gaining firsthand exposure to industry challenges and operations. Coffey and Davis (2019) note that these experiences are particularly valuable for student-athletes, as they help translate their on-field teamwork and leadership skills into professional settings. Additionally, guided-learning projects often involve community engagement, which enhances students’ understanding of corporate social responsibility and the broader impact of sport organizations.


Faculty mentorship and supervision also play a crucial role in the success of experiential learning programs. Deluca and Fornatora (2020) argue that faculty guidance during applied coursework is vital for maximizing learning outcomes, as instructors help students navigate complex projects and reflect on their experiences. This perspective is echoed by Pierce and Petersen (2010), who emphasize the importance of assessing student learning outcomes in experiential settings to quantify the effectiveness of these educational experiences. Assessment tools such as reflective journals, portfolio development, and performance evaluations ensure that experiential learning remains structured, and outcome driven.


The Role of Blended Learning in Experiential Education
As technology continues to reshape education, blended learning approaches have gained traction in sport management programs. Lower-Hoppe et al. (2019) propose that combining online and face-to-face instruction can optimize learning outcomes by accommodating diverse learning styles while maintaining the integrity of experiential projects. This approach is particularly relevant in sport event management courses, where students can engage in virtual simulations, case studies, and live event planning.
Blended learning also facilitates greater accessibility to experiential opportunities, particularly for students who may face geographic or financial barriers to participating in traditional internships. Online platforms enable students to engage with sport professionals, analyze real-time industry data, and develop strategic solutions to contemporary sport management issues. By integrating digital tools with hands-on experiences, educators can create a more inclusive and effective learning environment.


Networking Opportunities
Experiential learning has emerged as a crucial pedagogical strategy to enhance both networking and career readiness among students. In particular, work-integrated learning opportunities—including internships, consulting practicums, and co‐curricular activities enable students to develop career readiness attributes by providing direct exposure to workplace practices and professional networks. Chan (2023) argues that exposing students to diverse, real‐world situations through hands-on learning not only develops essential work readiness skills but also creates networking opportunities that can significantly influence career outcomes. Similarly, Mayorga (2019) demonstrates that higher education institutions can effectively develop career readiness through incubator programs that immerse students in authentic, situational learning environments, thereby facilitating connections with industry professionals.


Structured experiential initiatives also foster networking by placing students in scenarios where practical skills blend with professional interactions. Jackson and Bridgstock (2020) highlight that work-integrated learning activities, such as internships, guided field experiences, and practicum placements, are instrumental in forging meaningful interactions with industry practitioners. This interaction is further emphasized by Akpan (2016), who shows that consulting practicums effectively equip students with the necessary career skills while simultaneously providing platforms for networking with experienced professionals. Prather (2007) documents that internships allow students to experience a connected learning environment where classroom theory is continuously integrated with workplace practices, thus promoting both skill acquisition and the expansion of professional networks.


The design and implementation of experiential learning modules play a critical role in fostering career readiness by promoting reflective practices that enhance self-assessment and informed decision-making. Wart et al. (2020) and Aithal and Mishra (2024) emphasize that hands-on experiences coupled with structured reflection enable students to refine their professional identities and clarify their career goals. These reflective processes are vital not only for the development of technical competencies but also for cultivating essential soft skills such as communication, adaptability, and leadership, which are crucial for effective professional networking.


In addition to traditional in-person experiences, the incorporation of virtual platforms into experiential learning offers expanded opportunities for career development. Combs, Joyce, and Bynum (2024) demonstrate that digital environments can effectively support networking by connecting students with mentors and industry professionals, particularly when geographic or logistical barriers limit face-to-face interaction.


Experiential learning also addresses the psychological dimensions of career preparation, such as employment anxiety and self-efficacy. Wei and Fu (2024) and Chen and Tang (2024) advocate for the integration of experiential teaching into career planning curricula to reduce employment-related stress and reinforce professional confidence. Exposure to realistic workplace scenarios and ongoing interaction with industry professionals helps students contextualize their academic knowledge, navigate relational dynamics, and build meaningful networks.
Taken together, experiential learning offers a multidimensional approach to career readiness by simultaneously developing technical and interpersonal competencies, promoting reflective growth, and fostering network-building. Through a variety of mechanisms—including internships, consulting practicums, hands-on projects, and virtual platforms, students gain direct exposure to professional expectations and establish critical industry connections. This holistic framework enhances not only students’ employability but also their long-term capacity to succeed within the dynamic landscape of the sport management profession.

Conclusion
As the sport industry grows in complexity and competitiveness, the need for experiential learning in sport management education becomes increasingly imperative. This study emphasizes how experiential learning bridges the gap between academic instruction and real-world application through methodologies such as internships, capstone projects, guided-learning experiences, and blended learning environments. The integration of these strategies has demonstrated significant benefits, including the enhancement of critical thinking, adaptability, and industry-specific competencies.


