ISSN: 1543-9518|Vol. 24

Perceptions of the purpose and role of volunteer coaches in the emerging NCAA sport of women’s triathlon

Authors: 1Sean Phelps PhD.

1Colorado Mesa University, Grand Junction, Colorado, USA

Corresponding Author:
Sean Phelps
Colorado Mesa University
1100 North Avenue
Grand Junction, CO 81501-3122
970.248.1158
sphelps@coloradomesa.edu

Sean Phelps, PhD, is an assistant professor of sport management at Colorado Mesa University. His research interests include organizational theory, national governing bodies, and international sports

Perceptions of the purpose and role of volunteer coaches in the emerging NCAA sport of women’s triathlon

ABSTRACT

Purpose: While the academic research into volunteer coaches in youth sports is robust and prevalent, the same cannot be said for volunteer coaches involved in intercollegiate sports. The NCAA rules/guidelines for incorporating volunteer coaches into various sports range from the previously specific, but no longer allowed, (Division I, particularly football and basketball) to the more general (Division II and III). Using the emerging NCAA sport of women’s triathlon as the case study, this project asked the coaches of the 40 institutions presently sponsoring women’s intercollegiate triathlon about their perceptions regarding volunteer coaches.

Methods: A qualitative interpretive research approach was used to allow each respondent to make sense of their individual situation. A web based open-ended questionnaire was sent to all NCAA women’s triathlon head coaches and paid assistants and selected coaches were also interviewed (representing all three NCAA divisions).

Results: Twelve (30%) coaches responded to the survey. Results indicated that four main themes were derived from the data: gratitude, caution, acceptance, and personal traits.
Conclusions: The perceptions of existing NCAA coaches regarding volunteer coaches may become a gateway or a barrier. A volunteer coach might complement the head coach and fill in the gaps in other areas such as sport specific expertise, fundraising, and social functions. Implications of the study include that volunteering can serve as the apprenticeship before becoming a paid coach.

Application in Sport: USA Triathlon, as the National Governing Body for the sport, has a personal stake in creating highly trained, experienced, and specialized draft legal coaches for its juniors, developmental and Olympic programs. The NCAA emerging sport of women’s draft legal triathlon is one way in which to accomplish these goals.

Keywords: sport coach, college sport, National Governing Body, emerging sport

“There is nothing stronger than the heart of a volunteer.”
Jimmy Doolittle

In January 2014, the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) approved women’s triathlon as an emerging sport (36). An emerging sport must reach 40 institutions before the NCAA recognizes the sport (and then provides funding for national championships) (14). In 2022, USA Triathlon, as the National Governing Body (NGB) of the sport, reported that 40 schools had adopted women’s triathlon and that the process for full NCAA recognition could begin (T. Yount, personal communication, 8 February 2023). USA Triathlon (USAT) is the driving force behind this initiative (both politically and financially) (36). USA Triathlon has an organizational stake in this because it needs to identify triathletes who can compete on an international level and eventually contend in the Olympic Games as well as developing future high performance coaches. USAT also offers a coaching education and certification program.
Under the USA sports system, colleges and universities are often the training grounds for Olympic athletes (7). Prior to the 2014 initiative by USAT, this training ground did not exist. USAT also wanted to develop the international style of racing domestically. At the Olympic level, triathlons are draft legal, meaning during the cycle portion of the triathlon competitors are allowed to ride behind one another just like bicycle racing. This is different from a traditional non-drafting event where cyclists must be separated from one another by several meters. The NCAA draft legal format is a 750-meter swim, followed by a 20-kilometer bike and ending with a 5-kilometer run, which is the sprint distance under World Triathlon rules (59). World Triathlon is the International Federation for the sport of triathlon.


As the USA had been slow in the adoption of the draft legal format for competitors compared to other countries (38), it also is behind much of the world with triathlon coaches who have draft legal experience. So much so, that USA Triathlon started recruiting interested existing coaches in 2014 to specialize in this format of racing (55). Additionally, the NGB also is developing a mentorship program for college coaches (56). Head coaches may have come from a swimming or running background, have Ironman™ coaching certifications and/or have experience of their own as age group triathletes. Furthermore, college and university athletic departments might only want to pay for a head coach to keep overhead down until full recognition by the NCAA is obtained. Enter the volunteer coach. Volunteer coaches may allow for simple division of labor and tap into expertise or particular skill sets. They may be able to manage administrative duties such as scheduling, team uniforms and/or trouble shooting. Volunteer coaches may allow head coaches to “fill in the gaps” in terms of content expertise (i.e., swim, bike, run, organization, fundraising) as the sport works towards full NCAA recognition as well as operating under the present rules of that organization (33-35).


In November of 2021, USAT presented to the Collegiate Triathlon Coaches Association the “current state of the sport.” At that time, 70% of the institutions sponsoring women’s triathlon used at least one volunteer coach in 2021 (62). A further breakdown showed 50% of volunteer coaches assisted with the swim, 57% assisted with the bike and 47% assisted with the run. “Indicating that some volunteers help with more than one sport” (62). USAT also found that volunteer coaches also assisted “with race management, transportation, bike maintenance, physical therapy and recruiting” (62). This information provided a starting point for the project. Thus, the research question is: what are the perceptions of head coaches as to the purpose and role of volunteer coaches in the emerging NCAA sport of women’s triathlon?


College sports in the USA has long used the apprenticeship-approach to training and educating future coaches. If not a student-athlete, one becomes a manager or intern as an undergraduate, then becomes a graduate assistant, then an assistant coach and, finally, a head coach. Since triathlon is new and classified as an emerging sport, this traditional pathway does not yet formally exist. While it is a time-honored tradition to use playing experience at the beginning of a coaching career rather than specific education pertinent to coaching in general and sport specific (44), draft legal experience for existing triathlon coaches in the USA is still rare. Triathlon is not a high school sport and does not have as structured and formalized club system as USA Swimming or USA Gymnastics. The incorporation of volunteer coaches, particularly those with draft legal experience, might be one way to increase the pool of knowledgeable coaches that then possibly become available to new NCAA programs. Head coaches can be “instrumental in the career development of their head assistant coach, indirectly preparing them for future head coaching positions” (40, p. 11). Volunteering could become the apprenticeship and help train future coaches. Until more student-athletes graduate from the sport, and move into coaching through those traditional pathways, volunteer coaches may be an untapped resource.


LITERATURE REVIEW
Before proceeding, it is important to provide operational definitions of the terms volunteer and perceptions. These definitions are the operational “guardrails” for the study. Volunteers are people, who for a variety of motives, decide to donate their time and, often, their money to a particular group or cause (39). Perception is the “process of integrating, organizing, and interpreting sensations” (26, p. 80) and “…the way you think about or understand someone or something” (51).
According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (53), about 62.6 million people volunteered between September of 2014 and September of 2015. These same statistics showed the more education one has, the more likely that person is to volunteer. Other statistics included those volunteers provided a median of 52 hours annually and those men and women volunteered at near the same rate (52 hours vs. 50 hours, respectively). Volunteers were “most likely to volunteer for religious organizations, followed by education or youth service organizations,” and those individuals who possessed a bachelor’s degree or higher “were more likely to provide professional or management assistance or to tutor or teach than volunteers with less education” (53). Volunteers can provide an economic benefit for nonprofit organizations (4) by taking on “staff-like roles to control costs” (24, p. 201). Volunteer sports coaches through their social interactions and engagement could become “community assets” (23, p. 322).


Within the academic literature, the topic of volunteering, in general, regarding motivation, meaning, sense of community, and perceptions have been significantly studied (10, 42, 43, 49, 58). Youth sports have also been extensively study: from training (15, 22, 45), education (28), motivation (3), behavior (18, 27, 31), relationships/wellbeing (25, 46, 52) and efficacy (6, 8, 16, 50). Organizations such as the National Alliance of Youth Sports, Positive Coaching Alliance, Good Sports and TrueSport focus on youth sports, youth coaches, and parents. To coach under the auspices of the US National Governing Body system, a coaching certification program is required to include SafeSport certification (54). However, for any coach at the college/university level, there may be no certification requirements. While focusing on career and job coaching, Schimdt-Lellek and Fietze (47) could just as well have been discussing intercollegiate sport coaches as “coaching…is not protected by state laws; there is no state license and no public mandate and thus no defined monopoly for this professional activity” (p.746). Thus, there is no formal governance structure mandating certain education requirements or certifications to become a college coach.


Finally, research focused on assistant coaches is also scarce and not systematic in nature (19, 20). Rathwell et al. (40) looked at the perceptions Canadian university head football coaches had when hiring assistant coaches. Their findings showed that head coaches hired “loyal assistants who possessed extensive football knowledge that complimented their own skill sets” (p. 5). Additionally, they also discovered that head coaches looked at the experience an assistant coach had both as an athlete and as an assistant coach. These head coaches also wanted assistant coaches who “cared about their athletes’ personal growth and development” (p. 12). This finding echoes previous research regarding university head coaches (5, 12, 57).


METHOD
This project is a basic interpretative qualitative study (32) in that the researcher is “interested in understanding how participants make meaning of a situation or phenomenon, this meaning is mediated through the researcher as instrument, the strategy is inductive, and the outcome is descriptive” (p. 6). The project is designed to “hear the voices of the people, analyse the themes and present a thoughtful overview of the results…[it] describes and interprets, but has no theoretical underpinnings” (48, p. 5). It is also interpretive in nature because it is:
shaped by human experiences and social contexts (ontology), and is therefore best studied within its socio-historic context by reconciling the subjective interpretations of its various participants (epistemology). Because interpretive researchers view social reality as being embedded within and impossible to abstract from their social settings, they “interpret” the reality though a “sense-making” process rather than a hypothesis testing process. (41) This differs from a traditional positivist approach where theories are evaluated and verified, incorporating closed-ended questions using pre-determined approaches and involving some sort of statistical analysis (1).

Using a case study format allows for “an empirical method that investigates a contemporary phenomenon (the ‘case’) in depth and within its real-life context” (61, p. 15). A case study is a research technique “used in sport management to examine (e.g., observe, explore) certain factors of a sport industry subject (e.g., event, person, group, company, organization, system) for a certain time period” (1, p. 139). Simply put, the technique allows for a detailed analysis of a specific activity, situation, or practice (1). The case is NCAA women’s triathlon coaches’ perceptions of the purpose of volunteer coaches.


USA Triathlon has a list on its website of all the NCAA schools presently competing in women’s triathlon as an emerging sport. Each of those institutions has an athletic department website that has triathlon information available in the public domain. Additionally, the Collegiate Triathlon Coaches Association also has a list of all head coaches from these institutions as well as the assistant coaches (paid and volunteer). These two sources comprise the study’s participants. Purposive sampling is the selected technique.


A web based Qualtrics™ survey with some demographic and background questions as well as 13 open-ended questions was emailed to all subjects within the specified sample. A provisional list of 25 open-ended questions were developed by the researcher based on a review of the existing literature within youth sports and input from a representative from USA Triathlon. Questions were then reviewed by two different academics at two different institutions; one responsible for a coaching minor (and a former NCAA coach) and the other responsible for a coaching major (and involved with youth sports). The original list of 25 was reduced to 15 and then two of the questions were combined to create the final 13 questions used in the questionnaire (see Appendix A). The use of open-ended questions allows “the researcher to understand and capture the points of views of others without predetermining those points of view through prior selection of questionnaire categories” (37, p. 21).


After approval from the university’s IRB (Protocol 23-12), an email invitation to complete the qualitative survey was sent by the researcher to all NCAA triathlon coaches that included a link to the web based survey. Informed consent was presented and obtained at the beginning of the survey. Also included in the invitation was information regarding follow-up phone/video interviews. Interested respondents were invited to a phone or internet conferencing (i.e., Zoom, Teams, Skype) interview. Zoom offers an auto-transcription feature that expedites data review. Those respondents who expressed interest in participating in an interview included their email address with their submission of the survey. Additionally, USAT sent out a prompt to the coaches promoting the study. A representative from USAT who is involved with their NCAA women’s triathlon initiative was also invited to participate in the interview.


The interview followed a list of semi-structured questions derived from the original survey to allow for the interviewee to expand upon their thoughts regarding the survey (see Appendix B). A division designation replaced each respondent’s name to maintain anonymity and confidentiality (i.e., DIa, DIIa, DIIIa, NGB). A reminder email was sent six weeks after the initial invitation to the intercollegiate triathlon coaching population to increase the participation rate. For those respondents who agreed to be interviewed, a separate informed consent form was required by the university’s Internal Review Board. This form was signed by the participant and returned to the author.


Results from the surveys and the interviews were then coded by the author. Coding is taking the raw text and “moving you from a lower level to a higher (more abstract) level of understanding” of the data (2, p. 35). The next step is to further reduce the information to smaller pieces is identifying themes, or similarities in the text (2). Similar words and phrases categorize the same feelings/experiences (1). For example, “personality” or “approachability” might be traits a volunteer coach could have. Then the data is triangulated incorporating several types of data collection to focus on the case (21). In this instance, the use of an online survey and interviews were the two data collection methods combined with materials from USA Triathlon.


Finally, trustworthiness, credibility, and rigor (29) involving the researcher and the data must be addressed. The author has 42 years of experience in the sport of triathlon (including draft legal races as an age group athlete, both domestically and internationally), is a former triathlon race director, former NGB employee, former team manager and age group committee member of a foreign triathlon National Sports Federation, a former academic advisor and coach of a university club team, wrote the grant application for another institution that added intercollegiate triathlon, and, at the present time, is a volunteer coach of an NCAA women’s triathlon team.


RESULTS
The survey garnered a 30% response rate (12/40) and eight coaches (one DI, two DII and three DIII) agreed to respond to the interview questions in writing rather than by phone or video. One DI and one DII coach agreed to be interviewed by video. Additionally, the representative from USA Triathlon responded to the questions in writing.


Basic demographic information showed that seven women and five men completed the survey. Five of the women were between the ages of 35-44 and the other two were 45-54. The five men ranged from one in 35-44, three in 45-54, and one in 55-64. Five women hold master’s degrees, one holds a bachelor’s degree, and the other holds an associate degree. For the men, three hold a bachelor’s degree and two hold a master’s degree. Additional coaching certifications (i.e., USA Triathlon, USA Swimming, USA Cycling, USA Track and Field, SafeSport, National Federation of High Schools, or others), were held by all respondents. SafeSport certification is required by all NGBs for their respective coaching certifications. As a result, all individuals possessed this credential. Eight people hold at least the entry level USA Triathlon Level 1 coaching certification. Three hold a USA Swimming certification while two hold an American Swimming Coaches Association credential. Three hold a USA Cycling coaching certification and one also holds a USA Track and Field certification. Additional certifications include Ironman™, Road Runners Club of America™, certified strength and conditioning coach and a coaching certification in the sport of triathlon from another country. For their individual primary sport background, five women and four men indicated triathlon was their primary sport background while two women and one man indicated swimming. All seven women indicated they were the head coach of a program while four men did so. There was one male respondent who listed being a paid assistant coach. Finally, four NCAA DI schools were represented (two women, two men), four DII schools (two women, two men), and one DIII school (male). Three respondents did not indicate their institution’s NCAA participation level.


Four major themes were derived from the raw survey and interview data: gratitude, caution, acceptance, and personal traits. Gratitude was demonstrated by being thankful or appreciative for a volunteer’s assistance. The National Governing Body representative provided this explanation regarding volunteer coaches incorporating gratitude:
I speak to hundreds of administrators and the messaging from me is that I feel many of our teams are underutilizing the volunteer coach. We have some amazing options in every NCAA collegiate community. The volunteer coach cannot only assist with practices, but they are an amazing sounding board for other discussions that coaches desire at various points during a season on so many other topics. Other times they can help administratively or with recruitment. Some are [physical therapists] and can support recovery needs. Others can speak to mental health woes and ways for athletes to combat fears in many areas. The list of ways that volunteer coaches can be leveraged is unnumerable. USAT might need to do a better job of positioning coaches with NCAA programs with those we know who are reliable and ready to support our institutions through the course of a race season.


