ISSN: 1543-9518|Vol. 24

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Prevalence of Normal Weight Obesity Amongst Young Adults in the Southeastern United States

Authors: Helena Pavlovic, Tristen Dolesh, Christian Barnes, Angila Berni, Nicholas Castro, Michel Heijnen, Alexander McDaniel, Sarah Noland, Lindsey Schroeder, Tamlyn Shields, Jessica Van Meter, and Wayland Tseh*

AUTHORS INSTITUATIONAL AFFILIATION: School of Health and Applied Human Sciences, University of North Carolina Wilmington, Wilmington, North Carolina, United States of America

Corresponding Author:

Wayland Tseh, Ph.D.

University of North Carolina Wilmington

School of Health and Applied Human Sciences

601 South College Road

Wilmington, North Carolina, 28403-5956

Phone Number: 910.962.2484

ABSTRACT

E-Mail:  tsehw@uncw.edu

‘Normal weight obesity (NWO) is characterized by a normal or low body mass index (BMI) alongside a high percentage of body fat, which increases the risk for hypokinetic diseases.  This study aims to investigate the prevalence of NWO among a sample of young, non-sedentary adults.  Two hundred and fifty-four apparently healthy volunteers (Age = 22.2 ± 7.2 yrs; Height = 171.5 ± 9.6 cm; Body Mass = 69.9 ± 13.4 kg) provided informed consent prior to participation. Body mass index was calculated by dividing body mass (kg) by height squared (m2).  Body fat percentage was measured using the BODPOD® G/S, which utilizes air displacement plethysmography to accurately estimate body composition.  Class I Obesity and Low/Normal BMI categorizations were defined by the American College of Sports Medicine. Data revealed that 12.2% of the overall sample exhibited NWO, with a higher prevalence among males (17.2%) compared to females (9.8%).  The study also seeks to evaluate whether individuals with NWO face greater health risks than those with similar BMI but lower body fat percentages.  From a practical perspective, identifying individuals with NWO is an opportunity for clinicians to proactively educate their clients regarding the health risks associated with hypokinetic disease(s).

Keywords: Body Mass Index, BODPOD, Percent Body Fat, Normal Weight Obesity

INTRODUCTION

Within the United States, the prevalence of obesity has dramatically increased over the past 50 years given the ubiquitous obesogenic environment (31). In 2019, Ward and colleagues yielded compelling predictive insights indicating a trajectory wherein, by the year 2030, nearly 50% of adults will be afflicted by obesity (48.9%) with heightened prevalence exceeding 50% in 29 states, demonstrating a pervasive nationwide trend (50). Moreover, no state is anticipated to exhibit a prevalence below 35% (50). Projections also indicate that a substantial proportion of the adult population is anticipated to experience severe obesity, with an estimated 24.2% affected by 2030 (50). Against this backdrop, the predictive analyses conducted by Ward and associates (50) underscored the widespread and escalating severity of the obesity epidemic across the United States. These findings are indicative of an impending public health challenge, necessitating strategic interventions and policy considerations to mitigate the escalating burden of obesity and its associated health implications. When delineating the magnitude of obesity, clinicians and practitioners must employ precise instrumentation capable of quantifying a client’s body composition in terms of percentage body fat. Numerous methodologies exist for this purpose, encompassing hydrostatic weighing, bioelectrical impedance analysis, air displacement plethysmography, skinfold assessment, and dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry scan.

Drawing from antecedent research studies, dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) is acknowledged as the clinical gold standard for appraising body composition (9, 10, 12, 21, 25, 26, 42, 47). However, a notable drawback of DXA lies in its emission of low-level radiation (6, 9, 32, 45, 47), thereby subjecting clients to unnecessary radiation exposure (1, 33). An alternative method is utilizing the BOD POD® Gold Standard (GS), which employs air displacement plethysmography to estimate body composition. Previous literature has heralded the BOD POD® GS as the applied, pragmatic gold standard for assessing body composition due to its validity (2, 7, 38), as well as its within- and between-day reliability (48). Additionally, owing to the BOD POD® GS’s facile and non-invasive procedures, most individuals can attain accurate measures of body composition values, specifically pertaining to percent body fat, enabling the discernment of pounds of fat-free mass and fat mass.

According to the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM), males with a percent body fat ≥ 25% and females ≥ 32% (4) are predisposed to an elevated risk of developing a myriad of hypokinetic diseases, notably cardiovascular disease(s), metabolic syndrome, and cardiometabolic dysfunction (14, 27, 35, 37, 39, 40, 43, 44, 46, 51, 56). Another evaluative approach involves the calculation of Body Mass Index (BMI), derived from dividing body weight in kilograms by square of height in meters (4). Given the ease and efficiency of calculating BMI, the obesity-related classification in which it provides at the individual level is potentially flawed (3, 8, 22, 24, 41, 53, 56).

Presently, within the United States, a dearth of research exists on the prevalence of normal weight obesity (NWO) amongst apparently healthy young adults (11,52). Normal weight obesity is characterized by individuals exhibiting a low BMI (<18.5 kg∙m-2) or normal BMI (18.5 – 24.9 kg∙m-2) yet manifesting obesity-related percentage body fat values (male = ≥20%; female = ≥30%) (5, 14, 20, 36, 37, 40, 43, 44, 57). Individuals with low/normal BMI and high percentage body fat values face an augmented risk of hypokinetic diseases, as their seemingly normal exterior masks a deleteriously high amount of body fat beneath the surface layer. Previous research endeavors have revealed the prevalence of NWO amongst a population of South Americans (14, 34, 40, 44), Central Europeans (15), and Asians (28-30, 37, 54, 55, 57, 58). Given that most aforesaid research studies on NWO have been conducted internationally, it is of paramount interest to ascertain the prevalence of NWO domestically. Consequently, the primary objective of this research study is to investigate the prevalence of normal-weight obesity among a sample of ostensibly healthy males and females.

METHODS

Participants

All participants were required to report to the Body Composition Laboratory to complete a singular session. Before the participants arrived, volunteers were instructed to abstain from consuming caffeinated sustenance or beverages that may acutely influence body mass. Moreover, researchers advised participants to refrain from vigorous physical activity/exercise the night before and prior to their appointed session. Upon arrival, volunteers read and signed an informed consent form approved by the University’s Institutional Review Board for human subject use (IRB#: H23-0499). As displayed in Table 1, a cohort comprising 254 male and female volunteers were recruited to participate in this study.

Below highlights the details of the singular Session required for each participant.

Body Mass Index (BMI)

Before each assessment, participants were asked to remove any unattached item(s) from their body, such as shoes, socks, rings, bracelets, and/or glasses.  Height was measured to the nearest 0.5 cm as participants stood barefoot, with both legs together, with their back to a Seca 217 Mobile Stadiometer (Model Number 2171821009, USA).  Body mass was measured on a Tanita Multi-Frequency Total Body Composition Analyzer with Column (Model DC-430U, Tanita Corporation, Japan) to the nearest 0.1 kg.  Body mass index was calculated using body mass expressed in kilograms (kg) divided by height expressed in meters squared (m2).  Body mass index categorizations, set forth via ACSM (4), for low BMI was (<18.5 kg∙m-2) and normal BMI was (18.5 – 24.9 kg∙m-2).

BOD POD® Gold Standard (GS)

BOD POD® Gold Standard (GS) (COSMED USA Inc., USA) was calibrated daily according to the manufacturer’s instructions with a 50.238 Liter cylindrical volume provided by COSMED USA Inc.  Specific details illustrating the technicalities of the calibration mechanism are published elsewhere (16, 18).  Because different clothing schemes have been shown to underestimate percentage body fat (%BF) results from the BOD POD® (19, 49), female participants were instructed to wear one- or two-piece bathing suit or sports bra and compression shorts, while male participants were instructed to wear form-fitted compression shorts.  All participants wore a swim-like cap provided by COSMED USA Inc.  After race, height, and age were inputted by a technician into the BOD POD® GS kiosk, participants were asked to step on an electronic scale to determine body mass to the nearest .045 kg.  Once the BOD POD® GS system recorded body mass, participants were instructed to sit comfortably and breathe normally within the BOD POD® GS for two trials lasting 40 seconds per trial.  A third trial was conducted if Trials 1 and 2 had high variability.  Once both (or three) trials were conducted, body composition values, specifically, body mass, percent body fat, fat-free mass, and fat mass, were immediately displayed on the kiosk viewer and recorded by a technician.  Once height, body mass, and body composition assessments were completed, participants dressed back into their original clothing and exited the Body Composition Lab.

Statistical Analyses

Descriptive statistics (mean ± SD) were derived to describe the sample population.  A Chi-Square Goodness of Fit Test was used to determine the prevalence of low/normal BMI values with obesity-related percent body fat.  For all analyses, statistical significance was established at p < 0.05.

RESULTS

At the conclusion of the study, 254 volunteers were recruited, and zero dropped out, therefore, all 254 participants’ results were included in the statistical analyses. Table 2 displays the descriptive measures of the study participants.

The chi-squared statistic was 1.886 (df = 1, p = 0.17) indicating no statistical difference in NWO between males (17.2%) and females (9.8%).

DISCUSSION

As stated previously, there is a dearth of data determining the prevalence of NWO domestically, more specifically, within the southeast region of the United States.  Therefore, the primary objective of this research study was to investigate the frequency of NWO amongst a sample of apparently healthy individuals.  Participants completed a singular data collection session whereby height, body mass, and percentage body fat were quantified via BOD POD® GS.  Within this current study, low and normal BMI classifications were <18.5 kg∙m-2 and 18.5 – 24.9 kg∙m-2, respectively.  Class I obesity for females and males were ≥ 32% and ≥ 25%, respectively.  Given said thresholds, data revealed that 12.2% of the overall sample exhibited NWO, with a higher prevalence amongst males (17.2%) compared to females (9.8%).  These findings are relatively comparable within other research investigating the prevalence of NWO amongst a sample of young adults (5, 35, 44, 57).

In 2017, Ramsaran and Maharaj investigated the prevalence of NWO within a cohort of 236 young adults (mean age = 21.3 ± 2.5 years).  The quantification of %BF was accomplished using the Tanita Ironman body composition analyzer.  Subsequent data analyses unveiled a heightened prevalence of NWO among the male participants (14.4%), surpassing their female counterparts (5.5%).  The outcomes of the current study align with the findings reported by Ramsaran and Maharaj (44), wherein NWO manifested in 17.2% of males and 9.8% of females. A nuanced distinction between the two investigations lies in the designated thresholds for %BF. Ramsaran and Maharaj (44) set the elevated %BF thresholds at ≥ 23.1% for males and ≥ 33.3% for females. In contrast, the current study employed thresholds of ≥ 25.0% for males and ≥ 32.0% for females.  Notwithstanding the marginal elevation (+1.9%) in the %BF threshold within the current study, males exhibited a greater prevalence (+2.8%) compared to Ramsaran and Maharaj’s (44) dataset.  Conversely, the current study adopted a lower %BF threshold (–1.3%) for females and uncovered a higher prevalence of NWO (+4.4%).  These subtle yet discernible variations in %BF thresholds may elucidate the divergent prevalence rates of NWO observed between the two scholarly investigations.

Akin to Ramsaran and Maharaj (44) and the present investigation, Anderson and colleagues (5) examined the incidence of NWO within a more modest cohort of 94 young adults (mean age = 19.6 ± 1.5 years).  The quantification of %BF was assessed via DXA. The %BF thresholds were predicated on National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey standards, establishing obesity values of ≥ 30.0% for males and ≥ 35.0% for females.  Findings elucidated an NWO prevalence in males (26.7%) and females (7.8%). Noteworthy is the marked elevation in male NWO rates (+9.5%) and marginal reduction (–2.0%) in female NWO rates compared to the current study.  While discrepancies may be attributed to variances in sample size (254 in the present study vs. 94 in Anderson et al.), divergent methodologies for %BF assessment (utilizing BOD POD® GS presently as opposed to DXA in Anderson et al.), and distinct %BF thresholds (ACSM criteria in the current study versus NHANES in Anderson et al.), the overarching findings remain concordant. Specifically, data from all three research investigations underscore the consistent pattern wherein males manifest elevated NWO prevalence rates relative to their female counterparts.

In contradistinction to the two previous research investigations and the current study, Zhang et al. (57) explored the NWO prevalence amongst 383 young adults (mean age = 20.4 ± 1.6 years). Assessment of %BF was executed through bioelectrical impedance analyses (BIA) employing the InBody 720 device. Obesity classification was contingent upon threshold values of ≥20.0% for males and ≥30.0% for females, as established by Zhang and associates (57).  Analyses unveiled an NWO prevalence of 13.2% in males and 27.5% in females, a prominent deviation from the present study’s findings. The contrasting NWO prevalence patterns observed between the two studies are notably discernible. Specifically, Zhang and colleagues (57) reported a higher prevalence in females than males, whereas the current investigation revealed the converse. This discordance is seemingly attributable to variances in the %BF thresholds implemented for obesity classification. Zhang et al. (57) utilized a considerably lower threshold for males at 20.0%, as opposed to the 25.0% threshold applied in the current study. Similarly, for females, Zhang et al. (57) employed a lower %BF threshold at 30.0%, whereas the present study utilized a more conservative threshold of 32.0%. Moreover, a salient methodological distinction lies in the apparatus employed for %BF quantification. The current study utilized the BOD POD® GS, acknowledged as the applied gold standard for assessing body composition, while Zhang et al. (57) employed the InBody 720 BIA. These methodological nuances likely contribute to the divergent findings between the present research and Zhang et al. (57), underscoring the importance of rigorously evaluating both threshold criteria and assessment modalities when interpreting and comparing NWO prevalence data.

In a recent investigation, Maitiniyazi et al. (35) endeavored to ascertain the prevalence of NWO within a cohort of 279 young adults (mean age = 21.7 ± 2.1 years). Percentage body fat was assessed utilizing the InBody 770 BIA method.  Obesity classification thresholds were established at 20.0% for males and 30.0% for females.  Parallel to the observed NWO patterns delineated by Zhang and colleagues (57), Maitiniyazi et al. also discerned a higher prevalence of NWO in females (40.1%) as opposed to males (25.5%).  Notably, while these NWO trends align with the patterns identified by Zhang et al. (57), they markedly deviate from the outcomes of the current investigation.  Such discordant findings may find elucidation in the nuanced disparities in the thresholds employed to categorize obesity and the instrumentation deployed for %BF quantification.  Specifically, the divergence in %BF thresholds used for obesity classification emerges as a significant factor. Maitiniyazi et al. (35) employed thresholds different from those of Zhang et al. (57) and the current study, thereby contributing to the observed inconsistencies. Additionally, the equipment utilized to quantify %BF introduces another layer of methodological variation. While Zhang et al. (57) implemented InBody 720 BIA and the current study utilized BOD POD® GS, Maitiniyazi et al. deployed the InBody 770 BIA method.  These divergent methodological approaches underscore the imperative of meticulous consideration when interpreting and comparing NWO prevalence data, highlighting the multifaceted nature of the interplay between obesity thresholds and assessment methodologies in elucidating NWO prevalence.

