Latest Articles
World Wrestling Entertainment: Achieving Continued Growth and Market Penetration through International Expansion
Abstract
World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE) is best known for its
promotion of professional wrestling as sports entertainment. Today, World
Wrestling Entertainment is an integrated media and entertainment company
principally engaged in the development, production, and marketing of television
programming, pay-per-view programming, and live events, and the licensing
and sale of branded consumer products featuring the highly successful
World Wrestling entertainment brand. As the WWE brand continues to grow,
a strategic decision has been made to place a greater emphasis on the
expansion the WWE brand globally. This paper will present an overview
of WWE from its beginnings as the WWWF (World Wide Wrestling Federation)
to its recent decision to capitalize on the significant operating leverage
of its business model through increase in its brand in markets throughout
the world.
Background
Originally named the WWWF (World Wide Wrestling Federation),
then the WWW (World Wrestling Federation), and currently called the WWE
(World Wrestling Entertainment), professional wrestling has come a long
way from its beginnings in the 1930’s. Today, nearly 50 million
fans admit to watching the Monday night WWE flagship television program,
WWE Raw Is War on the USA television network. This is the number one regularly
scheduled cable TV program among young women. Among men aged 12 to 24,
it topped Monday Night Football. More people attend the WWE’s live
shows than attend an average music concert; the WWE’s Website gets
more viewers than either the NFL or the NBA sites (Sully, 2005).
Wrestling was an early favorite of network TV, but it faded
when the Dumont network folded in 1956 (Assael, 2002).
In an October 5, 2005 interview Kurt Schneider, Executive
Vice President of Marketing, provided a macro perspective on the corporation’s
international expansion efforts, outlining four reasons why logic would
suggest that the WWE will be successful in this venture: 1. Unlike major
sports leagues, there are no game “rules” to understand. It’s
just a “Good vs. Evil” premise; 2. Fans do not need to understand
a “language”; 3. Every single country has wrestling (in some
form) as part of their culture; 4. WWE wrestling is seen as a “uniquely
American export” (Schneider, 2005).
The WWE is, in effect, a hybrid of entertainment and sport.
Viewer Profile – Age Demographics
- 71% male / 29% female 73% are 18 or older
- 37% are between the ages of 12 and 34
- 23% are between the ages of 18 and 34
- 50% are 34 or younger
- 14% are younger than age 12
Perhaps most importantly, WWE made a conscious decision
to create and develop two distinct brands: Raw and Smackdown! Each brand
is unique and has different story lines and separate talent. This creates
opportunities to capitalize not only on television programming, but also
on highly profitable live event tours, doubling the merchandising revenue
streams. Also, in keeping with its known youthful fan demographic, the
company has fostered and encouraged new media ventures and a heavy internet
presence (Rosner and Shropshire, 2004). The division of the WWE talent
roster into two distinctive and separate entities proved to be a stroke
of genius, reviving a company and sport that had previously suffered sagging
ratings and significantly lowered attendance numbers from live events.
This shift – a change in production strategy – was a necessary
one, and resulted in higher quality for both entities (Lamb, et al, 2005).
Beginning to formalize its expansion process, WWE Corporate
held true to its business model, a model which was highly successful domestically,
which has proven even more successful in internationally. Figure 1 depicts
the WWE model.
WWE Expands Internationally
The internationalization of professional wrestling can be
traced back to Japan at the end of WWII, specifically the 1950’s.
Originally, no Japanese wrestler ever won a match, being associated with
being the loser after WWII. In effect, wrestling became a metaphor for
international politics.
The internationalization of wrestling then moved on to the
United Kingdom, Germany, and Australia, its primary markets.
As early as 2002, the WWE had already begun to position
itself within the international market. “WWE provides us with a
global identity that is distinct and unencumbered, which is critical to
our U.S. and international growth plans” said Linda McMahan, President
of WWE. “As WWE, we will launch our further expanded U.S. and international
touring, our international expansion of branded merchandise and licensed
products, and further integration into the film, publishing, and music
business” (Wagner, 2004.)
International expansion represents an important component
of the continued growth of WWE. The broad appeal of its content has yielded
high international demand for its television programs and its live events.
To further nurture this growing demand, WWE plans to continue its international
television distribution, currently available in more than 100 countries
in thirteen languages, and increasing its television penetration internationally
has the potential for increasing the demand for WWE live events, which,
in turn, has the potential to greatly increase the sales of its branded
merchandise. These brands enable WWE to execute its strategy by freeing
up schedules for talent to perform at more events in more countries.
“From an international standpoint, I don’t think
we’ve done a very good job, quite frankly, of exploiting the international
market like we really should. We’re on television in many, many
markets and do extremely well television ratings-wise, but that’s only
one aspect of what we do. We do licensing; we do merchandising, and live
events, and publications, and DVD’s and everything else imaginable.
And we haven’t integrated all of that in our international platforms,
and (doing that) is one of our goals” (McMahon, 2004).
Regardless of country and culture, the insemination process
at WWE is shockingly consistent and regimented. WWE Corporate Headquarters
adheres to a simple three-step plan when tapping into new markets: 1.
Sell TV programming first; 2. Sell live events tour; 3. Bring merchandise
overseas.
As of 2003, admittedly, the process of expanding internationally
was not overly formal within the company. There were essentially 3 groups:
a) TV Sales (with a goal of disseminating product (ex: Raw, Smackdown),
b. Live Event Touring (many “one off” events), and c. Licensing
(completely dependent on a & b). Shortly thereafter, Jonathon Sulley
was hired to handle the expansion efforts, with an overall goal of integrating
all existent strategies. The new process helps WWE to build primary markets;
while in the primary market, it allows WWE to build a secondary market
and finally tertiary markets (such as Chile, Ecuador, and Panama City
– all places that WWE has never been). WWE has plans of going to
Australia in late 2005, New Zealand in early 2006, and the Philippines
sometime in the near future.
Italy is currently the hottest market, surpassing success
seen even over in the United States. According to company research, the
licensing business is the deepest in Italy, and the WWE phenomenon is
at peak. For Italian fans, pro wrestling is “polarizing” –
you either love it, or you hate it. As Sulley (2005) said in an interview,
“the Italian market is like no other.”
Revenues on the international front have more than doubled
in the last three years, and steadily increased every fiscal year since
2002 – $38.5M (2002), $51.8M (2003), $63.2M (2004), $87.5M (2005). Figure
2 illuminates revenues, both for international expansion, but all in comparision
to domestic revenues, which have steadily declined each year over the
same period.
Figure 2: Comparison of Revenues (in $ millions
Television:
One strategy for the further expansion of the WWE brand
internationally is to duplicate its successful domestic business model
overseas (Figure 1) by building on its already established television
presence in over 100 international markets. One way to continue this market
penetration is through the expansion of its live event touring. The following
figures are representative of its growth in the international marketplace.
| FISCAL YEAR | # OF TOURS | NUMBER OF EVENTS | REVENUE |
| FY 2002 | 3 tours | 5 events | $4.3M |
| FY 2003 | 6 tours | 19 events | $13.1M |
| FY 2004 | 9 tours | 32 events | $20.3M |
| FY 2005 | 9 tours | 49 events | $33.0M |
Looking toward FY2006, business is expected to move into
emerging markets such as Latin America, Eastern Europe, and China. This
fits the WWE strategy to broaden its international footprint in the following
manner:
Conduct 55-60 international events as compared to 49 in FY 2005
Attract over 1.6 million attendees worldwide
Sell television rights in over 100 international markets
Continue to develop and further pay-per-view distribution internationally
Expand WWE licensing agreements
Television Live Events:
For fiscal 2005, events were held in:
| Berlin, Germany | Frankfort, Germany |
| Birmingham, England | London, England |
| Manchester, England | Aberdeen, Scotland |
| Glasgow, Scotland | Brisbane, Australia |
| Melbourne, Australia | Sydney, Australia |
| Perth, Australia | Helsinki, Finland |
| Dublin, Ireland | Belfast, Ireland |
| Seoul, South Korea | Nagoya, Japan |
| Tokyo, Japan | Monterrey, Mexico |
| Florence, Italy | Milan, Italy |
Additional cities under consideration for future events
include:
Rome, Italy
Bolzano, Italy
Ancona, Italy
Livorno, Italy
Montreal, Quebec Canada
Toronto, Ontario Canada
The WWE Show Stops in Israel
As early as October 1994 the WWF, as it was called before
becoming the WWE, began presenting its live shows in Tel Aviv and Haifa.
The WWF become one of the biggest fads in Israel. The fad is being fueled
by an expensive but effective promotional campaign which included WWF
photo albums being distributed to all six Israeli high schools at lunch
hour, free of charge. The WWF was broadcast on Israeli cable television
once a week, on Friday afternoon when the streets are devoid of teenagers.
Wrestling is enormous, but not all wrestling programs are. Only the WWF
is. As an example, in 1995 the WWF returned for shows in Jerusalem and
Tel Aviv. The prior November saw ticket agencies scrambling for blocks
of tickets to sell and within weeks half the 16,500 seats had been sold.
he best seats, selling for $50.00, were sold within days.
1994 saw many of Israel’s major corporations joining
the WWF bandwagon. The country’s largest confectioner, Osem, sold
WWF snacks, and Israel’s largest sport shoe manufacturer, Gali,
signed a deal to emboss WWF stars on a line of sport shoes. Israel’s
second largest ice-cream manufacturer, Whitman, negotiated for the rights
to put WWF stars on its boxes for the summer season.
The popularity of WWE merchandise can be seen in the Israeli
example. Distributor of WWE merchandise in Israel, Boaz Dekel has stated
that, “This is the fad of all time, way bigger than even the Ninja
Turtles, The Simpsons, or Dinosaurs.” (Chamish, 1994). The items
he distributes include WWE notebooks, shirts, lunch boxes, and dolls.
Most popular are stickers and cards traded by teenagers. Monthly sales
are reported to be in the area of millions of dollars.
WWE Asia
Wrestling’s reach is not exclusive to Europe. The
Hong Kong free-to-air satellite platform, TVB, acquired 119 hours of wrestling
programming from the WWE. Indonesian free broadcaster RCTI has bought
98 hours of WWE Smackdown, its weekly program that airs on Friday evenings
on USA as well as eight specials to be aired in the next year and a half.
South Korea’s SBS has committed to 208 hours of programming including
the WWE programs Heat, Smackdown! and Raw is War.
From FY 2002 through FY 2005 international revenues increased at a compound
annual growth rate of 23%. The forty-nine international events in FY 2005
attracted audiences in excess of 450,000 attendees.
“WWE provides us with a global identity that is distinct
and unencumbered, which is critical to our U.S. and international growth
plans” said Linda McMahan, CEO of WWE. “As WWE, we launch
our further expanded U.S. and international touring, our international
expansion of branded merchandise and licensed products, and our further
integration into the film, publishing, and music businesses” (Wagner,
2002).
The WWE is now in the midst of a major paradigm shift from
controlling everything to giving up partial control to enter new markets,
such as, in this case, China, where it will partner with local business
ventures to establish a foothold and learn the workings of the Chinese
market.
In addition to live events, further expansion of WWE pay-per-views
in new and additional territories along with increased marketing and associated
sales of WWE licensed branded merchandise is expected.
Always seemingly ahead of other countries in terms of creation,
adoption, and use of technology, Japan and WWE reached an agreement in
2005 for a “subscription video on demand service” via Plala
Networks, Inc. of Tokyo. In essence, WWE will offer its content as usual;
however, the medium will be broadband internet instead of TV, and the
format will be a broadcast titled WWE 24/7. The impact of such a deal
has yet to be assessed, yet it appears to be an incredibly low-risk venture,
given that the Japanese company is actually a subsidiary of one of the
major telecommunications companies in Japan. In addition to driving subscription
sales for Plala, it also positions WWE on the technological cutting edge
in an extremely large international market.
“WWE is a global franchise, and WWE 24/7 was conceived
as salable concept that would scale worldwide for partners and fans,”
said Tom Barreca, Executive Vice President, WWE Enterprises. “Signing
with a leader like Plala is a significant breakthrough for WWE 24/7 internationally,
and we see a great future in contracting with other telephony and telecommunications
providers around the globe” (WWE 24/7).
Wrestling Hits South America
In late 2005, WWE struck a television deal with Latin America’s
FOX station – FX Latin America – to broadcast bilingual (Spanish
and Portugese) programming for the next two years. The station reaches
approximately half of all television homes in the Pan market. Emiliano
Saccone, VP of Marketing for FX-LA, was pleased that professional wrestling
will now be a significant driver of viewership for their network. “We
are thrilled to have World Wrestling Entertainment on FX featuring WWE
Velocity and WWE Experience. FX is committed to offer to its viewers the
best quality in programming. WWE, having been involved in the sports entertainment
business for more than 20 years, is one of the most popular forms of global
entertainment today on FX screen, and will contribute to establish stronger
brand loyalty with subscribers, affiliates and advertisers in all Latin
America” (WWE Signs, 2005).
International Television
It is expected that international television will pay an
important role in WWE’s expansion into international markets. Presently,
7,500 hours of WWE programming are syndicated each year in the 100 markets
WWE serves. WWE programming is currently distributed throughout Europe
and Asia in the following manner:
- Sky Sports – England, Wales, Northern Ireland, and Scotland
- J Sports channel – Japan
- TAJ TV LTD – India
- PREMIERE – Germany
- CJ Media – Korea
Pay-Per-View
Pay-per-view also plays an important role in the internationalization
of WWE events:
- Canadian Partners
- Viewers choice
- Shaw Communications
- Bell Express
- International Partners
- BskyB – England, Wales, Northern Ireland, and Scotland
- J SPORTS – Japan
- Premiere – Germany
- CJ Media – Korea
- Sky Italia –
- Main event – Australia
Branded Merchandise
Branded merchandise leverages WWE talent with their television
products. Within the WWE brand, WWE branded merchandise includes:
- Licensing of books, home video, video games, toys and, apparel
- Apparel, novelties, and memorabilia sold through events, catalogs, and online
- Home video of pay-per-view events and feature performer titles sold through retailers and available on VHS and DVD
- Magazines such as WWE and RAW sold at the newsstand and through subscriptions
- Digital Media such as WWE’s interactive website: www.wwe.com
All of these are available internationally. Watching his
son Shane play with his GI Joes, McMahan decided that wrestlers would
make great action figures too. In 1984, his wife Linda called Hasbro to
learn the licensing business.