Similar positive sentiments were provided by other coaches regarding the value of volunteer coaches.
We have been fortunate to have volunteer coaches work with our athletes…and they have contributed greatly to the development and performance of our athletes. Volunteers bring an expertise to designing and overseeing some of our team training objectives. Their passion of the sport of triathlon is evident in that they are giving of their time and talents to the benefit of our team and the sport. (DIIa)
DIIb added:
Volunteer coaches are instrumental in the emerging sport initiative. Without their selfless dedication of time, I would not be able to have a program. They are just unpaid assistant coaches. They do all the same duties, helping out on a daily basis with practices, and on the road. They are imperative to the success of the program.
DIIIb felt that volunteer coaches have “the highest value, not only does it help the athletes, but allow[s] that person an opportunity to pad their resume.” DIIIa stated “volunteers play an integral role in giving out student-athletes a better college experience…they have been a help and blessing to me and my team, throughout my coaching career.” DIIIa also incorporated a volunteer coach in all areas of the team and program:


Up to including every aspect of the team. Assisting the head coach in all areas of recruiting, coaching, practice planning and execution, travel planning, traveling, running practices, etc. The more the volunteer is willing to take on, willing to work on, willing to learn, the more I am willing to give them!


DIb added that a volunteer coach also provides camaraderie and support to the head coach, especially in these early years of the sport because there may be no coaching staff compared to existing NCAA sports. Without the volunteer coach, there might just be the head coach operating alone in an athletic department. “[Your] coaching changes when you have that much help. It literally changes.” DIIc stated:
I could not have done it without the volunteer coaches. It would have been impossible [without them]…and foolish not to take advantage of [their commitment]. [Locally], I have access to a professional triathlete, a woman who is triathlete, is involved with a women’s triathlon group, and a well-respected businessperson in the community…and a faculty member with decades of experience in the sport.


DIIIa felt a sense of obligation to assist the volunteer coaches:
With every volunteer I have, I ask them what area do they want to do the most? What area would they like to learn more? What areas are they interested in most?…Then I focus on those things. My way of “paying them” for their time is to help them learn about themselves and learn skills that will help them with their next position, hopefully a paid one. My point is to train them for their next move.


One survey respondent shared this outlook:
Many volunteer coaches are looking for experience so that they can hopefully get a paying job (head or assistant coach) at a university…the head coach should support them in that and try to educate them and give them hands on experience in all aspects of collegiate coaching so that feel better prepared to take on a paid position.
Comments from the survey were more guarded and highlighted the caution theme. One coach commented on the “lack of qualified draft legal experience” as a reason for not using volunteer coaches. Other coaches restricted the duties of a volunteer coach: “help with leading workouts and travel” and “just for bike sessions or to cover a practice if both the head coach and assistant coach are away.” A few coaches assigned only duties based on a volunteer’s experience or creating social activities for the team. One coach indicated that “I would not leave travel, budget, program writing, [or] compliance to a volunteer. That needs to be done faultlessly.” Another survey respondent replied that “none as of now” regarding incorporating a volunteer coach in their program.


Expectations can be defined as what the head coach wants from a volunteer. That can be a simple as the most identified item: “know the sport.” It can also include time commitments to the program and athletes. An example of what a coach wants is “just hands on coaching” or “mostly hands on coaching” from survey respondents. Another respondent wanted a volunteer coach to specialize in a specific discipline (swim, bike, or run). DIb said, “It’s a combination of administrative and works outs…maybe 60%/40%.” DIIc added:
[The] volunteer coach serves at the discretion of the head coach….They need to support the vision, mission, and philosophy of the head coach…They need to know who we are and believe in it…Our core values are a part of everything. Everyone understands what the program is about.


Responses to the time commitment question were quite varied, ranging from 2-16 hours per week. One coached expected a “minimum of 10 hours a week” and that total would increase “based on their availability and goals as a volunteer.” Other responses were less specific with one coach replying, “just do what you say you’re going to do.”
DIIIb had higher expectations:
I would want the volunteer coaches to know about the sport of triathlon. First, they should be familiar with the amateur divisions and even better if they understand the junior elite model. Also, understanding the periodization aspect behind it will help to develop the tempo through the season. Secondly, a person with experience in swimming in [high school] and a robust running background would be the third option for a volunteer coach.
DIIIa was adamant about one expectation, an area of the program a volunteer would not be responsible for:

Basically, team discipline and athletic department meetings. [As the head coach], I am the face of the program, and I do not want there to be any misconceptions about who is in charge, who is making the decisions, and who ultimately responsible for steering the ship. Also, for a volunteer, I do not think they need to be responsible for every aspect of the team.
Adding to the “off limits” feeling, DIb revealed, “the biggest one…would be some intimate individual meetings that I have” with student-athletes. If “it’s gonna be a more intimate type of meeting, and we need to touch on some hard issues, I won’t have them sit in on those.” DIb would also not use volunteers in the recruiting process because of the turnover at that position. The head coach needs to develop that personal relationship with each recruit. DIIc stated, “[They] should not be communicating with the administration…not handling money or finances…and not be involved in any off campus recruiting.”

Personal traits were the one theme that was consistent across all respondents and interviewees. Terms such as professionalism, honesty, integrity, positivity, personality, and a willingness to learn were highlighted. One respondent stated that volunteer coaches need to be “approachable, care about the student athletes and their success” while another provided a similar comment wanting a volunteer coach to be “approachable, honest, takes time to connect with the athletes, open-minded, supports my vision and the team culture.”
Knowledge, skills, and attributes came through as a component of personal traits. DIIIa said, “Obviously, the higher the knowledge and experience in the sport, the better…I do not expect them to have the greatest experience or knowledge in the sport. But a willingness to learn and help lead our student-athletes in a positive way.”
Experience was emphasized by all those completing the survey. Comments such as “experience and personality are key” and “experience and understanding draft legal” are reflective of this feeling. One coach went more in-depth regarding expectations on experience: “Experience coaching swimming, biking, and/or running at any level; having at least participated in a triathlon; preferably already USAT certified but would like them to have some sort of coaching certification (swimming, biking, running).”

DISCUSSION
As this project was nearing completion, the NCAA DI Council adopted the recommendations of the NCAA DI Transformation Committee to eliminate the voluntary coach designation across all sports (11). DII and DIII programs can still incorporate volunteer coaches according to information disseminated by USA Triathlon (T. Yount, personal communication, 8 February 2023), but the coach representing institution DIIIc indicated that school is not allowing volunteer coaches; “they must be paid.”

DIa felt:
I do believe volunteer coaches could add great deal of value to a program. Volunteer coaches can add another set of eyes and insight into your team and specific athletes. All coaches have their own way of communicating with athletes. Sometimes when an athlete hears something in a new way it might click…Unfortunately…the use of volunteer coaches [is not]…permitted in the NCAA.

DIb replied:
The volunteer [coach] was a little more challenging because they are a volunteer, and they’re doing for a specific reason, and you’re trying to give them what they are there to learn, but you need them in other ways. [Volunteers are] a little more challenging than when they are paid, because when they are paid you can be more like “these are the things I want done.”…it is a bit challenging trying to manage what they really should do that’s benefitting them and helping you.
This action by the DI Council may eliminate opportunities for volunteer coaches, but with the economic constraints faced by all DII and DIII schools, chances are these institutions may appreciate the assistance. The statements made by DII and DIII coaches provide a welcoming and accepting attitude towards volunteer coaches.

LIMITATIONS
With a 30% response rate (12/40) to the survey, the challenge is to draw any meaningful conclusions from the data collected. Online surveys often have lower response rates compared to other types of surveys (9, 60). However, sample sizes of less than 500 with a response rate of 20%-25% can offer some confident approximations (17). A concerning limitation is that only two coaches chose to be interviewed directly via phone or video call. All others chose only to respond to the questions in writing. This lack of one-on-one interaction eliminated the possibility of follow-up questions and gaining immediate clarifications. An additional limitation to the study, is that not all questions were answered in the survey. No one answered the Question 15 regarding what is needed to plan, lead, organize and evaluate their program. Only half the survey respondents answered Question 17 concerning what protections/services are covered by the institution for volunteer coaches (i.e., insurance, travel, tuition waivers). Those who did respond indicated they were unsure, or that nothing was provided in this area.
Finally, there is a lack of additional member fact checking which can be perceived as a limitation. As there was only one researcher, there was no additional review of the raw data during the coding and thematic analysis. The interpretation of the data is based on only one person’s review. However, “interpretation means attaching significance to what was found, making sense of findings, offering explanations, drawing conclusions, extrapolating lessons, and otherwise imposing order on an unruly but patterned world” (37, p. 480). Thus, one must default back to the trustworthiness and credibility of the author. The reader should feel comfortable that the results are “balanced, fair, and conscientious in taking account of multiple perspectives, multiple interests, and multiple realities” (37, p. 575).


CONCLUSION
As the National Governing Body for the sport of triathlon, USA Triathlon has a professional stake in both developing future world class triathletes and future national team coaches. Creating highly trained, experienced, and specialized draft legal coaches also impacts the junior and developmental ranks for the NGB. The NCAA emerging sport of women’s draft legal triathlon is one way in which to accomplish these goals. In addition to “the effort is part of a larger strategic initiative by the NCAA to grow female participation through its Emerging Sports for Women program” (30). The inclusion of draft legal triathlon also provides additional opportunities for female student-athletes which may help institutions with Title IX concerns.
The perceptions of existing NCAA coaches regarding these volunteer coaches, therefore, become a gateway or a barrier. Thus, NCAA DII and DIII “programs need to provide infrastructures that foster and support effective volunteering” (24, p. 199). Part of that infrastructure is defining the role of a volunteer coach and providing training as well as protections such as liability insurance (13). Future research could focus on USA Triathlon’s increased involvement in educating and training coaches in draft legal racing as well as developing a post-graduate pathway for women to transition from student-athlete to coach. Additionally, what is not addressed in this project deliberately, are the motivations of volunteer coaches in the sport of NCAA women’s draft legal triathlon. That is a question for future research and as part of the larger research question about volunteer coaches in other NCAA sports.

 
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APPENDIX A
Qualtrics survey questions

  1. Gender
  2. Age
  3. Education
  4. Please list your present coaching certifications (i.e., USA Triathlon, USA Swimming, SafeSport)
  5. Primary Sport Background
  6. Your Primary Role
  7. What NCAA Division is your program?
  8. Please answer this question if you do not presently incorporate volunteer coaches into your program. All others please go to Question #9.
    What reasons exist for not using volunteer coaches?
  9. As the head coach (or as a paid assistant), what are your expectations for volunteer coaches?
  10. What are the requirements (if any) and expectations of the institution has for volunteer coaches (i.e., NCAA certification, 1st Aid/CPR/AED, Police/FBI Background Check, SafeSport)?
  11. How do you recruit volunteer coaches?
  12. How do you incorporate volunteer coaches in your program (i.e., leading practices, travel arrangements, PR)?
  13. What is the hourly / weekly commitment expected from the volunteer coach?
  14. What qualifications do you feel are critical to the success of a volunteer coach?
  15. What do you need to plan, lead, organize and evaluate your program?
  16. Where do you need assistance with your program?
  17. What protections are covered by the institution (i.e., insurance)?
  18. What can a volunteer coach receive from the institution and still be considered volunteer (i.e., stipend, travel allowance, team attire)?
  19. What duties are you planning to assign the volunteer coach? Administrative? Hands on coaching? Program writing?
  20. How might the volunteer coach have a part to play in the succession planning around the program?
  21. If there is anything else you would like to add, please feel free to do so here. We thank you for your participation.  

APPENDIX A
Qualtrics survey questions

  1. Gender
  2. Age
  3. Education
  4. Please list your present coaching certifications (i.e., USA Triathlon, USA Swimming, SafeSport)
  5. Primary Sport Background
  6. Your Primary Role
  7. What NCAA Division is your program?
  8. Please answer this question if you do not presently incorporate volunteer coaches into your program. All others please go to Question #9.
    What reasons exist for not using volunteer coaches?
  9. As the head coach (or as a paid assistant), what are your expectations for volunteer coaches?
  10. What are the requirements (if any) and expectations of the institution has for volunteer coaches (i.e., NCAA certification, 1st Aid/CPR/AED, Police/FBI Background Check, SafeSport)?
  11. How do you recruit volunteer coaches?
  12. How do you incorporate volunteer coaches in your program (i.e., leading practices, travel arrangements, PR)?
  13. What is the hourly / weekly commitment expected from the volunteer coach?
  14. What qualifications do you feel are critical to the success of a volunteer coach?
  15. What do you need to plan, lead, organize and evaluate your program?
  16. Where do you need assistance with your program?
  17. What protections are covered by the institution (i.e., insurance)?
  18. What can a volunteer coach receive from the institution and still be considered volunteer (i.e., stipend, travel allowance, team attire)?
  19. What duties are you planning to assign the volunteer coach? Administrative? Hands on coaching? Program writing?
  20. How might the volunteer coach have a part to play in the succession planning around the program?
  21. If there is anything else you would like to add, please feel free to do so here. We thank you for your participation.  

APPENDIX A
Qualtrics survey questions

  1. Gender
  2. Age
  3. Education
  4. Please list your present coaching certifications (i.e., USA Triathlon, USA Swimming, SafeSport)
  5. Primary Sport Background
  6. Your Primary Role
  7. What NCAA Division is your program?
  8. Please answer this question if you do not presently incorporate volunteer coaches into your program. All others please go to Question #9.
    What reasons exist for not using volunteer coaches?
  9. As the head coach (or as a paid assistant), what are your expectations for volunteer coaches?
  10. What are the requirements (if any) and expectations of the institution has for volunteer coaches (i.e., NCAA certification, 1st Aid/CPR/AED, Police/FBI Background Check, SafeSport)?
  11. How do you recruit volunteer coaches?
  12. How do you incorporate volunteer coaches in your program (i.e., leading practices, travel arrangements, PR)?
  13. What is the hourly / weekly commitment expected from the volunteer coach?
  14. What qualifications do you feel are critical to the success of a volunteer coach?
  15. What do you need to plan, lead, organize and evaluate your program?
  16. Where do you need assistance with your program?
  17. What protections are covered by the institution (i.e., insurance)?
  18. What can a volunteer coach receive from the institution and still be considered volunteer (i.e., stipend, travel allowance, team attire)?
  19. What duties are you planning to assign the volunteer coach? Administrative? Hands on coaching? Program writing?
  20. How might the volunteer coach have a part to play in the succession planning around the program?
  21. If there is anything else you would like to add, please feel free to do so here. We thank you for your participation.  

APPENDIX A

Qualtrics survey questions

  1. Gender
  2. Age
  3. Education
  4. Please list your present coaching certifications (i.e., USA Triathlon, USA Swimming, SafeSport)  
  5. Primary Sport Background
  6. Your Primary Role
  7. What NCAA Division is your program? 
  8. Please answer this question if you do not presently incorporate volunteer coaches into your program. All others please go to Question #9.
    What reasons exist for not using volunteer coaches?  
  9. As the head coach (or as a paid assistant), what are your expectations for volunteer coaches?
  10. What are the requirements (if any) and expectations of the institution has for volunteer coaches (i.e., NCAA certification, 1st Aid/CPR/AED, Police/FBI Background Check, SafeSport)?  
  11. How do you recruit volunteer coaches?
  12. How do you incorporate volunteer coaches in your program (i.e., leading practices, travel arrangements, PR)?
  13. What is the hourly / weekly commitment expected from the volunteer coach? 
  14. What qualifications do you feel are critical to the success of a volunteer coach?
  15. What do you need to plan, lead, organize and evaluate your program? 
  16. Where do you need assistance with your program? 
  17. What protections are covered by the institution (i.e., insurance)? 
  18. What can a volunteer coach receive from the institution and still be considered volunteer (i.e., stipend, travel allowance, team attire)? 
  19. What duties are you planning to assign the volunteer coach? Administrative?  Hands on coaching?  Program writing?
  20. How might the volunteer coach have a part to play in the succession planning around the program?
  21. If there is anything else you would like to add, please feel free to do so here. We thank you for your participation.