CONCLUSIONS

This comprehensive investigation contributes significantly to our understanding of NWO prevalence within a young adult population, particularly within the Southeast region of the United States.  The study employed the BOD POD® GS for precise measurement of height, body mass, and percentage body fat, revealing a higher, but not statistically different, prevalence in NWO between males and females.  These results align with similar studies collectively emphasizing the consistent pattern of elevated NWO prevalence in males relative to females.  The study’s alignment with said research investigations further underscores the robustness of the findings, notwithstanding variations in sample size, methodology, and threshold criteria.  Conversely, discrepancies with other research investigations highlight the sensitivity of NWO prevalence to %BF thresholds and assessment modalities.  Despite the divergence in outcomes, these studies collectively reinforce the need for careful consideration of methodological nuances in interpreting and comparing NWO prevalence data.

APPLICATION IN SPORTS

From a practical perspective, the findings emphasize the importance of incorporating regional and demographic variations when assessing NWO prevalence.  Furthermore, the study underscores the relevance of employing standardized methodologies in ensuring consistency and comparability across investigations.  Future endeavors in this domain should continue to explore regional variations, refine %BF threshold criteria, and employ advanced methodologies for accurate NWO characterization.  This knowledge is pivotal for tailoring preventive measures and interventions; more precisely, accurately identifying NWO individuals is an opportunity for clinicians to proactively educate their clients regarding the health risks associated with hypokinetic disease(s), particularly cardiovascular disease(s), metabolic syndrome, and cardiometabolic dysfunction.

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2024-09-23T09:54:55-05:00September 23rd, 2024|Sports Health & Fitness|Comments Off on Prevalence of Normal Weight Obesity Amongst Young Adults in the Southeastern United States
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Adult exercisers’ attitudes toward female and male personal fitness trainers: Influence of gender, age, and exercise experience

Authors: Edward P. Hebert1, and Jada McGuin2

1Department of Kinesiology and Health Studies, Southeastern Louisiana University, Hammond, LA, USA
2Fitt House, Baton Rouge, LA, USA

Corresponding Author:

Edward Hebert

SLU Box 10845

Hammond, LA 70810

ehebert@selu.edu

985-549-2132

Edward Hebert, PhD is a Professor in the Department of Kinesiology and Health Studies at Southeastern Louisiana University. His research interests include exercise motivation and adherence; and morale, efficacy, and burnout among health and wellness professionals.

Jada McGuin, MS, MHA is a health and wellness professional and the Owner/Operator of The Fitt House in Baton Rouge. Her professional interests focus on the implementation of preventative measures such as health screening, exercise, and lifestyle interventions to reduce the prevalence of chronic illness and diseases.

ABSTRACT

This study describes attitudes of adult exercisers toward female and male personal fitness trainers, and compares responses of male and female, younger vs older exercisers, and those with varying levels of exercise experience. Recruited from 4 fitness gyms, 201 adults aged 18 to 77 completed an anonymous survey where they provided relative attitude ratings toward female vs. male fitness trainers specific to the trainer’s knowledge, helping meet personal fitness goals, following their directions, comfort discussing struggles with exercise, working with the trainer for an extended time, and referring others to them. Participants rated male trainers higher for fitness knowledge, and were more willing to follow their directions, work with them for an extended time, and refer clients to them, but perceived a female trainer more favorably for discussing their struggles with exercise. Significant gender, age, and experience differences were found. Gender-biased perceptions were highest among male, older, and inexperienced exercisers, who had more positive attitudes toward male fitness trainers. Attitudes of women, younger, and experienced exercisers tended to be more neutral, and favor female trainers for meeting personal goals and discussing struggles. The results of this exploratory study suggest gender-biased exercise attitudes are influenced by participant gender, as well as age and experience, and provide impetus for additional research on exercise attitudes.

Keywords: personal training, beliefs, perceptions, biases

INTRODUCTION

Recent decades have seen a great expansion of the fitness industry signaled by an increase in the number of adults exercising in fitness centers around the world. This rise has been attributed to a number of factors including global recognition of the benefits of physical activity, endorsement of exercise by the medical community, and growth of the fitness industry (1, 29). Yet, exercise adherence remains problematic (9, 25, 37, 38, 41) and fitness clubs tend to have low retention rates (7, 17, 18, 29, 36, 42). The practice of exercising with a personal fitness trainer (PFT) has increased in popularity and personal training has become a standard feature in many settings (5, 27, 29, 43, 44). PFTs design and supervise exercise programs, and help clients set and reach personal goals. In addition, they engage in practices to promote an active lifestyle, motivate clients, and facilitate their exercise competence and self-efficacy, which can play an important role in exercise adherence (29, 35, 44). Studies of consumers consistently identify a fitness club’s staff, and fitness leaders’ instruction, feedback, and support as among the most important factors in customer satisfaction (19, 33). In addition, satisfaction with individualized training is positively associated with exercise motivation and self-efficacy (44). Consistent evidence points to the benefits of exercising with a PFT. Studies show that individuals who train with a PFT are more likely to attend exercise sessions and adhere to programs (2, 14, 22, 32). Those who train with a PFT have been found to exercise at higher intensities (31, 40) and make greater strength and fitness gains (30, 31) than those who exercise independently. These results are similar to findings comparing individuals who train alone vs. under the supervision of a fitness professional (11, 16).

Studies of fitness settings have often concluded that gender plays a role in gym-related attitudes and behaviors. In their review, Håman et al. (20) suggested fitness gym spaces are strongly associated with male bodies and norms, and gender norms influence social practices and behaviors there. Exercise motivation has been tied to weight loss for women and enhancing muscularity among men (24). Certain types of exercise are considered masculine or feminine, and exercisers have been shown to use gendered language to refer to areas of the gym (8). Interview-based studies of PFTs indicate that a clients’ gender influences their advice (20) and they recognize that gender plays a role in clients’ selection of a trainer (35).

The results of previous interview-based studies (27, 34) indicated that women prefer a female PFT. This preference is based on perceptions of being less self-conscious about their bodies with a female trainer, and the beliefs that a female trainer would better understand and empathize with their struggles with exercise and comfort levels in the gym. Survey-based research comparing perceptions of male and female fitness trainers have studied the attitudes of college students, and produced mixed results. In their study of 402 undergraduates, Fisher et al. (15) found no clear preference for a male or female PFT, yet hypothetical female PFTs received higher ratings for general perceptions of competence, and participants’ willingness to discuss progress and take instructions/corrections from them, compared to male trainers. Boerner et al. (5) similarly found that college undergraduates perceived female PFTs as more competent and knowledgeable than males. However, male students preferred to work with a male fitness trainer, while female students had no gender preference. Similarly, Magnusen and Rhea (28) found female college Division I athletes had no preference for a male or female strength coach, whereas males preferred a male coach.

Thus, research to date on attitudes toward male vs. female PFTs has provided mixed results, and survey-based studies to date have exclusively examined perceptions of college students, which may be different from non-college aged adults. In addition, research has yet to examine how attitudes toward male/female fitness trainers may vary with other potentially-influential factors such as age and exercise experience. Thus, the purpose of this exploratory study was to examine attitudes toward male and female PFTs in a sample of adult members of fitness gyms, and compare responses with respect to participant gender, age, and exercise experience.

METHODS

Participants

Participants were 201 (144 female; 57 male) adult members of four fitness centers from one city in the southeast United States who responded to an online survey. They ranged in age from 18 to 77 years (mean = 35.87, SD = 14.87 years). Self-reported experience levels were Beginner (n=59), Intermediate (n=91) and Advanced (n=51). Over half of the sample indicated exercising four or more times per week (54.9%), with 25.3% indicating three times per week, and 20.1% once a week. Table 1 provides the number and percent of male and female participants in age and exercise experience groups.

Procedures

Prior to data collection, the study was approved by the Institutional Review Board of the authors’ university. Participants were recruited from fitness centers via email with the cooperation of the managers. Two facilities were small gyms that offered only individual and small group training, and two were larger traditional fitness centers that housed a variety of equipment and amenities, and provided personal training services and group exercise classes as well as independent exercise. A recruiting email with a link to an anonymous online survey was sent to all members of the two small gyms, and members of the larger gyms who had expressed interest in personal training. Participants were assured of anonymity and informed their participation was voluntary and they were providing consent to participate by completing the survey.

Data were collected February-March 2021 using a survey created for the study. Survey items were based on and relatively similar to those used in previous research on attitudes toward female/male fitness trainers (15). Item content was guided by previous research examining criteria for selecting a PFT (20, 29, 35) and on reasons people may prefer a male/female PFT (27, 34). After initial development, the survey was reviewed by researchers with expertise in fitness who provided feedback and recommendations.

The first section sought demographic information including gender, age, level of fitness experience (beginner, intermediate, or advanced), and frequency of exercise during the last month. The next section focused on participant’s attitudes about working with a PFT, specifically how their attitudes would be influenced by the trainer’s gender. It included 6 face-valid items: (1) “My belief about the trainer’s knowledge about fitness,” (2) “My belief in the trainer’s desire for me to meet my personal fitness goals,” (3) “My willingness to follow the trainer’s directions about exercise,” (4) “My level of comfort discussing my struggles with exercise with the trainer,” (5) “My willingness to continue working with the trainer for an extended length of time,” and (6) “My willingness to refer clients to the trainer.” Participants responded to teach item on a 5-option scale: Higher for a female trainer, slightly higher for a female trainer, the same for a female or male trainer, slightly higher for a male trainer, or higher for a male trainer.

Data Analysis

For data analysis, ratings were translated to a numerical scale from -2 to 2 with the neutral response in the center: (-2) Higher for a female trainer), (-1) Slightly higher for a female trainer), (0) The same for a female or male trainer, (1) Slightly higher for a male trainer, and (2) Higher for a male trainer. Responses were also coded categorically as neutral, or favoring a male or female trainer. Descriptive statistics (mean, standard deviation, and percent of responses indicating a neutral response or favoring a female/male PFT) for responses to each item are reported for the entire sample.

Responses were also analyzed with respect to three independent variables (gender, age group, and fitness experience). Three levels of fitness experience were self -reported Beginner, Intermediate, and Advanced. For the purpose of the study, participants were divided into two age groups operationally defined as younger (18-39 years) and older (40 years and older) exercisers. Numerical responses were analyzed using three separate MANOVAs with the 6 survey items as dependent measures. Significant main effects were further analyzed using independent t-tests or one-way ANOVA. Partial Omega Squared (ηp2) and Cohen’s d were reported as indicators of effect size. In addition to these analyses, the percent of participants whose responses were neutral or favored a male or female PFT were reported for groups.

RESULTS

As shown in Figure 1, as a whole, participants tended to have higher ratings of male PFTs relative to fitness knowledge, willingness to follow their directions, working with the trainer for an extended time, and referring clients to them. However, they tended to perceive a female PFT more favorably for discussing their struggles with exercise. The percent of responses that were neutral or favored a male/female trainer yielded similar patterns. Overall, more people indicated positive attitudes toward a male than a female PFT for expectations of fitness knowledge (31.3% vs. 5.5%), as well as willingness to follow the trainer’s directions (29.9% vs. 10.9%), working with the trainer for an extended time (20.9% vs. 11.9%), and referring other clients to the trainer (17.4% vs. 5.5%). For comfort discussing struggles with exercise, 41.8% indicated a preference for a female trainer with only 24.4% preferring a male trainer. For most items, 50-60% of participants indicated a neutral response (the same for a male or female trainer), with the exception of comfort discussing concerns for which only 33.3% indicated no preference.

Attitudes of Male and Female Respondents

As shown in Figure 2, responses of male and female exercisers showed clear gender differences. Mean values indicated men rated a male PFT higher than a female PFT for all items. By comparison, female exercisers’ responses tended to vary more across items, and average responses were near neutral for several items. The MANOVA indicated significant differences between male and female respondents were present [Wilks’ Lambda=.845, p<.001, ηp2=.16]. Follow up comparisons indicated significant differences for four items: expectations for the trainer to help meet personal fitness goals [t(199)=4.20, p<.001, Cohen’s d=1.14], willingness to follow the trainer’s directions [t(199)=2.71, p<.01, Cohen’s d=1.00], comfort discussing exercise struggles [t(199)=5.24, p<.001, Cohen’s d=1.24], and willingness to work with the trainer for an extended time [t(199)=2.01, p<.05, Cohen’s d=.93].

Gender-biased patterns were also evident in the percent of ratings which were neutral vs. favored a male or female PFT (see Table 2). A higher percent of male exercisers indicated they would be more comfortable discussing their struggles with a male (43.9%) than a female trainer (17.5%), whereas female exercisers indicated a preference for a female (51.4%) over a male PFT (16.9%). A similar same-gender preference was indicated for perceptions of the trainer’s desire to help meet personal fitness goals, and working with them for an extended time.

Attitudes of Younger vs. Older Exercisers

Older exercisers (aged 40 and over) tended to favor a male PFT for all items, whereas younger exercises (18-39 years) had more varied responses and were near neutral for several items (see Figure 3). Responses were found to vary significantly by age group [Wilks’ Lambda= .884, p<.05, ηp2=.06]. Follow-up comparisons indicated significant differences for two items: meeting personal goals [t(197)=2.88, p<.01, Cohen’s d=0.45], and discussing struggles [t(197)=3.18, p<.01, Cohen’s d=0.49]. As indicated in Table 3, for these items, older exercisers tended to have either neutral attitudes or favor a male trainer, whereas younger exercisers more often favored a female trainer.

Variation as a Function of Exercise Experience

Mean scores for individuals varying in exercise experience are shown in Figure 4. The MANOVA comparing responses was significant [Wilks’ Lambda=.839, p<.001, ηp2=.08]. One way ANOVA follow-up comparisons indicated a significant difference for only one item: expectations for the PFT’s knowledge [F(2,198=7.14, p<.001, ηp2=.086]. Post-hoc Student-Newman-Keuls comparisons indicated beginning exercisers had significantly greater expectations of fitness knowledge for male trainers (p<.05), whereas knowledge expectations of male vs. female trainers were similar for exercisers with intermediate or advanced experience. Examination of response percentages (Table 4) shows a clear pattern of reduced gender-bias as exercise experience increased. For example, only 35.6% of beginner-level exercisers indicated expectations for a trainer to help them meet personal exercise goals would be the same for a male or female trainer, but this neutral rating increasing to 53.8% of intermediate exercisers, and 64.7% of advanced exercisers. This same pattern of increasing neutral response with higher exercise experience was observed for all items.

DISCUSSION

Research supports the benefits of exercising with a PFT (2, 14, 22, 30, 32, 40), and evidence suggests that gender plays a role in exercise attitudes and behaviors, including selection of a trainer (20, 26, 35, 39). Previous survey-based research on attitudes toward male and female PFTs have studied undergraduate students; attitudes of adult fitness center members have not been investigated. An additional limitation of existing research is the failure to examine variables that may play a role in these attitudes. This study examined attitudes toward male and female PFTs among 201 adult fitness center members. Perceptions were reported for the entire sample, and analyzed relative to participant gender, age group, and exercise experience.

As a whole, more participants favored a male over a female trainer for expectations of fitness-related knowledge, willingness for follow the trainer’s directions, working with the trainer for an extended time, and referring other clients to them. However, adults tended to be more comfortable discussing struggles and concerns with exercise with a female trainer. Fisher et al. (15) similarly reported college students had a more positive attitude about discussing progress with female than male trainers.