Role of the Internet in International Expansion
It is a strongly held belief within the WWE that Globalization
holds the key to its continued growth. It is believed that the Internet
levels the playing field, since anyone can watch from anywhere with a
computer. For instance, in Japan WWE events are broadcast as early as
three weeks after the event has aired in the United States. The Internet,
as a medium, is involving. WWE research has shown that half of the Internet
users who get WWE information are international.
Expansion Efforts by U.S. Major Professional Sports Leagues
NBA
In terms of an international presence, the NBA has had a
history of playing teams from around the world both at home and abroad
dating back to October 23 – 25, 1987 when in the McDonald’s Open
played at the Mecca in Milwaukee; the Milwaukee Bucks played Tracer Milan
and the Soviet National team. This trend of exhibition games continued
throughout the 80s, 90s, and into modern day when several NBA teams played
in such varied locations as Madrid, Rome, Barcelona, Tokyo, Paris, the
Bahamas, Mexico City, Japan, London, Tel Aviv, the Dominican Republic,
and Puerto Rico.
As is the case with the WWE, expansion into international
markets began in Europe. Since 1988, NBA teams such as the Boston Celtics,
the New York Knicks, Miami Heat, the Houston Rockets, and the Seattle
Super Sonics have played exhibition and regular season games in the following
countries: Spain (1988, 1990, 1994, 1996, 2003); Italy (1989, 1994, 1999);
France (1991, 1994, 1997, 2003); Germany (1993, 1996); England (1993-two
games-1995); Russia (1988, 2004).
In addition to Europe the NBA also played exhibition games
in the Middle East (Tel Aviv, Israel on October 11, 1999); Latin America,
where the NBA has staged twenty-two games preseason games (sixteen in
Mexico, five in Puerto Rico, and one in the Dominican Republic); and Asia
(six regular season games in Japan since 1990 and a 2004 game in Beijing,
China).
The NBA, under David Stern’s leadership, has made
a concentrated effort to specifically promote the international players
who have come into the NBA. Stern is credited as being a marketing mastermind
in the international arena, and the effort of the NBA commissioner has
helped the NBA to advance its growth in international markets through
fan identification with players from countries throughout the world. It
has also indirectly altered the face of scouting, drafting, and developing
talent (Stone, 2002).
MLB
Major League Baseball has two prominent internationally
focused baseball initiatives. The most recognizable and recent was the
World Baseball Classic (WBC) which was held in March 2006. Organized by
MLB, the WBC was a tournament styled after the Soccer World Cup, and involved
sixteen nations from across the world. Players were allowed to play for
their “home” countries. Overall, the tournament – won
by Japan over Cuba in the final – was considered a success from a media
standpoint. There are plans to hold future WBCs every four years, starting
in 2009. From this standpoint, MLB is well-positioned to maintain and
grow their presence in other countries, even though the U.S. team did
not finish in the top four in this most recent WBC.
Nearly one-fourth of all professional baseball players have
Latin American roots. Consequently, Major League Baseball has exerted
great effort in scouting and developing the future talent of their league.
Puerto Rico is a hotbed for baseball, and a location that MLB has already
tapped as host to some of the leagues’ games in the last few years.
Almost five years ago, in 2001, the first-ever regular season Major League
Baseball (MLB) game on Puerto Rican soil was played between Texas and
Toronto. Two years later, in 2003, the (Montreal) Expos played approximately
half of all of their “home” games in San Juan, Puerto Rico.
And in April 2005, MLB celebrated its annual “Opening Day”
of games by announcing that 25 percent of all players on MLB rosters (204
players) had been born in Latin American countries. This is a significant
increase over the 170 total Latin major leaguers reported by MLB during
the 2000 season, of which, thirty-four were from somewhere in Puerto Rico
(Sanchez, 2005). These figures are astounding and continue an upward trend
of talent migration (Bale and Maguire, 1994) predicated by advanced scouting
techniques, greater global communication, and increased talent development
in these countries.
Once an off-season haven for American big leaguers –
where a winter baseball league was immensely popular – Puerto Rico
gained considerable steam in the world of professional baseball. After
serving in 2003 as the part-time home of the Montreal Expos (a franchise
now known as the Washington Nationals and located in Washington, D.C.),
San Juan, Puerto Rico should have become a bustling year-round sport attraction.
In the winter it hosts a very competitive and popular “Winter League”,
where developing talent showcases for the ever-growing contingent of scouts
and media. However, that has not been the case. Lou Melendez, Major League
Baseball’s vice president of international operations, states that MLB
is now considering assisting the Puerto Rican league financially, and
he admits that an eight year decline in interest and attendance is a concern
(Ortiz, 2006).
MLB is grappling with larger issues surrounding this, as
well, namely: a) The issue of “stacking”. In other words,
as noted by González (1996), despite a healthy on-field Latino
representation, there are still virtually no Latino managers, and there
are an incredibly small number of Latinos in MLB’s team management
offices. b) How can Major League Baseball assess and improve on their
expansion and outreach efforts? Arbena (1992) stated that Governments
have long tried to use sports to promote national unity and political
stability, but often without success. Klein (1997) studied how baseball
contributes to nationalism on different levels outside of US borders.
NFL
In 1991, the World League of American Football was formed,
and eventually became ‘NFL Europe.’ Known essentially as an
NFL-backed and funded developmental league, NFL Europe currently boasts
six teams (Amsterdam Admirals, Berlin Thunder, Cologne Centurions, Frankfurt
Galaxy, Hamburg Sea Devils, and Rhein Fire). The league has thus far been
unstable and unpredictable at best, due mostly to lack of star power and
media coverage. However, other attempts to further expand the NFL’s
brand internationally have been made, most significantly, plans for U.S.
teams to play on international soil. Proposed sites are Mexico, Canada,
the United Kingdom, and Germany. This addresses both of the stumbling
blocks encountered by NFL Europe, infusing existing U.S.-based stars (and
teams) with the proper amount of television, internet, and radio coverage.
“It now gives us a platform to grow the game internationally with
a concept of clarity,” says Mark Waller, head of NFL international
development (Haniman, 2006).
While none of the major professional sports leagues would
appear to be natural competitors for the unique “sport/entertainment”
offering by WWE, the recent move of Monday Night Football to ESPN surely
will impact cable-television ratings, something previously dominated by
professional wrestling (Jones, 2006).
Assessment
Most successful businesses conduct extensive market research
to assess the effectiveness of their efforts. This is of paramount importance
when attempting world domination as the WWE is currently doing in its
expansion throughout various countries of the world. WWE depends upon
four major research streams to keep in tune with its fan-base: 1) Online
research surveys. They use a 900 base method with their fans, hoping to
pinpoint consumer attitudes. Specifically, “What do you think of
this property?” (attributes), 2) Live events. WWE conducts exit
polling at events, with an average of about 10,000 people per event. Goal
is to assess attitudes regarding items such as ticket prices and merchandise,
3) TV Companies themselves. WWE is able to garner information from networks,
which helps to shape their other research efforts. Ex: “how many
people view their wrestling shows?” 4) Licensees/consumers. Some
corporate partners are willing to share some of their information with
WWE.
Conclusion
World Wrestling Entertainment is indeed a unique business
entity that has, thus far, been incredibly successfully as it has expanded
its fan-base into international waters. In fact, the data shows that while
domestic earnings have continued to diminish, they have steadily climbed
each of the last five years internationally. More success is yet to come
as even more countries become partners with the wrestling corporation,
and as new revenue streams continue to develop. Many sport corporations
(NIKE, Adidas, etc.) have expanded into other markets, and have done so
successfully. But Jonathan Sully, WWE’s VP for International Marketing,
pointed out that while the company traditionally likes to totally control
its own Intellectual Property, the key to its success is embracing a fundamental
shift towards more corporate partnering.
Manchester United is a recent case that paralleled some
of what WWE experienced when they first plunged into new markets: increased
bootlegging issues and difficulty tracking revenues in foreign countries,
branded television channels, and tours that bring talent to the consumer
(Grimshaw, 2005). However, as WWE’s domestic marketing head Schneider
pointed out, this brand of professional wrestling is still seen as a “uniquely
American export”, a form of entertainment that essentially has no
direct competition and is so dissimilar from its indirect competition
that it operate on its own cloud. The WWE simply must stick to its plan,
adhering to its business model, and achieve continued growth by continuing
to bring its brand of entertainment to new markets around the world.
NOTES
1SOURCE: http://corporate.wwe.com/documents/WWEPrimerAugust2005.pdf
References
- Anonymous. (2002). Wrestling in Asia. Television Business International. 5(1).
- Albano, L. and Sugar, B. (2000). The Complete Idiot’s Guide to Pro Wrestling. Indianapolis, IN, Alpha Books.
- Arbena, J. (1999). History of Latin American Sports: The End Before the Beginning? Sporting Traditions, 16:1 (November), 23-31.
- Arbena, J. (1992). Sport and the Promotion of Nationalism in Latin America: A Preliminary Interpretation, Studies in Latin American Popular Culture, 11: 143-155.
- Assael, S. (2002). Sex, Lies and Headlocks. The Real Story of Vince McMahan and the World Wrestling Federation. New York, Crown Publishers.
- Bale, J. & Maguire, J., eds. (1994). The Global Sports Arena: Athletic Talent Migration in an Interdependent World. London: Frank Cass.
- Barry, C. (2002, January). WWF Riding Wave of Popularity in Israel. Amusement Business. New York: 106 (3); 12.
- Blassie, F. (2003). Listen, You Pencil Neck Geeks. New York, Simon and Schuster.
- Caprio, R. (2005). Are We There Yet?: Tales from the Never-Ending Travels of WWE Superstars. New York: Simon and Schuster (Pocket Books).
- Flair, R. (2004). To Be the Man. New York, World Wrestling Federation.
- González, G. (1996). “The Stacking of Latinos in Major League Baseball: A Forgotten Minority?” Journal of Sport & Social Issues, 22 (May), 134-160.
- Greenberg, K. (2000). Pro Wrestling: From Carnivals to Cable TV. Minneapolis, MN: Lerner.
- Grimshaw, C. (2005). Football clubs net global winner. Marketing. London: Aug 3, 2005. pg. 15.
- Hardiman, E. (2006). The NFL Goes WBC. Retrieved from http://community.foxsports.com/blogs/edhardiman/2006/05/27/The_NFL_Goes_WBC on September 12, 2006.
- Jones, K. (2006) MNF vs. WWE: The Showdown. Retrieved from http://sports.espn.go.com/espn/page2/story?page=jones/060911 on September 11, 2006.
- Keithe, S. (2004). Wrestling’s One Ring Circus: The Death of the Word Wrestling Federation. New York: Kensington (Citadel).
- Klein, A. (1997). Baseball on the Border: A Tale of Two Laredos. Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press.
- Lamb, C., McDaniel, C., Hair, J. (2005). Marketing. London: Thomson/South-Western.
- Mazer, S. (1998). Professional Wrestling: Sport and Spectacle. University Press of Mississippi.
- McLean, B. (2002, October). Inside the World’s Weirdest Family Business. Fortune, New York, 17, 44.
- Mogel, L. (2004). This Business of Broadcasting. New York: Billboard Books.
- Ortiz, J. (2006). Puerto Rican baseball seeks return to glory. Retrieved from http://www.usatoday.com/sports/baseball/2006-01-24-puerto-rico-winter-league-slump_x.htm on January 24, 2006.
- Rosner, S. & Shropshire, K. (2004). The Business of Sports. Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett Publishers.
- Sanchez, (2005). “Latino Legends team announced.” Retrieved from http://mlb.mlb.com/NASApp/mlb/news/article.jsp?ymd=20051026&content_id=1260107&vkey=ps2005news&fext=.jsp on November 1, 2005.
- Shaun, A. (2005, October). Oof! Pro Wrestling’s Primal Scream. New York Times, New York, 17, 44.
- Schneider, K. (2005, October). Personal Interviews. Stamford, CT. World Wrestling Entertainment Headquarters.
- Schwarz, A. (2006). Baseball World Cup Set for ’06. Retrieved from http://sports.espn.go.com/mlb/news/story?id=2057633 on May 10, 2005.
- Stone, D. (2002). Stern Sets His Sights Overseas. The Biz. Century Publishing.
- Sully, J. (2005, October). Personal Interviews. Stamford, CT. World Wrestling Entertainment Headquarters.
- Venn, D. (2006). Baseball Has Come A Long Way. Retrieved from http://sports.espn.go.com/mlb/latinosrise/columns/story?id=2341336 on February 28, 2006.
- Wagner, H. (2002). WWE Will Rock You. Video Store Magazine 21 (20); 34.
- “WWE Signs Two-Year Deal With FX Latin America” (2005). Retrieved from http://corporate.wwe.com/news/2005/2005_10_18.jsp on November 18, 2005.
- “WWE 24/7 Signs Contract with Plala Networks for Distribution in Japan” (2005). Retrieved from ttp://corporate.wwe.com/news/2005/2005_10_17.jsp on November 15, 2005.
- 6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NFL_Europe
- http://www.nfleurope.com/
The Physical and Physiological Properties of Football Players from a Turkish Professional First-Division Football League
Abstract
This research aims to determine the effects of a six weeks pre-season
preparation training period on the physical and physiological characteristics
of a football team in the Turkish Professional First Division League.
Twenty football players participated in this study. Their ages were 22.2
± 3.41 years old, and they had 12.4 ± 4.2 years of training.
Their height was 178.9 ± 5.13 cm. (Table 1). The body weight, body
fat percentage, flexibility, systolic/diastolic blood pressure, aerobic
capacity, anaerobic power, vertical jump, and speed of these players were
tested twice; once at the beginning of the six-week pre-season preparation
training period and again at the end of the training period (Table 2).
Research data was evaluated statistically with pair-t test at a significance
level of (p‹ 0.05). There were some significant changes in weight,
body fat percent, systolic/diastolic blood pressure, aerobic capacity,
anaerobic power, and vertical jump. There were no any statistically significant
changes in elasticity and speed.
Introduction
Recently, there have been significant changes related to the physiological
and medical aspects of football. Studies on the ideal physical and physiological
properties of a successful football player show that due to the improvements
in the speed and skills of the football players, football has become more
dynamic (Mangine, et al., 1990).