APPENDIX B

Semi-structured interview questions

  1. In general, what are your overall perceptions of the role(s) that volunteer coaches play in your program?
  2. What specific knowledge, skills and attributes do you want your volunteer coaches to possess?
  3. What areas do volunteer coaches cover in your program (i.e., writing workouts, supervising practices, fundraising)?
  4. What areas do you not allow volunteer coaches in your program to be involved with?
  5. What value do you place on having volunteer coaches?
  6. How do you incorporate your volunteer coaches into the overall team culture?
  7. Is there anything else you would like to add?


2024-07-18T10:40:06-05:00July 19th, 2024|Sports Coaching|Comments Off on Perceptions of the purpose and role of volunteer coaches in the emerging NCAA sport of women’s triathlon
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Navigating Darkness: College Athlete Suicide, Support Systems, and Shadows of Depression

Authors: Matt Moore, Ph. D, MSW 1, Anne M. W. Kelly, Ph. D 2, Lana Loken, Ed. D. ATC 2, Mastano N. Dzimbiri, MS 1, Payton Bennett, student

Corresponding Author:

Matt Moore, Ph. D, MSW
Chair and Faculty, Family Science and Social Work Department
Miami University
501 E. High Street
Email: moorem28@miamioh.edu

Coaches’ Perspectives of the Influence of Safe Sport-Related Education 

ABSTRACT

Purpose: An increase in mental health concerns and suicide among young adults led to a sharpened research focus on suicide and college athletes. In this study, we investigated the relationship between college athletes’ risk of depression, suicidality, and their support system and whether preventing suicide deaths requires identification of commonly cited risk factors. Methods: Voluntary college athletes aged 18-years-old or older and attending an NAIA member institution participated in the study (n = 361). They completed a web-based instrument that consisted of the following: (1) demographic questionnaire, (2) Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9), (3) Berlin Social Support Scale, and (4) Columbia Suicide Severity Rating Scale. Results: Between 5-18% of college athletes responded affirmatively to one of the questions asking about suicidality. There was a significant moderate negative correlation between the suicide predictor and the PHQ-9 score and significant weak positive correlations between the suicide predictor and perceived emotional support and between the suicide predictor and perceived instrumental support. Conclusion: This study identified findings that might be useful to practitioners and opened new lines for future research. Applications in Sport: College athletic programs and university counseling centers are poised to enhance our understanding of student-athletes’ suicidal distress and how to respond by making use of qualitative research methods. We strongly recommend adopting this strategy to address depression and suicidal ideation.


Keywords: prevention, student-athletes, mental health, risk factors

Introduction
Despite growing openness about mental health struggles, a disparity still exists between physical and mental health (Gorczynski et al., 2023; Moore et al., 2022), fostering stigma and hindering help-seeking behavior (Moore, 2017), particularly among college students (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2021). While mental health diagnoses in the college student population is a longstanding challenge, the COVID-19 pandemic increased stressors placed on the college student population leading to increased risks (Gupta & Agrawal, 2021; MacDonald & Neville, 2023).


According to the CDC (2021), mental health concerns and suicidal thoughts are increasing for youth and young adults. Forty percent of those surveyed showed signs and symptoms of depression and 20% said they had thoughts of suicide. These trends are similar to studies on college student mental health and suicidality (Barclay et al., 2023; Schmiedehaus et al., 2023). According to the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA, 2017) individuals aged 18-25 reported a 3% increase in major depressive episodes from 2015-2017. Additionally,18.9% of individuals 18 and above reported experiencing a mental illness in the past year, with 7.5% reporting a serious mental health illness (SAMHSA, 2017). A second SAMHSA (2021) study found 33.7% of individuals aged 18-25 reported a mental illness and 11.4% reported a serious mental illness.
In addition to concerns about serious mental health illness, SAMHSA (2021) found an increase in rates of suicidal behavior. Specifically, 10.5% reported having serious thoughts of suicide, 3.7% created a suicide plan, and 1.9% attempted suicide. Research by Rosenthal et al. (2023) found higher rates with 13.7% of college students reporting suicide ideation, 7.6% making a suicide plan, and 3.2% reporting at least one suicide attempt. In 2021 suicide became the leading cause of death for those aged 20-24 (CDC, 2023).
One subset of the college student population is college athletes. Recently, discussion of their mental health increased. Researchers attempted to explore the intersectional identity of student athletes and the effect that this role strain may have on mental health (Gorczynski et al., 2023; Moore et al., 2022). Quantifying mental health and suicide risk in this group is challenging, with conflicting results on the link between depression, support systems, and suicide. Many researchers see sport participation as a protective factor for mental health risk due to the social support provided by the team (Hui et al., 2023; Sullivan et al., 2020). But additional pressures like failure to successfully compete or live up to expectations, loss of social structure due to injury or retirement from sport, or time demands of the sport in addition to being a college student can increase the risk (Moore, 2017; Moore et al., 2022). This study builds upon existing research by looking more closely at the relationship between a college athletes’ risk of depression, suicidality, and their support system.


College Athletes and Depression
According to the American Psychological Association (2020), depression is one of the most common mental health disorders in the United States. Depression might include emotional, cognitive, physical, and/or behavioral symptoms and is best understood on a continuum of severity, rather than either present or not present. Findings amongst college athletes demonstrate that depression rates align with rates of the general population of college students (hovering around 25%) (Prinz et al., 2016; Wolanin et al., 2016), and some revealed that athletes have higher rates of depression (over 30%) than the general population (Cox, 2015). While many studies find similar rates between college athletes and their non-athlete peers, others show participation in college athletics can decrease one’s risk for depression (Banu, 2019; Salehioan et al., 2012).
Although some research shows athletic participation may protect against mental illness, there is still reason for concern for college athletes. A current study by the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA, 2022) surveyed almost 10,000 NCAA athletes from all three competitive division levels. Results showed athletes of all competition levels demonstrated elevated levels of mental exhaustion, anxiety, and depression. These levels were nearly two times higher than pre-pandemic levels. The top three factors negatively affecting mental health were academic worries (44%), planning for the future (37%), and financial worries (26%). Only 50% of college athletes believed mental health was a priority for their athletic department, 33% of college athletes did not know where to go to seek mental health services, and as many as 17% of college athletes reported feeling hopeless.


College Athletes and Suicide
Suicide risk in athletes is difficult to determine due to underreporting and misclassification of many sudden deaths. Over the past two decades the NCAA attempted to determine the risk of suicide specific to college athletes. Rao et al. (2015) reported that 7.3% of all athlete deaths were suicides, making suicide the fourth leading cause of death for college athletes. Previously, Miller and Hoffman (2009) found approximately 5% of student-athletes contemplated suicide. Much like research on college athlete depression, some research demonstrates sport protects against suicidality (Maron et al., 2014). This study’s findings highlight the importance of promoting participation in diverse sporting activities among college students given that engaging in such activities safeguards against depression and suicidal ideation by nurturing self-esteem and bolstering social support.


College Athletes and Social Support
The discrepancy in the literature may be accounted for by the supports that are available to college athletes and their willingness to seek such supports (Sullivan et al., 2020). One of the most discussed supports is the team environment. Sullivan et al. (2020) analyzed the effects of social supports on depressive symptoms in college athletes. They found emotional support from teammates, family, and friends was correlated with a decrease in depressive symptoms. Other more formal or instrumental supports that reduced depression included the availability of tutoring and health services, including mental health providers with specialization with athletes.
Social support has not been as extensively studied in the college athlete population. Studies show links between social support and burnout as well as social support and overall wellbeing in college athletes (Defreese & Smith, 2014). Research identified social support as an important component in allowing athletes to balance school and athletics (Carter-Francique, 2015). Many college athletes have strong social support networks naturally, such as relationships with teammates, coaches, medical staff, and other resources provided by the athletic department (Armstrong & Oomen-Early, 2009). They also have supportive relationships, such as family and friends, outside of athletics.
Despite knowledge of these available supports and benefits they offer college athletes, exploring the utilization of built-in athletic supports and personal supports unique to an individual athlete remains understudied. Much of the research tends to oversimplify social support. Due to its dynamic and complex nature, social support among college athletes merits further investigation. Research has not examined the differences in the type of perceived social support in collegiate athletics as it relates to levels of depressive symptoms and suicidality.

Present Study
Overall, the research on mental health issues, including depression and suicide in collegiate athletes is inconclusive. More research is needed to determine what factors put athletes at risk for severe mental health concerns and suicide. The purpose of this study was to investigate whether there is a relationship between levels of depression and suicide risk and levels of social support among National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA) college athletes. The NAIA does not have data available on connectedness between depression, social support, and suicide.

Methods

Procedures

Research Design
The current exploratory study utilized a cross-sectional, web-based survey design to gather data from NAIA college athletes. Considering the size of the NAIA student-athlete population, confidence level, confidence intervals, statistical test, and statistical power, the minimum sample for this study was 47 college athletes (Faul et al., 2007). Researchers identified athletic trainers through the NAIA database to establish contact information. Athletic trainers provided survey information to their assigned college athletes. This approach was successful in other NAIA research efforts (Moore & Abbe, 2021).


Sampling
The exploratory study utilized a stratified random sampling procedure to identify college athlete participants. Researchers divided the NAIA college athlete population into subgroups, or strata, based on sports available throughout the NAIA. This included a stratum for each of the 17 sports with separate stratum for each gender that participates in a sport. Next, researchers identified NAIA member institutions that participated in each of the 17 sports. Each institution participating in a sport received a random number. Researchers selected random numbers to identify the member institutions that would participate in the survey from each sport. This approach ensured all member institutions participating in various sports had an equal opportunity for inclusion.


Participants
Voluntary college athletes aged 18-years-old or older and attending an NAIA member institution participated in the study (n = 361). Most participants were 18-21 years old (53.5%, 46.5% indicated being over the age of 21). Survey participants were primarily juniors (30.7%, 23.8% sophomores, 23.1% first years, 22.1% seniors of graduate students). More women completed the survey (59.8%, 40.2% men). Most participants who reported race/ethnicity were White/Caucasian (55.4%, 21.9% Hispanic or Latino, 14.9% Black or African American, 6.6% multiracial, 1.2% from other groups).

Table 1.

NAIA Institutional Demographic Information

University Demographic%
Private20.2%
Public79.8%
Suburban33.3%
Urban33.9%
Rural32.8%
Faith Based62.9%
Non-Faith Based37.1%


Participants recorded which NAIA athletic team they were primarily affiliated with (20.2% baseball, 19.9% soccer, 12.5% track volleyball, 8.0% softball, 6.4% cross country, 6.1% basketball, with all other sports being under 5% each [e.g., football, bowling, cheer, dance, track and field, swimming and diving, golf, tennis, and lacrosse]). Participants were further examined regarding NAIA college/university demographics (See Table 1). Participants also responded to whether or not they receiving mental health training from their college of university before participating in sport. The largest majority (n = 229, 63.7%) indicated they did not receive such training. The other 36.3% (n= 132) indicated they did receive some form of training.
[Insert Table One]

Measures and Instruments

College athletes completed a web-based instrument that consisted of the following: (1) demographic questionnaire (see above demographics), (2) Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9; Kroenke et al., 1999), (3) Berlin Social Support Scale (BSSS; Shulz & Schwarzer, 2003), and (4) the Columbia Suicide Severity Rating Scale (C-SSRS; Posner et al., 2011).

Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9)
The PHQ-9 is a self-administered version of the PRIME-MD diagnostic instrument for common mental disorders (Kroenke et al., 2001). It is used to make criteria-based diagnoses of depressive and other mental disorders commonly encountered in primary care. This is a 9-item depression module upon which the diagnosis of Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM) depressive disorders is based. Reliability and validity of the tool have indicated it has sound psychometric properties. Internal consistency of the PHQ-9 has been shown to be high (American Psychological Association, 2020). There is precedent for using the PHQ-9 in research with college athletes (DaCosta et al., 2020; LoGalbo et al., 2022).

Berlin Social Support Scale (BSSS)
The researchers measured the degree of emotional and tangible support using the BSSS (Schulz & Schwarzer, 2003). This scale measured perceived emotional and instrumental supports, need for support, and support seeking. There are 17 items on the BSSS that are answered using a five-point Likert scale with endpoints “1 = Strongly Disagree” and “4 = Strongly Agree.” The researchers used a mean score for each of the subscales (perceived emotional support, perceived instrumental support, need for support, and support seeking). The scale has a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.83 for perceived social support, 0.63 for need for support, and 0.83 for support seeking (DiMillo et al., 2017). The scale has a prior history of use within college athletics (Sullivan et al., 2020)


Columbia Suicide Severity Rating Scale (C-SSRS)
The C-SSRS was developed by researchers from Columbia, Pennsylvania, and Pittsburgh Universities to evaluate suicidal ideation and behavior (Posner et al., 2011). The scale provides a brief assessment of severity and intensity of suicidal ideation, suicidal behavior, and lethality (Syndergaard et al., 2023). The screener version used in this study consisted of six “yes” or “no” questions. Based on participant responses to the six questions, participants were considered low, moderate, or high risk. The C-SSRS has excellent internal consistency (α = 0.95). Principal components analysis revealed a two-factor solution, accounting for 65.3% of the variance across items (Madan et al., 2016). There is limited research on the use of the C-SSRS with the athlete population (Costanza et al., 2021).


Data Collection
Researchers contacted the athletic training staff at all sampled NAIA member institutions. Athletic training staff received the list of teams from their institution for inclusion in data collection. Researchers provided athletic training staff detailed instructions for data collection and a copy of the informed consent. Athletic training staff distributed the electronic survey to their college athletes. College athletes were able to opt-out of the survey at any time. The survey took approximately 15-20 minutes to complete. Researchers recorded survey results into a statistical software program (SPSS 28) on a secure, private platform.

Data Analysis
Researchers utilized descriptive statistics to provide details about the sample and overall survey results. Researchers used inferential statistics to infer information from the sample data to the overall NAIA student-athlete population.

To investigate the first research objective, an initial correlation analysis was conducted to examine whether having any safe sport training was related to increases in coaching outcomes. The safe sport training variable was transformed so that coaches who answered “yes” to completing any of the safe sport training courses were coded as 1 and coaches who had answered “no” to completing all the safe sport training courses were coded as 0 (i.e., no SS training=0, any SS training=1). This variable was included in a correlation analysis with all coaching outcomes: knowledge & confidence, safe sport stress, stress over athlete well-being, and efficacy to support others. To investigate the second research objective, four separate linear regression models were constructed with the sum of completed safe sport training courses (range =1-12) as the independent variable, and the following coaching outcomes as respective dependent variables: knowledge & confidence, safe sport stress, stress about athlete well-being, and efficacy to support others. In all four models, the coaching context, whether training was required (0=no, 1=yes), and whether training was free (0=no, 1=yes) were included as covariates. To address the third research objective, ANOVAs were conducted with individual safe sport courses as independent variables, and the following coaching outcomes as dependent variables: knowledge & confidence, efficacy to support others, safe sport stress, stress about athlete well-being and efficacy to support others. All analyses were conducted using IBM SPSS Statistics (Version 28) (20).