Age Differences

Our results showed age-related attitudinal differences. Specifically, older exercisers favored a male PFT, whereas younger respondents favored a female PFT primarily with respect to two items: assistance achieving personal goals and discussing exercise-related struggles. These findings are different from those reported in studies of college students, who overall, viewed female PFTs as more competent and knowledgeable than males (5, 15). Thus, these age-related attitudinal differences may be one of the more notable findings of this study, and may reflect changes in broader gender role-related attitudes among generations (10, 13).

Differences among Male and Female Exercisers

Comparisons between the responses of male and female exercisers revealed two important findings. First, men rated a male PFT higher than a female PFT for all items, while female exercisers’ ratings were more neutral. This is consistent with previous research on college students (5) and Division I university athletes (28) that indicated males preferred to work with a male PFT or strength coach, while females had no clear preference. Second, large and significant differences were observed between responses of men and women for several attitudes including those associated with knowledge, help meet personal goals, following directions, discussing concerns, and working with the trainer for an extended time. While men rated a male PFT higher for all items, women had more favorable perceptions of female PFTs for two specific items: discussing their struggles with exercise, and expectations regarding the trainer’s desire to help them meet personal fitness goals.

These findings align favorably with the results of previous interview-based studies indicating that women who choose a female PFT attribute this decision to beliefs that a female would have a greater empathy for them, and a better understanding of their bodies, struggles, and comfort levels (27, 34). These findings are also consistent with gender-preference research in healthcare. Drummond et al. (12), for example, found that college athletes felt more comfortable when provided care by an athletic trainer of the same gender, and a same-gender healthcare provider preference has been found for physicians and nurses when interactions are of an intimate nature (6, 23). When providing reasons for a healthcare provider of the same gender, women indicate it is due to comfort levels discussing problems and the perception that a female provider will take more personal interest in them (23).

Experience as a Mediator of Gender-Bias

We also examined attitudes toward male/female PFTs as a function of exercise experience, and used self-ratings as the basis for group formation. Comparisons indicated that, as exercise experience increased, gender-biased ratings decreased. Among beginning exercisers, 37% indicated their expectations for a PFT’s knowledge was neutral (the same for a male or female), whereas 65% of intermediate and 90% of advanced exercisers indicated so. This pattern of increasing gender-neutrality with exercise experience was observed for all items. These results suggest that gender-biased attitudes toward male/female PFTs may reduce with experience. This interpretation is consistent with the ideas that, while fitness-based attitudes and practices are influenced by gender norms and expectations, they are not fixed, but are fluid and can be changed with experience (3, 4, 20).

CONCLUSIONS, LIMITATIONS, AND DIRECTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

The results of this study indicate that many adult exercisers have gender-biased perceptions of PFTs with higher expectations for a male trainer’s fitness-based knowledge, and willingness to follow a male trainer’s directions and refer clients to him, yet are more comfortable discussing their struggles with a female trainer. Consistent with prior research on college students, these attitudes vary with participant gender. Men had stronger preferences for a same-gender PFT than women did, yet many women tended to favor a female PFT for interest in their personal goals and discussing their struggles and concerns. In addition, potentially important findings from this study are that gender-biased attitudes varied by age and exercise experience. Further research examining how these and other factors and experiences influence gender-referenced perceptions of fitness and fitness professionals is warranted, as is extending research on fitness-related attitudes beyond that of college students.

Previous research on this topic (5, 15) has primarily surveyed convenience samples of undergraduate students whose participation and experience in exercise was unknown, whereas participants in this study were adult fitness center members primarily between 20 and 39 years of age, most who identified as having intermediate or advanced exercise experience, and who exercised 3 or more times a week. Thus, the findings of this study may be more generalizable to typical adults who exercise on a regular basis. However, it should be acknowledged that, while data were derived from a sample of adults from multiple fitness centers, all gyms were from the same region of the U.S., and respondents were primarily female. Age-related differences were examined among two groups with an arbitrary dividing point. Thus, future research on this topic using more varied samples, more adult males, among varying age groups, and additional potentially influential variables is recommended.

APPLICATIONS IN SPORT

Fitness professionals should recognize that gender plays a role in exercise attitudes and behaviors, including the selection of PFTs and exercise leaders to work with. Data from this study highlight specific beliefs that may play a role in PFT preferences, and how these preferences vary with exerciser’s gender, age, and level of exercise experience. As a result, fitness professionals can strive to behave and communicate in ways that both support clients’ preference, but also seek to overcome biases that may exist.

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The Youth Olympic Games Educational Program

Through Experiential Learning Theory Lens

Authors: Jannicke Staalstroem OLY1,2 , Marina Iskhakova 3, Alex C. Gang 4, and Zack P. Pedersen 5

1School of Sport Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway

2Faculty of Education and Social Work, The University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia

3Research School of Economics, Australia National University, Canberra, Australia

4College of Education, Washington State University

5Department of Kinesiology & Sport Management, Texas Tech University

Abstract

Purpose: The Youth Olympic Games (YOG), the largest international sport event for young athletes, allows athletes to take part in an Olympic educational program. These programs have never been examined through the lens of Experiential Learning Theory (ELT). The purpose of this study is to provide in-depth analysis and evaluation of all YOG educational programs design by date (2010 – 2020) through the lens of ELT and to uncover the areas of where the strengthening of the programs impact is feasible and encouraged.

Methods: A thorough YOG documents analysis was performed on the six YOG`s educational programs by examining the place and role of each of the four elements of ELT and how prevalent they were.

Results: Results of our analysis show that YOG educational programs are not properly balanced and that concrete experiences turned to be the mostly and overly covered in the six games by the price of other critically important ELT stages. Reflective observations and abstract conceptualizations come into play sporadically and also only in later games, although still underwhelmingly. Active experimentations are covered through media activities in most of the games and the whole potential of the stage is due to be fully utilised.

Conclusions: YOG educational program impact on YOG athletes could be significantly enhanced by embracing and sufficiently incorporating all 4 ELT stages into the program design and delivery.

Applications in Sport: This study highlights the potential of ELT as a theoretical tool for addressing the impact learning and change the educational program can have on the YOG participants. The performed document analysis suggests on how learning can be enhanced for the YOG athletes. Suggestions for the future YOG educational program designers are formulated and provided.

Keywords: Educational Program, Youth Programs, Olympic Education, Experiential learning, Young Athletes

Examining The Youth Olympic Games Educational Program Through Experiential Learning Theory

 The educational purpose of the Youth Olympic Games (YOG) is delivered to the athletes through the YOG educational program (IOC, 2016, 2019), founded on the concept of Olympism (Naul & Binder, 2017). The YOG was established to be more than a sporting event, whereby through the Olympism perspective and Olympic values (i.e., excellence, friendship, respect) young athletes could be instructed on topics like healthy lifestyles, doping issues, global challenges, and their potential role as sport ambassadors (IOC, 2011). Additionally, the YOG was intended to reignite Olympic ideals, which were perceived to be lacking in the contemporary Olympic Games (Naul, 2010, p. 23). The IOC hoped that the YOG athletes would carry positive values throughout their sporting event, and in their working and private lives (IOC, 2011).

Therefore, the Olympic movement saw the YOG as a way of instilling health, sport, and social values, in addition to Olympism (Parry, 2012). To accomplish this, the educational program was crucial for the IOC and the YOG, given that the young athletes are at such an important developmental stage in life. YOG educational programs have been modified to meet the four learning pillars stipulated by the IOC and the YOG Organizing Committee (i.e., learning to know, to do, to be, and to live together; YOGOC). Each YOGOC exercised its autonomy to establish various educational formats, which reveal limited consistency from one YOG to the next. Although the educational programs of the YOG carry significant importance in instilling positive values in the lives of young athletes, its effectiveness is hindered by inconsistencies within the learning formats and the network of partner organizations. This reveals an absence of a reliable mechanisms capable of adequately scrutinizing the foundations of the programs as well as their learning potentials. Reflecting on the need to better understand the educational programs, we suggest that Kolb’s Experimental learning theory (Kolb, 1984) is a valuable theoretical tool to assess and strengthen learning for the athletes who are in a critical developmental stage. According to Newman et al. (2018), historically this method of ELT programming and its related practises have found to be effective when working with youth (Conrad & Hedin, 1982; Gosen & Washbush, 2004; Kolb & Kolb 2008). Therefore, the IOC and the YOGOC educational program developers have the opportunity to implement experiential learning methods to increase youth athlete’s knowledge (Kolb & Kolb 2009a). Additionally, these programs have the chance to develop the young athletes’ skills on and off their field of play by highlighting their values and developing their capacities, such as contributing not only to themselves but to their communities as well (Kolb, 1984; 2015; Kolb & Kolb, 2005; 2008).

Literature Review

Experiential Learning Theory

Experiential learning theory (ELT) highlights the critical role that experience has on impacting learning and change (Kolb, 1984; 2015). ELT defines learning as a continuous process of adapting to an environment by acquiring new information, challenging existing knowledge, and re-learning/integrating new knowledge into action. Kolb (1984) defines it as “a dynamic process whereby knowledge is created through transformation of experiences” (p. 41). This theory postulates learning as a holistic process for the student (Kolb & Kolb, 2009b) adapting to the world, which requires the integrated functioning of the total person, such as thinking, feeling, perceiving, behaving, and interacting (Kolb, 2015). Some educational sport studies applying ELT have shown success with this model (Bethell & Morgan, 2012; Sato & Laughlin, 2018). Additionally, more studies within the broader spectrum of sports, encompassing areas such as sports education, management, psychology, and sociology, have utilized Experiential Learning Theory (ELT) to gain a deeper understanding of the influence of sporting activities on individuals, groups, and organizations (Newman et al., 2017). Although most of the existing research has focused on evaluating the educational potentials inherent in diverse sport activities, scholarly inquiry has swiftly expanded to encompass sport-related learning platforms (e.g., sport internships, sport-for-development programs) that leverage sport as a mechanism for effective learning (e.g., Brown et al., 2018; Sattler, 2018). It is noteworthy that ELT has not been applied in the context of the YOG or the Olympic athlete (Cisek, 2023).

Ultimately the holistic nature of ELT will fit well with the complexity and holistic nature of learning in the YOG educational program formats. Indeed, the way in which athletes conduct their learning through the YOG educational programs (i.e., activities), shapes the course of their professional and personal development. The YOG educational programs offer an ideal immersion environment that facilitates intense experiential learning by impacting athletes and their multifaceted professional and personal development (see the full details in Appendix 1).

We suggest that the YOG’s educational programs are designed and capable of bringing participants through the four stages of the experiential learning cycle identified by Kolb and Kolb (2005), as shown in the ELT framework in Figure 1. The ‘concrete experiences’ are the cornerstone of each of the YOG educational program offerings, and are where the students (i.e., athletes) can participate in new learning (Sato & Laughlin, 2018). Furthermore, the ‘reflective observation’ stage is facilitated by reflection and feedback sessions to review the experiences (Kolb & Kolb, 2015). The ‘abstract conceptualization’ is enforced by analytical reflection during the duration of the program through the post-event stage. ‘Active experimentation’ occurs during the post-event stage and is where the individuals’ (i.e., athletes) experiences are formed through the realization of increased cultural abilities according, to Kolb et al. (2015).

Figure 1. Application of Experiential Learning Theory framework to YOG educational program (YOG EP). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development.

This completes the ELT cycle when new knowledge is applied to real-life tasks for the participants (Chan, 2012; Roark & Norling, 2010; Sato & Laughlin, 2018). Kolb (1984; 2015) claims that learning occurs through the combination of grasping (i.e., taking in information) and transforming (i.e., interpreting and acting on the information) experiences. Foundational experiences provide opportunities for observation and reflection for the YOG athlete. Reflection leads to new ideas or modification of old ideas. Changing ideas lead to new implications and form the basis for experimentation. The process of actively testing ideas through experimentation creates new experiences and the cycle continues for the athlete. The continual process of experience, reflection, thought, and action creates new knowledge and new behaviour (Sato & Laughlin, 2018). This means that athletes’ learning abilities must be involved in a continuous and cyclical learning process which focuses on experience and reflection in a holistic perspective (Kolb & Kolb, 2005). Additionally, according to Kolb et al. (2001), the learner can enter any of the four stages in the learning cycle, although for effective learning all four abilities of the ELT must be present. Arguably for a young athlete who takes part in one YOG in their life over a time of 10-14 days, it may be challenging to “act and reflection at the same time in a new environment and take some experience” (Lehan, 2020, p. 243). Although with the right implementation (and some previous learning experience in the athlete’s own life) the transition of the programs activity and learning has the potential to be meaningful (Lehan, 2020).

Therefore, through a document analysis we demonstrate which facets of ELT are most utilized, thereby allowing suggestions on how the educational programs of the YOG may benefit in the future with the implementation of a holistic ELT approach.

YOG Educational Themes and Principles

The educational programs that the YOG constructs for the athletes at each of the Games are based on Olympism and Olympic education (Naul & Binder, 2017; Staalstroem, 2021), and are optional for any of the athletes. These Olympic learning activities are grounded in five key educational themes (i.e., Olympism, skill development, well-being and healthy lifestyle, social responsibility, and expression) and are carefully selected by each host nation’s YOGOC in cooperation with the IOC (IOC, 2015). The skill development theme encourages athletes to develop new skills throughout life and in doing so also forge positive friendships based on mutual respect. The well-being and healthy lifestyle theme not only focus on athlete-centric health issues but also goes beyond the athletes’ immediate needs as they are encouraged to develop healthy living habits which will always remain with them. The social responsibility theme introduces the athletes to the idea of being role models in society for not only sport but also for environmental and/or humanitarian issues by drawing on the positive experiences they have gained from participating in the YOG education program. The expression theme encourages the athletes to fully appreciate that their pursuit of excellence in sport and life is a valuable contribution to society. Therefore, it is important for the athletes to be able to share their experiences in a responsible manner across all mediums (IOC, 2015, pp. 60–62; Staalstroem, 2021, p. 8).

Based on UNESCOS educational strategy and recommendations (IOC, 2008, p. 106), the IOC developed the YOG educational program learning strategy to address the five key themes with four fundamental learning pillars, conceptualized as the “4 pillars of Education.” These four pillars are classified as learning to know (e.g., educational sessions), learning to do (e.g., educational activities), learning to be (e.g., educational forums), and learning to live together (e.g., synergetic events consisting of celebrating cultures and traditions). Here we can see that the IOC and YOGOC program developers can set the athletes up for the opportunity to challenge their learning with activities that combine different learning modes representing Kolbs learning cycle. Through these four pillars there are opportunities to accommodate the different learning preferences for each individual (Kolb & Kolb, 2022).

Each YOGOC had to ensure the five themes were introduced through fun-filled activities to provide learning and development opportunities blended with sports and culture (IOC, 2012). The educational programs have continually developed into a more focused educational learning program for the elite athletes (IOC, 2019). Furthermore, the educational activities in the program are divided into two parts (IOC, 2015). First, the IOC includes a number of activities for the athletes which involve international partners such as the World Anti-Doping Agency, for example. Topics covered by these activities include Olympism, Olympic history, fair play, anti-doping, anti-betting, injury prevention, ethics in sport, abuse in sport, sexual harassment, healthy body image, athlete career management, the environment, humanitarian issues, peace, children’s rights, and social media. The second group of activities are proposed by the YOGOC with content based on the expertise of the local national organising committee and their partners.