The increase in productivity of sportsmen results directly from the quality
and quantity of the hard work achieved within training. From the beginning
level higher levels, tasks during training should be increased gradually
depending on the psychological and physical skills of each sportsman (Bompa,
1998). Players of higher level function and structural power may overcome
the challenging conditions of a professional football season with intensive
pre-season training. If gradual increases are applied consciously and
regularly within training sessions, higher levels of adjustments may continue
(Renklikurt, 1991).
A pre-season preparation period covers the period from the beginning
of team-training till the first official match. The length of these training
periods may differ from one country to another. During this training period,
physical conditioning should be composed mainly of games and exercises
with a ball. The number of training sessions from the beginning of football
season should be increased gradually (Bangsbo, 1994).
The most important thing that the technical committee should consider
before the season begins is the physical condition of football players
after the holiday season. Because of this, some teams include physical
and physiological tests in their programs to see how the players are doing
and to evaluate their preparation plans. These tests give information
on the properties of endurance, speed, muscular endurance, strength, coordination,
technical, and tactical elements during the preparation period.
Body composition is an important physical component for football. Excess
body fat makes the body move constantly against gravity and it is an unnecessary
load for footballers (Reilly, 1996). Although there have been several
studies that examined the seasonal changes in the body composition of
elite sportsmen’s (Siders, et al. 1994 & Morris and Payne, 1996);
there are not enough studies on the effects of a pre-season preparation
training period on the physical and physiological properties of high level
professional footballers’ performance, particularly in regards to
body composition. This study aims to determine and examine the physical
and physiological changes that occur during a six week pre-season preparation
training period to a football team of the Turkish Professional First Level
Division League.
Methodology
In this study, the professional football team is in Ankara. Pre-testing
was performed on the team after the holiday season and the follow up post-testing
was done after a pre-season preparation training period. The pre-season
preparation training period lasted six weeks with sixty training sessions
and six preparation games played. The properties of the footballers who
participated in this study are clearly tested pre and post the six-week
pre-season participation training period (Table 2).
Body fat percent (BFP) was calculated utilizing a skin fold method and
identified as percent mass (Adams, 1990). Systolic and diastolic blood
pressure was recorded as mmHg utilizing a stethoscope and sphygomanometer
in a stable sitted position. In order to determine the aerobic capacity,
a twenty meter shuttle run test was done on a grass field. The shuttle
run test was utilized to measure maximum oxygen consumption VO 2max and
defined in ml/kg/min (Tamer, 1995). Anaerobic strength measurements were
done utilizing the Bosco test protocol (Bosco Contact Mat; New Test 1000)
and the results indicated as watts. The vertical jump test was measured
utilizing jump meter equipment and the sit and reach equipment was utilized
to measure flexibility. The ten-meter and thirty-meter speed values were
calculated on the grass field starting 1m behind the starting point with
the help of sensory photocell. Research data was evaluated by t-test utilizing
a SPSS 10.0 statistical package program with significance level of (p
‹ 0.05).
Findings
Several physical and physiological properties of footballers’
were measured in a pre and post testing protocol and the measurements
were recorded and evaluated. (Table 2).
Values prior to the six-week pre-season preparation training period were
as followings: body weight 74.65 ± 5.90 kgs, body fat percent 6.43
± 1.67 %, vertical jump 58.70 ± 6. 94 cms, anaerobic power
27.59 ± 4.01 watts/ kg, ten meter speed 1.64 ± 0.41 seconds,
thirty meter speed 4.06 ± 0.91 seconds, flexibility 31.57 ±
5.78, VO2max 56.95 ± 4.07 ml/kg/min, systolic blood pressure 114.5
± 6.04 mmHg, and diastolic blood pressure 74.0 ± 6.40 mmHg.
Values after the six-week pre-season preparation training period were
as followings: body weight 73.85 ± 5.34 kgs, body fat percent 5.84
± 1.36 %, vertical jump 60.80 ± 7. 01 cms, anaerobic power
30.29 ± 7.76 watts/kg, ten meter speed 1.62 ± 0.32 seconds,
thirty meter speed 4.02 ± 0.13 seconds, elasticity 33.32 ±
4.32 cms, VO2max 59.48 ± 3.28 ml/ kg/ min, systolic blood pressure
71.0 ± 5.52 mmHg, and diastolic blood pressure 110.7 ± 6.93
mmHg.
These findings show that after the six-week pre-season preparation training
period there were some statistically significant differences between the
pre and post measurements in the values concerning body weight, body fat
percent, systolic and diastolic blood pressure, anaerobic power, aerobic
power, and vertical jump at a level of (p‹ 0.05). The values of
ten-meter speed, thirty-meter speed, and elasticity improved, but they
were not statistically significant at a level of (p‹ 0.05).
Discussion
In this study, the results of the tests done to determine the physical
and physiological properties of a football team in the Turkish Professional
First Division League pre and post a six-week pre-season preparation training
period were evaluated. The average age of the twenty players was 22.2
± 3.41; they had 12.4 ± 5.34 years of training; they had
a height of 178.9 ± 5.13cms. There was a significant increase in
body weight with a post-measurement of 73.85 ± 5.34 kgs.
In a previous study on a first division league team in England, having
a twenty-eight pre-season preparation training sessions lasting thirty-five
days, showed an increase in the body weight of the players, with a pre-training
period body weight measurement from 74.05 ± 9.2 kgs. to a post-training
period body weight measurement of 77.6 ± 8.7 (Mercer et al.,1992).
The body weight values of another study on a football team in Turkish
first division league also had six-week pre-season preparation training
period and their pre-training period body weight of 74.05 ± 6.60
went to a post-training period body weight of 73.68 ± 6.04 (Acikada
et al., 1996).
In the pre-training period the body fat percent measurement was 7.43
± 1.67 percent and in the post-training period body fat percent
measurement decreased to 6.84 ± 1.36. This decrease was also statistically
significant at a level of (p ‹ 0.05). In terms of past research
on body fat percent, only the beginning of race season and the changes
afterwards were ever studied (Burke, et al. 1986). Ostojic and Zivanic
(2001) found that body fat percent of Serbian professional football players
decreased significantly during the race season and increased out of season.
Burke et al., (1986) and Reilly (1996) pointed out that fat in the body
of football players may accumulate out of season and players may lose
more weight during pre-season training than other periods.
On the other hand, Ostojic and Zivanic (2001) stated that the effects
of training sessions and matches on body weight may have a decreasing
effect at different periods. Some footballers may lose more weight during
race season than in a pre-season preparation training period; they may
also reach the minimum level of body mass index at the end of the season.
Hoshikawa, et al. (2003) studied that body mass may increase and muscle
mass may decrease even without any training after the season ends for
a short period such as four weeks. On the other hand, with a well organized
pre-season program, body mass can be decreased and lost muscle mass can
be regained. In this present study, the decreases occurring in the body
mass index as well as in the body weight after the six-week pre-season
preparation training period are significant and are compatible with the
above mentioned literature except the study by Acikada, and et al. (1996).
The pre-training vertical jump measurement was 58.70 ± 6.54cms
and increased to 60.80 ± 7.01cms after the training period. This
increase was also statistically significant at a level of (p‹ 0.05).
This increase in the vertical jump was also observed after a preparation
training period of third league professional team players (Kocyigid, et
al., 1996). Mercer, et al. (1992), Gunay (1994) and Acikada, et al. (1996)
found similar results.
The pre-training period anaerobic power measurement was 27.59 ±
4.01 and increased to 30.29 ± 7.76 watts/kg after the pre-season
preparation training period. In this study, the increase in the anaerobic
power can be interpreted as the interaction of intensive continuity exercises
and type II muscle fiber (Bosco, et al., 1998). Kartal, Gunay, and Acikada,
et al. (1996) found similar results.
Aerobic capacity is one of the basic targets in developing a pre-season
preparation training program. In football, there is a complex order based
on an aerobic structure. The pre-training period measurement for aerobic
capacity (VO 2max value) was 56.95 ± 4.07 ml/ kg/ min and increased
to a VO 2max value of 59.48 ± 3.28 ml/kg/min. This can be interpreted
as the effect of the aerobic exercises and conditioning experienced in
the pre-season preparation training period. German national team players
have a high aerobic capacity of 62 ml/kg/min (Islegen, 1987). Pre-season
training programs have been evaluated and all past research findings have
shown positive effects on aerobic capacity.
When comparing flexibility measurements to other teams on all levels,
the Turkish league is quiet low. For example, in a study done on an English
first division league team utilizing the same testing procedures, the
post-flexibility measurements were quite better at 43.1 ± 4. 5
(Mercer, et al., 1992). The cause of this problem may be identified as
a lack of a sufficient stretching program at all levels.
The reason for the lowered blood pressure and lowered heart rate experienced
by the sportsmen is due to sport specific adaptation the occurs after
a long periods of regular training (Kandeydi, et al., 1984).
Speed is a motor characteristic that directly affects the success in
football. The pre-training ten-meter speed measurement was 1.64 ±
0.32 seconds and the pre-training thirty-meter speed measurement was 4.06
± 0.91 seconds. After the pre-season preparation training period
the speed values were 1.62 ± 0.32 seconds for the ten-meter speed
test and 4.02 ± 0.13 seconds for the thirty-meter speed test. This
increase in speed was not statistically significant. In similar studies,
Kartal and Gunay (1994) also showed increases in speed with no statistical
significance.
Acikada, et al (1996) interpreted the decrease of the ten-meter speed
value of 1.667 ± 0.156 seconds to 1.713 ± 0.046 seconds
after a period of training was due to the increase of overall gain in
power and strength. Enisler, et al. (1996) determined some values for
the ten-meter speed test and the thirty meter-speed test of footballers
according to their league level as followings: Level I League ten-meter
speed as 1.60 ± 0.07 seconds and thirty-meter speed as 4.07 ±
0.12 seconds; Level II League ten-meter speed as 1.62 ± 0.05 seconds
and thirty-meter speed as 4.10 ± 0.11 seconds; Level III League
ten-meter speed as 1.67 ± 0.04 seconds and thirty-meter speed as
4.13 ± 0.10 seconds; Amateur Level ten-meter speed as 1.66 ±
0.06 seconds and thirty-meter speed as 4.16 ± 0.12 seconds.
The differences between the levels are not statistically significant.
The decrease in speed times may be due to the decrease in body weight
and body mass index. As Ostojic and Zivaniz (2001) stated, the decrease
in the body mass index is related to the increase in the sprint time of
football players.
Some of the significant test results that occurred after the pre-season
preparation training period can be explained as being successful in achieving
the desired physical profile needed to compete in the challenging league
marathon. This kind of testing and training can help in the building of
tactics and techniques for training footballers.
References
- Acikada, C. O., Hazir, A. & Asci, T. (1996). The effect of pre-season preparation training on some strength and endurance characteristics of a football team. Journal of Football Science and Technology.1.3. (4). Ankara.
- Adams, G. M. (1990). Exercise Physiology Laboratory Manual. Dubuque: Wmc Brown Publishers.
- Bangsbo (1994). Football Physical Condition Coordination Training. (H. Gunduz, Trans.) Istanbul: TFG Publishers.
- Bompa, T.O. (1998). Theory and Methodology of Training. ( I, Keskin. & A.B.Tunur, Trans.) Ankara: Bagirgan Publishers.
- Bosco, C. , Tihanyi, J. & Latteri, F.et al. (1986). The Effect of Fatigue on Stirred and Re-use of Elastic Energy in Slow and Fast Types of Human Skeletal Muscles. Acta Physiol Scand.
- Burke, L. M., Gollan, R.A. & Read, R.S. (1986). Seasonal changes in body composition in Australian rules footballers. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 20.
- Hoshikawa, Y. , Kano, A. , Ikoma, T., Muramutso, M. , Iida, T. , Uchiyama, A. & Nakajima, Y. (2003). Off Season and Preseason Changes in Total and Regional Body Composition in Japanese Professional Soccer League Players. Book Abstract, Science and Football 5th World Congress, 11-15 April 2003,
- Portugal.
- Islegen, C. (1987). Physical and physiological profiles of professional football teams of different leagues. Journal of Sports Physicians, 22. Izmir.
- Kandeydi, H. & Ergen, E. (1984). A comparison of physical and functional characteristics of students from departments of physical training and sports vs. medicine . Journal of Sports Physicians, 19 (1). Izmir.
- Kartal, R. & Gunay, M. (1994).The effect of preseason preparation trainings on some physical parameters of footballers. Journal of Sports Sciences , 5(3). Ankara.
- Kocyigit, F. , Auluk, I. , Sevimli, D. & Sev, N. (1996).The Effect of Preparation Season Training on Some Motor Characteristics and Body Composition Concerning the Age of the Footballers. IV. Sports Sciences Congress 1-3 November, Ankara.
- Mangine, R.E. , Noyes, F.R. , Mullen, M.P. & Barber, S.D. (1990). A physiological profile of the elite soccer athlete. Journal of Orthopedic and Sports Physical Therapy, 12.
- Mercer, T.H. & Payne, W.R. (1992). Fitness Profiles of Professional Soccer Players Before and After Preseason Conditioning. Division of Sports, Health and Exercise, UK.
- Morris, F.L. & Payne, W.R. (1996). Seasonal variations in the body composition of lightweight rowers. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 30.
- Ostojic, S. M. & Zivanic, S. (2001). Effects of training on anthropometric and physiological characteristics of elite Serbian soccer players. Acta Biologie et Medicinae Experimentalis. 27(48).
- Reilly, T. (1996). Fitness assessment. In Reilly, T. (Ed.) Science and Soccer. London: E& FN Spon.
- Renklikurt, T. (1991).Transition and preparation period basics and its application in Turkey. Journal of Trainers’ Voice, Tufad (1). Ankara.
- Siders, W.A., Bolonchuk, W.W. & Lukaski, H.C. (1991). Effects of participation in a collegiate sport season on body composition. Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 31.
- Tamer K. (1995). Sports Measurement and Evaluation of Physical and Physiological Performance. Ankara: TurkerlerBookstore.