Results

Results
Descriptive Statistics
College athletes answered each item from the C-SSRS. Descriptive findings from this scale indicated that 18.3% of participants wished to be dead, 18,3% had non-specific active suicidal thoughts, 13.6% had active suicidal ideation without intent to act, 6.1% had active suicidal ideation with some intent to act, and 5.0% had active suicidal ideation with a specific plan and intent to act. Of the 361 college athlete respondents, 25.8% answers “yes” to at least one of the questions on the scale.

College athletes completed the PHQ-9 as a brief screening tool for potential depressive symptoms. Results of the PHQ-9 and the percent of athletes at risk of depression for each item can be found in Table 2.

Table 2. PHQ-9 Scores for NAIA College Athletes

QuestionMean (SD) (% At Risk)
Little interest or pleasure in doing things?1.81 (0.91) (22.1%)
Feeling down, depressed, or hopeless?1.68 (0.81) (14.1%)
Trouble falling asleep or sleeping too much?2.06 (1.05) (30.2%)
Feeling tired or having little energy?2.17 (0.92) (29.1%)
Poor appetite or overeating?1.81 (0.96) (21.3%)
Feeling bad about yourself?1.75 (0.93) (18.6%)
Trouble concentrating on things?1.69 (0.96) (17.2%)
Moving or speaking so slowly that people could have notice? Or more fidgety and restless than usual?1.34 (0.69) (7.8%)
Thoughts that you would be better off dead?1.21 (0.53) (4.1%)

Evaluation of Assumptions

College athletes also completed the BSSS. Results of the BSSS and the percent of athletes at risk of limited social support in various areas can be found in Table 3. These are only the scale items where there were significant concerns about perceived emotional support, perceived instrumental support, need for support, and support seeking.

BSSS Scores for NAIA College Athletes

QuestionMean (SD) (% At Risk)
Whenever I am not feeling well, other people show me that they are fond of me? 3.14 (0.82) (17.2%)
When everything becomes too much for me to handle, others are there to help me?3.21 (0.83) (18.3%)
I get along best without any outside help?2.48 (0.81) (48.7%)
In critical situations, I prefer to ask others for their advice?3.00 (0.79) (23.0%)
Whenever I am down, I look for someone to cheer me up again?2.51 (0.89) (49.6%)
When I am worried, I reach out to someone to talk to?2.69 (0.93) (38.2%)
Whenever I need help, I ask for it.2.70 (0.96) (39%)


Researchers used correlation analysis to assess the relationship between a college student-athletes predictor of suicide with their score on the PHQ-9, perceived emotional support, perceived instrumental support, level of needed support, level of support sought, and mental health training.

Prior to conducting the analysis, researchers generated several statistics and graphs to examine the tests of assumption, including level of measurement, related pairs, absence of outliers, and linearity.


Results of the Correlational Analysis
Researchers computed a Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient to assess the relationship between a college student-athletes suicide predictor and their PHQ-9 score, perceived emotional support, perceived instrumental support, level of needed support, and level of support sought. There was a significant (p < 0.001) moderate negative correlation, r = -.462, N = 361 between the suicide predictor and score on the PHQ-9. There was a significant (p < 0.001) weak positive correlation, r = .236, N = 361 between the suicide predictor and perceived emotional support. A similar significant (p < 0.001) weak positive correlation, r = .255, N = 361 between suicide predictor and perceived instrumental support. A college student-athlete’s exposure to mental health training, perceived level of needed support, and level of support sought did not appear to be suicide predictors.

Discussion

In this study, we investigated whether preventing suicide deaths requires the identification of factors that are associated with people’s risk of suicidal behavior. Commonly cited risk factors for suicidal thoughts and behaviors are depression and inadequate support. Association between major depressive disorder (MDD) and suicide attempts or ideation has been well-documented. Accordingly, depression has been considered a necessary or sufficient cause of suicidal thoughts. But much is unknown about the characteristics that increase suicide risk among people living with depression (Bradvik, 2018). Many mechanisms could play a role in suicidal behavior among people with MDD, and, although suicidal behavior occurs among people with major depressive disorder, depression is not necessarily a useful tool for understanding the complexity of suicide (Orsolini et al., 2020).


Most people with depression do not attempt suicide. Diagnosis of MDD requires a simultaneous presentation of several specific symptoms. Approximately, 17 million American adults will have symptoms of MDD each year, but only around 45,000-50,000 Americans will die by suicide during that same time. Considered independently of other risk factors, MDD may put one at greater risk, meaning that those with this disorder are more likely than those without it to die by suicide. But still very few of those with MDD will go on to die by suicide; reliance on depression to predict suicidality is inadvisable. This is supported by Ribeiro et al. (2018), who reviewed existing literature on the subject and showed that although depressive symptoms were reported to confer risk of suicidality, the effects were weaker than expected.

Melhem et al. (2019) demonstrated that the most severe depressive symptoms and variability over time were the only predictors of suicide attempt in young adults, especially when combined with other factors (e.g., childhood abuse, history of attempt, substance use disorder, and parental attempt). But prediction was marginally better than chance, perhaps because suicidal risk varies during a psychiatric illness and may be linked to other factors that appear during depressive episodes. Orsolini et al. (2020) showed that anxiety disorders co-occurring with MDD are among the main predictors of attempts. Several factors interact and contribute to suicidal behavior and death by suicide. These may include major depressive disorder, but interactions with other factors, such as genetic vulnerability, stress, psychiatric comorbidities, and social aspects need to be evaluated to improve prevention (Orsolini et al., 2020).
Results from our research showed a moderate negative correlation between the suicide predictor and score on the PHQ-9, challenging the assumption that depression is a necessary or sufficient cause of suicidal thoughts. This lends support to the idea that traditional risk factors can be problematic and that their predictive value has not improved over the past 50 years (Franklin et al., 2017; Fortune & Hetrick, 2022).

Bradvik (2018) also acknowledged that depression is related to suicidal ideation and attempt but is not a good predictor. Bradvik (2018) pointed to results from the Australian Rural Mental Health Study in which only 364 out of 1051 respondents reported life-time depression. Of those 364 respondents, 48% reported life-time suicidal ideation and 16% reported a suicide attempt. Gender, age of depression onset, and possibly psychiatric comorbidities were somewhat predictive of suicide behavior, but no other predictive factors were revealed. These results were echoed by Melhem et al. (2019).

The limits of risk factors to accurately predict suicide is further strengthened by our finding that an increase in emotional social support was weakly associated with an increase in suicide risk, contradicting earlier research that showed suicidal distress was worse when emotional social support was low (Ayub, 2015; Otsuki et al., 2019). Similarly, instrumental social support (i.e., support that helps people with practical tasks) was weakly associated with suicide risk, contradicting findings from Otsuki et al. (2019).
After a concussion, athletes experience a range of psychological symptoms, with depression and anxiety being among the most reported (Kontos et al., 2012). Symptoms can include loss of interest in activities that were once enjoyable, persistent sadness, physical and mental fatigue, and changes in sleep patterns. These negative outcomes may be more pronounced in athletes who attach a great degree of importance to the athlete’s role in relation to other activities (Brewer et al., 1993; Raedeke & Smith, 2001) and can be made worse by changes in lifestyle, the loss of social support that team members provided, and even personality traits. One such trait is maladaptive perfectionism.
Maladaptive perfectionists are overly critical of mistakes. They strive for excessively high and ultimately unobtainable goals. This usually results in failure, which can be painful, especially for athletes with maladaptive perfectionism, who may lack resilience to bounce back from stressful experiences. This unhealthy perfectionism is associated with higher levels of depressive symptoms (Egan et al., 2011; Olmedilla et al., 2022). Additionally, perfectionists can struggle with time management, not setting realistic timelines for getting things done or because they are paralyzed by the prospect of failure. Time management is one of the most difficult aspects of participating in college sports (Rothschild-Checroune et al., 2013).

Taken together, injury and concussion, personality traits (e.g., maladaptive perfectionism), and external factors (e.g., time constraints) can contribute to negative mental health outcomes among student-athletes and may increase suicidal distress. College athletic programs and university counseling centers are poised to improve our understanding of the nature of suicidal distress among student-athletes face and how to respond by making use of qualitative research methods, which we recommend. We urge university administrators to dedicate more resources to building and integrating academic and co-curricular resilience programs into their campuses and rely less on risk assessment that focuses on commonly cited factors (e.g., depression) to predict suicide.

Study Limitations
While efforts were made to decrease discomfort with the survey, it is possible college athletes felt pressure to respond in particular ways out of personal and/or athletic concerns. This study also relied upon self-reported data. Without having the ability to verify participant responses, there was no way of knowing the legitimacy or honesty of participants’ responses. The study was unable to control the multiple covariates or confounding variables that influence a college suicidality and mental health. Finally, our study lacked a detailed exploration of how specific socio-demographic characteristics, such as race, gender, and class status, might influence suicidal ideation and other risk behaviors among college athletes.

Future Research
The complex interplay between core risk factors in individuals and heightened suicide risk among athletes necessitates further exploration. Future research should focus on understanding the repercussions of escalated demands on athletes’ mental well-being, particularly the impact of significant situational factors such as career-ending injuries on their mental health and suicide vulnerability. Additionally, there is a need to delve into the connection between suicide rates, race, and gender among collegiate students for a more comprehensive understanding of these dynamics.

Conclusion
This study examined the relationship between college athletes’ risk of depression, suicidality, and their support system and whether preventing suicide deaths requires identification of commonly cited risk factor. The results are quite different from previous research findings, revealing a moderate negative correlation between the suicide predictor and scores on the PHQ-9, adding nuance to the presumption that depression is either a necessary or sufficient factor for the emergence of suicidal thoughts. College athletic programs and university counseling centers are poised to enhance our understanding of student-athletes’ suicidal distress and how to respond by making use of qualitative research methods. We strongly recommend adopting this strategy to address depression and suicidal ideation.

Applications in Sport
Studying suicide in college sports has practical applications that can help improve the well-being and safety of college athletes. By examining the factors that contribute to suicidal ideation and behavior in college sports, researchers and practitioners can develop targeted interventions and support systems to address mental health challenges. For instance, such studies may lead to the creation of tailored mental health resources for student-athletes, including counseling services and peer support networks. Furthermore, understanding the unique stressors faced by student-athletes, such as performance pressure and balancing academics with athletics, can inform the design of preventative measures such as stress management and resilience training programs. Additionally, awareness campaigns can be created to destigmatize mental health struggles in sports, encouraging athletes to seek help when needed. Overall, studying suicide in college sports can lead to a safer and more supportive environment for student-athletes, promoting their overall health and success.

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2024-07-03T13:38:41-05:00July 5th, 2024|General, Research, Sport Education, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|Comments Off on Navigating Darkness: College Athlete Suicide, Support Systems, and Shadows of Depression
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Coaches’ Perspectives of the Influence of Safe Sport-Related Education

Authors: Anthony Battaglia1, Ph.D., Gretchen Kerr2, Ph.D., and Stephanie Buono2, Ph.D.

Corresponding Author:

Anthony Battaglia, Ph.D., CMPC 

Faculty of Kinesiology and Physical Education 

University of Toronto 

55 Harbord Street, ON, Canada, M5S 2W6 

Email: anthony.battaglia@mail.utoronto.ca 

Anthony Battaglia, Ph.D., CMPC is a Postdoctoral Fellow and lecturer in the Faculty of Kinesiology & Physical Education at the University of Toronto. His research interests focus on youth athletes’ sport experiences, relational dynamics in sport, athlete maltreatment, and strategies for advancing developmentally appropriate and safe sport.  

Gretchen Kerr, Ph.D. is a Full Professor and Dean of the Faculty of Kinesiology and Physical Education at the University of Toronto. She is also a co-Director of E-Alliance, the Canadian Gender Equity in Sport Research Hub.

Stephanie Buono, Ph.D. is a research associate in the Faculty of Kinesiology & Physical Education at the University of Toronto and an instructor in the Department of Applied Psychology & Human Development at the University of Toronto.

Coaches’ Perspectives of the Influence of Safe Sport-Related Education 

ABSTRACT

To combat growing concerns of sport being unsafe for athletes, compulsory safe sport education has been developed worldwide. Much of this education has focused on the role of the coach, largely due to their position of power, prevalence rates that highlight coaches as common perpetrators of harm, and their direct contact with athletes. However, there is a lack of research examining the impact of such education for coaching-related outcomes. The purpose of this study was to explore the influences of safe sport training on coaches’ knowledge and confidence, efficacy to support others, stress about athlete well-being, and stress related to safe sport issues. In an online survey, 1365 coaches reported completion of any of 12 possible safe sport training courses and their knowledge and confidence, efficacy to support others, stress about athlete well-being, and stress related to safe sport issues. Regression analyses indicated that completing any of the 12 safe sport-related training courses was related to perceived increased efficacy to support others. Completing a higher number of safe sport training courses was related to perceived increases in efficacy to support others and knowledge and confidence, but not stress related to safe sport or athlete well-being. All 12 courses were related to increased knowledge and confidence, and several courses were related to increased efficacy to support others and reduced safe sport stress, while one course was related to reduced stress about athlete-well-being. Future research is needed to examine whether improvements in coaching outcomes associated with safe sport training translate into practice.

Key Words: Safe Sport; Coaches; Education; Coaching Outcomes;

Over the last several years, numerous reports of concerning behaviors in sport, such as maltreatment have emerged worldwide (15, 25). Maltreatment, which refers to “volitional acts that result in or have the potential to result in physical injuries and/or psychological harm” (12, p. 3), which include psychological, sexual, physical abuse, and neglect, harassment, bullying, and discrimination. To combat such concerns, policies and educational initiatives have been developed and implemented under the term ‘safe sport’ (26). The term safe sport initially emerged in response to scandals involving sexual abuse but has since expanded to refer to participation in sport free from all forms of violence, abuse, discrimination, and harassment (21, 39). More recently, broader conceptualizations of safe sport have also considered issues of environmental and physical safety (e.g., dysfunctional equipment, performance enhancing drugs), and the optimization of the sport experience (i.e., inclusive, accessible, growth-enhancing, and rights-based participation for all) (18). To advance safe sport, compulsory education has been developed; examples of existing safe sport education programmes include Australia’s Play by the Rules, U.S. Center for SafeSport Training, and the UK’s Child Protection in Sport Unit (24, 26).

Although safe sport education is needed for all sport stakeholders, including athletes, coaches, parents, administrators, officials and support staff, to-date, education has focused largely on coach-athlete dynamics, addressing issues such as harmful coaching practices, power relations, and duty to report harm (24, 26). There is a strong rationale for safe sport training focused on coaches. Consistent across many bodies of research in sport is acknowledgement of the presence and effects of the position of power and authority held by coaches over stakeholders in the sport ecosystem, including subordinate coaches, parents, athletes, and administrators (23, 38). When used inappropriately, these positions of power leave others vulnerable to experiences of harm. For example, psychological abuse (or what some refer to as psychological violence), the most prevalent form of athlete maltreatment, is most often perpetrated by coaches (42, 45, 48). Given their direct contact with other coaches, support staff, athletes and/or teams daily, coaches also significantly impact the type of culture promoted (e.g., win-at-all-costs versus caring or athlete-centred) and the nature and quality of athletes’ experiences (32). Coaches who are provided professional development and educational opportunities regarding positive sport practices are more likely to create environments where athletes experience enjoyment, competence, meaningful relationships, learning, satisfaction, reduced anxiety, and sport maintenance (6, 16, 36).