Reflecting on the gap in current literature as described above, this study utilizes ELT to conduct a systematic analysis of all YOGs educational programs offered since their introduction in 2010. The following research question was established to guide the researchers through the research process:

RQ: How can the educational programs in the six YOG (and the way they evolved over time) be assessed and advanced through the experiential learning theory?

Methodology

Materials and Design

Before starting this section, a personality statement: It is important to acknowledge when this article was in its infancy one of the researchers is a three-time Olympian and had been involved in several YOGs in various roles over a decade (coaching and attaché). This researcher`s positionality influences this research including the choice of topic. Therefore, detachment and objectivity were a requirement for producing reliable knowledge during data collection (Bowen, 2009). Additionally, the rational for choosing one method was to suggest ELT in a practical setting for future research to add more value to the program.

To examine the research question stated above, a document analysis was conducted, which included all documents published by the IOC (see Appendix) that provided critical information (e.g., formats, designs, activities) on the educational programs implemented at the six previous YOGs. Viewed as a qualitative research method, document analysis entails a systematic process to review and assess both printed and online documents (Bowen, 2009). Documents are comprised of words and images that are created and shared independently from researchers’ involvement and interest in the YOG and its Olympic educational program. Scholars, such as Atkinson and Coffey (1997) consider documents as social facts to indicate that their usage and dissemination are compounded upon socially organized contexts. Through utilizing document analysis as the methodological lens, researchers aim to examine documents to elicit meaning and establish empirical knowledge (e.g., Corbin & Stratus, 2008) about the YOG educational programs activities over the six games in the history. While document analysis is often used in conjunction with other qualitative methods (e.g., interviews, participant observation) for the purpose of triangulation, it can be employed as the sole method, if its limitations are properly addressed. A common critique on employing a document analysis as the only method is related to its tendency to incur biased data selection and limitations on retrievability (Yin, 1994). However, these constraints were mitigated through applying a rigorous data collection strategy, wherein official documents and articles related to all YOG educational programs were collected in their entirety. Moreover, employing a document analysis is a suitable method to this research context, as it offers a sound way of tracking changes and developments of the phenomenon under scrutiny, which aligns with researchers’ intention to observe how the YOG educational programs have evolved over time.

Procedure

We used various databases to start with (e.g., PubMed, Google search, Google Scholar, EBSCOhost) searching for Youth Olympic Game AND education /educational/ program / programme and focused it inn on the Olympic World Library. To secure a comprehensive pool of documents to review and analyse, researchers identified official documents in the first round of the YOGs’ educational programs published by the previous YOGOCs and the IOC. The screening process excluded non-English documents, all per review articles (as non has used ELT in any YOG studies), Paralympic Games and duplicates.  Such an approach allowed the researchers to include a diverse focused range of documents (e.g., YOGOCs’ official report, IOC documents on candidature procedure, event manuals, press release on educational programs, post-event reports, program description, YOGOCs’ pre-event promotion materials).

Through data extraction and analysis, we followed a thorough review of documents, data were organized into distinct formats from each YOG according to the activities held, and by reflecting on the research question. The use of thematic analysis enabled identification of emerging themes within each YOG context. This process entailed two authors individually coding the refined data and subsequently engaging in discussions to actively share their interpretations until a consensus was reached, which, in turn, ensured intercoder reliability (Creswell, 2012). Each author carefully examined the data and conducted coding and category construction (six YOG in total) to uncover formats used. They represented various contents from each of the six YOGs’ educational activities, which were then scrutinized through the four elements of ELT.

Results and Discussion

The YOG educational programs have constantly evolved since their inception in Singapore 2010, as they have become more complex and ambitious regarding what they hope to accomplish. Based on the analysis, a shift away from philosophical cantered objectives to more practical elite athlete focused, and individual personal development objectives has occurred over the course of 10 years. Within the following sections, the results of the document analysis and the specific educational formats offered by the YOG are introduced and then compared based on their fulfilment of ELT criteria.

YOG Singapore 2010 Educational program

Singapore held the inaugural YOG in 2010 focusing on the Olympic movement, athletes’ development, and their roles and responsibility in sports practice and society (IOC, 2011, p. 5). During the 13 days, 3,524 athletes from 205 nations were exposed to the five key themes implemented through 50 different activities in seven educational formats described hereafter (IOC, 2012, p. 7; SYOGOC, 2010). The activity, ‘Chat with Champions’ consisted of athlete role models sharing their experiences and mentoring athletes during competition and at other activities. The forums offered different topics for athletes to share the athlete role models’ experiences of excellence, friendship and respect, in addition to answering the young athletes’ questions in a talk show format. ‘Discovery Activities’ were interactive exhibitions and workshop activities that were held for athlete to learn about important topics to use in personal development. ‘World Culture Village’ was a booth area hosted by local Singaporeans where athletes were able to interreact with cultures of the countries represented in the YOG, and included dancing, singing, body paining and traditional games. ‘Community Project’ was where athletes could participate in activities together with local organizations to learn the importance of social responsibility and to be inspired to take part in their own local community at home. ‘Arts and Culture’ was a group of activities aimed at celebrating Olympic themes such as youth, culture, and friendship through the mediums of dance, art, and music. ‘Island Adventure’ was utilized for athletes to learn the values of mutual respect, friendship, and teamwork in sport through confidence building courses with water activities and other challenging physical activities. Finally, ‘Exploration Journey’ was a “green day” experience with a terrarium workshop and garden tour, as the athletes learned about the ecosystem.

YOG Innsbruck 2012 Educational program

Innsbruck 2012 in Austria, the inaugural games for winter sports, aimed to deliver lasting benefits and develop enthusiasm for sport among young people, building on the Olympic Spirit and using the Olympic values of excellence, respect, and friendship for the 1,022 athletes representing 69 nations (IOC, 2016, p. 4). Athletes were introduced to the education program by young ambassadors and athlete role models. The Innsbruck program delivered 27 activities based around six formats, described hereafter (IOC, 2012, p. 9: IYOGOC, 2012). An innovation at Innsbruck 2012 was the introduction of the Yogger, a USB device with information about the program and activities. The Yogger was created to build awareness of the education program and thereby increase attendance (IYOGOC, 2012). An activity called ‘Media Lab’ was available for athletes to become educated on how to create media content (including four workshops), how to express themselves, and how to safely use social media. ‘World Mile Project’ educated athletes on tradition in art, sport, music, culture, lifestyles, clothing, language, and famous personalities. Interactive workshops and exhibitions by the IOC’s partners on global topics were utilized. ‘Sustainability Project’ taught athletes about environmental issues and sustainable developments, such as being waste wise, saving water and electricity, mountain awareness, and minimizing nature risks. ‘Art Project’ allowed athletes to share experiences and express themselves through modern art, music and dance. A ‘Competence Project’ was used to facilitate interaction between athlete role models allowing them to educate the athletes on aspects that professional athletes need to balance and be aware of. Finally, a ‘Youth Olympic Festival’ educated athlete through teambuilding activities in hopes for new friendships and networking.

YOG Nanjing 2014 Educational program

The slogan for Nanjing 2014 in China was “Share the Games, Share our Dreams” for all the 3,759 athletes from 202 countries (NYOGOC, 2014). The vision of Nanjing YOG was “to praise young people, advocate for a balanced development of blending education and sport, and to raise awareness about Olympic spirit and the Olympic values of excellence, friendship and respect,” (IOC, 2016, p. 2) which all linked back to the core of the YOG. The 50 educational activities in five different formats are described below, “embodying the Olympic values” (NYOGOC, 2014, 2015, p. 17). The program was introduced to the athletes in a “Let’s Get Together” gathering to inspire them to be active and magnify their learning opportunities (NYOGOC, 2014). At Nanjing 2014, the Yogger innovation from Innsbruck 2012 was upgraded to online access. Nanjing 2014 also introduced the Learn and Share environment to describe the areas where the educational activities took place (NYOGOC, 2015). The ‘Youth Festival’ activity was used to educate athlete through experiencing different traditions and cultures with sport activities from the Chinese culture in dance, music, opera, and martial arts. ‘Boost Your Skills’ combined forums, discussion, mentoring and sharing to allow athletes to learn more about social issues through being exposed to global issues, workshops on fair play and peace promotion among others. This activity emphasized the importance of a supportive network to help athletes maintain a dual career, with a stronger understanding of time management to help them throughout their daily life as young athletes. ‘World Culture Village’ again hosted booths about cultural diversity around the world. ‘Discover Nanjing’ allowed athletes to visit interesting historical and cultural attractions, as athletes visited the famous Ancient City Wall. More trips were used to educate athletes on not just the Chinese culture but the importance of taking care of the environment as well. Finally, ‘Digital and Social Media’ was an activity for media training by experts, and the introduction of new technologies.

YOG Lillehammer 2016 Educational program

Lillehammer in Norway hosted the second YOG for winter sports in February 2016, with 1,060 athletes from 71 countries and the slogan of “Go beyond and create tomorrow”. The Lillehammer YOGOC wanted the educational activities to be the foundation of the YOG to offer the sports community the option “to share experiences for the local young people, athletes and other participants, equip them with the key skills to become sports champions on the field of play, and life champions off the field of play” (IOC, 2016, p. 6). The 33 interactive activities once again centred on the five key themes and were delivered by five formats summarised below (LYOGOC, 2016). The ‘Your Career’ activity allowed athletes to see what they would need to know after their sporting career had come to an end by teaching them about time management and networking. ‘Your Body and Mind’ educated athlete on injury prevent, clean sport without doping, safe sport, in addition to the emphasis on understanding the importance of motor skills, mental training, and good nutrition. ‘Your Stories’ gave insights into athletes on how to tell their own story (via media training). Finally, ‘Your Discovery’ educated athletes on Norwegian winter sport culture through the Olympic history.

YOG Buenos Aires 2018 Educational program

Buenos Aires hosted in 2018 with the motto feel the future. Doing so by implementing the vison to bring sport closer to the people in sport, cultural and educational celebration by celebrating younger and more urban games (BAYOGOC, 2018). It was also an event with a focus on gender equality with participation of 3997 YOG athletes with equal gender split from 206 nations. During these Games the educational program and formats had been developed further by representatives from the IOC and Olympic stakeholders by having less locations and comprised of activities that are focused on the athletes’ sports career and individual development” (IOC, 2018a, p. 97). The Athlete365 digital platform was also being actively seen for the first time at the games with hands on activities incorporated in Learn and Share education program area, Athlete365 Space,  a program geared towards conveying the importance of clean (non-doping) athletes, good sportsmanship, and fair play in sport. ‘Performance Accelerator’ educated athlete on how to be responsible by learning more about injury prevention and strength training techniques. ‘Gamechangers Hub’ was a media training activity on how to maximize digital and social media in professional and personal lives. This activity allowed athletes to understand the best way to express their point of view and how to create awareness about themselves. ‘IF Focus Day’ was an activity with selected objectives linked to the young athlete’s development of new abilities and skills for personal and career development using the Olympic values of excellence, friendship and respect. ‘Chat with Champions’ was again introduced by having young athletes interreact with Olympians on personal, sport, and professional endeavours.

YOG Lausanne 2020 Educational program

The city of Lausanne held the 2020 YOG with the slogan “Start Now.” This was now the third winter YOG in the history, with 1788 athletes from 79 nations competing in the city of the IOC headquarters in Switzerland. For the first time we see that the education program is called “Athlete365 Education Programme” with activities that link to the IOCs Athlete365 universal digital platform developed by athletes for athletes in cooperation with the IOC (IOC, 2020a, p. 181). It incorporated Olympians, five educational formats, and around 20 educational activities (LAYOGOC, 2020; IOC, 2020b, pp. 3-6).

The activity named ‘Awareness’ educated athletes on how to be responsible young ambassadors of their sport by playing without doping, fighting against corruption, and learning to prevent abuse. Additional components of this activity allowed athletes to be taught how to balance sport and education, time management, and networking. The ‘Health for Performance’ activity educated young athletes to be aware of how to develop their performance, learn about injury prevention, and who to talk to in tough situations. ‘Game Changer HUB’ educated athletes on how to produce and show their own video content and prepared them to participate in a live TV show on the Olympic Channel. ‘Chat with Champions’ and ‘IF Focus Day’ were again introduced, highlighting the perceived benefit and success of running these types of educational program activities.

Using the Educational Learning Theory (ELT) as its foundational framework, this research rigorously investigates the extent to which the International Olympic Committee (IOC) is effectively accomplishing its objectives, delineated through the five fundamental themes that underpin the educational programs during their implementation. With new and former Olympians, it is important to continue to inspire development and monitor the YOG athletes’ educational needs as it is a valuable place for learning and sharing knowledge. The next section discusses the key application of the theoretical ELT (Kolb, 1984, 2015, 2022) concept to the YOG educational program.

YOG Educational Programs Comparison and Evolvement

The investigation revealed an imbalance in experiential educational activities within the YOG and that were offered to the 15,157 athletes, as this part of the ELT process was absent from most of the Games. It was also discovered that experiential educational YOG activities were not fully balanced as a majority of the formats and activities were the activities that utilized concrete experiences. Reflection observations became more prevalent with each iteration of the YOG, as was the same for abstract conceptualizations. The only active experimentation came from the ‘Game Changer HUB’ (former media and social activities), which obviously saw enough success and was easy enough to facilitate that it was worth incorporating in two separate Games. Although the athlete can enter Kolb’s learning cycle at any time, this activity shows opportunities to align new knowledge out in real life (Kolb, 2015). While the concrete experiences are clearly covered, as the other components of ELT are examined, demonstrated by the presence of certain dimensions are missed, indicating a gap between what has been seen as successful and beneficial constructions of ELT and what is currently utilized. The mapping of 6 YOGs educational programs formats across corresponding ELT components is presented in Table 1.

Table 1

Mapping of learning formats for YOG EP 2010-2020 through the lens of ELT.

YOGFormatCorresponding ELT Components
  CEROACAE
Singapore 2010Chat with Champions**  
 Discovery Activities*** 
 World Culture Village*   
 Community Project*** 
 Arts and Culture*   
 Island Adventure*   
 Exploration Island**  
Innsbruck 2012Media Lab****
 World Mile Project*   
 Sustainability Project*** 
 Arts Project**  
 Competence Project*   
 Youth Olympic Festival*   
Nanjing 2014Youth Festival*   
 Boost Your Skills*** 
 World Culture Village*   
 Discover Nanjing**  
 Digital and Social Media****
Lillehammer 2016Your Actions*** 
 Your Career*** 
 Your Body and Mind**  
 Your Stories****
 Your Discovery*   
Buenos Aires 2018Athlete365*** 
 Performance Accelerator*** 
 Gamechanger Hub****
 IF Focus Days*   
 Chat with Champions**  
Lausanne 2020Awareness*** 
 Health for Performance*** 
 Gamechanger Hub****
 Chat with Champions**  
 IF Focus Day*   

Note: CE = Concrete Experience, RO = Reflective Observation, AC = Abstract Conceptualization, AE = Active Experimentation.