Appendices
Table 1. Characteristics of footballers:
| Variables | N | X ± SD |
| Age (year) | 20 | 22.2 ± 3.41 |
| Age of exercise (year) | 20 | 12.4 ± 4.2 |
| Height (cm) | 20 | 178.9 ± 5.13 |
Table 2. Values of footballers’ physical and physiological condition
pre and post six-week pre-season preparation training periods:
| Variables | N | Pre | Post | t | p |
| Body weight | 20 | 74.65 ± 5.93 | 73.85 ± 5.34 | 2.19 | * |
| Body fat percent (%) | 20 | 7.43 ± 1.67 | 6.84 ± 1.36 | 2.61 | * |
| Vertical jump (cm) | 20 | 58.70 ± 6.94 | 60.80 ± 7.01 | 2.60 | * |
| Anaerobic power (W/kg) | 20 | 27.59 ± 4.01 | 30.29 ± 7.76 | 2.12 | * |
| 10-meter (sc) | 20 | 1.64 ± 0.41 | 1.62 ± 0.32 | 1.45 | – |
| 30-meter (sc) | 20 | 4.06 ± 0.91 | 4.02 ± 0.13 | 1.65 | – |
| Flexibility (cm) | 20 | 31.57 ± 5.78 | 33.32 ± 4.32 | 1.37 | – |
| VO2 max (ml/kg/min) | 20 | 56.95 ± 4.07 | 59.48 ± 3.28 | 3.10 | * |
| Diastolic blood pressure (mmHg) | 20 | 74.0 ± 5.52 | 71.0 ± 5.52 | 2.85 | * |
| Systolic blood pressure (mmHg) | 20 | 114.5 ± 6.04 | 110.7 ± 6.93 | 2.88 | * |
Effective Security Management of University Sport Venues
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to identify standards for effective security
management of university sport venues. Standards were developed through
a series of interviews and a three-round Delphi study. Purposeful sampling
was used to select participants for both the interviews and Delphi panel.
Four sport security personnel participated in the interview process and
an initial set of standards were developed and used for the Delphi study.
The twenty-eight member Delphi panel included the athletic facility manager,
campus police chief, local sheriff, and local emergency management director
responsible for game day security operations at seven state-supported
universities in Mississippi. Importance ratings for developed standards
were assessed on a five-point Likert scale during Round 2 and 3. This
study identified 134 standards in eleven categories: Perimeter Control,
Access Control, Credentialing, Physical Protection Systems, Risk Management,
Emergency Management, Recovery Procedures, Communications, Security Personnel,
Training, Modeling, and Simulation, and WMD – Toxic Materials Protection.
Introduction
“The homeland is secure when the home town is secure”
Former Secretary Tom Ridge, Department of Homeland Security
Large public gatherings, such as sports events that celebrate American
popular culture, are considered to be potential terrorist targets (Hurst,
Zoubek, & Pratsinakis, n.d.). In March 2005, the Department of Homeland
Security (DHS) identified a dozen possible strikes it viewed most devastating,
including a truck bombing of a sports arena (Lipton, 2005). Since 9/11,
the American sports industry has increased security at major sporting
venues and high profile events such as the Super Bowl, World Series, and
Olympics. University sport programs must also take necessary steps to
secure their stadiums and campuses against potential threats. College
sport stadiums provide a perfect target for mass casualties and catastrophic
economic impact.
Assessing risk, reducing vulnerabilities, and increasing the level of
preparedness will help minimize potential threats to university sport
venues nationwide. The major goal of this study was to develop standards
for effective security management of university sport venues and assess
the level of importance for those standards according to individuals responsible
for sport venue security. Identifying standards will assist university
sport security management teams in their quest to provide a safe environment
for sport patrons and will help provide consistency in security practices
among sport venues nationwide. The two primary research questions that
spearheaded this research project were:
1. What standards are needed for effective security management of university
sport venues?
2. What is the perceived level of importance for the security standards?
Review of Literature
Sport is a multibillion dollar industry in the United States and large
sporting events such as the Super Bowl, NASCAR, or collegiate football
bowls provide an attractive stage for terrorists to communicate their
messages of evil and hatred for society. “Al-Qaeda’s Manual
of Afghan Jihad proposed football stadiums as a possible terrorist attack
site, and the FBI issued an alert in July (2002) warning that people with
links to terrorist groups were downloading stadium images” (Estell,
2002, p. 8). Unfortunately, the sporting world has already been victim
to terrorist attacks. At the 1972 Munich Games, a Palestinian group seized
Israeli athletes inside the Olympic village. In 1996, a domestic terrorist
bombed The Centennial Olympic Park at the Atlanta Games, killing one person
and injuring more than one hundred (CNN.com, 1996). University sports
venues are no exception to these terrorist threats. In October, 2005,
an Oklahoma University student killed himself by prematurely detonating
a bomb strapped to his body outside an 84,000 packed stadium (Hagmann,
2005). The intercollegiate game-day environment meets the criteria for
a perfect strike with high consequences. According to NCAA attendance
records, approximately forty-three million people attended collegiate
football games during the 2004 season (Official NCAA Football Records
Book, 2005).
In the aftermath of 9/11, most leagues, teams, and venues conducted threat
assessments and updated security practices (Hurst, Zoubek, & Pratsinakis,
n.d.). The National Football League developed a “best practices
guide” of recommended security measures for NFL teams. The NFL also
made a request to the Federal Aviation Administration to restrict airspace
above all NFL stadiums (Mason, 2001). Collegiate athletic programs in
particular stepped up security on many levels. The Federal Aviation Administration
accepted a request from the University of Michigan to declare a no-fly
zone over the Wolverines stadium for their game against Western Michigan
in September, 2001 (Bagnato, 2001). Michigan also locked down its stadium
several days before game day and used bomb sniffing dogs to sweep the
premises the morning before kick-off. The Penn State Nittany Lions no
longer allowed re-entry to the stadium, and illegally parked cars were
towed. The Mississippi State Bulldogs officially banned backpacks, and
like many other college stadiums in the country, Nebraska’s Memorial
stadium had a greater security presence inside and outside the grounds
(2001).
However, Pantera et al. (2003) findings indicate there is much room for
improvement in security at college sporting venues. Implications discussed
by Pantera et al., (2003) include the need for effective communication
and scrutinization of game plans in advance of game time and practiced
disaster/emergency responses with support of local, state, and federal
first responders. Furthermore, all game-day staff members must be familiar
with their roles and responsibilities (2003). According to Goss, Jubenville,
& MacBeth (n.d., “Training: our best kept secret”), “To
be ready to preempt or react to terror strikes, venue workers at entry
level must receive timely security training.” Training must be a
continuous element to facility worker’s duties. Outsourcing security
personnel just to present a security presence is no longer adequate. Many
venues have chosen to develop and maintain their own in-house security
response teams that are familiar with the venue (n.d). In today’s
unstable environment, with the threat of terrorist attacks, sport organizations
need to “institutionalize security measures in policy and procedure
guidelines, train personnel on the guidelines and stage exercises to drill
and test incident response plans” (Hurst, Zoubek, & Pratsinakis,
n.d., p. 4).
The NCAA has issued a “best practices” planning options guide
for institutions to review and the International Association of Assembly
Managers (IAAM) has identified key security practices for public venues.
Furthermore, the DHS developed a Target Capabilities List (TCL) which
identifies thirty-six capabilities that the Nation needs in order to address
major incidents. The DHS also created a Universal Task List (UTL) that
describes tasks to be performed to prevent, protect, respond, and recover
from incidents of national significance (Universal Task List, 2004). According
to Hurst, Zoubek, & Pratsinakis (n.d.), regardless of the analysis
conducted after an incident, “the fundamental question will always
be whether or not reasonable steps were taken to protect against an incident
in light of the availability of security measures, the industry “standards’
for security, and the potential threat of terrorism” (p. 5). Standards
are defined by Marshall Thurber (1993) as “a written, or visual
measurable guideline describing expected behavior, performance, product
or service.” A lack of industry standards for university sport venue
security in America may result in varying security policies, procedures,
and guidelines among institutions. After an extensive review of literature,
Homeland Security threat/risk assessment training, and experience working
on sports event security management grant projects, the researcher was
able to identify common categories of security measures to be used in
the research study. These included: Perimeter Control, Access Control,
Credentialing, Physical Protection Systems, Risk Management, Emergency
Management, Recovery Procedures, Communications, Security Personnel, Training,
Modeling, and Simulation, and WMD –Toxic Materials Protection.
Methodology
Participants
Participants in this study were qualified experts in the field of security
and/or sports event
security. Two sets of participants were used for this study – interview
participants and Delphi study participants. The researcher interviewed
six experts (n=6) in the field of sports event security management. These
experts worked in various disciplines and offered unique perspectives
on security management. They included: 1) a FBI agent with extensive experience
in conducting vulnerability assessments of sport venues; 2) a Homeland
Security Officer who oversees the implementation of risk management practices;
3) an Emergency Management Director; 4) a professional sports security
officer; 5) a professional sport management officer, and 6) an NCAA Division
I collegiate athletic administrator responsible for game-day security
planning and operations.
Delphi study participants (n=28) included the athletic facility manager,
local sheriff, campus police chief, and the local county emergency management
director responsible for game-day security at seven public universities
in Mississippi. The sample population reflected NCAA Division I, Division
I AA, and Division II, and four different Athletic Conferences.
Procedures
Approval to conduct the research was obtained by the Institutional Review
Board. All interviews were delivered via email during the fall of 2005.
A panel of experts reviewed the questionnaire to ensure face validity.
Six security experts were interviewed first to obtain a preliminary set
of standards critical to the effectiveness of university sports event
security management. Interview questionnaires included a definition and
example of a standard. Participants were asked to generate responses to
the question, “What standards, under the following categories, do
you perceive to be important in effectively securing sport venues?”
Security categories were provided by the researcher. The preliminary list
of standards was used for the Delphi study.
A three-round Delphi study was conducted during spring 2006 to gain feedback
on the preliminary list of standards and to reach consensus among sports
event security management professionals. Each Delphi questionnaire was
reviewed by a panel of experts to ensure face validity. Round 1 Delphi
asked the panel to review the preliminary list of standards and add/edit/comment
accordingly. Round 2 Delphi was sent to those who responded to the first
round. Participants were asked to rate the importance of each standard
on a five-point Likert Scale (1 = very low; 2 = moderately low; 3 = average;
4 = moderately high; 5 = very high). Round two results were compiled and
reformulated for Round 3 Delphi. Round 3 Delphi was sent to participants
who responded to round two. Round three again asked participants to rate
the importance of each standard. They were provided descriptive information
on how the group responded in round two and were asked to consider the
group response and then re-rate the items.
Data Analysis
Upon interview completion, standards were consolidated under each category
and as much as possible of the participants’ original wording was
retained. Some standards were suggested by more than one participant,
but were only listed once to avoid duplication. A peer examination enhanced
the researcher’s analysis and provided a “devil’s advocate”
point of view to enhance credibility.
Round 1 Delphi questionnaires were analyzed through summarization and
identification of new standards suggested by the Delphi panel. Round 2
and 3 Delphi results were analyzed using SPSS. Descriptive statistics
(mean, median, and standard deviation) for importance ratings were provided
for each standard. The researcher set an elimination level at three or
below, indicating an average to low importance rating. No standard was
assigned a mean importance score low enough to warrant elimination. “The
equivalent terms for reliability and validity for qualitative data are
credibility, dependability, and confirmability. With the Delphi study,
credibility is directly related to the selection of the panel of experts
who must fit the area of inquiry,” (Doerries & Foster, 2005,
p. 260) as did the selected panel in this study. Athletic facility managers,
local sheriffs, campus police chiefs, and local county emergency management
directors are key players in the planning and preparation of security
operations at intercollegiate sports events. These experts provided valuable
insights into the coordination of security protocol on game day. To further
enhance credibility, transferability, dependability, and ‘confirmability’
of this study, the researcher utilized triangulation, peer debriefing,
and member checks.
Results
Interview
Four interview participants (n=4) successfully completed the interview
questionnaire. A total number of 206 standards were suggested from all
four participants. The standards were consolidated under each category
and as much as possible of the participants’ original wording was
retained. Some standards were suggested by more than one participant,
but were only listed once to avoid duplication. A total number of 141
standards under eleven security categories were used for round one of
the Delphi study.
Delphi Study
Twenty-two of the twenty-eight participants successfully completed all
three rounds of the Delphi Study (78.6%). Table 1 highlights the overall
participation rates and main purpose for each Delphi Round.
Table 1: Participation Rates for the Delphi Study
| Round | Main Purpose | # of Experts Asked to Participate | # of Complete Returns | % Completed |
| 1 | Feedback on standards created through interviews | 28 | 26 | 92.6 |
| 2 | Rating of importance | 26 | 23 | 82.1 |
| 3 | Updating of previous ratings | 23 | 22 | 78.6 |
Delphi Round 1 participants were asked to review the list of 141 standards
created by the interview panel. After Delphi Round 1 analysis, 134 standards
were listed in Round 2 and 3 Delphi for assessment of importance ratings.
The following is a summary of results after completion of the third and
final Delphi Round:
Perimeter Control
The panel of experts indicated the importance of locking down the stadium
(M=4.36), police patrolling before and after events (M=4.36), establishing
a secure inner perimeter (M=4.36) and securing vulnerable systems with
locks and seals (M=4.36). Security should also establish a 500-foot outer
perimeter around the stadium (M=4.09). However, the panel clearly felt
that the use of bomb dog teams for inspection (M=3.62) was not as important.
Access Control
The Delphi panel highlighted the prohibition of certain items such as
coolers, large backpacks, weapons, etc. as highly important with a mean
score of 4.76. Several other standards in this category proved to be important
including: publicizing inspections and prohibited items (M=4.73), locating
security personnel at each entry point (M=4.64), locating law enforcement
at each entry point (M=4.45), identification of coaches and players entering
locker rooms and restricted areas (M=4.50), and the right to inspect any
deliveries to event area (M=4.45). Electronic scanning of tickets (M=3.64)
was of least importance to the panel.
Credentialing
The panel indicated that credentials should be worn at all times (M=4.50)
and should be substantially different from those used in prior seasons
(M=4.45). Maintaining a record of persons issued credentials for control
purposes (M=4.36) was also important. All team bench staff, except players
in uniform, should wear a game credential (M=4.36). Requiring background
checks for vendors, employees, contractors, students, and volunteers received
a mean score of 3.91.
Physical Protection Systems
Standards in this category were assigned mean scores ranging from 3.86
(bomb removal equipment on site) to 4.59 (enhanced lighting of gated areas
and digital security system monitored by command center). Establishing
a 100-foot inner perimeter (M=4.41), utilizing barriers (M=4.27), and
having digital camera monitoring capabilities (M=4.27) were highly rated.