Although growing awareness of athlete maltreatment and the role of the coach in preventing these experiences has resulted in the proliferation of safe sport education initiatives for coaches globally, little research exists on the impact of such education for coaching-related outcomes (24, 26). In 2013, McMahon (28) investigated how a narrative pedagogical approach (i.e., athletes’ stories) might help swim coaches from amateur and elite levels understand the welfare implications for athletes subjected to emotionally or physically abusive coaching practices. Findings revealed that coaches gained increased empathy and undertook a more athlete-centered approach to coaching post-education, however, dominant cultural ideologies (e.g., winning) persisted in the coaches’ thinking and practice. Likewise, in 2018, Nurse (30) examined child sexual abuse prevention training for adults who work with children in schools, churches, and athletic leagues; with regards to coaches specifically, the training improved coaches’ knowledge on the topic and increased their confidence in their ability to identify abuse. These preliminary findings highlight the potential benefits of training for coaches; however, it is important to note that the education programmes were restricted to specific populations, sports, forms of harm, small sample sizes, and the effects of long-term behavioral change remained unclear. Further research examining the impact of safe sport training for coaches is required.

In Canada, the country of interest in this study, safe sport educational modules (e.g., NCCP Make Ethical Decisions, Safe Sport Training) (7, 9) have been developed by the Coaching Association of Canada (CAC), which is responsible for certifying and educating coaches across Canada. The CAC has also promoted safe sport standards and expectations for organizations and its coaches, including the Responsible Coaching Movement- a pledge to learn and apply consistent safety principles. The pillars of the Responsible Coaching Movement include the Rule of Two, which attempts to ensure all interactions and communications are in open, observable, and justifiable settings; background screening; and ethics training (8). In the province of Ontario, the Coaches Association of Ontario- an independent, non-profit organization that supports coaches from community level to high performance across all sports in Ontario- has adopted similar safe sport efforts and developed resources, such as Safe Sport 101 and the Ontario Coaches Conference (10). The goals of such initiatives include but are not limited to improving the knowledge of coaches with respect to safe sport, increasing their confidence in enacting desirable coaching behaviors, creating positive sport climates, and facilitating the holistic development of athletes. To-date, the extent to which these educational initiatives meet these goals for Canadian coaches has not been examined.

While safe sport education for coaches has commonly focused on enhancing knowledge of harmful or prohibited conduct, enhancing confidence in using desired behaviors, and supporting stakeholders’ (e.g., athletes, coaches, support staff) development and well-being, there remains a lack of research examining the influence of safe sport training on coaching-related outcomes (24, 26). In this study, the constructs of knowledge, confidence, efficacy, and stress were of interest. Despite recognizing their influential role, many coaches admit inadequate knowledge to cultivate safe sport environments (25); as cultivating safe sport environments is also a collective effort, it remains important that coaches feel efficacious in their ability to support all participants (31). Given the prevalence of mental health challenges in sport, coaches have expressed stress related to supporting athletes’ mental well-being (1, 3). Further, in response to the public attention paid to cases of athlete maltreatment and the focus on coaches as perpetrators of harm, coaches have reportedly felt stress about potential false accusations; specifically, concerns of negative touch have been identified in research and practice, resulting in coaches and sport personnel being fearful and unsure of how to be around athletes with whom they interact (40).

The purpose of this study therefore to explore the influences of safe sport training on Ontario coaches’ knowledge and confidence, efficacy to support others, stress about athlete well-being, and stress related to safe sport issues. Specifically, the first objective was to examine whether safe sport training improved coaches’ knowledge and confidence, efficacy to support others, stress about athlete well-being, and stress related to safe sport issues. The second objective was to examine whether the effect of safe sport training on coaches increased with the number of safe sport training courses. The third objective was to examine whether certain courses were related to coaches’ knowledge and confidence, efficacy to support others, stress about athlete well-being, and stress related to safe sport issues.

Methods

Procedures

This study was conducted in partnership with the Coaches Association of Ontario (CAO). CAO is an independent, non-profit organization that supports coaches across all levels and sports in Ontario. Ontario has the largest population of all provinces in Ontario with over 15 million people and one in four Ontarians have coached in their lifetime (10). The CAO selected the safe sport-related courses of interest for evaluation (see Table 1). As such, within the context of the current study, a broad perspective of safe sport (i.e., from injuries to drug-free sport, planning appropriate practices, and maltreatment) was adopted. Upon receiving approval from the University of Toronto Health Sciences Research Ethics Board, coaches were contacted through the Coaches Association of Ontario (CAO) email listserv and social media posts (Facebook, Instagram, Twitter). Recruitment communication provided details about study eligibility/requirements, the purpose of the study, the voluntary nature of the study, confidentiality and anonymity, and the link to the online survey. The survey was administered with RED Cap electronic data capture. Participants were required to meet the following eligibility criteria to complete the online survey: 1) Ontario resident; 2) over the age of 16; and 3) had coached in the last two years. Following the confirmation of eligibility, participants were able to complete the survey, which took approximately 15-25 minutes (M=19.25) to complete.

Table 1. An overview of the Safe Sport Education modules evaluated in the current study.

CourseOverview
NCCP Emergency Action Planning https://coach.ca/nccp-emergency-action-planUpon completion of this module, coaches will be able to: describe the importance of having an EAP; identify when to activate the EAP; explain the responsibilities of the charge person and call person when the EAP is activated; and create a detailed EAP that includes all required information for responding to an emergency.
NCCP Planning a Practice https://coach.ca/nccp-planning-practiceUpon completion of this module, coaches will be able to: explain the importance of logistics in the development of a practice plan; establish an appropriate structure for a practice; and identify appropriate activities for each part of the practice. To receive full credit for this module, coaches must also complete NCCP Emergency Action Planning.
NCCP Making Head Way https://coach.ca/nccp-making-head-way-sportUpon completion of this module, coaches will understand how to: prevent concussions; recognize the signs and symptoms of a concussion; what to do when they suspect an athlete has a concussion; and ensure athletes return to play safely.
NCCP Leading Drug-Free Sport https://coach.ca/nccp-leading-drug-free-sportUpon completion of this module, coaches will be able to: understand and demonstrate their role in promoting drug free sport; assist athletes to recognize banned substances and the consequences as identified by the Canadian Centre for Ethics in Sport; reinforce the importance of fair play and the NCCP Code of Ethics; educate and provide support to athletes in drug testing protocols; and inform athletes on nutritional supplements.
NCCP Prevention and Recovery https://coach.ca/nccp-prevention-and-recoveryUpon completion of this module, coaches will be able to: identify common injuries in sport, prevention and recovery strategies; design and implement programs/activities to optimize athlete training, performance and recovery; and support athletes’ return to sport through awareness and proactive leadership.
Commit to Kids https://protectchildren.ca/en/get-involved/online-training/commit-to-kids-for-coaches/Upon completion of this module, coaches will be able to: understand and recognize child sexual abuse and the grooming process; ways in which to handle disclosures of sexual abuse; the implications of sexual abuse; how to create a child protection code of conduct; and ways in which to enhance child and youth safety in sport.
Standard First Aid and CPR https://www.redcross.ca/training-and-certification/course-descriptions/first-aid-at-home-courses/standard-first-aid-cprUpon completion of this module, coaches will be able to: understand and apply vital life-saving knowledge/skills essential for meeting a variety of workplace/professional requirements.
HeadStartPro https://headstartpro.com/coach-course/Upon completion of this module coaches will be able to: understand and develop a set of coaching tools to improve team performance and injury-prevention; and assist athletes and/or teams in achieving their full potential with performance-driven injury prevention training.
NCCP Making Ethical Decisions https://coach.ca/nccp-make-ethical-decisionsUpon completion of this module coaches will be to: analyze challenging situations and determine the moral, legal, or ethical implications; and apply the NCCP Ethical Decision-Making Model to respond in ways that are consistent with NCCP Code of Ethics.
NCCP Empower+ (Creating Positive Sport Environments) https://coach.ca/nccp-creating-positive-sport-environmentUpon completion of this module, coaches will be able to: describe the characteristics and benefits of participant-centered coaching; explain the types of harm that may occur when a coach misuses their power; respond to suspicions or knowledge of maltreatment; and implement positive coaching strategies to foster learning, performance, and create a safe sport environment.
CAC Safe Sport https://coach.ca/safe-sport-trainingUpon completion of this module, coaches will be able to: understand the critical role of all stakeholders in promoting safe sport, how the misuse of power leads to maltreatment, and principles of the Universal Code of Conduct; understand types of maltreatment and how to recognize signs and symptoms; and respond when maltreatment is suspected and create a safe sport culture for all participants.
Respect in Sport https://www.respectgroupinc.com/respect-in-sport/Upon completion of this module, coaches will be able to: recognize, understand, and respond to issues of bullying, abuse, harassment, and discrimination.

Note. For further detail on course descriptions and/or objectives see the corresponding webpages indicated in the table.

Participants

Participants were 1365 coaches from the Coaches Association of Ontario (CAO). Of the respondents, 61% identified as men (n=823), 38% identified as women (n=514; n=28 did not disclose), 86% identified as White (n=1087), while 4% (n=53) identified as Black, 4% (n=51) identified as East/Southeast Asian, 2% (n=31) identified as Indigenous, and less than 2% identified as Latinx (n=19), South Asian (n=18), Middle Eastern (n=16), or another race category (n=27). Coaches reported working in a variety of contexts including grassroots (e.g., recreational, community sport, house league, intramural; n=273, 22%), school sports (e.g., primary and secondary school; n=141, 11%), development (e.g. competitive, club, travel, city, all-star; n=600, 49%), post-secondary (e.g., Support, CCAA, OUA, Inter-university; n=74, 6%), provincial (e.g., Canada Games, National Championships, OHL; n=90, 7%), international (e.g., International Competitions, Worlds, Pan Am, Commonwealth, Olympics; n=36, 3%), and masters or professional (e.g., Senior, NHL, NBA, CEBL; n=20, 2%). Coaches’ tenure in their current position ranged from 1-10 years (n=804, 65%), 11-20 years (n=238, 19%), and more than 20 years (n=194, 16%). Training in safe sport was required for 78% of coaches (n=782) and provided free of cost for 51% of coaches (n=535).

Measures

Safe sport training was measured with a “yes” or “no” response from coaches to indicate whether they had taken each of the following courses: NCCP[1] Emergency Action Planning, NCCP Planning a Practice, NCCP Making Head Way, NCCP Leading Drug Free Sport, NCCP Prevention and Recovery of Injury, Commit to Kids, Standard First Aid and CPR, HeadStart, NCCP Make Ethical Decisions, NCCP Empower+ (Creating Positive Sport Environments), CAC Safe Sport Training, Respect in Sport.

Knowledge & confidence to create a safe sport environment was measured using a 3-item scale (a=.7), which asked coaches about their knowledge of safe sport concepts and their confidence in creating a safe sport environment. Example items included, “I am confident in my abilities to create a safe sport environment” and “I am familiar with the responsible coaching movement.” Coaches responded to each item on a scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).

Safe sport stress was measured using a 3-item scale (a=.68), which asked coaches about the stress they experience over creating a safe sport environment. An example item includes, “I often stress about being the subject of a harassment or abuse claims”. Coaches responded to each item on a scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).

Stress about athlete well-being was measured with 2 items (a=.59): “I often stress about my ability to manage athletes’ mental well-being”, and “I often stress about my ability to manage athletes’ physical well-being.” Coaches responded to each item on a scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).

Efficacy to support others was measured using a 5-item scale (a=.87), which asked coaches about how confident they feel in their ability to support athletes and other coaches. An example item includes “I am confident in my abilities to support my athletes with performance issues”. Coaches responded to each item on a scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).

[1] NCCP refers to the National Coaching Certification Program offered by the Coaching Association of Canada.

Safe sport stress was measured using a 3-item scale (a=.68), which asked coaches about the stress they experience over creating a safe sport environment. An example item includes, “I often stress about being the subject of a harassment or abuse claims”. Coaches responded to each item on a scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).

Stress about athlete well-being was measured with 2 items (a=.59): “I often stress about my ability to manage athletes’ mental well-being”, and “I often stress about my ability to manage athletes’ physical well-being.” Coaches responded to each item on a scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).

Efficacy to support others was measured using a 5-item scale (a=.87), which asked coaches about how confident they feel in their ability to support athletes and other coaches. An example item includes “I am confident in my abilities to support my athletes with performance issues”. Coaches responded to each item on a scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).

Data Analysis

To investigate the first research objective, an initial correlation analysis was conducted to examine whether having any safe sport training was related to increases in coaching outcomes. The safe sport training variable was transformed so that coaches who answered “yes” to completing any of the safe sport training courses were coded as 1 and coaches who had answered “no” to completing all the safe sport training courses were coded as 0 (i.e., no SS training=0, any SS training=1). This variable was included in a correlation analysis with all coaching outcomes: knowledge & confidence, safe sport stress, stress over athlete well-being, and efficacy to support others. To investigate the second research objective, four separate linear regression models were constructed with the sum of completed safe sport training courses (range =1-12) as the independent variable, and the following coaching outcomes as respective dependent variables: knowledge & confidence, safe sport stress, stress about athlete well-being, and efficacy to support others. In all four models, the coaching context, whether training was required (0=no, 1=yes), and whether training was free (0=no, 1=yes) were included as covariates. To address the third research objective, ANOVAs were conducted with individual safe sport courses as independent variables, and the following coaching outcomes as dependent variables: knowledge & confidence, efficacy to support others, safe sport stress, stress about athlete well-being and efficacy to support others. All analyses were conducted using IBM SPSS Statistics (Version 28) (20).

Results

Safe Sport Training & Coaching Outcomes

Range, mean, and standard deviation scores for all variables included in subsequent analyses are included in Table 2. Of the coaches in this sample, 65% (n=890) reported completing at least one of the education courses, while 35% (n=475) reported not having taken any of the education courses. Results of the correlation analysis (Table 3) demonstrate that having any safe sport training was significantly related to increases in efficacy to support others, but not knowledge and confidence, safe sport stress, or stress about athlete well-being.

Table 2. Descriptive statistics for all variables

RangeMeanSD
Coaching Context (0=Grassroots)0-71.811.37
Training Required (0=No)0-1.59.49
Training Free (0=No)0-1.49.50
Any Safe Sport Training0-1.6.13
Number of Safe Sport Training0-123.643.42
Knowledge & Confidence-4-201
Safe sport stress-4-201
Stress over athlete well-being-4-201
Efficacy to Support-4-201
n=1365   
Table 3. Correlations between any safe sport training and coaching outcomes
Any Safe Sport TrainingKnowledge ConfidenceSafe Sport StressAthlete WB StressEfficacy to Support
Any Safe Sport Training1.00.06*.04.002-.03
Knowledge Confidence.06*1.00-.02.00.29**
Safe Sport Stress.04-.021.00.34**-.09**
Athlete WB Stress.002.00.34**1.00-.20**
Efficacy to Support-.03.29**-.09**-.20**1.00
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level
*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level

Number of Safe Sport Training & Coaching Outcomes

Figure 1 demonstrates the number of safe sport courses taken by coaches in this sample based on influential covariates such as coaching context, training requirement, and training accessibility (i.e., whether the training was provided free of cost). Significantly more safe sport courses were completed by coaches in Post-Secondary, Provincial, International, Masters and Professional contexts, and by coaches for whom training and education is required and free. 

Initial correlation analysis (Table 4) demonstrated being a coach at a high level of competition (e.g., provincial, international) was related to taking more safe sport courses, higher knowledge and confidence, and higher efficacy to support others. Having access to free training was related to taking more safe sport courses and higher knowledge and confidence. Finally, taking more safe sport training courses was related to higher knowledge and confidence and efficacy to support others. Safe sport stress and stress about athlete well-being were not related to any of the independent variables.