Participation in large-scale events, such as the Super Bowl, represents a pinnacle of experiential learning, offering students a rare opportunity to immerse themselves in high-stakes, professional environments. These experiences provide not only technical skill development but also instill confidence, professional identity, and career direction. The value of faculty mentorship, structured assessment tools, and intentional curricular design further amplifies the effectiveness of experiential initiatives, ensuring that they are both impactful and aligned with industry expectations.


Looking ahead, continued research is essential to evaluate the long-term career benefits of experiential learning and to identify best practices for maximizing its impact. Expanding partnerships between academic institutions and sport organizations will be crucial in offering meaningful, scalable, and inclusive experiential opportunities. Ultimately, embedding experiential learning deeply within sport management education equips students with the tools they need to transition from the classroom to the kickoff—prepared, confident, and career-ready.

Materials and Methods
Participants
The total number of 11 participants were included in this study. The gender distribution was as follows: 7 participants (63.6%) were female, and 4 participants (36.4%) were male. Of these, 6 participants (54.5%) were graduate students, including 4 (66.7%) females and 2 males (33.3%).


Instrument
From Classroom to Kickoff: Evaluating the Career Benefits of Super Bowl Experiential Learning Survey (attached)
Data Treatment and Analysis
Statistical analyses were conducted to address the research questions and evaluate the perceptions of sport management students regarding the career benefits of participating in the NFL Super Bowl experiential learning opportunity. Descriptive statistics were used to summarize participant responses. Paired samples t-tests were conducted to compare students’ expectations before the event with their perceived outcomes (e.g., professional development, competitive edge, career benefits). Pearson correlation analysis was used to explore the relationships among key outcome variables such as confidence in career pursuits, networking effectiveness, and perceived career impact. Open-ended responses were analyzed thematically to supplement quantitative findings and provide deeper insight into students’ overall satisfaction and willingness to recommend the experience.

Results and Discussion
Student Expectations and Perceived Outcomes
The results of the paired samples t-tests revealed several important findings related to students’ expectations and perceived outcomes from their Super Bowl experiential learning experience. A significant difference was found between students’ expectations of gaining hands-on learning (Q1) and their perceptions of professional development after the experience (Q2), t(9) = 3.67, p = 0.005. This suggests that students felt their actual experience exceeded their initial expectations regarding professional development.


In contrast, no significant difference was found between students’ expectations of gaining a competitive edge in the job market (Q11) and their perceptions following the event (Q12), t(9) = -0.56, p = 0.591. This indicates that students’ expectations were generally aligned with their perceived benefits in this area. However, a highly significant difference was observed between students’ expectations of receiving direct career opportunities, such as job offers or interviews (Q13), and their reported outcomes (Q14), t(9) = 6.00, p < 0.001. This suggests that while students were optimistic about immediate career benefits, those expectations were not fully met in the short term.


Networking Confidence and Career Perceptions
The Pearson Correlation analyses revealed several statistically significant associations between students’ self-reported networking confidence and career-related perceptions, highlighting the potential impact of experiential learning within sport management education. A strong positive correlation was observed between students’ confidence in their networking abilities (Q10) and their belief that participation in the Super Bowl experience would enhance their future job prospects (Q5), r = .90, p < .001. This suggests that students who expressed higher levels of confidence in their networking skills were more likely to view the experience as a meaningful contributor to their professional development.


Similarly, a strong positive correlation was found between networking confidence (Q10) and students’ beliefs that the professional connections formed during the event would support future opportunities, such as employment, internships, or graduate assistantships (Q9), r = .77, p = .009. This indicates that students who perceived greater utility in their networking efforts also reported higher levels of self-assurance in their ability to build professional relationships. In addition, a strong correlation was identified between networking confidence (Q10) and the extent to which students reported making meaningful professional connections during the event (Q8), r = .84, p = .002. These findings collectively suggest that students who felt more confident in their networking capabilities were also more likely to report engaging in valuable professional interactions.