Active conceptualisation sessions (like sessions or activities capable of stimulating analytical reflection or challenging the current stereotypes and mind views) unfortunately are fragmented and cannot be described as equally represent in the curricula. With respect to the active experimentation stage, initiatives like Athlete365 activities in later games created actual opportunities for athletes to continue the developmental journey on the Athlete365 digital platform after the YOG. Meaning, the IOC have an opportunity to continue to influence the experiential learning to increase athlete’s knowledge (Kolb & Kolb 2009a). The only suitable example which we identified was the Gamechangers Hub format during 2018 and 2020, where the opportunity for reflection, awareness of unique selves, and experimenting with new conceptualizations was minimal. Still, though, active experimentation was undervalued and not utilized properly. We could conclude from the mapping in Table 1 above that predominant attention is given to unique memorable and diverse experiences, and to some extent physical tests for health and injury training prevention, with a slowly increasing number of reflection and conceptualisation opportunities.

Theoretical and Practical Applications

ELT has been employed in many academic disciplines, such as studying abroad (Iskhakova et al., 2020), music education (Russell-Bowie, 2013), physical education (Bethell & Morgan, 2012), sport psychology (Sato & Laughlin, 2018), engineering (Chan, 2012) and hospitality (Fallon & Daruwalla, 2004), including outdoor education (Roark & Norling, 2010) and global leader development (Fey, 2020).

Furthermore, previous results have demonstrated that when university courses utilize the ELT framework, students develop a deeper knowledge of the subject matter (Bethell & Morgan, 2012), increase their sense of competence in target skills (Roark & Norling, 2010; Iskhakova et al., 2020), gain a better understanding of the link between theory and practice, and achieve greater personal development (Sato & Laughlin, 2018; Chan, 2012; Fallon & Daruwalla, 2004; Russell Bowie, 2013; Fey, 2020). Despite the high potential that ELT has, as previously discussed, it has scarcely been utilized in in the context of Olympic athletes (Cisek, 2023).

The current investigation examined ELT and discovered a lacking adherence to each of the dimensions in this theory by the YOG educational programs, as is critical for learning to occur (Kolb, 2015). This novel finding aids literature pertaining to ELT as the document analysis clearly indicates the dimensions of the theory that are more heavily, or easily, incorporated in YOG educational programs. The goal of this investigation was to examine the application of ELT in a practical setting, in the YOG context, thereby allowing future researchers to evaluate which facets of the theory (Kolb, 1984, 2015) are underutilised and can be enhanced in the YOGs context. Utilizing a document analysis, Table 1 was constructed to illustrate and map the learning formats of past YOG educational programs through the lens of ELT. Examining each of the four stages of ELT (Kolb, 1984, 2015) in the context of the YOG educational programs indicates an underutilization of certain key stages across all YOGs programs. With the benefits that are derived from a full utilisation of ELT, it is posited that further incorporation of activities within certain stages would make the YOG educational programs more impactful in both the short and long term. In ELT studies development and change is essential, as the programs should be flexible and creative as they explore ways of facilitating athletes’ learning effectiveness (Kolb, 2001; Kolb, 2015; Sato & Laughlin, 2018). Demonstrably, at the inception of the YOG in 2010 very few reflection opportunities existed in the educational program, juxtaposed to the current prevalence of this activity.

As Sato and Laughlin (2018) state, a successful integration of ELT allows athletes to take control and responsibility of their learning, instead of passively receiving experience and knowledge. Kolb (2015, p. 299) call this to take active ownership and responsibility of their learning cycle. Therefore, more ‘reflective opportunities’ at each timepoint should be created. With a greater emphasis on experiential activities, accommodations such as time for in-depth reflections should be implemented. More ‘abstract conceptualizations’ and ‘active experimentations’ should be incorporated and facilitated. An increase in these stages means athletes will be given more opportunities to assimilate their lived experiences and reflections into abstract concepts, thereby challenging and evaluating their own world views and values and advancing own development for a long-term horizon (Kolb & Kolb, 2009a; Kolb, 2015).

If the IOC (2019) wants the YOG to be a steppingstone for these athletes before the Olympic Games and a developmental platform that focuses on the holistic athletic development, the IOC should implement Kolb’s theory to a greater extent.

Limitations and Future Studies

As majority of studies, our study is not free of limitations. The first limitation relates to the methodology. While novel findings pertaining to the usage of certain stages of ELT were discovered, the benefit of these activities were not measured. As the analysed documents were produced by the YOGOC and the IOC, understanding from the educators, administrators, and athletes viewpoint are not observed. While the methodology was purposefully selected to accomplish the desired analysis (Bowen, 2009), this limitation is present. Furthermore, there may have also been selected educational learning activities that were adjusted when they were presented. We suggest future scholars to examine the unique impact of the YOG educational programs through various other lens, such as other learning theories, social theories (Parent et al., 2019), personal development theories, and cultural theories.

Disclosure statement

The authors report there are no competing interests to declare. 

Appendix 1

A description of the 14 core documents that were included in the data analysis.

TitleAuthor (year)Document typeDescription
Singapore 2010 YOG. Blazing the Trail.SYOGOC (2010)ReportThis official document describes the beginning of the YOG -2010 games. Presentation of the games with sport, education and culture, to go beyond the games.
    
IOC. Factsheet: YOG.IOC (2012)DocumentDiscusses birth of the YOG, its vision, programs, and five educational key themes.
    
Innsbruck 2012 YOG. Be part of it.IYOGOC (2012)ReportReport on the implementation, management and delivery of the first Winter YOG
    
Chef de Mission Manual. Nanjing 2014 Summer YOG.NYOGOC (2014)ManualDescribes policies and procedures for the YOG-2014, with information on learning program and five educational key themes.
    
YOG Event Manual. 7th Edition. May 2015.IOC (2015)ManualContains the main requirements for planning, organisation and staging of the YOG, including its learning program.
    
Share the games share our dreams. Official Report of the 2nd Summer YOG Nanjing 2014.NYOGOC (2015)ReportThis is the official report from Nanjing YOG 2014 presents the events timeline with sport, culture, and education.
    
The YOG learn and share beyond the field of play. Factsheet YOGIOC (2016)DocumentThis updated factsheet version brings up the vision and mission with culture and education in the YOG. With the learn and share activities concept it states the five key educational themes through formats with educational activities from the four first YOG in the history (2010-2012-2014 and 2016).
Lillehammer 2016 YOG. Be part of it! Go Beyond. Create tomorrow.  LYOGOC (2016)ReportThis is the official report of the Lillehammer 2016 Winter YOG. This report tells a chronological story step by step with texts and images through the games to includes sport, culture and education.
    
Buenos Aires 2018 Third summer YOG.BAYOGOC (2018)ReportThis document is the official report of the Buenos Aires 2018 with imagery and texts that takes the reader through its history from the torch relay, to celebrate of sport and urban games with activities.
    
IOC. Chef de Mission Manual Buenos Aires 2018 YOG.IOC (2018a)ManualContains the main requirements for planning, organisation and staging of the Buenos Aires YOG for the NOC. It includes the learning program among other detailed information on game time aspects.
    
IF focus day booklet Buenos Aires 2018 YOG.IOC (2018b)BookletContains the educational activities International Federation, in coordination with Buenos Aires 2018 YOG Organising Committee have develop for athletes to strengthen personal and career development.
    
IOC. Factsheet: The YOG compete, learn and share beyond the field of play.IOC (2019)DocumentProvides a description of the YOG as a steppingstone in the young athletes learning pathway, in sport and beyond their sport. It explains how the IOC contributes with learning activities, and how the YOGOC has some flexibility within a now more athletes centred formats then previous YOGs. The document states some facts on all six YOG`s educational programs. (2010-2012-2014-2016-2018 and 2020).
    
IOC. Lausanne 2020 Chef de Mission ManualIOC (2020a)ManualContains main requirements for planning, organisation and staging of the Lausanne YOG for the NOC. learning program among other important aspects of the games to prepare the athletes for.
    
Athlete365 Education Programme. Lausanne 2020 YOGIOC (2020b)DocumentPresents the Athlete365 educational programme to the athletes and their entourage during the Lausanne 2020 YOG.


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2024-09-05T09:14:19-05:00August 23rd, 2024|Olympics, Research|Comments Off on The Youth Olympic Games Educational Program
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Perceptions of Former Collegiate Athletes on Career Transition Programs in the NCAA

Authors: Cameren Pryor1 and Lindsay Ross-Stewart2

1Department of Psychology, University of North Texas1

2Department of Applied Health, Southern Illinois University Edwardsville

Corresponding Author:
Dr. Lindsay Ross-Stewart
Campus Box 1126
Southern Illinois University Edwardsville
Edwardsville, IL, 62026
lrossst@siue.edu
(618) 650-2410

Cameren Pryor: Cameren Pryor is a third-year doctoral student in Counseling Psychology with a concentration in Sport Psychology at the University of North Texas. Cameren’s research interests focus on athletic career transition/sport retirement, athletic transition psychoeducation/programming, and student athlete mental health.

Lindsay Ross-Stewart: Dr. Ross-Stewart is an Associate Professor in the Department of Applied Health at Southern Illinois University Edwardsville. Dr. Ross-Stewart’s research is grounded in Bandura’s concept of self- efficacy and its role in behavior change. Dr. Ross-Stewart is an Association for Applied Sport Psychology Certified Mental Performance Consultant (CMPC®) and a Canadian Sport Psychology Association Mental Performance Consultant (MPC).

Perceptions of Former Collegiate Athletes on Career Transition Programs in the NCAA

ABSTRACT

Many student athletes experience feelings of grief, sadness, loss of motivation, and depressive symptoms due to improperly preparing for sport retirement (1). Past literature encourages practitioners to incorporate psychoeducational programming into NCAA athletic programs that better prepare athletes for transition. However, it has been found that there is a lack of consensus on when and what is being advised to student athletes about the transition process (2). Additionally, little research has investigated the overall effectiveness of NCAA collegiate career transitioning programs through the perceptions of student athletes. The purpose of this study was to investigate if current career transition programs in NCAA Athletic Departments were using best practices, as defined by the current research in the field, based on former collegiate athlete’s perceptions of their experience with career transition programming. A secondary and equally important purpose was to investigate the overall impact athletic career transition had on former collegiate athletes’ current lives. Former collegiate student athletes completed semi – structured interviews via Zoom to assess their experience with career transition programming during their time as an athlete and the level of effectiveness they felt the program offered. The findings of this study suggest that NCAA athletic departments need to implement effective athletic career transition programming that better prepares student athletes to transition from collegiate sport.

Keywords: career transition, qualitative research, sport psychology

College student athletes dedicate approximately 70 hours per week to athletic and academic demands (3). With less than two percent of National Collegiate Athletics Association (NCAA) student athletes competing on the professional level (4), most student athletes will transition out of athletics when they graduate from university. This transition time led to increased feelings of grief, sadness, loss of motivation, and depressive symptoms for some athletes (1). To prevent these negative experiences, career transition researchers have encouraged athletic departments to implement psychoeducational programming that better prepares student athletes for the psychological, behavioral, and social outcomes of sport retirement (5). However, it has been found that there is a lack of consensus on when and what is being advised to student athletes about the transition process (2). Additionally, little research has investigated the overall effectiveness of NCAA collegiate career transitioning programs through the perceptions of student athletes.

A recent literature review of career transition research (6) found there were very few studies conducted in the United States concerning athletic transition, with the limited findings highlighting retirement planning, identity loss, coping skills and support systems as the core areas that have been investigated. They reiterated the importance of psychoeducational interventions; however, they acknowledged that more research is needed to better understand the transition process and how to effectively implement career transition programing.

Past research has also highlighted the findings that career transitions appear through social, developmental, and psychological factors (5) and the importance of starting career transition education at the earliest stages of sports participation. The importance of social support has been supported by the work of Adams et al. (7) who found participants experienced a more positive transition if they felt cared for by the people that they believed understood them and what they were going through. Thus, a sense of closeness and trust between the recipient and the person providing support appeared to be crucial for support during career transitions. Of importance was the finding that athletes perceived coaches to provide more social support than parents and teammates indicating coaches should be a central part of career transition programming. Cummins and O’Boyle (8) found that athletes perceived their universities as unable to support them during the transition process with support, career advice and information on the professional role and guidance from past student athletes. Thus, the lack of career control was shown by all participants. Cummins and O’Boyle (8) recommended implementing mentoring into university programs from former student athletes to current student athletes on the transition process and potential career opportunities.

Along with social support, one’s athletic identity has been highlighted as impacting an athlete’s experience with career transition. Specifically, the more an athlete identifies with their athletic role, the less likely they are to have a well-defined career plan (9) and therefore struggle during career transition. Furthering this finding, researchers found that athletic identity was positively correlated to retirement outcomes and negatively correlated with decreased self-esteem, feelings of uncontrollability and ‘vagueness’ about the future (10). It has also been shown that athletes who retired due to injury have greater adjustment difficulties (10). Furthermore, researchers found that the strength and exclusivity of the athletic role during sport participation increased an athlete’s potential vulnerability to psychiatric distress after leaving sport (11), and higher levels of emotional adjustment difficulties (12). In contrast to these negative connections to athletic identity, Cabrita et. al, (13) found that athletes with higher athletic identity have higher levels of career decision making self- efficacy. They suggested this may be due to the efficacy they gain from sport transferring to their career decision making efficacy. Further research is needed to better understand these potentially conflicting findings on the relationship between athletic identity and career transition.

Menke and Germany (14), identified consistent themes athletes identified when discussing their feelings and thoughts related to coping with transition out of sport including the positive of gains or strength of transferable skills as well as the negative experiences of a loss of identity, feelings of loss, sadness, anxiety, loss of motivation and depressive symptoms. It has been shown that global self-esteem and physical self-perceptions decreased during the transition out of elite sport (15). Additionally, it was found that retired athletes that experience difficulties with their bodies have decreased feelings of pride, satisfaction, happiness, and confidence regarding their physical selves. These experiences can contribute to stressful reactions to retiring out of sport. Of extra importance is the finding that sport individuals that experience bodily changes accompanied with high athletic identity can experience increased psychiatric distress and self-esteem issues when transitioning (15).

Taken together, the above information highlights the need for career transition programming and combining a plan for post-sport retirement with talking about the emotions experienced during the transition process. Past researchers have suggested that sport psychology practitioners and mental health professionals work with athletic teams to encourage the development of the student athlete by consistently speaking to them about career related topics and encouraging student athletes to explore and engage in expanding their interests outside of sport as well as supporting the use of health care resources for former high-level athletes (16).

During sport retirement, many athletes cognitively make the decision to grieve the loss of their sport by participating in healthy and unhealthy coping behaviors for extra support. Acceptance, account making, positive reinterpretation, planning, active coping, mental disengagement and seeking social support for emotional reasons are all strategies that have been reported (12). Account-making (the construction of a story about a traumatic event (i.e., it’s nature, what happened, how one feel’s about it, and what it means for the future; citation) and confiding (portions of one’s account, are revealed to others) has also been shown to be an effective tool as it helps athletes to understand their retirement experience, understand their emotions and to acknowledge an identity that is outside of sport.