The stadium and press box should be equipped with an Integrated Security
Management System (ISMS) consisting of CCTV, access controls, and alarms
(M=4.41). Having portable hazmat smart stripes and detection equipment
on site received one of the lowest mean scores (M=3.91) in this category.
Risk Management
Developing risk management plans for athletic department events and completing
these plans in conjunction with local law enforcement were assigned mean
scores of 4.45 and 4.48 respectively. Weekly game management meetings
addressing risk management issues should be conducted (M=4.25). Risk management
training should also be conducted with all game day staff (M=4.36).
Emergency Management
Standards in this category were assigned means scores ranging from 4.33
to 4.73. Emergency management appears to be a critical area in the security
management of university sport venues, especially the development of an
Emergency Response Plan, Evacuation Plan, Disaster Plan, and an Emergency
Medical Plan. Emergency Response Plans should be coordinated with local,
state, and federal emergency management agencies (M=4.68). A primary and
secondary security command and control center should be established (M=4.55),
and it should have a view of the playing field to facilitate decision-making
(M=4.36).
Recovery Procedures
Identifying security needs (M=4.67) and having written contracts or mutual
aid agreements in effect with local and out of state emergency responders
(M=4.43) were assigned the highest mean importance ratings by the panel
of experts. Contracts should be in place for immediate restoration and
secondary locations identified to hold event bookings. Identifying insurance
needs received a mean score of 3.90.
Communications
Identifying a chain of command (M=4.76), providing a sequence of notification
(M=4.67), having access to hand held radios (M=4.52), and having reliable
communication systems with backups in place (M=4.62) were assigned some
of the highest importance scores. Hand held radios should have a minimum
of ten channels and be independent in case there is a breach of security
(M=4.67). The command center should have direct access to the emergency
communication system (M=4.57) and have reliable communications with the
PA/video staff in order to authorize emergency scripts and messages (M=4.68).
Communications must be checked with all emergency responders prior to
the sporting event (M=4.64).
Security Personnel
The panel of experts believes security personnel should be included in
all training and planning activities to ensure they are aware of their
duties and responsibilities (M=4.64), and the panel believes that security
personnel are provided by licensed and certified providers (M=4.55). All
personnel must have a background check was also highly rated with a mean
score of 4.45.
Training, Modeling, and Simulation
Training should be provided in several areas including: 1) inspection
procedures to security staff, 2) credential recognition to access control
personnel, and 3) security awareness to ushers, vendors, and volunteer
(M=4.59). Conducting evacuation simulations (M=4.14), practicing emergency
drills prior to season (M=4.55), and conducting table top exercises (M=4.41)
were highly important. During training scenarios, planners should test
the chain of command, decision making process, primary/secondary communications
and emergency use of the PA and video systems (M=4.55).
WMD – Toxic Materials Protection
The panel of experts indicated with the highest mean score of 4.59 that
all potentially dangerous chemicals or materials be permanently removed
from the sport stadium. Toxic materials protection and decontamination
should be part of the Emergency Response and Evacuation Plans (M=4.45).
Campus police and safety officers need to be trained to the Weapons of
Mass Destruction/Hazmat awareness level (M=4.32).
Discussion
The outcome of this study has been a consensus of best security practices
by key personnel responsible for security operations at university sports
events in the state of Mississippi. University sport security personnel
may utilize these standards to prioritize security measures according
to importance, especially those organizations with limited funding and
imminent need to harden their facilities. Standards in the Credentialing
Emergency Management, Risk Management, and Communication and Training,
Modeling, and Simulation categories were assigned some of the highest
mean importance scores. This finding was consistent with highlighted areas
in the review of literature. University sport programs need to ensure
these key areas are addressed sufficiently. The NCAA has issued “planning
options” for athletic department events but do not have standards
in place for institutions to adhere to and be held accountable for. Therefore,
security practices at university sports venues may vary between institutions.
Industry standards need to be established forcing compliance among members
to ensure the sporting public that reasonable measures are in place for
safety.
It is extremely critical for security staff to work as a team in the
coordination of security operations during university sports events and
to have in place effective communication systems. Athletic department
staff, hired security staff, and all other game day staff (ushers, vendors,
ticket takers, etc.) must be properly trained and aware of security policies
and practices. Emergency response and evacuation plans must be developed
and updated on a continuous basis. Disaster scenarios/exercises need to
be executed at least once before the sport season begins, involving all
emergency response services ensuring multi-agency collaboration. Sport
venue managers must be qualified in the area of sport event security management
(SESM) and aware of DHS security initiatives. A new market emerges for
educational institutions across the nation to offer curriculum and certification
programs in the SESM area for aspiring sport venue managers and professionals
already in the field.
Future research may focus on determining implications of new security
standards on sport consumers, sport marketers, sport financial officers,
and the potential legality issues for intercollegiate athletic departments
and universities. With increasing pressure to enhance security efforts
at university sports events, there may be some concern about the adverse
affect on the sport consumer’s experience. Sport organizations may
be hesitant to spend extra dollars on security upgrades; therefore, an
economic impact analysis of an incident at a high consequence sports event
would provide data for organizations to consider their return on investment
in security.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to:
Dr. Stacey Hall
The University of Southern Mississippi
School of Human Performance and Recreation
118 College Drive #5142
Hattiesburg, MS 39406
E-mail: Stacey.A.Hall@usm.edu
Work Phone: 601-266-6183
Fax: 601-266-4445
References
- Bagnato, A. (2001, September 17). Stadium security bolstered nationally; FAA bans aircraft from flying over Michigan’s game. Chicago Tribune. Retrieved September 29, 2005, from www.ebscohost.com
- CNN.com. (1996, July 27). Sources: arrest in Olympic bombing could occur within days. Retrieved September 15, 2005, from http://www.cnn.com/US/9607/27/blast.am/index.html
- Doerries, D.B. & Foster, V.A. (2005). Essential skills for novice structural family therapists: A Delphi Study of experienced practitioners’ perspectives. The Family Journal: Counseling and Therapy for Couples and Families, 13 (3), p259-265. [On-Line]. Available: http://tfj.sagepub.com/cgi/reprint/13/3/259
- Estell, L. (2002). A banner year for stadiums? Security concerns could put an end to stadium fly-overs. Incentive, 176 (12), 8. Retrieved September 29, 2005, from www.ebscohost.com
- Goss, B.D., Jubenville, C.B., & MacBeth, J.L. (n.d.). Primary principles of post-9/11 stadium security in the United States: Transatlantic implications from British practices. [On-Line]. Available: www.iaam.org/CVMS/Post%20911%20Stadium%20Security.doc
- Hagmann, D.J. (2005, October 30). Black hole in America’s heartland. Northeast Intelligence Network. Retrieved July 20, 2006, from http://www.homelandsecurityus.com/site/modules/news/article.php?storyid=16
- Hurst, R., Zoubek, P., & Pratsinakis, C. (n.d.). American sports as a target of terrorism: The duty of care after September 11th. [On-Line]. Available: www.mmwr.com/_uploads/UploadDocs/publications/American%20Sports%20As%20A%20Target%20Of%20Terrorism.pdf
- Lipton, E. (2005, March 16). U.S. Report Lists Possibilities for Terrorist Attacks and Likely Toll. New York Times, Section A, Page 1, Column 2.
- Mason, A. (2001, September 20). Security: NFL’s “No. 1 priority.” NFL.com. Retrieved September 13, 2005, from http://www.nfl.com/news/2001/security_092001.html
- Official 2006 NCAA Football Records Book. [On-line]. Available: http://www.ncaa.org/library/records/football_records_book/2006/2006_d1_football_records.pdf
- Pantera, M.J., et. al. (2003). Best practices for game day security at athletic & sport venues. The Sport Journal, 6 (4). [On-Line]. Available: http://www.thesportjournal.org/2003Journal/Vol6-No4/security.asp
- Thurber, M. (May 26-28, 1993). The Essence of Deming 3 Day Workshop, Meta-Quality Institute, San Francisco.
- Universal Task List (July 30, 2004). The Department of Homeland Security. [On-line]. Available: http://www.comcare.org/uploads/Universal%20task%20list.pdf
An Exploration of Female Athletes’ Experiences and Perceptions of Male and Female Coaches
Abstract
Gender may be a mediating factor for relationship effectiveness between
athletes and coaches (Lirgg, Dibrezzo, & Smith, 1994; Medwechuk &
Crossman, 1994). Ironically, with the increase in participation of female
athletes and sports that has occurred since Title IX, there has been a
decrease in the number of female coaches over the past 30 years (Felder
& Wishnietsky, 1990; Freeman, 2001; Pastore, 1992). The purpose of
this study was to explore twelve female athletes’ perceptions and
experiences of being coached by women and men. Semi-structured interviews
revealed four major themes: discipline and structure, personal relationships,
passivity and aggressiveness, and coach preference. Specifically, eight
of the participants stated a preference for male coaches, yet differences
were found when comparing various coaching qualities. Results are discussed
in regards to overall sport experiences.
Introduction
The coach-athlete relationship has been shown to have a profound effect
on an athlete’s satisfaction, performance, and quality of life (Greenleaf,
Gould, & Dieffenbach, 2001; Kenow & Williams, 1999; Vernacchia,
McGuire, Reardon, & Templin, 2000; Wrisberg, 1996) and several factors
may influence this relationship (Burke, Peterson, & Nix, 1995; Grisaffe,
Blom, & Burke, in press). Olympic athletes from the 1996 Summer Games
who did not perform as well as expected felt that conflict with the coach,
receiving inaccurate technical information, the coach’s inability to handle
selection controversy, and lack of focus on team climate played significant
roles in lower-level performances (Greenleaf, Gould, & Dieffenbach,
2001). Trust, friendship, and feedback from the coach had a positive impact
on the performances of athletes who met or exceeded expectations. Athletes
experiencing burnout have cited the coach as a negative influence due
to the coaches’ lack of belief in the athlete, extreme pressure,
and/or unrealistic expectations (Udry, Gould, Bridges, & Tuffey, 1997).
Stewart and Taylor (2000) found that athletes’ perceptions of coaching
competence and coaching behaviors were contributing factors to performance.
Numerous studies have examined the impact of gender on the coach-athlete
relationship. Athlete preferences for same-sex or opposite-sex coaches
have been examined, and factors taken into consideration have included
level of knowledge and ability to motivate, (Medwechuk & Crossman,
1994; Parkhouse & Williams, 1986), level of athlete’s comfort in disclosure
(Molstad & Whitaker, 1987; Sabock & Kleinfelter, 1987; Simmons,
1997), and capability of being a role model (Lirgg, Dibrezzo, & Smith,
1994). Molstad and Whitaker (1987) found that female basketball players
ranked female coaches as superior in the coaching qualities of relating
well to others and understanding athletes’ feelings (two of the three
most important rated qualities), while no difference was found among other
characteristics. Conversely, a strong sex bias favoring male coaches was
found in male and female high school basketball athletes who rated males
as more knowledgeable, more likely to achieve future success, more desirable
to play for, and having a greater ability to motivate (Parkhouse &
Williams, 1986). Overall, 89% of male athletes and 71% of female athletes
preferred a male coach. Previous research investigations have not shown
a clear consensus for coach gender for female athletes (Lirgg, Dibrezzo,
& Smith, 1994).
Although female athletic participation has increased since the passage
of Title IX, there has been a decrease in the number of female coaches
over the past thirty years (Carpenter & Acosta, 1991; Freeman, 2001;
Pastore, 1992). According to Felder and Wishnietsky (1990), the percentage
of females coaching high school teams has dropped as much as 50% between
the mid-1970’s and early 1980’s. Similarly, females coached
90% of collegiate teams in 1972 while only 47.3% of teams were coached
by women in 1990 (Carpenter & Acosta, 1991).
Osborne (2002) suggested that although male and female athletes share
many attributes such as the desire to win, willingness to sacrifice time
and energy, and enjoyment of competition, athletes need to be coached
differently. Factors to consider include training methods, coaching philosophy,
motivation tactics, communication style, and ability to relate on a personal
level. The majority of research that has examined the impact of coach
gender on the female athlete has been conducted quantitatively and has
used hypothetical coaches (Frankl & Babbitt, 1998; Medwechuk &
Crossman, 1994; Molstad & Whitaker, 1987; Williams & Parkhouse,
1988). The present study utilized a qualitative approach to explore female
athletes’ experiences with actual male and female coaches. Further,
Carron and Bennett (1977) noted the importance of gaining the athlete’s
perspective of coach-athlete compatibility, while Osborne (2002) pointed
out that very little is known about the extent to which female athletes
prefer a same-sex or opposite-sex coach. Thus, the purpose of this study
was to obtain a first-person perspective of the female athlete’s
experiences of playing for a male and female coach.
Method
Participants
The participants in this investigation were twelve NCAA Division I female
athletes. All athletes were Caucasian and had participated in basketball,
golf, cross country, track and field softball, or soccer. The sample was
derived from two different southeastern NCAA Division I universities.
Four athletes had junior academic classification, four athletes had senior
academic classification, and four athletes had graduate academic classification.
These athletes were chosen for this study as a purposeful sample (Glesne,
1999) because they had the potential to provide a rich description of
the experience of being coached by both a male and female and had a recent
memory of this experience.
Procedure
The process of bracketing one’s own presuppositions was developed
from Husserl’s concept of reduction in the method of phenomenology
(Glesne, 1999). Before initiating the present study, a bracketing interview
was conducted to clarify the interviewer’s personal experiences
of having a male coach and to explore potential biases. Themes from this
interview included preference for organization, winning attitude, and
enjoyment of the game.
Semi-structured interviews were then employed to collect information
about the athletes’ experiences and perceptions of having both male
and female coaches. All participants were invited to participate in the
study by personal or telephone contact, and those expressing interest
were interviewed. Participants were informed that involvement was voluntary,
and were advised of the ability to terminate participation at any time.
To ensure confidentiality, the participants were informed that pseudonyms
would be used for actual names and any team affiliations. The interviews
were conducted in person and lasted approximately forty minutes in length.
After the interview, participants were given an opportunity to review
the transcript and suggest changes. No changes were suggested by the participants.
