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Entering “The Zone” : A Guide for Coaches
Ask any champion athlete whether their state of mind is an important component of sporting performance and the answer will always be the same – a resounding “YES!”. At the highest level, mindset is the crucial factor that separates winners from losers. The ideal mindset enables the body to function automatically with little conscious effort. In this optimal state, complex tasks appear to be easily accomplished and time can either stand still or rush by as the performer is completely immersed in what he or she is doing.
Coaches and sport psychologists often refer to this optimal mindset as “The Zone”. For some athletes, performance in the zone is achieved only a few times in their careers; however, with systematic training using sport psychology techniques, the zone can be entered almost at will. The aim of this article is to outline the theory, which underlies optimal psychological state, and to provide 10 techniques that can safely be recommended to athletes.
Theories of optimal performance
There have been two pioneers in sport psychology research who have devoted their lives to the investigation of optimal psychological state. First, the Hungarian Prof. Mihalyi Czikszentmihalyi introduced the concept of flow state in 1975 while the Russian, Prof. Yuri Hanin, proposed the zone of optimal functioning theory in 1980.
The concept of flow entails a state in which there is a perfect match between the perceived demands of an activity and the abilities of the performer. During flow, a performer loses self-consciousness and becomes completely immersed in the task at hand. This engenders a state in which performance is very pleasurable and intrinsically gratifying. Hence, Czikszentmihalyi refers to flow as being an autotelic experience. The term autotelic is derived from the Greek word auto which means self and telos which means end. Hence, an autotelic experience is one which is an end in itself or intrinsically rewarding. The concept of autotelic experience serves to highlight the need for emphasis on the enjoyment one can derive from participation rather than extrinsic rewards such as medals, trophies and public recognition.
Hanin’s theory is slightly different as it states that each athlete has an optimal zone of anxiety at which he or she performs at her peak. If an athlete’s anxiety leaves this zone, performance levels will invariably decrease. Prof. Hanin, who leads the Finland Research Institute for Olympic Sports, has published a great deal of empirical evidence in support of his theory. My opinion is that Hanin’s theory is useful in terms of establishing the right level of mental and bodily anxiety for peak performance to occur, while Czikszentmihalyi’s theory is useful in identifying key psychological components of flow. Once a phenomenon can be identified, it is easier to manipulate. In psychology, we refer to such manipulations as interventions and here are ten examples of interventions that you should find useful.
10 Techniques to attain optimal psychological state
Centering
Centering is an attentional control technique, which helps to calm athletes and get them focused at critical moments during their sport. It is typically used in sports which involve continuous breaks such as volleyball (during side-outs), and tennis (in-between games and sets). Centering can also be useful at the start of a short duration event such as a 400m sprint or a downhill ski race.
Instruct the athlete to begin by standing with his or her feet at shoulder width with arms at the side. The athlete should breathe deeply using the diaphragm and exhale very slowly. On breathing in, the athlete must focus attention on the area behind the navel. He or she will notice that on each in-breath, the tension in the upper body increases slightly, while on each exhalation, there is a calming sinking feeling. Once mastered, centering is a quick and effective way to attain calmness and counter the destructive effects of over-arousal.
Mental Rehearsal
Creating a mental blueprint for success is one of the best ways in which to enter the zone. Athletes should be encouraged to practice key aspects of their sport in their mind’s eye both prior to competition and, given the opportunity, during breaks in competition. Britain’s top 400m runner, Iwan Thomas, sees himself performing the perfect race before getting into his blocks. This is one of the ways in which he manages to maintain consistently high level performances.
The secret of high quality mental rehearsal involves bringing all the senses into play and using them to create life-like images. The effective combination of senses is called synaesthesis. Encourage athletes to run through sequences from their sport as if looking out through their own eyes noticing all the shapes, colours and textures. They should immerse themselves in the smells, sounds and general feel of their competitive environment. These images should be in real time and it is a good idea to play through a series of “what if” scenarios; for example, when something does not go to plan. Visualise different situations involving poor conditions, tough opponents, late starts and minor mishaps. Preparing mentally for any adversity ensures that athletes will not be stifled in competition when such situations arise. Failing to prepare is preparing to fail. Mental rehearsal is a cornerstone of success in sport.