Recent literature reviews have encouraged viewing transition from a lifespan perspective involving pre-career, post-career, and other domains of an athlete’s life (17), and preparing for retirement before it happens, creating a strong alliance with trust (client and counselor), exploring the emotions accompanied with the transition, interventions, and knowledge of transferable skills, addressing athlete’s overall competency of transferable skills, developing a support network, and evaluating the effectiveness of the athletes transitions out of sport and the effectiveness of counseling interventions. Based on the literature review, the researchers recommended that counselors may be effective in assisting athletes to plan for life after sport by helping them understand and realize that the skills they have acquired through sport can help them be successful in other areas of life (18).  

Furthering our understanding of best practice, researchers have recommended empathy and attentive listening need to be utilized to help athletes make sense of their experiences and it has been recommended that programming should look at the development of interventions from different psychological perspectives for athletes in transition (5). Overall, researchers suggest the need to examine the effectiveness of these models and devote attention to interventions from different psychological perspectives. Lastly, they highlight the finding that helping athletes become aware of the transferrable skills can help facilitate successful career planning. 

Researchers have continuously suggested the need for psychoeducational interventions that address the psychological, behavioral, social effects and the loss of athletic identity has on a sport individual when transitioning from sport and the need to start this programming early in an athlete’s college career (e.g., 5). Being that there is a lack of consensus on when and how to speak to athletes about career transition, and a lack of connection between research suggested guidelines and applied programming at the college level, further understanding of this area is needed. Thus, the primary purpose of this study was to investigate former NCAA athlete’s perceptions of current career transition programs in NCAA Athletic Departments. A secondary purpose was to investigate former collegiate athlete’s perceptions of their experience transitioning from sport and how these experiences affected their current lives.

Materials and Methods
Methods
Setting, Recruiting, Sampling, and Consent

            All participants were recruited via social media. Posts were made on both researchers’ Instagram, Facebook, and Twitter pages, as well as shared on their program social media sites. People were encouraged to share the posts with people they may have known who would be interested. Potential participants were instructed on how to reach the primary researcher if they were interested in participation. The primary researcher then spoke with each potential participant to make sure they were a former NCAA athlete who finished their career within the last five years but did not suffer a career ending injury or quit their college career (which were the exclusion criteria). Those that qualified were interviewed over zoom for this study. Zoom was chosen as it allowed for participants from across the United States and increased the accessibility of the study to participants. Prior to the interview the participants were sent the informed consent form and gave consent to participate. They then gave verbal consent on zoom while the session was being recorded. Participants were also given the opportunity to ask any clarification questions about the study they may have had after reading the informed consent.

 Participants

The participants of this study were six retired collegiate student athletes who previously competed in NCAA athletic programs and completed their athletic careers in the five years. The participants were two males and four females. Participants were represented from various sports consisting of basketball, track & field, softball, baseball, and golf. The athletes were from Division I (n=four), Division II (n=one), and Division III (n=one).

Data Collection Tools

Career Transition Interview

As there is a lack of set tools for assessing the psychological impact of career transition for college athletes, and to hear the voices of those who have experiences career transition, – semi structured, questions (some open and some closed based on need) were developed for this study. The goal was to allow the participants to reflect on their personal experiences with career transition programming at the universities they competed in and their overall transition experience. The important themes recognized in previous athletic career transition literature were used to develop questions for the interviews focused on their career transition program experience and their experiences post-tradition career. A specific focus was made to keep the questions neutral in language so as not to lead the participants in any direction. During the interviews, based on the participant’s comments, follow up questions were asked, and discussion was encouraged with the athlete to gain their views outside of the predetermined questions, as needed the closed questions were aimed at understanding the organization of any career transition programing they may have had during their athletic career (e.g., “Did your university have an athletic career transition program or workshop? And “How often did this program occur at your university?”) as well as understanding their demographics (e.g., “What is your age” “What sport did you play”).  year were you when you participated in this program?). To better understand their experiences and truly give the participants a chance to process their experiences in their own words, open-ended questions were used. Example questions included “What was your athletic career transition experience like?,” “How did transitioning from sport make you feel?” and “During your transition experience, what did you do/not do to cope?

Procedures

Data Analyses

 A six phase Reflexive thematic approach was used with the essentialist/realist method for qualitative data (19-22). This method is used to identify, analyze, and report patterns (themes) within a given data set. Additionally, it is used to describe and interpret the meaning and importance of the patterns (themes) found. The Essentialist/Realist method is used to report experiences, meanings, and the reality of participants (19), which was used to analyze the perceptions and personalized experiences from former collegiate athletes. Of importance for this approach is to acknowledge that we all perceive the environment and impact it through those perceptions. Therefore, giving as much room for the exact voice of the participants is needed to minimize the participants experiences being reported through the researcher’s lens alone. Therefore, this paper gives significant space to each participant’s voice, which is possible due to the sample size of six people. Utilizing the ‘top-down approach’ also known as deductive approach (23), this study analyzed semantic themes that are suggested within previous career transition literature to implement into athletic career transition programming for student athletes However, ideas that emerged that did not fit within current literature were also noted and coded to add to the already existing literature. In qualitative research, the researchers and coders must assess their biases and perceptions as it relates to the research topic. In this study, the data was coded by two coders, the primary researcher, a former collegiate athlete whose career ended two years before data analysis recognized that her own experiences were a potential bias to the study. Therefore, several methods of checking trustworthiness were used (See Trustworthiness section below). The second coder was not involved in the study at all and was not a former collegiate athlete, nor were they familiar with the literature in the area.

Following the guidelines of Braun and Clarke (19-23) both coders followed a six-step process. Prior to coding all interviews were electronically transcribed using zoom transcription services, and all transcriptions were checked for accuracy against the recorded interviews. To start the coding process both coders familiarized themselves with the data by reading all the transcripts. The coders then independently recorded points of interest in the transcripts as they began to generate the initial codes, making sure to code each piece of data available. Data could be an individual word (e.g., the answer “yes” to a closed question) or as long as a few sentences (e.g., “Even though I did not struggle a lot, I think it still would have been nice to have a transition program in those later years of college just to learn how to be an adult on your own without sports ruling your life”). Focusing on the context of a comment opposed to the length when deciding on a code was done in line with the recommendations of past researchers (e.g., 20). Next, coders began to develop themes with past research in career transition in mind. Again, this deductive approach did not mean discarding data that did not fit in a prior identified theme, but instead recognized past information while new themes that emerged were also identified and titled with this new information being an addition to our current understanding of the career transition experience in the field. The coders then compared their codes and themes and when in disagreement engaged in thoughtful discourse explaining their rationale for their coding choice, while being cognizant of their potential biases. This process led to agreement between the coders in the few places where there was initial disagreement. Finally, the overall themes and codes are explained in detail in this manuscript as is noted as an important step in thematic analysis.

Trustworthiness

Trustworthiness was assessed in multiple ways to increase the credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability of the study (19-22;24, 25). In addition to an acknowledgement of the researcher’s viewpoint and the reality that all researcher’s perspective’s impact their analysis, both coders of the data assessed their own views and were systematic in assessing the impact of these views throughout the research. Furthermore, as the lead researcher of this study was a former NCAA athlete, and as such recognized that this may have led to potential biases peer debriefing was used to increase credibility. Furthermore, a third coder, who was familiar with the research in the field but did not conduct the interviews or participate in the original data analysis was brought in to engaged in negative case analysis to assess any divergent data and discuss these findings to make sure they were appropriately accounted for in the data coding. Internal auditing was also done by two researchers who were not a part of this study, nor familiar with the research on career transition in sport, to highlight and address any potentially biased interpretations of the data. The detailed documentation of the procedures used for this study at each stage following the guidelines of the APA Journal Article Reporting Standards for Qualitative Research (2018), along with using thick description in this manuscript was done to increase dependability and transferability.
Results
The major themes that emerged throughout the data were lack of athletic career transition programming, high athletic identity, lack of psychological support, social support, coping mechanisms and the Covid-19 pandemic. Note that participants’ names have been changed to maintain confidentiality. Pseudonyms given are representative of names that match the self- reported gender and race of each participant.

Lack of Athletic Career Transition Programming

It was found that four out of six participants experienced a positive overall career transition from athletics and described their experience as ‘easy’ and ‘smooth sailing.’ However, two of the participants in this study experienced a negative overall career transition from athletics. When it came to access to career transition programming, only two of the participants had access to transition programs from their universities. Example comments related to this are included Leah commenting, ‘I don’t even know where to begin, I felt so unprepared to go out into the world.’ and Andrea stating, ‘My transition experience was a little rocky and it had an effect on how I was mentally.’ Mary said, ‘Even though I did not struggle a lot, I think it still would have been nice to have a transition program in those later years of college just to learn how to be an adult on your own without sports ruling your life.’ Two participants recalled their athletic departments referring them to their on-campus career center for career assistance. For example, Kelly noted, ‘The programs that were available to me via the career center were focused on interviewing skills, portfolio/resume building and career fairs; none of these events catered to my athletic experience.’ Andrea who did have access to career transition programming, indicated that their school had the NCAA Life Skills Program (NCAA, 1994). She stated, ‘I definitely found this program to be helpful and I felt as though I needed those skills to be able to transition from college into the outside world.’ Although Andrea spoke highly of the Life skill program at her previous university, she still reported a negative transition due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Chance recalled his previous athletic department hosting optional career transition programming that he did not attend due to the programs conflicting with his schedule. ‘I felt like it would have been helpful, I just did not feel like I had the time to do it with athletics and my class schedule.’ When looking at the differences between programming across the three different division levels present in this study, both Andrea and Chance were in Division I programs. Chelsea, who participated within Division III stated, ‘We weren’t provided with a lot of resources being the lower level and I think it had to do with finances as well as compliance.’

When asked what participants would value within athletic career transition programming, participants noted the importance of programming on financial topics (budgeting, taxes, financing vehicles and homes), programs for juniors and seniors on resources for transition. For example, Chelsea stated, I think a big topic that needs to be talked about in depth is financials because as an athlete, you spend a lot of your time on the road, and you don’t necessarily go out all of the time to spend money because you are giving per- diem and gear etc. When you are not an athlete, you are not provided with those things anymore.

As well as making programming more accessible,

 I think it would be helpful to make the programs more available for everybody else. I wasn’t able to attend some of the programs because I had night classes during the times, they had the events. ‘I also think having programs that teach athletes about finances could be helpful; specifically on financing things, insurance and buying a home. (Chance)

Implementing mentorship programming was noted by the athletes with this quote by Kelly being a good representation of the athletes’ comments ‘I think having talks that help athletes learn how to speak about their skills and how to speak about that when interviewing for jobs.’ ‘I also think it would be great to bring back sport alumni and have them speak to current athletes about their careers.’ Additionally, it was also recommended that athletic departments speak to athletes about degrees and course choices that suit that athletes’ interests. Leah noted ‘I wish my academic advisor helped me more with what I could do with my degree after I graduated.’ ‘I feel like the focus was for me to get classes that worked around my practice schedule mostly.’

High athletic identity

             With years devoted to excelling within sport, many athletes find themselves identifying as an athletic individual even when their sport career ends (9). This finding was supported by the reflections from the participants in this study. Five out of six participants indicated they still identify as an athlete and considered themselves athletic. Chelsea noted, ‘I still try to live an athletic style similar to how I was when I was a competitive athlete’, while Chance noted ‘I still identify as a former athlete who still does athletic things.’ – and Leah said, ‘I still resemble as an athlete just because I’m still in shape and I’m still basically active.’ Of note, half of the participants in this study transitioned out of sport and into a career within or surrounding athletics. These participants openly discussed how this allowed them to stay identified within sport culture. For example, Kelly said ‘I now identify as a coach, which gives me sport identity; making it easier to take away the athlete part of me, but that identity is still very much part of who I am.’ Chelsea commented ‘I work within an athletic department and am still around sport every day. I enjoy that part of my job’ and Mary said,

After college I became a graduate assistant for an athletic department and it’s nice to still being in the sports world because I am still constantly around athletics.’ ‘The best thing about being a college athlete is you definitely have like a foot up; I feel like in a lot of the career world.

Two participants discussed the transferability of the skills they learned as athletes, and how these gave them an advantage throughout the job search process. For example, Chance said ‘Just from my experience playing in college athletics, it helped me in terms of interviews and getting in the position to get a job.’ When asked what skills from sport helped him get his current position, he discussed leadership, communication, teamwork/collaboration, and confidence. He commented, ‘Leadership and communication; these were big for coming out of college athletes. I think it helped. As well as just like you get the confidence for like playing in front of people, so that helped with confidence and interviews and everything like that.’ ‘Being able to do team work as well; a lot of jobs like that as you obviously have to work in teams and collaborate with other people within your company.’

Lack of Psychological support

Although the strength and exclusivity of the athletic role during sport participation may increase an athlete’s potential vulnerability to psychiatric distress after leaving sport (11), none of the participants reported experiencing athletic career transition programming that addressed the psychological effects that a transition can have on a sport individual. Although only one participant expressed experiencing mental health difficulties during her transition, five out of six participants spoke on the need for mental health to be addressed in athletic career transition programming. For example, Kelly noted,

“I think having a mental health professional to provide tools and be real with athletes, like hey it is not going to be a smooth sailing process once you finally hang up the cleats, here are some tools to help you cope with this process better.”

 Leah on the other hand focused on the importance of wellness checks, ‘I do believe that for athletes who will transition, psychologists should come in and do a wellness check or just be an ear for somebody would be an amazing thing because college athletics is a mental trip.’

Coping

Coping strategies are used to help student athletes better adjust to sport retirement. Participants in this study reported that they coped with their transition out of sport by finding ways to get their mind off this process. Chelsea said, ‘I definitely did try to find ways to get my mind off of the fact that I’m not going to practice.’ Mary noted, ‘You try and find outlets you know, to still be competitive and find other ways to use your talents but it takes a little bit of time to find those things’ while Andrea stated, ‘I exercised to relieve the stress I had and that helped a lot.’ Although some of the participants found positive ways to cope with their transition, one participant utilized negative ways to cope with their transition. Leah said, ‘I was being real nonchalant. I was trying to like mask it with everything will work out fine, but I was panicking.’ During this time, she mentioned that she participated in drinking alcohol and smoking. She said, ‘another way that I coped truthfully during that time in all honesty; was drinking and smoking. I was like a spiral, like I did not know what to do.’ None of the participants indicated experiencing programming that spoke on positive ways to cope with transitioning out of athletics. By implementing this in programming, negative coping mechanisms during transitions can be prevented.

Social Support

             During athletic transitions, the participants utilized social support and informal information given to them about the transition process before and during their journey. It was found that the participants recalled receiving support from coaches, athletic advisors, family, and friends. Although the participants in the study did not receive as much support within their athletic departments, it was noted that they all utilized their social networks as support systems during their transitions. Andrea said, ‘I definitely needed some social support and I talked to my coach. He would hit me and just ask me if I was doing okay and stuff like that.’ Kelly stated, ‘I connected with my coaches a lot about the transition process as a player and my plans to pursue coaching as a career’ and ‘My coaches had a good grasp on what transitioning was like especially when they have played sport for so long.’ Kelly also noted the importance of friends and family, ‘My friends and family were also a good support system.’ The role of professors was also noted, ‘The professors I interacted with were very helpful to prepare me for what comes next, and I had an older sibling that played college sports, so I definitely relied on help from him.’