Table 4. Correlations between number of safe sport training courses, covariates and outcome variables
Coaching ContextTraining RequiredTraining FreeSafe Sport TrainingKnowledge ConfidenceSafe Sport StressAthlete WB StressEfficacy to Support
Coaching Context1.00-.04-.03.11**.07**.01.00.08**
Training Required-.041.00.11**-.02.08**.06.03-.05
Training Free-.03.11**1.00.09**.08*.00-.06.01
Safe Sport Training.11**-.02.09**1.00.26**.05.01.10**
Knowledge Confidence.07**.08**.08*.26**1.00-.02.00.29**
Safe Sport Stress.01.06.00.05-.021.00.34**-.09**
Athlete WB Stress.00.03-.06.01.00.34**1.00-.20**
Efficacy to Support.08**-.05.01.10**.29**-.09**-.20**1.00
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level
*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level

The results of the first regression analysis (Table 5) demonstrated that the number of safe sport training courses coaches completed was related to increases in knowledge and confidence and efficacy to support others, when training requirements, access to training, and context of the sport environment were held constant. The number of safe sport training courses coaches took was not related to safe sport stress or athlete well-being stress.

Table 5. Linear Regression Analyses for General Coach Training
Knowledge & ConfidenceSafe Sport StressAthlete WB StressEfficacy to Support
BSEBSEBSEBSE
Coaching Context.03.02.01.02.00.02.08*.02
Training Required.09*.07.06.07.03.07.04.08
Training Free.08*.06.01.06.06.06.001.06
Safe Sport Training.31**.01.05.01.003.01.12**.01
  
Adj. R-Square.12.01.00.03 
n=1365
**Coefficient is significant at the 0.01 level
*Coefficient is significant at the 0.05 level

Individual Safe Sport Courses and Coaching Outcomes

The results of the final analysis demonstrated that all courses were significantly related to improved knowledge and confidence. NCCP Emergency Action Planning, NCCP Leading Drug Free Sport, Commit to Kids, HeadStartPRO, and NCCP Empower+ (Creating Positive Sport Environments) were significantly related to reduced safe sport stress. Commit to Kids was significantly related to reduced athlete well-being stress. Finally, NCCP Planning a Practice, NCCP Leading Drug-free Sport, NCCP Prevention and Recovery, Commit to Kids, HeadStartPRO, NCCP Empower+ (Creating Positive Sport Environments), and CAC Safe Sport were significantly related to efficacy to support others (Table 6).

Table 6. Effects of Individual Safe Sport Courses
Knowledge ConfidenceSafe Sport StressAthlete WB StressEfficacy to Support Others
FSig.FSig.FSig.FSig.
NCCP Emergency Action Planning60.97<.0015.67.0171.45.2293.75.053
NCCP Planning a Practice53.82<.001.13.722.44.5097.23.007
NCCP Making Head Way64.15<.001.10.754.08.772.35.557
NCCP Leading Drug-free Sport72.82<.0015.65.018.25.61822.49<.001
NCCP Prevention and Recovery47.18<.0013.29.070.08.77714.21<.001
Commit to Kids35.88<.0015.16.0238.91.00311.29<.001
Standard First Aid and CPR17.96<.001.31.580.69.4069.73.002
HeadStartPRO7.08.00810.31.002.06.8149.15.003
NCCP Making Ethical Decisions22.26<.001.17.680.01.931.01.91
NCCP Empower+ (Creating Positive Sport Environments)15.21<.0017.92.04.315.57516.42<.001
CAC Safe Sport89.17<.001.16.6903.91.5328.41.004
Respect in Sport32.62<.001.07.797.07.7973.64.056
n=1365

Discussion

The purpose of this study was to explore the influences of safe sport training on sport coaches’ knowledge and confidence, safe sport-related stress, efficacy to support others, and stress about athlete well-being. Specific focus was directed towards examining the relationship between the number of safe sport courses completed and the effects of specific safe sport courses for these coaching outcomes. The results of this study demonstrated that having any training or education was related to increased efficacy to support others. Having completed a higher number of safe sport training courses was related to increased efficacy to support others and knowledge and confidence, and all safe sport courses were related to increased knowledge and confidence.  

Although a plethora of safe sport education exists to-date, a prominent criticism has been the lack of empirical evaluations examining the impact or effectiveness of such training (24, 26). The findings of the current study help to address this knowledge gap by providing preliminary, empirical evidence regarding the influence of safe sport education. According to the results, coaches in more professional contexts took more safe sport training courses, which supports the notion that at elite levels of sport, coaches may have more access to professional development opportunities and/or devote more time improving their coaching skills (11, 27). Coaches who were provided access to free training in the current study also took more safe sport courses. These findings suggest that when provided the opportunity, coaches engage in professional development, however, as issues of cost and accessibility remain prevalent barriers, the advancement and development for many coaches remains limited (19, 43. Online modalities have been advocated as a cost-effective, time efficient, and readily accessible way to educate coaches (13, 14) yet, for many coaches, online professional development opportunities still present financial demands. For example, of the twelve courses examined in the current study, only three (e.g., NCCP Emergency Action Planning, CAC Safe Sport, NCCP Making Headway) are listed as online and free for coaches; in the current study, it was not known if affiliated organizations where coaches instruct reimbursed education/training and, if so, for which courses. Access or lack thereof to safe sport-related education may impact the extent to which safe, inclusive, and welcoming spaces are promoted by all coaches (22, 47). This is particularly important for coaching at the youth sport level where the delivery of sport programmes is highly dependent on volunteers who, despite recognizing their critical role for nurturing developmentally appropriate and safe environments, often lack the requisite knowledge to do so (2, 44, 46).

The completion of more safe sport training courses and all courses examined in the current study was related to enhanced coaches’ knowledge and confidence. Exposing coaches to diverse topics which include but are not limited to safety, positive development, harmful practices, and mental health, are critical to improving coaches’ awareness and ability to create safe sport environments (6, 28, 30). The coaches also reported increased knowledge of the Rule of Two and the Responsible Coaching Movement; these safe sport efforts provide additional safety principles for Ontario and Canadian coaches more broadly on background screening, appropriate interactions, and ethics training (8). Findings may be interpreted to suggest that not only does safe sport education positively influence coaches’ knowledge and confidence to create safe environments but also facilitates greater awareness of safe sport efforts in the Canadian sport context, thus providing coaches with a more comprehensive perspective on ways to stimulate safer sport.

Nurturing athletes’ holistic development is a key responsibility of coaches; however, coaches may not have the necessary education and training to adequately support their athletes (41). The current findings indicate that the completion of more safe sport education as well as specific courses (e.g., NCCP Empower+, CAC Safe Sport) may nurture coaches’ expertise and confidence to actively support their athletes with personal and performance challenges. The extent to which athletes report positive coach-athlete dynamics and feel supported in their relationships with coaches has been known to influence whether they experience learning, growth, and safe sport environments (32). Safe sport training also influenced coaches’ confidence to support coaching peers/support staff with personal and performance issues; these findings are particularly important as learning by doing, having a coach mentor, and observing others are important sources of knowledge and development for coaches (43). Collectively, the improvements in coaches’ efficacy to support others (athletes and coaches) suggests that safe sport training may serve as an effective mechanism through which knowledge dissemination and learning amongst stakeholders is achieved.

Many coaches (uninformed on the benefits of positive touch) have adopted a risk-averse perspective when interacting with athletes (i.e., “no touching”) to avoid being accused of misconduct or having their behaviors misconstrued as harmful (33, 34). In the current study, no significant relationship resulted between the number of safe sport training courses completed and coaches’ perceived safe sport stress (e.g., fear of maltreatment allegations). Specific courses were identified as decreasing safe sport stress, however, some of the courses (e.g., NCCP Emergency Action Planning, HeadStartPro, NCCP Leading Drug-free Sport) focus on physical injury prevention and/or drug-free sport and do not necessarily provide broader content on maltreatment that might warrant the reported lower coach stress regarding potential accusations of harm or safe sport issues. Although coaches have commonly reported concerns about touching in sport (33), there has also been growing awareness of psychological harm and toxic cultures in sport (38, 48). The lack of reported stress regarding safe sport concerns may be reflective of coaches being less fearful of false accusations related to psychological forms of harm as opposed to sexual harms. As the survey questions referred to coach stress in relation to abuse and harassment claims broadly, further research attention is needed to assess whether education may impact coaches’ safe sport stress differently depending on the form of harm (e.g., sexual versus psychological).

It is also interesting that while safe sport education was related to coaches’ improved efficacy to support athletes with personal and performance issues, the number of completed courses was not significantly related to stress about managing athlete physical and mental well-being. Only one course (Commit to Kids) reduced coaches’ perceived stress for managing athlete well-being. Commit to Kids focuses exclusively on providing education on sexual harms; while education on sexual harms is needed to advance safe sport, psychological harm and neglect are reported far more frequently by athletes (25, 48) and thus coaches’ perceptions of their ability to manage athletes’ well-being may be limited in scope.

            NCCP Empower+ (Creating Positive Sport Environments) was associated with enhanced knowledge and confidence, improved efficacy to support others, and lower safe sport stress, whereas CAC Safe Sport Training was linked to improved knowledge and confidence and efficacy to support others. Interestingly, Commit to Kids was the only course to positively impact all coaching outcomes, despite focusing exclusively on sexual harms. As sexual harm continues to receive the most media and research attention (4, 25), education on sexual harms may be interpreted by coaches and those in the sport community to be most relevant and important for creating safe sport. Further, in Ontario and Canada more broadly, sport organizations frequently identify course equivalents where coaches may complete different courses, including CAC Safe Sport Training, Respect in Sport, NCCP Empower+, and Commit to Kids but still satisfy the safe sport-related requirements needed to instruct. The lack of an integrated approach and the various safe sport education options available may expose coaches to different experiences and levels of learning, thus providing a plausible explanation for the reported influences on coaching outcomes in the current study. To advance safe sport,evidence-informed education for coaches and stakeholders more broadly is needed (5, 47).

Limitations and Future Directions

Although this study contributes to research and practice in safe sport by providing insights into the reported benefits of safe sport education for coaches, the findings must be interpreted within the context of the current study. Considering the CAO selected the safe sport-related courses of interest for evaluation, a broad perspective of safe sport (i.e., injuries, drug-free sport, planning appropriate practices, maltreatment) was required. The data were also collected from coaches in a specific geographic region (Ontario, Canada) and thus many of the safe sport courses evaluated were exclusive to this coaching sample. The courses evaluated in the current study should not be considered an exhaustive list of all safe-sport courses; for example, since the completion of the study, several courses (e.g., Support Through Sport, Safe Sport 101 Playbook) have been revised and/or developed. Additionally, as the sport domain has been referred to one that reinforces toxic cultures, there are several education courses in Ontario and Canada more broadly on creating positive culture and inclusive environments (e.g., NCCP Coaching Athletes with a Disability), that were not included and require future consideration regarding their impact on coaches and advancing safe sport. 

The study findings highlighted a relationship between safe sport education and improvements in coach knowledge and confidence and efficacy to support others, suggesting that practitioners should explore ways to make safe sport education free of cost and accessible. However, as this study did not assess knowledge translation, future research is needed to examine if coaches’ improved knowledge, confidence and efficacy from education contributes to behavior change and the use of more developmentally appropriate and safe coaching practices. Organizational influence also remains an area of interest; for example, it would be beneficial to explore how an organization’s cultural values, priorities (e.g., win-at-all-costs vs holistic development), and support (e.g., free training), may impact coach education uptake and subsequently the effectiveness of safe sport education on coaching outcomes. Future researchers may consider a case study approach to examine the impact of safe sport education for coaches within a specific organization; for example, Likert-scales may be used to assess attitudes, beliefs, and perceptions, semi-structured interviews may help to gain deeper insights on coaches’ interpretations regarding safe sport courses, and participant observation may shed light on issues of coach behavior change resulting from safe sport education.

Conclusion

Safe sport education for coaches has been consistently advocated as a recommendation for advancing safe, inclusive, and welcoming environments, however, the influence of safe sport education remains largely unknown (24, 26). The current study contributes to the sport literature by providing an examination of the influences of safe sport training for coaches. Findings revealed a relationship between the number of safe sport training courses coaches completed and increases in their knowledge and confidence and efficacy to support others. However, the number of safe sport training courses completed was not associated with stress related to safe sport matters or athlete well-being. All safe sport courses were reportedly associated with improved coach knowledge and confidence. Several training courses were also linked to improvements in coaches’ efficacy to support others and reductions in their safe sport stress, with only one course contributing to coaches’ reduced stress related to athlete-well-being. Although the findings suggest favorable influences of safe sport training for coaches, the current study did not assess behavioral change. Future research is needed to explore whether reported improvements (e.g., knowledge and confidence) associated with safe sport education translates to coaching practice.

Applications in Sport

Safe sport education in the current study was reportedly associated with enhanced coach knowledge and confidence to create safe environments and efficacy to support athletes and other coaches/support staff. Unfortunately, as a large portion of the sport sector is run by a volunteer workforce (e.g., volunteer coaches), sport organizations remain reluctant to enforce training requirements for fear of further burdening these coaches who frequently report stress and burnout (2, 35). However, the extent to which sport organizations and their leaders prioritize and support safe sport, has been shown to impact the effectiveness of safe sport efforts (17, 37, 49). In some cases, merely having safe sport education initiatives may have little impact on creating and sustaining safer environments and appear as superficial gestures towards change, further reproducing harms (29, 31). Sport and coaching organizations are confronted with the challenge of maintaining low time and cost demands for many volunteer coaches while also providing adequate education for volunteer (and paid) coaches (19, 46).

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank the coaches who participated in this study along with Coaches Association of Ontario who contributed to the design and recruitment of this study.

Declaration of conflicting interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

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2024-06-20T12:01:59-05:00June 21st, 2024|General, Research, Sport Education, Sports Coaching, Sports Exercise Science|Comments Off on Coaches’ Perspectives of the Influence of Safe Sport-Related Education
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Celebrating the Olympics

A note from the editor: In recognition of the upcoming Olympics, The Sports Journal has “temporarily” allowed for the addition of unique perspectives on Olympic Sports. Please enjoy the commentary from Dr. John Cairney from the University of Queensland.

For the first time in over a decade, NHL players are set to return to the Olympic stage, sparking widespread excitement among ice hockey enthusiasts worldwide. Announced by NHL Commissioner Gary Bettman , this decision to participate in the 2026 and 2030 Winter Games ends a hiatus that has lasted since 2014. It reflects a strategic move to enhance international competition among the world’s elite hockey players, aiming to alternate between the Olympics and the World Cup of Hockey every two years.

The NHL’s withdrawal after the 2014 Olympics stemmed from logistical and financial concerns, including potential revenue losses and the risks of competitive imbalance and player injuries when resuming the season. The injury of John Tavares during the 2014 Sochi Olympics underscored the risk of injury, while also pointing to the demanding nature of Olympic play. Conversely, the break offered a rest period for those not participating, leading to concerns about unequal player fatigue and readiness. Players not competing in the Olympics could potentially benefit from the break, gaining an edge over those who did participate.

Despite these concerns, there was scant research at the time to evaluate their validity, even though professional sports, including ice hockey, are rich in data capable of informing such analyses. Our research team aimed to fill this gap by investigating the impact of NHL participation in the Winter Games on both team and individual player performance, with a
focus on injury and fatigue. Our findings offered some surprising insights.

Our first study looked at the team-level “fatigue effect,” suggesting that teams with more Olympic participants might experience a dip in performance post-Games due to player fatigue, potentially affecting their regular season play. We analysed goal differentials (goals for minus goals against) before and after the Olympics, taking into account the number of players each team sent and mid-season trades’ impacts. Although some Olympic years showed a trend towards a negative effect on goal differential, indicative of a potential fatigue effect, the overall impact on team performance was minor.

The second study focused on individual player performance, particularly during the 2014 Sochi Winter Olympics. We examined performance metrics before and after the Olympics to test the “fatigue theory” at an individual level. Our findings indicated that the number of Olympic minutes played had no significant effect on post-Olympic performance for players overall. However, a closer look at player positions revealed that forwards experienced a slight decrease in points per game post-Olympics if they played more minutes. Defensemen, on the other hand, were unaffected. Overall, our research suggests that concerns about performance declines due to Olympic participation may have been exaggerated.