Career Readiness and Perceived Professional Development
Beyond networking-specific outcomes, further analysis revealed significant relationships involving overall career readiness and perceived professional development. Students who felt more prepared for a career in sport management (Q3) were more likely to recommend the Super Bowl experience to others (Q15), r = .80, p = .005. A strong correlation was also found between the alignment of students’ assigned tasks and their perception that the experience met their expectations for professional development (Q6), r = .88, p < .001. Notably, students who believed the Super Bowl experience gave them a competitive advantage in the job market were significantly more likely to report already receiving tangible career benefits, such as internship offers or job interviews (Q13), r = .89, p < .001. One additional correlation between networking confidence and perceived competitive advantage (Q10 and Q12)—approached statistical significance, r = .60, p = .066, suggesting a potentially meaningful relationship that could be more clearly established in studies with larger sample sizes. Collectively, these findings highlight the interconnectedness of networking confidence, career preparedness, and the perceived value of high-impact experiential learning. The strength and consistency of the correlations support the notion that participation in major sporting events such as the Super Bowl can meaningfully enhance students’ professional development trajectories within the field of sport management.

Conclusion
The present study contributes to the growing body of literature emphasizing the value of experiential learning in sport management education by examining student perceptions of professional development, career readiness, and networking outcomes resulting from participation in the NFL Super Bowl. The findings emphasize the importance of high-impact learning experiences in enhancing students’ confidence, career awareness, and perceived marketability within the competitive sport industry. Quantitative analyses revealed that students’ expectations regarding hands-on learning and professional development were not only met but exceeded, as demonstrated by significant increases in post-event perceptions. While students’ expectations regarding competitive advantage remained consistent, the anticipated short-term career outcomes such as job offers or interviews were not fully realized. This discrepancy suggests a need to frame experiential learning as a catalyst for long-term, rather than immediate, professional advancement.

The strong and consistent correlations between networking confidence and several career-related outcomes highlight the pivotal role of self-efficacy in professional relationship-building. Students who reported higher levels of networking confidence were more likely to form meaningful connections, perceive the experience as professionally valuable, and anticipate long-term career benefits. These findings align with existing research that underscores the importance of confidence and social capital in career development among emerging sport professionals.
Additionally, the alignment between assigned tasks and students’ expectations was a significant predictor of overall satisfaction and perceived professional growth. This supports the argument that carefully structured and intentional experiential learning opportunities are critical in maximizing the educational and professional value of such events. This study affirms the potential of large-scale sport events like the Super Bowl to serve as transformative learning environments that foster career readiness, enhance networking abilities, and solidify students’ commitment to pursuing careers in sport management. Future research should consider longitudinal approaches to evaluate the enduring effects of these experiences on actual career outcomes, including job placement, graduate school enrollment, and professional advancement. Additionally, expanding sample sizes and incorporating multi-institutional data could strengthen generalizability and provide further insights into best practices for experiential learning program design.

Research Limitations and Implications
While this study offers meaningful insights into the perceived benefits of Super Bowl experiential learning, several limitations should be acknowledged. First, the small sample size (n = 11) limits the generalizability of the findings. Although the data revealed significant patterns and correlations, the results may not fully represent the experiences of a broader population of sport management students. Future studies with larger and more diverse participant pools would enhance the reliability and applicability of these findings. Despite these limitations, the findings have important implications for sport management education. Experiential learning at large-scale events like the Super Bowl can play a critical role in enhancing students’ career preparedness, particularly in the areas of networking and professional confidence. Academic programs should continue to prioritize and expand these opportunities, while also integrating reflective components that help students connect their experiences to broader career goals.