Interview Protocol
Questions posed to the participants were designed to achieve a comprehensive
understanding of the experiences of being coached by men and women. The
interviewer initially gathered information about coach history, as well
as the sport and level of competition. Participants were then asked questions
related to differences or similarities experienced with each coach in
training methods, encouragement and motivation, personal relationships,
level of sport knowledge, and the coach preferred. The interview guide
is provided in the Appendix.
Analysis
Interviews were transcribed verbatim and a research team of five individuals
derived themes using a combination of phenomenological approaches. The
procedures for analyzing were adapted more directly from those developed
by Barrell (1988), Goodrich (1988), Hawthorne (1989), Ross (1987), and
Henderson (1992). More specifically, the following steps of: Approaching
the interview (Transcribing the interview, Obtaining a grasp of the interview
through an interpretive group), Focusing the data (Clearing the text,
Grouping the text), Summarizing the interviews (Preparing a summary, Verifying
the summary), and Releasing meanings (Forming categories, Determining
themes, and Describing themes) were utilized to analyze the information.
Results
Table 1 gives a description of each participant and her history of having
both male and female coaches. All participants played at the college level
for at least two years and have played competitively for at least four
years. It is important to note that three of the participants’ experiences
of the female coach were from high school experiences. Four major themes
emerged from the interviews.
Discipline and Structure
The participants indicated that male coaches were more structured and
organized. Carmen stated, “[the male coach] was much more together,
he knew structure. He knew exactly where we needed to be, what time and
what time we needed to start.” Differences were notably significant
in the practice setting. The male coaches would develop practice plans
and execute every detail needed to make them work. Kelli M. confirmed
this by stating, “I know [the male coach] would sit down before
a game and write down every possible thing the other team could do to
beat us; and then write down next to it exactly what we could do to defend
them.” Drills that were done at practice had a purpose, whether
it was fundamentals, offense, defense, or conditioning. The male coaches
were seen as being harder on the athletes and “expected more”
from the players than the female coaches. The males tended to coach from
an authoritarian perspective and enforced the concept of “no excuses,
this is the rule and we’re going to stick with this rule,”
according to Kelli M. Many of the athletes felt there would be more consequences
to face in practices under the male coach if they did not pay attention
or were not serious. Some of the athletes in this study responded favorably
to the male coaches’ disciplinary tactics, as it aided in keeping
them focused; however the male coach was also considered to be “too
strict” by others in the study.
Four of the participants felt that the female coaches were unorganized and
non-authoritative. The female coaches tended to run late at times and
would not get the players prepared for the game. Practices were not structured,
nor on a time schedule. These athletes perceived that the female coaches
had a harder time trying to accomplish tasks in practice, and did not
have similar discipline compared to experiences with the male coaches.
With the female coach, she had different stuff everyday. It would take
her five minutes to explain what we’re supposed to do and then it
wouldn’t really work very well. So, we would just look at each other.
When we did the drill, we didn’t do it full out because we knew
she wasn’t keeping score or we weren’t on a time limit. We
knew we weren’t going to really be disciplined. (Kelli M.)
Female coaches were more likely to forget details in practice, such as
not keeping score of games, which led to lack of motivation during practice.
Participants indicated that female coaches would consider individual situations
instead of sticking to certain rules and consequences. For example, if
an athlete was late to practice, a male coach would have a set rule regarding
this behavior and if any player broke the rule, regardless of the reason,
she would have to face the consequences. However, a female coach would
listen to the athlete’s reason and then decide what type of consequence
the player should face.
Personal Relationships
All of the participants felt that female coaches had a greater ability
to relate to them. Jennifer C. stated, “[the female coaches] know
sometimes what [female athletes] going through, different life cycles
and stages of their life. They can relate to how girls change differently
than boys.” The participants indicated that the female coach understood
how to “deal with” the athletes and could sympathize with
them when it came to “girl stuff.” The female coaches had
a greater tendency toward being friends with the players and getting to
know them more than the male coaches did. Kelli C. stated, “[the
female coach] was more on our level. She wanted to “chit-chat”
with us. Like get to know us rather than having to be stern.” This
sometimes caused problems though, because the female coach would develop
emotional ties with the players and would construct feelings of whom she
liked and did not like. This made a difference in some of the participants’
experiences because the coach would “characterize a couple of players
as being similar to the way [the female coach] played and/or worked in
high school or college. So people with different work ethics were considered
different” (Sam). The players began to see differences in coaching
as favoritism. Mistakes made by some players would be overlooked, but
similar mistakes would be made into ‘an issue’ with other
players.
So, in practice a lot of the people knew that if they made a mistake
then the female coach tended to focus on that one mistake. But if another
person made a mistake, she would focus on something else, like just ignore
it. Like if somebody in a game continuously threw the ball out of bounds
or in the bleachers she wouldn’t really look at that. She would
look at it as a negative that somebody else who’s not getting the
rebounds or not playing good defense or something like that. She would
pick and choose which mistakes mattered and which ones didn’t, with
a lot of different kinds of players, depending on what she thought of
you already. (Kelli M.)
The athletes did experience a lot of positive feedback and encouragement
from the female coaches. Many of the participants believed this came naturally
from the female coaches. Emily stated, “in general, you are going
to have a female that’s better at [encouraging and motivating] just
because females are more encouraging in general.” Others, such as
Carmen, felt the bond shared with the female coach is what helped motivate
and encourage performance. “She was a girl and girls can relate
to girls. And when they encourage you and you’re friends with them
you feel better.” The female coaches were more inclined than the
male coaches to say positive statements to encourage players. Female coaches
tended to first point out the positive tasks the athletes did before saying
what could be improved.
The personal relationships between the female athletes and male coaches
were very different from the relationships with female coaches. Many of
the female athletes were intimidated by the male coaches. The female players
knew that they could discuss ‘most anything’ about the sport,
certain plays or tactics with the male coaches, but nothing outside of
practice or the game was “allowed to be discussed.” Whereas
the athletes felt a variety of issues could be discussed with the female
coaches. Carmen stated, “If I had a [personal] problem with my male
coach, I wouldn’t say anything about it.” There was no bond,
per se, like the one she had with the female coach. If something was bothering
a player, the male coach would simply punish the player for not paying
attention. In similar situations with a female coach, Carmen thought that,
“she would have asked ‘hey are you okay.’ She would
have known something was bothering me and said “hey let’s
play or practice.”
Four of the athletes indicated the biggest difference between the relationships
with the male and female coaches came from a lack of encouragement and
positive reinforcement. The males tended to correct and point out the
mistakes more often and hesitated to use compliments as motivation. Sam
stated, “My male coach always told us what we were doing wrong.
After a while in practice, he could tell it was getting to us so he would
throw in a compliment. But, everyone knew he had to think about it before
he said it.”
Passivity and Aggressiveness
The mentality of the male coach compared to the female coach was a major
theme throughout the interviews. The males seemed to be more aggressive
and demanding. The males’ mentality was “you gotta go out
and get it” and they wanted to “win, win, win,” which
made practices hard and strict. A typical mindset was that if the female
athletes would make a mistake or, as Kelli M. stated, “If we took
too long, or if we were loafing around and it took us more than ten to
fifteen seconds to get in a drill, we had to get on the line and run.
It was like clockwork. It made us a better team and I am thankful for
that.”
With female coaches, a more laid back approach was utilized. The tone
was much lighter and practice proceeded in a more calm and non-aggressive
fashion. Carmen stated, “The female coach I had, we always got things
done but it was in a lighter tone. Like we’d do what she said and
we’d follow what she wanted us to do but we could be playful at
the same time.” The pressure of doing something wrong or making
a mistake and having to face consequences was not as prevalent with a
female coach. Only one of the participants had a positive outlook towards
this mentality, as Emily explained, “we may not had to have done
[a drill] four hundred times like we did with the males, but the end result
was the same.”
Coach Preference
When asked which coach they preferred the most, eight participants responded
favorably toward the male coach for various reasons. The athletes believed
that to be a good coach, the coach must have respect from the players.
According to Kelli C., “demonstrating their (coaches) soccer knowledge,
ability to control the team, and to enforce discipline,” were all
key elements in gaining the respect of players. Jennifer C. thought, “some
coaches you just respect because they know how to make you respect them.”
Along with respect, the female athletes viewed a good coach as one who
was able to perform the skill and have more than adequate knowledge about
the sport. Carmen stated that “[the male coach] was the one that
knew the most about soccer. He knew the most and challenged me the most.
I grew as a player when I was with him.” Further, Kelli M. stated,
“the males assumed to know more about the basics and the fundamentals.
Everything that’s required for a successful team.” The female
athletes considered an ideal coach to be a good leader, teacher, friend,
and motivator. Specifically, Sam thought a coach should “challenge
players to become better physically, mentally, tactically, and technically,”
while Emily felt that coaches should “teach [athletes], prepare
them for any kind of obstacles that they’re going to have to come
into contact with. Teaching them basics like discipline, punctuality,
getting to practice on time, dealing with other people, teamwork, and
good sportsmanship.” Four of the female participants believed that
a coach should be a good example and help in the teaching of life lessons.
Sam felt that a coach should be “a little bit of everything.”
Discussion
The purpose of the present investigation was to explore a group of female
athletes’ experiences of having female and male coaches. This comparison
demonstrated that four of the six female athletes preferred a male coach,
including various differences of opinions of each coach.
Discipline and Structure
While men were reported to be more detailed in instruction and structured,
the women were more lenient disciplinarians. This finding coincides with
Masin’s (1998) results, which found that 75% of female athletes
preferred male coaches because of more perceived organization. The desire
for this quality might exist because many female athletes want to be pushed
physically, challenged in skill development, and feel the need for competition,
and they believe this can be achieved through a structured environment
(Osborne, 2002). Five of the female athletes in this study expressed a
positive perception of the discipline enforced by the male coaches.
Personal Relationships
A female athlete may benefit from a personal connection with the coach.
When coaching females, there is the need for warmth, empathy, and a sense
of humor (Burke, Peterson, & Nix, 1995; Grisaffe, Blom, & Burke,
in press) with the players (Osborne, 2002). Female high school and college
basketball players ranked the coaching qualities of “relating well
to athletes” and understanding athletes’ feelings” as
two of the top three desirable characteristics, and female coaches rated
significantly higher than male coaches in demonstrating these qualities
(Molstad & Whitaker, 1987). Sabock and Kleinfelter (1987) and Simmons
(1997) found that female athletes were more inclined to disclose personal
information to a female coach. Many of the athletes in the present study
experienced these traits from female coaches. Female coaches in this study
were better at relating and more likely to establish a friendship. Although
the athletes expressed a desire to bond with the coach, they indicated
did not want favoritism to be shown toward any players. Further, many
female athletes thrive on self-satisfaction and the belief they are capable
of doing a certain task or drill, and can best achieve this through encouragement
from the coach (Osborne, 2002). The present findings indicated that female
coaches were viewed as more encouraging and motivating through a greater
use of positive feedback.
Passivity and Aggressiveness
Female athletes tended to be more acceptable of the male coaches’
mentality than that of the female coaches’ mentality. Nine participants
in this study approved the authoritarian style of coaching utilized by
the male coaches. Women may prefer this style of coaching due to cultural
expectations of men in authority positions, male dominance in women’s
sports, or the lack of female coaches as role models (Osborne, 2002).
As with male athletes, female athletes want to be trained hard and challenged.
However, if coaches use an extreme “in your face” mentality,
such as constant yelling, the female athlete may be less receptive to
this style (Osborne, 2002).
Coach Preference
Nine of the female athletes in the present study expressed a preference
for male coaches, citing factors such as a greater level of knowledge,
knowing what it takes to be successful, and having more respect for him.
Previous research (Parkhouse & Williams, 1986) has not shown a clear
consensus as to whether female athletes prefer a male or a female coach
(Lirgg, Dibrezzo, & Smith, 1994; Osborne, 2002). Some of the literature
has claimed that athletes may be more comfortable with male authority
figures who could explain their perceptions (Frankl & Babbitt, 1998;
Osbourne, 2002; Whitaker & Molstad, 1985). Similarly, since men have
held coaching positions for a longer period of time, athletes may have
more confidence in their knowledge levels and coaching abilities (Sabock
& Kleinfelter, 1987). In the late 1980’s and early 1990’s,
much of the literature stated that female athletes preferred a male coach
because there was simply a lack of women in the profession (Osborne, 2002).
Further, coach preference may depend on the gender of the athletes’
present coaches (Medwechuk & Crossman, 1994; Sabock & Kleinfelter,
1987). Since the majority of coaches have been male, this could help to
explain the female athletes’ preference toward male coaches.
Caution must be taken in assuming that coach preference is due only
to gender.
Additional factors exist that may influence athletes’ perceptions
of coaches such as the success of the team (Williams & Parkhouse,
1988) or influence of current coach (Parkhouse & Williams, 1986).
Female athletes who exhibited higher trait anxiety, higher state cognitive
and somatic anxiety, and lower state self-confidence have been shown to
have more negative perceptions of coaches (Kenow & Williams, 1992;
1999). Lirgg, Dibrezzo, & Smith (1994) found that female athletes
coached by females reported a greater desire to become head coaches than
those coached by male coaches. Other personal attributes such as athlete
age (Burke, Peterson, & Nix, 1995; Whitaker & Molstad, 1988),
socioeconomic status, ethnicity, and the athletes’ level of skills
and abilities (Williams & Parkhouse,1988) may also impact athletes’
experiences with coaches. Longitudinal studies should be employed to more
thoroughly examine the influences that male and female coaches have on
athletes.
References
- Burke, K. L., Peterson, D., & Nix, C. L. (1995). The effects of the coaches’ use of humor on female volleyball players’ evaluation of their coaches. Journal of Sport Behavior, 18, 83-90.
- Carpenter, L. J. & Acosta, V. (1991). Back to the future: Reform with a woman’s voice. Academe, 23-27.
- Carron, A. V. & Bennett, B. B. (1977). Compatibility in the coach-athlete dyad. Research Quarterly, 48, 671-679.
- Felder, D. & Wishnietsky, D. (1990). Role conflict, coaching burnout, and the reduction in the number of female interscholastic coaches. The Physical Educator, 47, 7-13.
- Frankl, D. & Babbitt, D. G. (1998). Gender bias: A study of high school track & field athletes’ perceptions of hypothetical male and female head coaches. Journal of Sport Behavior, 21, 396-407.
- Freeman, W. H. (2001). Physical Education and Sport. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
- Glesne, C. (1999). Becoming Qualitative Researchers. New York: Addison Wesley Longman.