Our studies provide reassurance that NHL players’ return to the Winter Olympics is beneficial for the sport. While issues related to scheduling, injury risks, and competitive balance remain, the evidence indicates that these factors minimally impact the league and its athletes. The advantages of Olympic participation, including sport promotion, player experience, and fan engagement, significantly outweigh the potential downsides. As the NHL sends its stars back to the Olympic ice, this move is celebrated not only by fans but also as a victory for the global prestige of ice hockey.

References

1https://www.nhl.com/blues/news/nhl-to-return-to-olympics-host-4-nations-face-off#:~:text=For%20the%20first%20time%20in,the%20first%20time%20since%202014.
https://www.cbsnews.com/boston/news/nhls-worst-nightmare-realized-star-player-john-tavares-hurt-during-winter-olympics/#:~:text=NHL%27s%20Worst%20Nightmare%20Realized%3A%20Star%20Player%20John%20Tavares%20Hurt%20During%20Winter%20Olympics,-February%2021%2C%202014&text=BOSTON%20(CBS)%20%2D%20New%20York,over%20Latvia%20in%20quarterfinal%20play.
2https://www.scitechnol.com/peer-review/the-impact-of-the-olympics-on-regular-season-team-performance-in-the-national-hockey-league-5ghI.php?article_id=4359
https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fspor.2020.00076/full

2024-05-08T11:05:32-05:00June 7th, 2024|Commentary, General|Comments Off on Celebrating the Olympics
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For the Good of the Game: What Keeps Soccer Referees from Renewing Their Licenses

Authors: Dr. J Ross Pruitt1, Dr. Dexter Davis2


Corresponding Author:

J. Ross Pruitt* Professor Department of Agriculture, Geosciences, and Natural Resources

269 Brehm Hall University of Tennessee at Martin

Martin, Tennessee 38238

Phone: (731)881-7254 Fax: (731)881-7968 rpruit10@utm.edu

For the Good of the Game: What Prevents Soccer Referees from Renewing Their Licenses 

ABSTRACT

The United States faces a critical shortage of youth sports referees despite a growing interest in many sports. This issue is increasingly gaining attention from sanctioning bodies, referee associations, and researchers. There is a significant cost of referee turnover and implementing strategies implemented to increase retention of officials, especially in soccer. Correct identification of the issues resulting in non-renewal of referee licenses will increase the likelihood of retention strategies being successful. This study builds on existing research by using best-worst scaling to provide a preference share on the factors that result in non-renewal which Likert scales cannot provide. Current and former U.S. Soccer Federation referees in Tennessee were surveyed to determine which factors are most likely to motivate their decision to not renew their referee license. Findings from this research indicate that motivations are different from youth referees compared to adult referees. Youth referees find the cost of refereeing and assigning are resulting in non-renewal of licenses compared to lack of respect and changing work commitments among adult referees. Results of this research can be used to improve retention strategies across age groups.

Keywords: best-worst scaling, soccer referees, referee motivations, referee retention  

Organized sports are an important part of society within the United States as it allows recreational and entertainment opportunities for participants and spectators. Sports officials are often referred to as the “third team” and are a critical aspect to the success of organized sports. In recent years, the popular press has been bombarded with stories of referee shortages (e.g., Conlon, 2022; Medina, 2022; Yurkevich, 2023) and physical attacks (Mendola, 2014; Ortiz, 2015; Weir, 2022; Hamacher, 2023). A majority of states have enacted or are considering laws to protect referees according to the National Association of Sports Officials (NASO) who tracks the status of legislation impacting sports officials (NASO, n.d.).  

Even with increased awareness of the issues of referee shortages, verbal abuse and/or physical assaults, and growing legal protections, organized sports in the United States are still facing a shortage of officials. National and grassroots sport associations have enacted strategies to reduce the turnover to aid in recruitment (Titlebaum et al., 2009) and retention (Warner et al., 2013) of sports officials. These efforts will take time to minimize the impact of verbal abuse and physical assaults that are believed to result in the exodus of sports officials (Warner et al., 2013; Downward et al., 2023). Prior research has explored the factors that result in individuals deciding to become a sports official (Furst, 1991; Kellett and Warner, 2011; Johansen, 2015; Baldwin and Vallance, 2016) and continuing as a sports official (Rainey, 1999; Rainey and Hardy, 1999; Kellett and Shilbury, 2007; Kellett and Warner, 2011; Cuskelly and Hoye, 2013; Ridinger et al., 2017; Da Gama et al, 2018; Giel and Brewer, 2020; Orviz-Martinez et al, 2021; Downward et al., 2023), but the factors resulting in non-renewal of licenses needed to officiate is less clear in the literature.  

The internal and external factors that draw individuals to officiate sports are important motivators to keep renewing their license. When one or more of these factors dissipate or change, an official’s lagging desire to continue can result in non-renewal of the soccer refereeing license. Licenses to officiate soccer are typically renewed annually which requires a conscious decision to continue or not continue. This provides the official with the opportunity to reflect whether the benefits of officiating (e.g., financial, health, social) continue to exceed the costs (e.g. cost to renew the license, additional time away from family, job stress, verbal abuse). As very few soccer referees can rely financially on officiating income alone, the need to balance family, career, and officiating is present. The popularity of youth soccer results in a constant cadre of referees needing recruitment, introductory and advanced training, and retention at the youth and grassroots level. Past research (e.g., Gomes et al, 2021) has used Likert scales and qualitative interviews to determine factors that impact continued refereeing of soccer. This study adds to the existing literature by inviting current and former soccer officials to make a choice among the alternative factors included on the survey instrument. The method used in this study presents a direct ranking of factors not provided in Likert scales. This paper continues with a literature review of the existing literature of factors attracting individuals to officiate sports and what results in the decision to no longer referee followed by a description of our survey methodology. Our survey population included current and former U.S. Soccer Federation referees. Results are then discussed with suggestions for future research presented.  

Literature Review  

The reasons an individual becomes a sports official are complex, but often include altruistic motivations (Balch and Scott, 2007) and love of the sport (Burke, Joyner, Pim, and Czech, 2000). Furst (1991) and Balch and Scott (2007) state that officials continue to officiate for social and interpersonal reasons along with a commitment to the sport. Kellett and Shilbury (2007) discuss the importance of the social and interpersonal support provided between officials to cope with the stress of officiating sports. The stress is, in part, a reflection of the need to quickly and correctly apply the rules of the sport while being in the proper position to make a decision. Initial training of new sports officials often focuses primarily on knowing the rules of the sport with some field training to practically apply what is learned. Factors that are important to keep beginning officials engaged in officiating such forming interpersonal relationships (e.g., Furst, 1991; Balch and Scott, 2007; Kellett and Shilbury, 2007; Kellett and Warner, 2011; Baldwin and Vallance, 2016) and coping with stress (e.g., Voight, 2009) are not the primary focus of initial trainings.  

Officiating sports is a stressful experience due to the complexity of making quick decisions (Guillén and Jiménez, 2001; González-Oya, 2006; Gama et al., 2018) in an environment where positive feedback for correct decisions is limited. In younger and/or inexperienced officials, the lack of experience in these environments and ability to cope with the accompanying stress can contribute to referees no longer officiating (Cuskelly and Hoye, 2013). Prior research has focused on the connection between stressors and burnout (Rainey and Hardy, 1999; Voight, 2009; Da Gama et al., 2018; Gomes et al., 2021; Orviz-Martinez et al., 2021; Downward et al., 2023) with tools like the Burnout Inventory for Referees developed by Weinberg and Richardson (1990). Stressors experienced by sports officials are not always related to the sporting event but can be representative of other factors in their lives including work, family, and support of the organization for which they officiate (Voight, 2009; Cuskelly and Hoye, 2013).  

Reasons that individuals begin refereeing may not always be the reasons they intend to continue. Kellett and Shilbury (2007) document that the interpersonal relationships developed can overcome nervousness experienced by beginning officials. These interpersonal relationships can be a positive stressor, or an indication of commitment described in Cuskelly and Hoye (2013). These may be social in nature can result in officials who, “are likely to feel somewhat compelled to continue officiating through various social mechanisms” (Cuskelly and Hoye, 2013). The level of organizational support, or the official’s perception of support, can result in an intention to continue officiating (Rainey, 1999; Kellett and Warner, 2011).  

Giel and Breuer (2020) find the altruistic motives are not a significant factor in continuing to referee. This highlights the importance of the social relationships as the stress associated with officiating, balancing family, job, and officiating, the stress associated with maintaining the desired level of performance, or other factors can result in the official questioning their desire to continue. This contributes to the belief often expressed in the popular press that burnout and verbal abuse/physical assault are primary motivators to officials leaving the sport (Kellett and Shilbury, 2007). The ability to reframe the abuse as described in Kellett and Shilbury (2007) may limit the extent to which the perception is reality. Voight (2009) finds the conflict between family and officiating, making a controversial call, conflict between work and officiating, making the wrong call, and verbal abuse from coaches as the top stressors among college soccer officials. The least amount of stress can be attributed to the fear of physical harm (Voight, 2009).  

Methods 

The decision to not renew one’s soccer referee license reflects the costs of continuing to referee (whether financial, social, or emotional) relative to the benefits accrued by refereeing. We hypothesize that referees will consider not renewing their license prior to the actual decision where the license is not renewed (Rainey and Hardy, 1999; Cuskelly and Hoye, 2013). Factors that motivate the decision to not renew one’s license are presented in Table 1. Included factors represent those included in the literature (e.g., Furst, 1991; Rainey, 1999; Rainey and Hardy, 1999; Burke et al., 2000; Balch and Scott, 2007; Kellett and Shilbury, 2007; Cuskelly and Hoye, 2013; Johansen, 2014; Giel and Breuer, 2020) as well as those from our personal experiences refereeing and coaching soccer. After the factors shown in Table 1 were selected to include in the questionnaire, the staff and mentors of the U.S. Youth Soccer Region III Championships reviewed our factors and accompanying descriptions for thoroughness. Their suggestions are reflected in our final factors presented in Table 1.  

Use of best-worst scaling (Finn and Louviere, 1992) provides the relative importance that a factor can have on a referee’s continued interest in renewing their license. This method provides an improvement over qualitative interviews which can provide insight into motivations for referees, but not a hierarchical preference ranking that can be used by referee associations to assist in retention of referees. An additional benefit of best-worst scaling is the fact it provides a ratio scale for its results unlike a Likert rating scale that may result in the ordinal ranking not being consistent across respondents (Steenkamp and Baumgartner, 1998; Lusk and Briggeman, 2009). This provides greater insight into the obstacles for a referee to annually renew their license which can lead to increased retention efforts and educational efforts by clubs and sanctioning bodies to reduce the impact of factors resulting in non-renewal of licenses. 

Best-worst scaling provides the respondent the ability to select the factor that provides the most and least utility in a choice set which Likert scales do not provide. This approach has significant implications for marketing (Cohen, 2009; O’Reilly and Huybers, 2015; Massey, Wang, and Waller, 2015) to help identify specific factors that consumers find desirable. Use of this method has extended into the healthcare industry (Flynn et al., 2007) and the value of public information (Pruitt et al., 2014). Given J factors, there are J(J-1) combinations a respondent could select for each best-worst question. The choice of the most important factor j by individual i can by represented by λj on the utility scale with the latent level of utility determined by Iij = λj + εij which assumes that εij is the random error term. By selecting factor j as the most important factor and factor k as the least important is determined by the probability for all other J(J-1)-1 possible differences in the choice set.  

Results from best-worst scaling normally occurs through a multinomial or random parameters logit. Estimate coefficients have little interpretation aside from the magnitude of the coefficient. Preference shares for each factor’s impact on lack of interest in continuing to referee is calculated using the following equation preference share for factor.

Respondents were asked if they had actively considered not renewing their U.S. Soccer Federation (USSF) referee license in the past five years. Individuals that responded yes, were then asked best-worst questions using the factors that were identified and presented in Table 1. Using PROC OPTEX in SAS 9.4, a quasi-balanced incomplete block design (BIBD) was created. The design had a treatment D-efficiency of 90.78 and a block design D-efficiency of 99.86. This resulted in twelve best-worst questions with six factors present in each question. Each factor appeared six times to each respondent with an example of the best-worst questions is provided in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Example Best-Worst Question

Survey

A web-based Qualtrics survey was created that was distributed to current and former U.S. Soccer Federation referees implementing the best-worst questions discussed previously. Through contacts with the Tennessee Soccer Referee Program, we were able to distribute the questionnaire to 3,507 current and former referees. Our ability to contact referees who had not recertified in the previous four years is due to the Tennessee Soccer Referee Program adopting computer software that allows the program to track referees who do not re-certify from year to year. Inclusion of youth referees (between the ages of thirteen and eighteen) was approved by our university’s Institutional Review Board which allows for determination if factors vary by age. Per USSF policy, any email contact from a certified USSF assignor results in the parent/guardian also being contacted1. This resulted in parents/guardians of current and former youth referees also receiving the recruitment email. Initial questions identified if the respondent was at least eighteen years of age and then determined if the respondent was answering for themselves or as parent/guardian of a current or former youth soccer referee2. For youth referees, we included questions that determined if their parent/guardian had provided consent in addition to the minor providing assent. As the parent/guardian also received the recruitment email, email addresses for minors were collected in case the parent/guardian revoked consent necessitating removal of youth referee responses. No parent or guardian contacted us requesting removal of the youth referee’s responses.

A recruitment email was sent in early March 2023 to 3,507 current and former referees registered with USSF in the state of Tennessee with a follow-up email sent two weeks later. An incentive was offered to each respondent of a gift card worth $100 to a referee equipment supplier or a free registration for the 2023 year. Email addresses were collected at the end of the questionnaire and provided to the Tennessee Soccer Referee Program which was responsible in selecting and contacting the winners of the inducement. We received 107 usable responses for a response rate of 3.05%.

Results Demographic information is provided in Table 2. Total responses did vary by question as respondents were not required to answer every demographic question which were asked following the best-worst questions. Respondents were overwhelmingly male and Caucasian. Approximately forty percent of respondents were less than twenty-five years of age and an additional twenty-five percent between the ages of forty-three and fifty-four. Over sixty percent who responded were no longer refereeing soccer with approximately two-thirds believing they were assigned the appropriate number of matches given their skill and ability level. Those receiving the questionnaire were asked an open-ended question on how many years they refereed soccer. Of the 110 responses, many did not provide an exact number. For those who provided an exact number, the average number of years that survey participants had refereed was 8.63 years. Given responses not included in this calculation that stated they had refereed 10+, 20+, or 50+ years, this estimate of 8.63 understates the longevity of referees in this research. A histogram of responses for this question is presented in Figure 2. More than three-quarters of respondents refereed no more than sixty matches a year with the majority refereeing less than fifteen matches annually. Over ninety percent of respondents only refereed soccer. Nearly seventy percent of respondents had suffered verbal abuse in the past two years with approximately five percent having suffered a physical assault (e.g., touched, pushed, shoved, punched, kicked, or spat on) by a player, coach, fan, or parent. Parents and coaches were most likely to have been the source of verbal abuse with players being the source of physical assault.

As we were able to include youth referees (less than eighteen years old), we conducted t-tests for significant differences in means between those who had actively considered not renewing their USSF licenses for youth and adult referees. We did not test for differences in means in age and educational attainment categories since we compared those less than eighteen of ages to all other ages in this comparison. Differences in the mean at the 5% level of significance (p<0.05) were found in these groupings with less than fifteen matches officiated, whether the respondent felt they were under assigned, assigned the right number of matches for their skill/ability level, and whether they play organized soccer. Table 2 includes these results.