Covid-19 Pandemic

             The final theme that emerged from the data and affected two out of six participants in the year 2020 was the Covid-19 pandemic. The pandemic for the year 2020 ended college sports prematurely causing more athletes to experience a traumatic end to their athletic season and for some, a traumatic end to their athletic careers. The participants in this study who experienced this expressed not being supported by their athletic departments which increased their feelings of not being prepared for what was next for them. For example, Leah stated, ‘We were told that we weren’t going to get our season and that was it; our season was stripped away.’ When asked if there were any resources or emotional support provided for her, she said she could not recall any. She did reflect on being offered an extra season, which would grant her a fifth year of eligibility. She said she declined this opportunity in hopes of being able to put more time towards starting her career. Andrea, whose transition experience was also affected by the pandemic described her athletic career as ending suddenly, which took a toll on her mental health. She stated, ‘I never had anybody to talk to about how to move forward or continue on with the degree I earned.’ ‘I just remember thinking, what am I going to do next?’ ‘We never had a good closing statement.’ When asked if there were any resources or emotional support available to her, she recalled her athletic advisor reaching out to her via email and text message but decided to not respond due to feeling overwhelmed.

Discussion

             This study examined athletic career transition programming within the NCAA through the perceptions of former student athletes. Additionally, the impact of an athletic career transition was further explored. The results from this study provide evidence that athletic departments may not be using best practices to better support student athletes in their transition out of collegiate athletics (2). From these findings, participants received little to no programming specific to how retiring from sport affects an individual psychologically, emotionally, behaviorally, and socially as well as how it affects their overall identity (5,7,8,9). The data further shows that athletic departments may not be listening to what the research says (5) should be implemented into programming; thus, demonstrating that athletic departments may not be prioritizing the overall well-being of student athletes. Past literature has continuously encouraged practitioners within athletic departments to include programming to provide student athletes the tools to adjust to sport retirement (4) and with the lack thereof, student athletes can potentially experience more negative reactions to retiring from collegiate sport (1,11,12).

 The findings of this study were consistent with previous research with there still being a lack of consensus of what is told to student athletes about the transition process (2) shown throughout the perceptions of the former student athletes in this study. The themes (i.e., athletic career transition programming, athletic identity, psychological impact, and coping) from past research re-emerged when the participants were asked to reflect on their overall transition experience. Two additional themes that emerged were social support and the Covid-19 pandemic. Social support was not surprising as past literature has suggested it to be a positive coping mechanism for athletes in transition (7). However, the Covid-19 pandemic was a unique theme that has not often been discussed regarding athletic retirement. This provides a unique perspective to the overall findings. The perceptions of participants personal athletic transition experiences from collegiate sport were also consistent with previous literature in that most participants still resonated with the athletic role (athletic identity) (e.g., 9, 11,12), experienced mixed feelings about transitioning support and would have appreciated psychological support (8,12); utilizing positive and negative coping mechanisms and used social support networks that were available to them (7,8). With the difficulties and challenges of the unprecedented pandemic, this may have further exacerbated the lack of proper resources for student athletes transitioning from collegiate sport. This further provides evidence that proper exit strategies must be implemented within athletic departments for collegiate student athletes (5).

Limitations & Future Research

There were limitations to this study that should be discussed. The findings were derived from a participant sample consisting primarily of women or individuals that competed within the Division I level. The lack of participants from other divisions did not allow for comparison across divisions. Furthermore, although interviewing only six participants led to the ability to give each participant a voice in this paper, it was a small sample making it impossible to make set inferences on this data alone. Instead, these results should be seen as an additional piece of information, along with past research findings, that can be used for best practice in career transition. With the structured interviews conducted primarily over zoom, this may have impacted the participants openness to disclose sensitive information due to the interview format. This was demonstrated by one participant disclosing confidential information related to their mental health after the interview process was completed, and the recording of the zoom appointment stopped. Future research should consider replicating this study with an in-person structured interview, with a more diverse and larger participant sample. Future studies should consider looking at the differences in athletic career transition programming implemented within all division levels of the NCAA qualitatively.

Conclusions Implications for Practice

The purpose of this present study was to investigate if current career transition programs in NCAA Athletic Departments are using best practices, as defined by the current research in the field, based on former collegiate athlete’s perceptions of their experience with career transition programming. A secondary and equally important purpose was to investigate the overall impact athletic career transition has on former collegiate athletes’ lives. The findings of this study provided evidence on the overall impact transitioning from collegiate sport has on an athletic individual and along with past research highlight the lack of athletic career transition programming implementation into athletic departments. These findings add to the evidence that suggests that professionals should be creating programs and psychoeducational interventions that include how the transition affects an athlete psychologically, socially, emotionally, behaviorally, and how it affects their overall athletic identity, per previous athletic career transition literature. Furthermore, professionals should implement psychological support for athletic career transitions from qualified staff, programming that gives student athletes tools on mental health resources, programming on positive coping mechanisms, programming to student athletes on financial topics (e.g., budgeting, financing, housing, taxes) and implementing mentorship programs that feature student athlete alumni. Additionally, these findings support the recommendation that practitioners should consider making programming accessible to all student athletes with various schedules by having programming for student athletes in person and virtually if possible. Lastly, practitioners within athletic departments should consider receiving feedback from former student athletes like this study, to ensure that the programming implemented is using best practices to better support student athletes. It is with hope that the findings of this study encourage practitioners within NCAA athletic departments to implement effective athletic career transition programming that will provide student athletes the tools to properly prepare for the transition out of collegiate athletics.

References

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2024-08-23T10:19:26-05:00August 16th, 2024|Research, Sport Education, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|Comments Off on Perceptions of Former Collegiate Athletes on Career Transition Programs in the NCAA
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Navigating Darkness: College Athlete Suicide, Support Systems, and Shadows of Depression

Authors: Matt Moore, Ph. D, MSW 1, Anne M. W. Kelly, Ph. D 2, Lana Loken, Ed. D. ATC 2, Mastano N. Dzimbiri, MS 1, Payton Bennett, student

Corresponding Author:

Matt Moore, Ph. D, MSW
Chair and Faculty, Family Science and Social Work Department
Miami University
501 E. High Street
Email: moorem28@miamioh.edu

Coaches’ Perspectives of the Influence of Safe Sport-Related Education 

ABSTRACT

Purpose: An increase in mental health concerns and suicide among young adults led to a sharpened research focus on suicide and college athletes. In this study, we investigated the relationship between college athletes’ risk of depression, suicidality, and their support system and whether preventing suicide deaths requires identification of commonly cited risk factors. Methods: Voluntary college athletes aged 18-years-old or older and attending an NAIA member institution participated in the study (n = 361). They completed a web-based instrument that consisted of the following: (1) demographic questionnaire, (2) Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9), (3) Berlin Social Support Scale, and (4) Columbia Suicide Severity Rating Scale. Results: Between 5-18% of college athletes responded affirmatively to one of the questions asking about suicidality. There was a significant moderate negative correlation between the suicide predictor and the PHQ-9 score and significant weak positive correlations between the suicide predictor and perceived emotional support and between the suicide predictor and perceived instrumental support. Conclusion: This study identified findings that might be useful to practitioners and opened new lines for future research. Applications in Sport: College athletic programs and university counseling centers are poised to enhance our understanding of student-athletes’ suicidal distress and how to respond by making use of qualitative research methods. We strongly recommend adopting this strategy to address depression and suicidal ideation.


Keywords: prevention, student-athletes, mental health, risk factors

Introduction
Despite growing openness about mental health struggles, a disparity still exists between physical and mental health (Gorczynski et al., 2023; Moore et al., 2022), fostering stigma and hindering help-seeking behavior (Moore, 2017), particularly among college students (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2021). While mental health diagnoses in the college student population is a longstanding challenge, the COVID-19 pandemic increased stressors placed on the college student population leading to increased risks (Gupta & Agrawal, 2021; MacDonald & Neville, 2023).


According to the CDC (2021), mental health concerns and suicidal thoughts are increasing for youth and young adults. Forty percent of those surveyed showed signs and symptoms of depression and 20% said they had thoughts of suicide. These trends are similar to studies on college student mental health and suicidality (Barclay et al., 2023; Schmiedehaus et al., 2023). According to the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA, 2017) individuals aged 18-25 reported a 3% increase in major depressive episodes from 2015-2017. Additionally,18.9% of individuals 18 and above reported experiencing a mental illness in the past year, with 7.5% reporting a serious mental health illness (SAMHSA, 2017). A second SAMHSA (2021) study found 33.7% of individuals aged 18-25 reported a mental illness and 11.4% reported a serious mental illness.
In addition to concerns about serious mental health illness, SAMHSA (2021) found an increase in rates of suicidal behavior. Specifically, 10.5% reported having serious thoughts of suicide, 3.7% created a suicide plan, and 1.9% attempted suicide. Research by Rosenthal et al. (2023) found higher rates with 13.7% of college students reporting suicide ideation, 7.6% making a suicide plan, and 3.2% reporting at least one suicide attempt. In 2021 suicide became the leading cause of death for those aged 20-24 (CDC, 2023).
One subset of the college student population is college athletes. Recently, discussion of their mental health increased. Researchers attempted to explore the intersectional identity of student athletes and the effect that this role strain may have on mental health (Gorczynski et al., 2023; Moore et al., 2022). Quantifying mental health and suicide risk in this group is challenging, with conflicting results on the link between depression, support systems, and suicide. Many researchers see sport participation as a protective factor for mental health risk due to the social support provided by the team (Hui et al., 2023; Sullivan et al., 2020). But additional pressures like failure to successfully compete or live up to expectations, loss of social structure due to injury or retirement from sport, or time demands of the sport in addition to being a college student can increase the risk (Moore, 2017; Moore et al., 2022). This study builds upon existing research by looking more closely at the relationship between a college athletes’ risk of depression, suicidality, and their support system.


College Athletes and Depression
According to the American Psychological Association (2020), depression is one of the most common mental health disorders in the United States. Depression might include emotional, cognitive, physical, and/or behavioral symptoms and is best understood on a continuum of severity, rather than either present or not present. Findings amongst college athletes demonstrate that depression rates align with rates of the general population of college students (hovering around 25%) (Prinz et al., 2016; Wolanin et al., 2016), and some revealed that athletes have higher rates of depression (over 30%) than the general population (Cox, 2015). While many studies find similar rates between college athletes and their non-athlete peers, others show participation in college athletics can decrease one’s risk for depression (Banu, 2019; Salehioan et al., 2012).
Although some research shows athletic participation may protect against mental illness, there is still reason for concern for college athletes. A current study by the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA, 2022) surveyed almost 10,000 NCAA athletes from all three competitive division levels. Results showed athletes of all competition levels demonstrated elevated levels of mental exhaustion, anxiety, and depression. These levels were nearly two times higher than pre-pandemic levels. The top three factors negatively affecting mental health were academic worries (44%), planning for the future (37%), and financial worries (26%). Only 50% of college athletes believed mental health was a priority for their athletic department, 33% of college athletes did not know where to go to seek mental health services, and as many as 17% of college athletes reported feeling hopeless.


College Athletes and Suicide
Suicide risk in athletes is difficult to determine due to underreporting and misclassification of many sudden deaths. Over the past two decades the NCAA attempted to determine the risk of suicide specific to college athletes. Rao et al. (2015) reported that 7.3% of all athlete deaths were suicides, making suicide the fourth leading cause of death for college athletes. Previously, Miller and Hoffman (2009) found approximately 5% of student-athletes contemplated suicide. Much like research on college athlete depression, some research demonstrates sport protects against suicidality (Maron et al., 2014). This study’s findings highlight the importance of promoting participation in diverse sporting activities among college students given that engaging in such activities safeguards against depression and suicidal ideation by nurturing self-esteem and bolstering social support.


College Athletes and Social Support
The discrepancy in the literature may be accounted for by the supports that are available to college athletes and their willingness to seek such supports (Sullivan et al., 2020). One of the most discussed supports is the team environment. Sullivan et al. (2020) analyzed the effects of social supports on depressive symptoms in college athletes. They found emotional support from teammates, family, and friends was correlated with a decrease in depressive symptoms. Other more formal or instrumental supports that reduced depression included the availability of tutoring and health services, including mental health providers with specialization with athletes.
Social support has not been as extensively studied in the college athlete population. Studies show links between social support and burnout as well as social support and overall wellbeing in college athletes (Defreese & Smith, 2014). Research identified social support as an important component in allowing athletes to balance school and athletics (Carter-Francique, 2015). Many college athletes have strong social support networks naturally, such as relationships with teammates, coaches, medical staff, and other resources provided by the athletic department (Armstrong & Oomen-Early, 2009). They also have supportive relationships, such as family and friends, outside of athletics.
Despite knowledge of these available supports and benefits they offer college athletes, exploring the utilization of built-in athletic supports and personal supports unique to an individual athlete remains understudied. Much of the research tends to oversimplify social support. Due to its dynamic and complex nature, social support among college athletes merits further investigation. Research has not examined the differences in the type of perceived social support in collegiate athletics as it relates to levels of depressive symptoms and suicidality.

Present Study
Overall, the research on mental health issues, including depression and suicide in collegiate athletes is inconclusive. More research is needed to determine what factors put athletes at risk for severe mental health concerns and suicide. The purpose of this study was to investigate whether there is a relationship between levels of depression and suicide risk and levels of social support among National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA) college athletes. The NAIA does not have data available on connectedness between depression, social support, and suicide.

Methods

Procedures

Research Design
The current exploratory study utilized a cross-sectional, web-based survey design to gather data from NAIA college athletes. Considering the size of the NAIA student-athlete population, confidence level, confidence intervals, statistical test, and statistical power, the minimum sample for this study was 47 college athletes (Faul et al., 2007). Researchers identified athletic trainers through the NAIA database to establish contact information. Athletic trainers provided survey information to their assigned college athletes. This approach was successful in other NAIA research efforts (Moore & Abbe, 2021).


Sampling
The exploratory study utilized a stratified random sampling procedure to identify college athlete participants. Researchers divided the NAIA college athlete population into subgroups, or strata, based on sports available throughout the NAIA. This included a stratum for each of the 17 sports with separate stratum for each gender that participates in a sport. Next, researchers identified NAIA member institutions that participated in each of the 17 sports. Each institution participating in a sport received a random number. Researchers selected random numbers to identify the member institutions that would participate in the survey from each sport. This approach ensured all member institutions participating in various sports had an equal opportunity for inclusion.


Participants
Voluntary college athletes aged 18-years-old or older and attending an NAIA member institution participated in the study (n = 361). Most participants were 18-21 years old (53.5%, 46.5% indicated being over the age of 21). Survey participants were primarily juniors (30.7%, 23.8% sophomores, 23.1% first years, 22.1% seniors of graduate students). More women completed the survey (59.8%, 40.2% men). Most participants who reported race/ethnicity were White/Caucasian (55.4%, 21.9% Hispanic or Latino, 14.9% Black or African American, 6.6% multiracial, 1.2% from other groups).

Table 1.