- Greenleaf, C., Gould, D., & Dieffenbach, K. (2001). Factors influencing Olympic performance: Interviews with Atlanta and Nagano U.S. Olympians. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 13, 154-184.
- Grisaffee, C., Blom, L. C., & Burke, K. L. (in press). The Effects of Head and Assistant Coaches’ Uses of Humor on Collegiate Soccer Players’ Evaluation of Their Coaches. Journal of Sport Behavior.
- Kenow, L. J. & Williams, J. M. (1992). Relationship between anxiety, self-confidence, and evaluation of coaching behaviors. The Sport Psychologist, 6, 344-357.
- Kenow, L. & Williams, J. M. (1999). Coach-athlete compatibility and athlete’s perception of coaching behaviors. Journal of Sport Behavior, 22, 251 – 259.
- Lirgg, C. D., Dibrezzo, R., & Smith, A. N. (1994). Influence of gender of coach on perceptions of basketball and coaching self-efficacy and aspirations of high school female basketball players. Women, Sport, and Physical Activity Journal, 3, 1-14.
- Masin, H. L. (1998). Men coaching women…..Coach and Athletic Director, 68, 16.
- Medwechuk, N. & Crossman, J. (1994). Effects of gender bias on the evaluation of male and female swim coaches’. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 78, 163-169.
- Molstad, S. & Whitaker, G. (1987). Perceptions of female basketball players regarding coaching qualities of males and females. Journal of Applied Research in Coaching and Athletics, 2, 57-71.
- Osborne, B. (2002). Coaching the female athlete. In John M. Silva III & Diane E. Stevens (Eds)., Psychological foundations of sport (pp. 428 – 437). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
- Parkhouse, B. L. & Williams, J. M. (1986). Differential effects of sex and status on evaluation of coaching ability. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 57, 53-59.
- Pastore, D. L. (1992). Two-year college coaches of women’s teams: Gender differences in coaching career selections. Journal of Sport Management, 6, 179-190.
- Sabock, R. J. & Kleinfelter, E. R. (1987). Should coaches be gendered? Coaching Review, 10, 28-29.
- Simmons, C. D. (1997). The effects of gender of coach on the psychosocial development of college female student-athletes. Unpublished master’s thesis, University of Louisville.
- Stewart, C. & Taylor, J. (2000). Why female athletes quit: Implications for coach education. Physical Educator, 57, 170.
- Udry, E., Gould, D., Bridges, D., & Tuffey, S. (1997). People helping people? Examining the social ties of athletes coping with burnout and injury stress. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 19, 368-395.
- Vernacchia, R. A., McGuire, R. T., Reardon, J. P., & Templin, D. P. (2000). Psychosocial characteristics of Olympic track and field athletes. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 31, 5-23.
- Whitaker, G. & Molstad, S. (1985). Male coach/female coach: A theoretical analysis of the female sport experience. Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 9, 14-25.
- Whitaker, G. & Molstad, S. (1988). Role modeling and female athletes. Sex Roles, 18, 555-566.
- Williams, J. M. & Parkhouse, B. L. (1988). Social learning theory as a foundation for examining sex bias in evaluation of coaches. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 10, 322-333.
- Wrisberg, C. A. (1996). Quality of life for male and female athletes. Quest, 48, 392-408.
Table 1
Mean Demographic Data of Female Athletes
| Participant (Pseudonym) |
Sport(s) | Years of Experience | Years coached by a male | Years coached by a female |
| Kelli C. | Basketball Soccer and Softball |
10 | 7 | 3 |
| Kelli M. | Basketball | 11 | 7 | 4 |
| Carmen | Soccer | 13 | 10 | 3 |
| Emily | Soccer | 12 | 9 | 3 |
| Jennifer C. | Golf and Basketball | 13 | 6 ½ | 6 ½ |
| Sam | Soccer and Basketball | 12 | 8 | 4 |
| Lekeisha | Basketball | 10 | 7 | 3 |
| Tyler | Cross Country | 11 | 8 | 3 |
| Misha | Soccer | 9 | 4 | 5 |
| Kylie | Softball | 10 | 5 | 5 |
| Alexis | Basketball | 8 | 3 | 5 |
| Natalie | Track and Field | 9 | 7 | 2 |
| Carmen | Soccer | 13 | 10 | 3 |
Appendix
Interview Guide
The initial question posed to participants: “What do you think the role of a coach should be?”
Following questions:
- What sport do you play?
- When were you coached by a male and a female?
- How many years were you coached by a male and a female?
- In what setting did you have the male and female coach?
- Which coach did you prefer the most?
- Who do you think knew more about the sport? Why?
- If you had daughters, whom would you want them to be coached by?
Why? Were there any differences/ similarities between the male and female
coaches in regards to: - Training practices and evaluation performance?
- Encouragement and motivation?
- Punishments and commands?
- Helping with personal problems and enjoyment?
- Encouraging after mistakes and correcting behavior?
- Coaching methods?
- In an ideal world, what would you like to see in the world of female
sports in regards to coaching? - In general, what are your thoughts about males and females coaching
female athletes?
A Study of Gambling Activity in a NCAA Division II Institution
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to examine both the overall and the sports
specific gambling activity among athletes and non-athletes enrolled in
a Southern, regional National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division
II university. The findings were contrasted to the results of a 2003 NCAA
Sports Wagering study. The instrument utilized in this particular study
was an adaptation of the survey used in the NCAA 2003 study. Gambling
by athletes at NCAA member schools is a growing concern, and there are
indicators that gambling by college athletes may be more prevalent today
than described in the 2003 study as gambling activity among student-athletes,
male and female, in Division II seems to have increased dramatically from
2003 to 2006.
Specific to this study, respondents from a Southern, regional, NCAA Division
II college, the University of West Georgia, indicated a much higher rate
of gambling as contrasted to the 2003 overall NCAA II findings. Interestingly,
the prevalence of gambling activity among the subjects of this study seemed
to be most prevalent within two sports: women’s basketball and men’s
football. The reported activity among the other nine sports was practically
non-existent. The increase in gambling activity reported by the 2006 student-athletes
as contrasted to the 2003 student-athletes might reflect a change in recreational
lifestyle, ease of access to gambling via the intranet, a rapidly changing
set of sports morays, or an aberration associated with one particular
NCAA II college.
Introduction
Gambling of all types is on the rise in the United States. In 1999, thirty-seven
states and the District of Columbia had lotteries, as compared to thirteen
in 1976 (Claussen & Miller, 2001). In this same year, Nevada hosted
142 bookmaking sites (National Gambling Impact Study Commission, 1999b).
Casino growth has paralleled this expansion of gambling. The approval
rate for using gambling as a way to raise state funds for government programs
and/or education has also dramatically increased. A Gallup Poll conducted
in 1989 indicated that 55% of Americans approved of this type of fund
raising. Ten years later, Goldin (1999) noted that the approval rate grew
to 92% of Americans.
Early acceptance of widespread gambling was evident in The United States
as early as the late 1980s through the passing of the Indian Gaming Regulatory
Act (IGRA). This law gave American Indian Tribes the right to host gambling
activities on reservation grounds as long as the activities were not against
state or national law (Goldin, 1999). Since the passing of this regulatory
act, revenue from gambling has grown from $212 million in 1988 to $6.7
billion in 1999 (NGISC, 1999b). This growth has continued despite disasters
such as “911” and Hurricane Katrina. According to the Mississippi
Gaming Commission (2006), three Gulf Coast casinos alone were able to
generate net revenue of sixty-four million dollars in January of this
year, even after the effects of Hurricane Katrina.
Both private business and governments associated with gambling have responded
to the above phenomena by creating additional opportunities for involvement
with gambling. These include allowing water-based casinos to relocate
to land-based operations; a growth in state lotteries, animal racing,
charitable gambling, video poker machines, sports betting, and internet
gambling (Claussen & Miller, 2001).
Improved technology has created an opportunity for the formation of internet
gambling sites, which lures today’s internet savvy students. Lowry
(1999) reported there were approximately 280 online sites that offer internet
gambling. These online sites generated 1.5 billion dollars revenue in
the year 2000 (Woodruff & Gregory, 2005). Revenue from this type of
gambling will continue to increase as the internet becomes more accessible.
Internet opportunities, along with an increased public acceptance of gambling,
make activities such as betting on an athletic competition more appealing
and much easier (Doocey, 1996; Udovicic, 1998). In fact, sports gambling
has grown to a greater than $100 billion industry (Udovivic, 1998). This
is partially due to the fact that more information (via the Internet)
is available describing sports teams, which allows people to feel more
informed in predicting outcomes.
According to a meta-analysis of gambling habits among university students
by Labrie, Shaffer, LaPlante, & Wechsler (2003), it was reported that
41.9% of students indicated involvement in gambling activity within the
past year, while 23% indicated participation in the activity within the
past week. Additionally, 5.6% of these students met the criteria for pathological
gambling as compared to the rates of 0.2 to 2.1% for the general population
(Labrie, Shaffer, LaPlante, & Wechsler, 2003). This was the result
of a study of college students which utilized findings from the South
Oaks Gambling Screen study (Lesieur & Blume, 1987).
Another study by Engwall, Hunter, & Steinberg (2004) reported similar
findings to the Labrie, et al (2003) meta-analysis. They found that 42%
of college students reported at least one gambling episode in the past
year and 3% of the respondents gambled at least once a week. Labrie, et
al (2003) found that playing the lottery was the most common gambling
activity reported among college students. He found that gambling activity
among college men was significantly greater than college women. Engwall,
et.al (2003) also noted that gambling appears to be related to behavioral
characteristics in college students such as (a) increased television viewing,
(b) computer use for non-academic reasons, (c) spending less time studying,
(d) earning lower grades, (e) participation in intercollegiate athletics,
and (f) binge drinking.
Ironically, alcohol use is a strong predictor of college student gambling
behavior, regardless of gender. Labrie, et al (2003) reported that college
students who had used alcohol within the past year were 2.4 times more
likely to engage in gambling behavior than those who had abstained from
alcohol. It also appears that the variables associated with gambling vary
by gender. For example, among Caucasians, being a male was a strong predictor
of gambling, as contrasted to being a female (Labrie, et.al, 2003). Labrie,
et al (2003) also noted that college female gamblers were more likely
to work for wages, be single, and view community service as less than
very important. Unlike the female gamblers, males who gambled were more
likely to view sports and physical activity as very important.
College students who participated in sports gambling in particular were
more likely to gamble on golf than any other activity according to the
National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) study (Petr, Paskus, &
Dunkle, 2003). Perhaps this is due to the extensive history of gambling
in golf that involves players betting with large sums of money. This has
been documented as far back as 1870 (LeCompte, 2005). The United States
Golf Association (USGA) does not object to gambling that does not interfere
with the game (LeCompte, 2005). This is in contrast to the NCAA policy
that prohibits any type of gambling in the context of athletics.
In a statement to the Senate Commerce Committee, Senator John McCain
noted that college gambling was “reaching epidemic proportions”
(McCain, 2003). Senator McCain made this statement after results from
the National Gambling Impact Study Commission Report (NGISC) indicated
that college students spend more money on gambling activities than alcohol
(NGISC, 1999b).
Gambling on sports by amateur athletes has been added to the list of
behavioral issues addressed by the NCAA. Even though the NCAA prohibits
sports gambling in general, the primary concern has been with participating
athletes betting on games and then shaving points to influence outcomes.
Point shaving has been defined as the deliberate refusal of an athlete
to score in exchange for monetary resources from a book master or “bookie”
(Petr, et al, 2003).
The NCAA utilized the Petr et al. (2003) study to examine the gambling
behaviors of student athletes from all NCAA divisions. The majority of
the activities in which these athletes admitted gambling activity included
playing cards or board games for money, betting on games of personal skill,
purchasing lottery tickets, using slot or electronic poker machines, trading
sports cards, and entering football pools (Petr, et al., 2003).
The overall prevalence of gambling among NCAA student athletes was reported
to be 35 % among males and 10 % among females. Division III athletes were
found to have the greatest prevalence of gambling (Petr, et al, 2003).
In Division I, point shaving was more prevalent among football players
than male basketball players. Just over 1% of football players reported
that they had played poorly in a game in exchange for money, compared
to ½% of the basketball players (Petr, et al., 2003). Golf had
the highest percentage of participants reporting gambling behavior: 8.4
% for females and 48.6% for males.
There appears to be an inverse relationship between knowledge of the
NCAA policy on gambling and the frequency of the behavior. Athletes in
Division III had the highest overall rates of gambling and the least reported
knowledge concerning the NCAA policy on gambling. Only 43.5% of male athletes
in Division III were aware that the NCAA had rules and regulations that
discourage gambling (Petr, et al., 2003), despite the release of the NCAA
publication, Don’t Bet on It. This suggests that this NCAA publication
and the information contained in it may not be disbursed by all member
schools to athletes.
The personality characteristics that produce excellent athletes are also
present in pathological gamblers. These characteristics include feeling
in control of situations and outcomes, a large ego, and optimism (Naughton,
1998). Just as a great athlete is confident in his or her ability to win
competitions, a pathological gambler is confident in accumulating wealth
from gambling. This link alone may account for some of the gambling activity.
There will always be athletes who engage in gambling behaviors despite
being forewarned of the repercussions. The motives have been widely documented;
however, the top stated reasons for gambling by student-athletes have
been reported as “for fun,” “to win money,” and
“for excitement” (Petr, et al., 2003).
Prior to the NCAA sports wagering study conducted in 2003, no data had
been collected specifically looking at the gambling habits of non-Division
I NCAA athletes (Copeland, 2004). The majority of the research on gambling
among athletes has focused on the activities of NCAA Division I men’s
football and basketball players. However, the results of the 2003 NCAA
sports wagering study indicate that additional research on gambling should
be expanded to include athletes in classifications such as Division II
and III. The NCAA study found that 66.5% of Division II athletes, as compared
to 63.4% in Division I, had participated in some form of gambling within
the past year (Petr, et al., 2003). Furthermore, 33.5% of Division II
athletes, as compared to 28.8% of athletes in Division I, admitted participation
in sports wagering within the past year. This is significant, as sports
wagering is prohibited by the NCAA, and results in an athlete losing one
year of eligibility to compete in his or her respective sport if convicted.