Table 2. Demographic Information

VariableMeanStandard Deviation
Gender (n=111)  
Male75.68%0.43
Female23.42%0.43
Prefer Not to Say0.90%0.09
Ethnicity (n=111)  
Caucasian76.58%0.43
African American0.00%0.00
Hispanic5.41%0.23
Native American0.00%0.00
Asian0.00%0.00
Multi-racial6.31%0.24
Other2.70%0.16
Prefer Not to Say5.41%0.23
Age (n=111)  
13-1722.52%0.42
18-2421.62%0.41
25-308.11%0.27
31-366.31%0.24
37-421.80%0.13
43-4811.71%0.32
49-5413.51%0.34
55-603.60%0.19
Over 6010.81%0.31
Education Level (n=111)  
Currently in Middle/High School27.03%0.45
High School Diploma or GED0.00%0.00
Trade, vocational, or technical school4.50%0.21
Associate Degree4.50%0.21
Bachelor’s Degree27.93%0.45
Master’s Degree15.32%0.36
Doctoral or Professional Degree7.21%0.26
Prefer Not to Say1.80%0.13
Household Income (n=110)  
Less than $40,00010.00%0.30
$40,000 to $60,0009.09%0.29
$60,001 to $80,0008.18%0.28
$80,001 to $100,0005.45%0.23
Greater than $100,00040.00%0.49
Prefer Not to Say27.27%0.45

Table 2. Continued

VariableMeanStandard Deviation
Residence (n=111)  
Urban Area14.41%0.35
Suburban Area66.67%0.39
Rural Area18.92%0.47
Levels Officiated1  
Youth recreational33.46% 
Club28.31% 
AYSO7.35% 
High School16.18% 
College3.68% 
Adult Amateur/Recreational10.29% 
Professional0.74% 
Approximate number of annual matches  
Less than 1530.91%20.46
16-3019.09%0.39
31-4513.64%0.34
46-6012.73%0.33
61-755.45%0.23
76-908.18%0.28
91-1052.73%0.16
Over 1057.27%0.26
Proper Assigning Level (n=109)  
Under assigned25.69%20.44
Over assigned7.34%0.26
Right number66.97%20.47
Sports Officiated besides Soccer  
None92.73%0.26
1-26.36%0.25
3-40.91%0.10
5 or more0.00%0.00
Play Organized Soccer (n=110)43.64%20.50
Verbally Abused in Last Two Years (n=109)68.81%0.47
Source of Verbal Abuse1  
Player18.96% 
Coach27.01% 
Fan22.27% 
Parent31.75% 

Table 2. Continued

VariableMeanStandard Deviation
Physically Assaulted in Last Two Years (n=109)4.59%0.21
Source of Physical Assault1  
Player  
Coach  
Fan  
Parent  
Injury of at Least Four Weeks (n=109)11.93%0.33
Attend Continuing Education (n=110)  
Once a year28.18%0.45
Twice a year7.27%0.26
Three to four times a year10.00%0.30
At least five times a year0.00%0.00
Does not attend47.27%0.50
Accepts unsanctioned matches (n=110)12.73%0.33
Anticipates refereeing soccer: (n=110)  
No longer refereeing60.91%0.49
Less than one year7.27%0.26
One to two years12.73%0.33
Three to four years8.18%0.28
At least five years10.91%0.31

1 Question allowed multiple responses and standard deviations are not presented as a result.
2 Denotes significant differences at the 5% level (p<0.05) between youth and adult referees who had actively considered not renewing their license.

Non-Renewal of Referee License

Respondents who answered they had actively considered not renewing their license in the past five years were shown a series of questions asking them to select the most and least important factors impacting why they would not renew their refereeing license. As our sample included youth referees (those less than 18 years of age), we estimated a combined model for all referees responding against the alternative models of youth and adult referees. Each of these models was estimated using a multinomial logit (MNL), an uncorrelated random parameters logit (RPL), and a correlated random parameters logit model. Significant differences were found to exist between youth and adult referees who were considering not renewing resulting in separate models being estimates for youth and adult referees. Likelihood ratio tests favored the use of MNL model for both youth and adult referees.

Youth Referees

Results for youth referees are presented in Table 3 uses Work as the base factor with results. Estimates for the MNL and RPL models are presented with the MNL preferred by use of a likelihood ratio test. Aside from their magnitude, the econometric estimates in Table 3 have no natural interpretation and equation 1 was used to calculate the shares of preference that are presented. The shares of preference for the uncorrelated RPL model were generated from 1,000 random draws using a normal distribution of the mean and standard deviation of a specific factor that might result in a referee not renewing their USSF license. Shares of preference were consistent between the two modeling techniques as there was not greater than ±0.01% difference for any factor. The cost to referee (i.e., Afford) was the number one reason that youth referees had considered not renewing their USSF license. This factor includes the inability to make it to matches for youth referees reflecting the need for an adult or friend to help them make it to assignments. Note that even with a small sample size of youth referees, fifteen of the eighteen youth referees were no longer refereeing. The youth referee’s opinion on how well they were assigned was the second most important factor with the lack of Respect from fans, players, and coaches third (depending on the model used). It should be noted that the fourth most important factor was Game Fees, indicating the cost to benefit ratio for youth referees is contributing to non-renewals. The use of best-worst scaling provides a clearer view of the magnitude of factors resulting in youth referees not renewing their licenses through the direct comparisons with the lack of Respect relatively not as important as other factors.

Table 3.  Relative Importance of Factor Impacting Non-Renewal of Youth Referee Licenses

FactorEconometric EstimatesShares of Preference
 MNLRPLMNLRPL
Respect0.995***1.000***0.1530.153
 (0.255)a(0.256)[0.000][0.002]
 [0.000]b[0.018]  
Youth Involvement-0.761***-0.763***0.0270.026
 (0.252)(0.254)[0.000][0.000]
 [0.000][0.000]  
Social Aspects0.271***0.2700.0740.074
 (0.258)(0.265)[0.000][0.002]
 [0.000][0.172]  
Family Commitments-0.865***-0.859***0.0240.024
 (0.243)(0.246)[0.000][0.000]
 [0.000][0.001]  
Injury-0.491*-0.496*0.0350.034
 (0.256)(0.258)[0.000][0.001]
 [0.000][0.000]  
Lack of Opportunities to Advance-0.189-0.1880.0470.047
 (0.255)(0.257)[0.000][0.001]
 [0.000][0.002]  
Cost to Referee1.123****1.130***0.1740.174
 (0.255)(0.256)[0.000][0.002]
 [0.000][0.005]  
Age-1.178***-1.138***0.0170.018
 (0.248)(0.279)[0.000][0.001]
 [0.000][0.355]  
Assigning0.999***1.009***0.1540.155
 (0.255)(0.258)[0.000][0.002]
 [0.000][0.031]  
Game Fees0.913***0.915***0.1410.141
 (0.265)(0.267)[0.000][0.003]
 [0.000][0.001]  
Lack of Organizational Support0.524**0.529**0.0960.096
 (0.258)(0.259)[0.000][0.001]
 [0.000][0.001]  
Work0.0000.0000.0570.058
(Base Factor)  [0.000][0.015]
     
Log Likelihood-625.138-624.910  
McFadden’s LRI0.0940.149  
Number of Respondents1818  

            ***, **, and * asterisks represent the factor is significantly different from the Work factor at the 1%, 5%, and 10% level, respectively.

a Numbers in parentheses are standard errors.
b numbers in brackets are standard deviations.

In addition to the shares of preference presented in Table 3, we generated Pearson correlations from the individual specific RPL estimates shown in Table 4. Several factors had correlations with at least ±0.3 with another factor. Given the limited number of responses, care should be taken when viewing Table 4, but it provides an indication of how youth referees view these factors influencing their decision to not continue refereeing. The more likely a youth referee viewed the lack of Social camaraderie, the higher an injury might factor into a non-renewal decision. Importantly, the lack of Social connections had a strong direct relationship with their views of Organizational Support provided to them. Concerns about how many games the referee was assigned had a positive relationship with Game Fees being an important factor in the decision to not renew the license. Game Fees tended to have large (positive or negative) correlations with many factors that were included in this research.

Table 4.  Pearson Correlations Between Factors from Individual Specific RPL Estimates of Youth Referees

Factor1234567891011
Respect (1)1.000          
Youth Involvement (2)0.0071.000         
Assign (3)-0.1400.1771.000        
Social (4)-0.1760.410-0.3011.000       
Injury (5)-0.007-0.439-0.4940.5051.000      
Advance (6)-0.211-0.8320.0180.2220.2121.000     
Age (7)0.1640.8740.100-0.248-0.448-0.9191.000    
Cost (8)-0.043-0.159-0.2640.2270.079-0.0730.0961.000   
Game Fees (9)-0.1230.7250.476-0.569-0.737-0.5380.694-0.0461.000  
Organizational Support (10)0.097-0.338-0.1720.5140.5440.189-0.3320.249-0.6691.000 
Family (11)-0.326-0.753-0.0300.4890.5640.723-0.860-0.025-0.6100.5311.000

Adult Referees

Results for adult referees who had considered not renewing their USSF license are presented in Table 5. As with youth referees, a MNL model was preferred to an uncorrelated RPL model with the estimates from both models presented. Unlike youth referees, the lack of Respect experienced by adult referees is the primary reasons resulting in the non-renewal decision. Work commitments or a change in them was the second most important factor. Nearly two-thirds of adult referees who had considered not renewing their license were no longer refereeing; fifteen were considering not renewing in more than the next two years with only four considering refereeing at least four more years.

Table 5.  Relative Importance of Factor Impacting Non-Renewal of Adult Referee Licenses

FactorEconometric EstimatesShares of Preference
 MNLRPLMNLRPL
Respect0.558***0.568***0.2370.238
 (0.113)(0.114)[0.000][0.003]
 [0.000][0.028]  
Youth Involvement-1.571***-1.582***0.0280.028
 (0.117)(0.119)[0.000][0.000]
 [0.000][0.004]  
Social Aspects-1.313***-1.312***0.0360.036
 (0.118)(0.131)[0.000][0.001]
 [0.000][0.3480]  
Family Commitments-0.688***-0.688***0.0680.068
 (0.112)(0.131)[0.000][0.002]
 [0.000][.450]  
Injury-0.794***-0.795***0.0610.061
 (0.117)(0.118)[0.000][0.001]
 [0.000][0.010]  
Lack of Opportunities to Advance-0.828***-.833***0.0590.059
 (0.116)(0.117)[0.000][0.001]
 [0.000][0.001]  
Cost to Referee-.481***-0.474***0.0840.084
 (0.115)(0.116)[0.000][0.001]
 [0.000][0.016]  
Age-1.455***-1.468***0.0320.031
 (0.117)(0.127)[0.000][0.001]
 [0.000][0.179]  
Assigning-0.491***-0.482***0.0830.083
 (0.116)(0.117)[0.000][0.001]
 [0.000][0.001]  
Game Fees-0.350***-0.348***0.0950.095
 (0.120)(0.121)[0.000][0.002]
 [0.000][0.009]  
Lack of Organizational Support-0.510***-0.514***0.0810.081
 (0.115)(0.116)[0.000][0.001]
 [0.000][0.001]  
Work0.0000.0000.1350.135
(Base Factor)  [0.000][0.014]
     
Log Likelihood-2843.485-2838.531  
McFadden’s LRI0.0660.097  
Number of Respondents7777  

***, **, and * asterisks represent the factor is significantly different from the Work factor at the 1%, 5%, and 10% level, respectively.

a Numbers in parentheses are standard errors.
b numbers in brackets are standard deviations.

As with the youth referees, Pearson correlations for the adult referees are presented in Table 6. A greater response rate among adults compared to youth referees provides more robustness in the correlations that are presented. It is interesting to note the strong negative correlation between Game Fees and Assign (-0.591) suggesting concerns about pay is not tied to assigning. Concerns about Game Fees and the ability to Advance had a strong positive relationship (0.607) indicating adult referees view the pay for higher level games isn’t a strong enough incentive to advance. Those referees who rated the inability to Advance highly was negatively correlated (-0.611) with concerns about being over or under assigned (Assign).

Table 6.  Pearson Correlations Between Factors from Individual Specific RPL Estimates of Adult Referees

Factor1234567891011
Respect (1)1.000          
Youth Involvement (2)0.0631.000         
Assign (3)-0.304-0.5781.000        
Social (4)-0.105-0.0520.0171.000       
Injury (5)0.1530.533-0.587-0.1241.000      
Advance (6)0.3000.387-0.6110.2170.4181.000     
Age (7)-0.172-0.2300.089-0.192-0.115-0.2871.000    
Cost (8)0.2750.179-0.4600.0280.1960.542-0.2821.000   
Game Fees (9)0.0460.444-0.591-0.1240.4010.607-0.0150.3361.000  
Organizational Support (10)0.129-0.036-0.055-0.0690.049-0.334-0.0930.007-0.1971.000 
Family (11)-0.255-0.2790.574-0.136-0.543-0.3380.147-0.483-0.3230.0361.000

Conclusions

Concerns about retaining sports officials are a pressing factor for many sports with referee abuse a concern among leagues and official associations. Factors influencing the decision to not renew referee licenses are not well understood in the literature. Prior research has focused on qualitative factors impacting the renewal decision which doesn’t quantitatively rank factors included in the research. This research surveyed current and former referees who had actively considered not renewing their referee license with a majority no longer refereeing soccer. There were significant differences between youth and adult referees in the factors that had led them to consider not renewing their referee license. For youth, the cost to referee and concerns about being over- or under-assigned were the top two reasons for considering not renewing their license compared to adults who were more concerned about the lack of respect and work commitments. For both age groups, concerns about organizational support were significant factors as it relates to continuing refereeing.

Our study is limited by the small sample size, but it is an important look into the factors that resulted in a majority of referees no longer renewing their U.S. Soccer Federation license. While we do not focus on the well-being of referees as in Downward and Webb (2023), our findings are consistent with theirs that a zero-tolerance approach will aid in adult referee retention. This reinforces the need for organizational support (Rainey, 1995; Voight, 2007; Ridinger et al., 2017; Downward and Webb, 2023), but also requires training by those organizations on what to include in post-match reports to have the backing. As over 75% of respondents in our survey did not attend more than one continuing education session annually, sanctioning bodies and referee associations need innovative ideas to aid in reaching this objective.

Future research should focus on expanding this to referees who have not recently considered non-renewal of their referee licenses. This portion of the referee community will likely have different factors motivating their continued renewals as was demonstrated by the differences observed in this paper based on the age of the referee. Identification of the factors that aid in retention of these referees may aid in development of strategies to limit the impact of factors discussed in this research. Given the nature of soccer in the U.S., future research should better control for the differences in length of refereeing and level officiated (e.g., recreational versus club). With the number of young referees who work matches in the U.S., the skills necessary to be successful may not have been developed to handle the stressors commonly associated with officiating (Rainey, 1995; Rainey and Hardy, 1999; Burke et al., 2000; Voight, 2009; Gomes et al., 2021). A more diverse respondent pool, in terms of locality, gender, and ethnicity, is also needed to better understand why referees continue to engage in a stressful avocation.

Acknowledgements

The authors express appreciation to Don Eubank, State Referee Administrator for Tennessee Soccer, for sending the questionnaire to soccer referees in the state and providing the incentive for respondents to complete the questionnaire. We also thank the staff and mentors of U.S. Youth Soccer Region III for helpful feedback on an early draft of the questionnaire. The authors are grateful for the helpful edits and suggestions from Marco Palma on an earlier draft of this paper.

Conflicts of Interest

J. Ross Pruitt is an active soccer referee with the U.S. Soccer Federation, Tennessee Secondary School Athletic Association, and National Intercollegiate Soccer Official Association.

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2024-05-08T12:27:56-05:00May 31st, 2024|General, Sports Coaching, Sports Management|Comments Off on For the Good of the Game: What Keeps Soccer Referees from Renewing Their Licenses
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ISSN: 1543-9518
Established 1998
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