References

  1. Aithal, P. S., & Mishra, N. (2024). Integrated framework for experiential learning: Approaches & impacts. International Journal of Case Studies in Business, IT and Education, 8(1), 354–367. https://doi.org/10.47992/ijcsbe.2581.6942.0340
  2. Akpan, I. J. (2016). The efficacy of consulting practicum in enhancing students’ readiness for professional career in management information systems: An empirical analysis. Decision Sciences Journal of Innovative Education, 14(2), 155–170. https://doi.org/10.1111/dsji.12109
  3. Barefoot, M., Martinez, J. M., & Morrow, H. S. (2023). Applied improvisation in the sport management curriculum. Sports Innovation Journal, 4(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.18060/27405
  4. Bower, G. G. (2013). Utilizing Kolb’s experiential learning theory to implement a golf scramble. International Journal of Sport Management Recreation & Tourism, 12, 1–16. https://doi.org/10.5199/ijsmart-1791-874x-12c
  5. Brown, C., Willett, J., Goldfine, R., & Goldfine, B. (2018). Sport management internships: Recommendations for improving upon experiential learning. Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport & Tourism Education, 23, 98–102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhlste.2018.02.001
  6. Chan, B. T. Y. (2023). Driving the career readiness agenda in Hong Kong higher education. Frontiers in Education, 8, Article 1325592. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2023.1325592
  7. Chen, X., & Tang, M. (2024). Constructing virtual teaching and research centers for business English education: A framework for application-oriented universities. Journal of Education and Educational Research, 6(1), 58–70. https://doi.org/10.54097/v9dj3k61
  8. Coffey, D., & Davis, J. (2019). The holistic approach to academia: Traditional classroom instruction and experiential learning of student-athletes. Education Sciences, 9(2), 125. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci9020125
  9. Combs, M., Joyce, R., & Bynum, C. (2024). Impact of a cybersecurity work-related course on students’ career thoughts and attitudes. Journal of the Colloquium for Information Systems Security Education, 11(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.53735/cisse.v11i1.185
  10. De Schepper, J., & Sotiriadou, P. (2017). A framework for critical reflection in sport management education and graduate employability. Annals of Leisure Research, 21(5), 564–582. https://doi.org/10.1080/11745398.2017.1336107
  11. DeLuca, J. R., & Fornatora, E. (2020). Experiential learning from a classroom desk: Exploring student perceptions of applied coursework. Sport Management Education Journal, 14(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1123/smej.2019-0015
  12. Diacin, M. J. (2018). An experiential learning opportunity for sport management students: Manager interview and facility inspection. Sport Management Education Journal, 12(1), 41–44. https://doi.org/10.1123/smej.2017-0033
  13. Faure, C., & Ray, B. M. (2021). Lighting up the sky: Experiential learning at a NCAA championship event. Journal of Kinesiology & Wellness, 10, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.56980/jkw.v10i.90
  14. Gipson, C., Mutchler, J., Mallhi, A. K., & Lambert, A. (2023). “I felt we were actually learning things, then applying them.” Sports Innovation Journal, 4(1), 16–30. https://doi.org/10.18060/27392
  15. Gipson, K., Smith, S., & Jones, R. (2023). “I felt we were actually learning things, then applying them.” Sports Innovation Journal, 9(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.18060/27392
  16. Jackson, D., & Bridgstock, R. (2020). What actually works to enhance graduate employability? The relative value of curricular, co-curricular, and extra-curricular learning and paid work. Higher Education, 82, 903–922. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-020-00570-x
  17. Lower‐Hoppe, L. M., Wanless, L., Aldridge, S. M., & Jones, D. W. (2019). Integrating blended learning within sport event management curriculum. Sport Management Education Journal, 13(1), 44–51. https://doi.org/10.1123/smej.2018-0024
  18. Mayorga, L. K. (2019). HEIs and workforce development: Helping undergraduates acquire career-readiness attributes. Industry and Higher Education, 33(6), 396–403. https://doi.org/10.1177/0950422219875083
  19. Pierce, D. (2018). Using experiential client-based projects in sport sales courses. International Journal of Marketing and Sales Education, 12(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.4018/ijmse.2018010101
  20. Pierce, D., & Petersen, J. (2010). Experiential learning in sport sales: Student perceptions of sport sales expectations, skills and preparation. Sport Management Education Journal, 4(1), 49–62. https://doi.org/10.1123/smej.4.1.49
  21. Prather, C. D. (2007). Experiential learning in collegiate aviation: The use and assessment of internships. Collegiate Aviation Review International, 25(2), 53–62. https://doi.org/10.22488/okstate.18.100359
  22. Sattler, L. A. (2018). From classroom to courtside: An examination of the experiential learning practices of sport management faculty. Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport & Tourism Education, 23, 84–89. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhlste.2018.02.002
  23. Song, C., Riddell, H., & Ryan, S. (2021). Improving students’ oral communication skills through an interdisciplinary problem-based learning opportunity in a sport management course. International Journal of Physical Education, Fitness and Sports, 10(3), 18–27. https://doi.org/10.34256/ijpefs2133
  24. Southall, R. M., Nagel, M. S., & LeGrande, D. (2003). The role of experiential learning in sport management education. Sport Management Review, 6(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1441-3523(03)70002-6
  25. Van Wart, A., O’Brien, T. C., Varvayanis, S., Alder, J., Greenier, J., Layton, R. L., Stayart, C. A., Wefes, I., & Brady, A. E. (2020). Applying experiential learning to career development training for biomedical graduate students and postdocs: Perspectives on program development and design. CBE—Life Sciences Education, 19(1), ar10. https://doi.org/10.1187/cbe.19-12-0270
  26. Wei, L., & Fu, Y. (2024). Navigating future pathways: Repercussions of experiential teaching on employment anxiety in career planning courses. European Journal of Education Studies, 11(8), 78–91. https://doi.org/10.46827/ejes.v11i8.5421
2025-05-05T10:49:36-05:00July 18th, 2025|General, Leadership, Sport Education, Sports Management|Comments Off on From Classroom to Kickoff: A Case Study on the Perceived Value and Career Impact of Experiential Learning at the Super Bowl for Sport Management Students
Read More

The Sport Journal uses Accessibility Checker to monitor our website's accessibility.

Go to Top