NAIA Institutional Demographic Information

University Demographic%
Private20.2%
Public79.8%
Suburban33.3%
Urban33.9%
Rural32.8%
Faith Based62.9%
Non-Faith Based37.1%


Participants recorded which NAIA athletic team they were primarily affiliated with (20.2% baseball, 19.9% soccer, 12.5% track volleyball, 8.0% softball, 6.4% cross country, 6.1% basketball, with all other sports being under 5% each [e.g., football, bowling, cheer, dance, track and field, swimming and diving, golf, tennis, and lacrosse]). Participants were further examined regarding NAIA college/university demographics (See Table 1). Participants also responded to whether or not they receiving mental health training from their college of university before participating in sport. The largest majority (n = 229, 63.7%) indicated they did not receive such training. The other 36.3% (n= 132) indicated they did receive some form of training.
[Insert Table One]

Measures and Instruments

College athletes completed a web-based instrument that consisted of the following: (1) demographic questionnaire (see above demographics), (2) Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9; Kroenke et al., 1999), (3) Berlin Social Support Scale (BSSS; Shulz & Schwarzer, 2003), and (4) the Columbia Suicide Severity Rating Scale (C-SSRS; Posner et al., 2011).

Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9)
The PHQ-9 is a self-administered version of the PRIME-MD diagnostic instrument for common mental disorders (Kroenke et al., 2001). It is used to make criteria-based diagnoses of depressive and other mental disorders commonly encountered in primary care. This is a 9-item depression module upon which the diagnosis of Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM) depressive disorders is based. Reliability and validity of the tool have indicated it has sound psychometric properties. Internal consistency of the PHQ-9 has been shown to be high (American Psychological Association, 2020). There is precedent for using the PHQ-9 in research with college athletes (DaCosta et al., 2020; LoGalbo et al., 2022).

Berlin Social Support Scale (BSSS)
The researchers measured the degree of emotional and tangible support using the BSSS (Schulz & Schwarzer, 2003). This scale measured perceived emotional and instrumental supports, need for support, and support seeking. There are 17 items on the BSSS that are answered using a five-point Likert scale with endpoints “1 = Strongly Disagree” and “4 = Strongly Agree.” The researchers used a mean score for each of the subscales (perceived emotional support, perceived instrumental support, need for support, and support seeking). The scale has a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.83 for perceived social support, 0.63 for need for support, and 0.83 for support seeking (DiMillo et al., 2017). The scale has a prior history of use within college athletics (Sullivan et al., 2020)


Columbia Suicide Severity Rating Scale (C-SSRS)
The C-SSRS was developed by researchers from Columbia, Pennsylvania, and Pittsburgh Universities to evaluate suicidal ideation and behavior (Posner et al., 2011). The scale provides a brief assessment of severity and intensity of suicidal ideation, suicidal behavior, and lethality (Syndergaard et al., 2023). The screener version used in this study consisted of six “yes” or “no” questions. Based on participant responses to the six questions, participants were considered low, moderate, or high risk. The C-SSRS has excellent internal consistency (α = 0.95). Principal components analysis revealed a two-factor solution, accounting for 65.3% of the variance across items (Madan et al., 2016). There is limited research on the use of the C-SSRS with the athlete population (Costanza et al., 2021).


Data Collection
Researchers contacted the athletic training staff at all sampled NAIA member institutions. Athletic training staff received the list of teams from their institution for inclusion in data collection. Researchers provided athletic training staff detailed instructions for data collection and a copy of the informed consent. Athletic training staff distributed the electronic survey to their college athletes. College athletes were able to opt-out of the survey at any time. The survey took approximately 15-20 minutes to complete. Researchers recorded survey results into a statistical software program (SPSS 28) on a secure, private platform.

Data Analysis
Researchers utilized descriptive statistics to provide details about the sample and overall survey results. Researchers used inferential statistics to infer information from the sample data to the overall NAIA student-athlete population.

To investigate the first research objective, an initial correlation analysis was conducted to examine whether having any safe sport training was related to increases in coaching outcomes. The safe sport training variable was transformed so that coaches who answered “yes” to completing any of the safe sport training courses were coded as 1 and coaches who had answered “no” to completing all the safe sport training courses were coded as 0 (i.e., no SS training=0, any SS training=1). This variable was included in a correlation analysis with all coaching outcomes: knowledge & confidence, safe sport stress, stress over athlete well-being, and efficacy to support others. To investigate the second research objective, four separate linear regression models were constructed with the sum of completed safe sport training courses (range =1-12) as the independent variable, and the following coaching outcomes as respective dependent variables: knowledge & confidence, safe sport stress, stress about athlete well-being, and efficacy to support others. In all four models, the coaching context, whether training was required (0=no, 1=yes), and whether training was free (0=no, 1=yes) were included as covariates. To address the third research objective, ANOVAs were conducted with individual safe sport courses as independent variables, and the following coaching outcomes as dependent variables: knowledge & confidence, efficacy to support others, safe sport stress, stress about athlete well-being and efficacy to support others. All analyses were conducted using IBM SPSS Statistics (Version 28) (20).

Results

Results
Descriptive Statistics
College athletes answered each item from the C-SSRS. Descriptive findings from this scale indicated that 18.3% of participants wished to be dead, 18,3% had non-specific active suicidal thoughts, 13.6% had active suicidal ideation without intent to act, 6.1% had active suicidal ideation with some intent to act, and 5.0% had active suicidal ideation with a specific plan and intent to act. Of the 361 college athlete respondents, 25.8% answers “yes” to at least one of the questions on the scale.

College athletes completed the PHQ-9 as a brief screening tool for potential depressive symptoms. Results of the PHQ-9 and the percent of athletes at risk of depression for each item can be found in Table 2.

Table 2. PHQ-9 Scores for NAIA College Athletes

QuestionMean (SD) (% At Risk)
Little interest or pleasure in doing things?1.81 (0.91) (22.1%)
Feeling down, depressed, or hopeless?1.68 (0.81) (14.1%)
Trouble falling asleep or sleeping too much?2.06 (1.05) (30.2%)
Feeling tired or having little energy?2.17 (0.92) (29.1%)
Poor appetite or overeating?1.81 (0.96) (21.3%)
Feeling bad about yourself?1.75 (0.93) (18.6%)
Trouble concentrating on things?1.69 (0.96) (17.2%)
Moving or speaking so slowly that people could have notice? Or more fidgety and restless than usual?1.34 (0.69) (7.8%)
Thoughts that you would be better off dead?1.21 (0.53) (4.1%)

Evaluation of Assumptions

College athletes also completed the BSSS. Results of the BSSS and the percent of athletes at risk of limited social support in various areas can be found in Table 3. These are only the scale items where there were significant concerns about perceived emotional support, perceived instrumental support, need for support, and support seeking.

BSSS Scores for NAIA College Athletes

QuestionMean (SD) (% At Risk)
Whenever I am not feeling well, other people show me that they are fond of me? 3.14 (0.82) (17.2%)
When everything becomes too much for me to handle, others are there to help me?3.21 (0.83) (18.3%)
I get along best without any outside help?2.48 (0.81) (48.7%)
In critical situations, I prefer to ask others for their advice?3.00 (0.79) (23.0%)
Whenever I am down, I look for someone to cheer me up again?2.51 (0.89) (49.6%)
When I am worried, I reach out to someone to talk to?2.69 (0.93) (38.2%)
Whenever I need help, I ask for it.2.70 (0.96) (39%)


Researchers used correlation analysis to assess the relationship between a college student-athletes predictor of suicide with their score on the PHQ-9, perceived emotional support, perceived instrumental support, level of needed support, level of support sought, and mental health training.

Prior to conducting the analysis, researchers generated several statistics and graphs to examine the tests of assumption, including level of measurement, related pairs, absence of outliers, and linearity.


Results of the Correlational Analysis
Researchers computed a Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient to assess the relationship between a college student-athletes suicide predictor and their PHQ-9 score, perceived emotional support, perceived instrumental support, level of needed support, and level of support sought. There was a significant (p < 0.001) moderate negative correlation, r = -.462, N = 361 between the suicide predictor and score on the PHQ-9. There was a significant (p < 0.001) weak positive correlation, r = .236, N = 361 between the suicide predictor and perceived emotional support. A similar significant (p < 0.001) weak positive correlation, r = .255, N = 361 between suicide predictor and perceived instrumental support. A college student-athlete’s exposure to mental health training, perceived level of needed support, and level of support sought did not appear to be suicide predictors.

Discussion

In this study, we investigated whether preventing suicide deaths requires the identification of factors that are associated with people’s risk of suicidal behavior. Commonly cited risk factors for suicidal thoughts and behaviors are depression and inadequate support. Association between major depressive disorder (MDD) and suicide attempts or ideation has been well-documented. Accordingly, depression has been considered a necessary or sufficient cause of suicidal thoughts. But much is unknown about the characteristics that increase suicide risk among people living with depression (Bradvik, 2018). Many mechanisms could play a role in suicidal behavior among people with MDD, and, although suicidal behavior occurs among people with major depressive disorder, depression is not necessarily a useful tool for understanding the complexity of suicide (Orsolini et al., 2020).


Most people with depression do not attempt suicide. Diagnosis of MDD requires a simultaneous presentation of several specific symptoms. Approximately, 17 million American adults will have symptoms of MDD each year, but only around 45,000-50,000 Americans will die by suicide during that same time. Considered independently of other risk factors, MDD may put one at greater risk, meaning that those with this disorder are more likely than those without it to die by suicide. But still very few of those with MDD will go on to die by suicide; reliance on depression to predict suicidality is inadvisable. This is supported by Ribeiro et al. (2018), who reviewed existing literature on the subject and showed that although depressive symptoms were reported to confer risk of suicidality, the effects were weaker than expected.

Melhem et al. (2019) demonstrated that the most severe depressive symptoms and variability over time were the only predictors of suicide attempt in young adults, especially when combined with other factors (e.g., childhood abuse, history of attempt, substance use disorder, and parental attempt). But prediction was marginally better than chance, perhaps because suicidal risk varies during a psychiatric illness and may be linked to other factors that appear during depressive episodes. Orsolini et al. (2020) showed that anxiety disorders co-occurring with MDD are among the main predictors of attempts. Several factors interact and contribute to suicidal behavior and death by suicide. These may include major depressive disorder, but interactions with other factors, such as genetic vulnerability, stress, psychiatric comorbidities, and social aspects need to be evaluated to improve prevention (Orsolini et al., 2020).
Results from our research showed a moderate negative correlation between the suicide predictor and score on the PHQ-9, challenging the assumption that depression is a necessary or sufficient cause of suicidal thoughts. This lends support to the idea that traditional risk factors can be problematic and that their predictive value has not improved over the past 50 years (Franklin et al., 2017; Fortune & Hetrick, 2022).

Bradvik (2018) also acknowledged that depression is related to suicidal ideation and attempt but is not a good predictor. Bradvik (2018) pointed to results from the Australian Rural Mental Health Study in which only 364 out of 1051 respondents reported life-time depression. Of those 364 respondents, 48% reported life-time suicidal ideation and 16% reported a suicide attempt. Gender, age of depression onset, and possibly psychiatric comorbidities were somewhat predictive of suicide behavior, but no other predictive factors were revealed. These results were echoed by Melhem et al. (2019).

The limits of risk factors to accurately predict suicide is further strengthened by our finding that an increase in emotional social support was weakly associated with an increase in suicide risk, contradicting earlier research that showed suicidal distress was worse when emotional social support was low (Ayub, 2015; Otsuki et al., 2019). Similarly, instrumental social support (i.e., support that helps people with practical tasks) was weakly associated with suicide risk, contradicting findings from Otsuki et al. (2019).
After a concussion, athletes experience a range of psychological symptoms, with depression and anxiety being among the most reported (Kontos et al., 2012). Symptoms can include loss of interest in activities that were once enjoyable, persistent sadness, physical and mental fatigue, and changes in sleep patterns. These negative outcomes may be more pronounced in athletes who attach a great degree of importance to the athlete’s role in relation to other activities (Brewer et al., 1993; Raedeke & Smith, 2001) and can be made worse by changes in lifestyle, the loss of social support that team members provided, and even personality traits. One such trait is maladaptive perfectionism.
Maladaptive perfectionists are overly critical of mistakes. They strive for excessively high and ultimately unobtainable goals. This usually results in failure, which can be painful, especially for athletes with maladaptive perfectionism, who may lack resilience to bounce back from stressful experiences. This unhealthy perfectionism is associated with higher levels of depressive symptoms (Egan et al., 2011; Olmedilla et al., 2022). Additionally, perfectionists can struggle with time management, not setting realistic timelines for getting things done or because they are paralyzed by the prospect of failure. Time management is one of the most difficult aspects of participating in college sports (Rothschild-Checroune et al., 2013).

Taken together, injury and concussion, personality traits (e.g., maladaptive perfectionism), and external factors (e.g., time constraints) can contribute to negative mental health outcomes among student-athletes and may increase suicidal distress. College athletic programs and university counseling centers are poised to improve our understanding of the nature of suicidal distress among student-athletes face and how to respond by making use of qualitative research methods, which we recommend. We urge university administrators to dedicate more resources to building and integrating academic and co-curricular resilience programs into their campuses and rely less on risk assessment that focuses on commonly cited factors (e.g., depression) to predict suicide.

Study Limitations
While efforts were made to decrease discomfort with the survey, it is possible college athletes felt pressure to respond in particular ways out of personal and/or athletic concerns. This study also relied upon self-reported data. Without having the ability to verify participant responses, there was no way of knowing the legitimacy or honesty of participants’ responses. The study was unable to control the multiple covariates or confounding variables that influence a college suicidality and mental health. Finally, our study lacked a detailed exploration of how specific socio-demographic characteristics, such as race, gender, and class status, might influence suicidal ideation and other risk behaviors among college athletes.

Future Research
The complex interplay between core risk factors in individuals and heightened suicide risk among athletes necessitates further exploration. Future research should focus on understanding the repercussions of escalated demands on athletes’ mental well-being, particularly the impact of significant situational factors such as career-ending injuries on their mental health and suicide vulnerability. Additionally, there is a need to delve into the connection between suicide rates, race, and gender among collegiate students for a more comprehensive understanding of these dynamics.

Conclusion
This study examined the relationship between college athletes’ risk of depression, suicidality, and their support system and whether preventing suicide deaths requires identification of commonly cited risk factor. The results are quite different from previous research findings, revealing a moderate negative correlation between the suicide predictor and scores on the PHQ-9, adding nuance to the presumption that depression is either a necessary or sufficient factor for the emergence of suicidal thoughts. College athletic programs and university counseling centers are poised to enhance our understanding of student-athletes’ suicidal distress and how to respond by making use of qualitative research methods. We strongly recommend adopting this strategy to address depression and suicidal ideation.

Applications in Sport
Studying suicide in college sports has practical applications that can help improve the well-being and safety of college athletes. By examining the factors that contribute to suicidal ideation and behavior in college sports, researchers and practitioners can develop targeted interventions and support systems to address mental health challenges. For instance, such studies may lead to the creation of tailored mental health resources for student-athletes, including counseling services and peer support networks. Furthermore, understanding the unique stressors faced by student-athletes, such as performance pressure and balancing academics with athletics, can inform the design of preventative measures such as stress management and resilience training programs. Additionally, awareness campaigns can be created to destigmatize mental health struggles in sports, encouraging athletes to seek help when needed. Overall, studying suicide in college sports can lead to a safer and more supportive environment for student-athletes, promoting their overall health and success.

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2024-07-03T13:38:41-05:00July 5th, 2024|General, Research, Sport Education, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|Comments Off on Navigating Darkness: College Athlete Suicide, Support Systems, and Shadows of Depression
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