While the NCAA (2003) study noted the prevalence of gambling among Division
II athletes, it did not provide data on the specific gambling preferences
of this group nor did it segment the various types of Division II colleges,
such as small-private, large state, or other strata. Therefore, the purpose
of this study was to reexamine the NCAA findings and collect additional,
more current information on the gambling preferences of NCAA Division
II student athletes and non-athletes, with a focus on a NCAA II regional,
rural, state university.
Methods
The subjects selected were all enrolled at the University of West Georgia
(UWG), a NCAA Division II college, during the spring of 2006. This particular
university is a regional school within the University of Georgia System.
The enrollment at the time of the study was approximately 10,800 students.
The subject pool was divided into two groups: non-athlete students and
student-athletes. From each of these two groups a random sample was identified
using alphabetical ordering and then a selection of a predetermined number
of participants based on the total subject pool. The number of athletes
selected was 141 and a 63.1% response rate was obtained thus yielding
fifty-one female and thirty-eight male respondents. The number of non-athlete
students in the initial random sample pool was 220. Eighty-nine or 40.5%
of the subjects agreed to participate, thus yielding a response pool of
fifty-three females and thirty-six males. The predetermined numbers for
the initial subject pools were obtained using the recommendations of Magnani
(1997).
Both student-athletes and non-athlete students completed the survey instrument
in the presence of research assistants. Complete anonymity was guaranteed
and names were not associated with the collected questionnaires. Permission
to conduct the study was granted by the IRB at the University of West
Georgia.
The number of NCAA Division II student athletes participating in the
NCAA Wagering Study conducted by Petr el al (2003) was 1798 females and
2957 males. This data were frequently used for comparison with the findings
of this particular study.
The instrument utilized in this particular study was an adaptation of
the survey used in the NCAA Wagering Study in 2003. The instrument took
between ten and fifteen minutes for the subjects to complete. The survey
instrument identified the prevalence and extent of gambling behaviors
among students within the most recent twelve-month period. Survey items
not completed were labeled by the researchers as “not stated”.
The definition of “not stated” therefore implied the refusal
of the respondent to answer a particular question. In addition to examining
habits, the instrument also identified problem and pathological gambling
behaviors using the South Oaks ten item screening tool as a guide (SOGS).
Results
The findings of this study were tabulated consistent with the format
of the 2003 NCAA wagering study. This allowed for comparisons between
the various categories of respondents. The results were quantified and
examined for observed differences among NCAA II female and male athletes,
UWG female and male athletes, and UWG female and male non-athletes.
As seen in Table 1, among both athletes and non-athletes and females
and males alike, the UWG population in this particular study reported
a higher rate of total gambling activity than the findings in the NCAA
II (2003) female and male athlete population. The UWG population was 18%
to 31% more active in gambling activity in general. However the specific
rate of gambling on college sports at UWG was less than the NCAA II rate
for both females and males.
Table 1
Involvement with Gambling in the Past 12 Months
| Any Gambling | On Collegiate Sport | |||||
| Female | Male | Not Stated | Female | Male | Not Stated | |
| NCAA Division II athletesc | 51.0% | 66.5% | 15.5% | 5.8% | 21.0% | 73.2% |
| UWG student-athletesb | 70.6% | 97.3% | NA | 2.0% | 7.9% | NA |
| UWG students (non-athletes)a | 67.9% | 86.1% | NA | 1.9% | 8.3% | NA |
Note. All NCAA statistics are from Petr et al (2003).
an= 51 females, 38 males.
bn= 53 females, 36 males.
cn= 1798 females, 2957 males.
The findings presented in Table 2 reinforced the sports gambling prevalence
of UWG students and student-athletes. This was particularly true when
wagering on all sports, not just college sports, was considered. Both
UWG females and males were twice as likely to gamble on sports as contrasted
to the total population of NCAA II female and male athletes.
Table 2
Students and Athletes Who Wagered on any Sport by Gender
| Category | Female | Male | Not Stated |
| NCAA Division II athletesc | 10.6% | 33.5% | 55.9% |
| UWG student-athletesa | 21.6% | 60.5% | NA |
| UWG studentsb | 15.1% | 61.1% | NA |
Note. All NCAA statistics are from Petr et al. (2003).
a n= 51 females, 38 males.
b n= 53 females, 36 males.
c n= 1798 females, 2957 males.
The findings in Table 3 depicted a wide array of gambling activity by
UWG students and student-athletes. This diversity of gambling activity
was evident in the overall NCAA II athlete population as well. Specifically,
non-athlete, female UWG students reported a higher degree of gambling
using card games, whereas male non-athlete UWG students were more likely
to utilize casino table games for gambling purposes. Both female and male
UWG non-athletes were more likely to be involved with craps and dice games
than athletes. The prevalence of gambling activity involving personal
skill was higher among both UWG male and female athletes as contrasted
to non-athletes. Male UWG athletes were twice as likely as any group in
this study to utilize internet gambling options. Utilizing on campus bookies
was three times higher among UWG male athletes as contrasted to all other
groups. The use of off-campus bookies was similar among all groups, except
UWG non-athlete males, who were twice as likely to use an off-campus bookie
compared to the other groups. Female and male UWG students, athletes,
and non-athletes were twice as likely to purchase lottery tickets compared
to the total NCAA Division II group.
Table 3
Students Engaging in Specific Gambling Activities in the Past 12 Months
| Males | Females | |||||
| Non- Gambling Pursuit |
NCAA Division IIc | UWG Student Athletesa | UWG Non Athletesb | NCAA Division IIc | UWG Athletesa | UWG Student Athletesb |
| Played card or board games for money | 42.5% | 81.6% | 66.7% | 19.2% | 27.5% | 34% |
| Table games at casino | 19.1% | 34.2% | 11.1% | 9.3% | 2.0% | 5.7% |
| Games of personal skill | 35.1% | 73.7% | 61.1% | 16.3% | 27.5% | 18.9% |
| Stock market/commodities | 9.1% | 15.8% | 16.7% | 3.6% | 5.9% | 1.9% |
| Commercial bingo | 6.9% | 7.9% | 8.3% | 6.7% | 9.8% | 20.8% |
| Played dice/craps | 12.2% | 36.8% | 27.8% | 3.8% | 13.7% | 7.5% |
| Internet gambling | 7.2% | 23.7% | 13.9% | 2.0% | 7.8% | 5.7% |
| Sports cards, football pools, or parlays | 19.0% | 52.6% | 52.8% | 7.0% | 13.7% | 9.4% |
| Bet on horse or dog races | 8.9% | 26.3% | 13.9% | 4.8% | 9.8% | 7.5% |
| Bet on intercollegiate games with campus bookie | 2.4% | 7.9% | 8.3% | 0.4% | 0.0% | 0.0% |
| Bet on intercollegiate games with off-campus bookie | 4.6% | 2.6% | 8.3% | 0.9% | 2.0% | 1.9% |
| Lottery tickets | 37.0% | 76.3% | 72.2% | 31.9% | 52.9% | 62.3% |
| Slot or electronic poker machines | 20.0% | 34.2% | 33.3% | 14.6% | 15.7% | 26.4% |
| Some other type of gambling | 22.8% | 44.7% | 38.9% | 8.0% | 19.6% | 15.9% |
Note. All NCAA statistics are from Petr et al. (2003).
a n= 51 females, 38 males.
b n= 53 females, 36 males.
c n= 1798 females, 2957 males.
As seen in Table 4, both UWG female and male athletes were nearly twice
as likely to say they had no knowledge of the NCAA gambling rules as contrasted
to the overall NCAA II population responses.
Table 4
Athletes Knowledgeable of the NCAA Rules Concerning Gambling:
| Males | Females | |||
| Know Rules | NCAA Division IIb | UWG Athletesa | NCAA Division IIb | UWG Athletesa |
| Yes | 50.1% | 15.7% | 39.1% | 9.8% |
| No | 19.6% | 26.3% | 20.4% | 43.1% |
| Not sure | 30.3% | 57.9% | 40.6% | 35.3% |
Note. All NCAA statistics are from Petr et al. (2003).
a n= 51 females, 38 males.
b n= 1798 females, 2957 males.
As seen in Table 5, both female and male athletes at UWG expressed a
similar frequency of problem or pathological characteristics as compared
to those in the NCAA II 2003 study. However, there were a disproportionately
high percentage of non-athlete UWG students whose responses were consistent
with potential problem gambling issues. This group was four times as likely
to indicate potential problem gambling characteristics.
Table 5
Students Who Indicate a Problem or Pathology Concerning Gambling:
| Males | Females | |||||
| Screening Outcome | NCAA Division IIc | UWG Studentsb | UWG Athletesa | NCAA Division IIc | UWG Studentsb | UWG Athletesa |
| Non-Gambler | 35.3% | 27.8% | 26.3% | 60.1% | 41.5% | 47.1% |
| No problem | 48.3% | 30.6% | 50% | 35.7% | 45.3% | 37.3% |
| Potential problem gambler | 11.3% | 41.7% | 10.5% | 3.8% | 9.4% | 13.7% |
| Pathological gambler | 1.7% | 2.8% | 7.9% | 0.1% | 0.0% | 0.0% |
| Not stated (but still gambles) | info not provided | 0.0% | 5.3% | info not provided | 0.0% | 5.9% |
Note. All NCAA statistics are from Petr et al. (2003).
a n= 51 females, 38 males.
b n= 53 females, 36 males.
c n= 1798 females, 2957 males.
The authors found that sports gambling athletes from only two sports
among the UWG population displayed significant gambling activity of any
type during the recent twelve months. The sports were women’s basketball
and men’s football. The reported prevalence of gambling activity
among the other nine sports at UWG was not significant.
Discussion
As previously noted, gambling by athletes at NCAA member schools is a
growing concern. The NCAA obviously senses a problem as evidenced by their
focus on the issue. There are indicators that the problem may be larger
than described in the 2003 NCAA study. For example, the fact that 73.2%
of NCAA II athletes in the 2003 NCAA Wagering Study refused to make a
statement about their gambling activity a matter of concern. This could
indicate a fear of being forthright due to concerns about retribution
and conviction.
Also, this study found a much higher rate of gambling among UWG students,
as contrasted to the 2003 overall NCAA Division II population. This could
be more than an aberration associated with one NCAA Division II college.
It could reflect a rapid growth of gambling among college students which
could be related to the widening social acceptance of gambling, the expansion
of internet gambling, or perhaps other issues. However, there is always
the possibility that the limitation due to the smaller number of respondents
among the 2006 UWG population groups, as contrasted to the 2003 NCAA Division
II group, could have skewed the data.
At this point in time however, the UWG population of both athletes and
non-athletes appeared to have a comparatively high rate of gambling involvement.
If one were to assume the rate of involvement among NCAA Division II athletes
has remained constant over the three years since the NCAA study, then
one would have to question whether a regional, rural, relatively large,
state university might have a consistently higher rate of gambling involvement.
This issue alone might merit future study.
Interestingly, the prevalence of gambling activity among UWG athletes
in particular seemed to reside exclusively within two sports, women’s
basketball, and men’s football. The reported activity among the
other nine sports at UWG was practically non-existent. This finding may
be inferable or it might have been the result of a reluctance of athletes
from other sports to express activity among teams. This question also
merits further investigation.
Several other questions associated with gambling among college athletes
merits future study. Is there a link between expressed gambling activity
among student-athletes and graduation rates? Are there athletes from specific
sports that have higher gambling activity rates as indicated in this particular
study? Do non-athlete students actually have a higher gambling activity
rate than the student-athlete population?
Obviously, if gambling becomes an interference with fair
sports competition, the development of the student-athlete, graduation
rates, or the integrity of any aspect of higher education, it deserves
attention. At this point in time, it appears that this determination is
still in question and thus deserves additional research. Additionally,
other universities might consider replicating thus study in order to provide
a basis for comparison and analysis.
References
- Copeland, J. (2004). Sports wagering survey focuses attention on the high rates of misbehavior in Divisions II, III. The NCAA News. December 6, 2004, Retrieved April 6, 2006 from http://www.ncaa.org/wps/portal/newsdetail
- Claussen, C.L. & Miller, L.K. (2001). The gambling industry and sports gambling: A stake in the game? Journal of Sport Management, 15, 350-363.
- Doocey, P. (1996). The case for legal sports betting. International Gaming & Wagering Business, 17 (4), 1, 40-41.
- Engwall, D., Hunter, R., & Steinberg, M. (2004). Gambling and other risk behaviors on university campuses. Journal of American College Health, 52(6), 245-255.
- Goldin, N.S. (1999). Casting a new light on tribal casino gaming: Why Congress should curtail the scope of high stakes Indian gaming. Cornell Law Review (Note), 84, 798-849.
- LaBrie, R., Shaffer, H., LaPlante, D., & Wechsler, H. (2003). Correlates of College Student Gambling in the United States. Journal of American College Health, (52), 53-62.
- LeCompte, T. (2005). Gambling and golf a match made in heaven. American Heritage, 56 (4), 64.
- Lesieur, H. & Blume, S. (1987). The South Oaks gambling screen (SOGS): a new instrument for the identification of pathological gamblers. American Journal of Psychiatry, 144(9): 1184-1188.
- Magnani, R. (1997). Sampling guide. IMPACT Food Security and Nutrition
- Monitoring Project. Arlington, Va.
- McCain, J. (2003). Statement of Senator John McCain, Commerce Committee
- Hearing on Sports Gambling and S.2267, the Amateur Sports Integrity Act.
- National Gambling Impact Study Commission. (1999b). Final Report. Washington, DC: Author. The Mississippi Gaming Commission. (2006). Monthly Reports. Jackson, MS: Retrieved from www.mstc.state.ms.us/taxareas/misc/gaming/stats/GamingGrossRevenues.pdf April 4, 2006.
- Naughton, J. (1998). Why athletes are vulnerable to gambling. The Chronicle of Higher Education, 44 (32), A51.
- Petr, T., Paskus, T.S. & Dunkle, J.B. (2003). NCAA national study on collegiate sports wagering and associated behaviors. National Collegiate Athletic Association, 1-62.
- Udovicic, A. (1998). Sports and gambling a good mix? I wouldn’t bet on it. Marquette Sports Law Journal, 8 (2), 401-427.
- Woodruff, C. & Gregory, S. (2005). Profile of Internet Gamblers: Betting on the Future. UNLV Gaming Research and Review Journal. 9 (1), 1-14.