Error Parking
Sometimes making a silly mistake or getting frustrated in competition can lead to a complete loss of concentration and a departure from the zone. To regain a state of flow after an error, you should advise athletes to “park it” by wiping it away on their shorts or on their playing implement (e.g., racquet, bat, club, etc.). Some sports people like to spit the mistake away although this is clearly not the most hygienic option! Parking an error is a way by which the error can be forgotten to enable athletes to focus on the here and now.
There are many examples of sports stars getting caught up in their mistakes or frustrations and allowing a momentary lapse of concentration to bring about a collapse in their game. A fairly recent example involves the Manchester United and England soccer star, David Beckham. Beckham was representing his country at the 1998 World Cup Finals in France. England had made it through to the second round of the finals and faced formidable opposition in the form of their old adversary, Argentina. Having been brought down by the Argentinean striker Simione, rather than wipe his frustrations away into the turf, Beckham lashed out at Simione with his heel resulting in a red card and an early departure for England from the Championships. The control of anger and frustration is an important lesson, which Beckham needs to learn. Such psychological control would be a perfect compliment to his abundant technical skills.
Losing Self-consciousness
Many sports people report that they become very distracted by the presence of spectators, officials and other competitors. The anxiety provoked by onlookers at competitions is induced by a natural fear of evaluation. Some competitors are able to turn this to their advantage, while others are completely debilitated by it. If an athlete finds it difficult to distract his/her mind from the fact that people will judge them, suggest these three simple strategies:
First, consider that any attention given to onlookers is wasted mental energy, which can be channelled into sporting performance. Channelling attention into performance will ensure that physical capabilities are maximised. Second, just prior to the competition, withdrawal from the other competitors and avoidance of communication with them is a sound strategy. This will demonstrate appropriate focus and may even cause the other competitors to feel anxious. Finally, use of a self-affirmation statement, which reinforces the required positive mindset. For example, “Fear is negative. Desire is positive”, “When the going gets tough the tough get going” or “Be cool like the Fonz”. Remember, if you can talk the talk you can walk the walk!
Using Keywords
As well as using self-affirmation statements, the use of keywords to reinforce what it is that you are trying to achieve can be very useful as part of an armoury of sport psychology techniques. For example, the world champion canoeist, Britain’s Steve Harris uses the phrase “Keep it smooth” to emphasise the smooth entry of the paddle into the water. Many golfers report using a swing thought just prior to striking the ball such as “fluid”, “relaxed” or “loose”. You should advise athletes to find one word which encapsulates what they are trying to do and to use it at critical times just to get them completely focused on what they should be doing. Hence, sprinters may use “explode”, swimmers may use “glide” and cyclists may use “spin”.
Self-hypnosis
Self-hypnosis can be used as an effective way of calming pre-competition nerves. It promotes activation of the right hemisphere of the brain and limits the conscious mental activities of the left hemisphere. Thus, self-hypnosis has a prophylactic effect against the disruptive influences of cognitive anxiety and negative self-talk.
Once mastered, hypnosis can be implemented very quickly to bring a calm and relaxed state. It simply involves focusing attention on one thought at a time. For example, you could focus on the regularity of your breathing and concentrate on breathing slowly from the diaphragm. Alternatively, as in centering, you could focus on your mid-point — the area just behind your navel. Further ways of attaining a hypnotic state involve continuously repeating a mantra such as “relax” or “easy”. Some athletes enter a trance-like state by listening to music. This will be covered in detail later, however, it should be noted that Prof. Czikszentmihalyi contends that flow is a “semi-hypnotic state”. In a sporting context, self-hypnosis is about taking control of yourself so as not to be vexed by the demands of competition.
Simulated Practice
An easy way for athletes to learn about the rigorous demands of competition so that they are able to enter the zone at will is through the use of simulated practice. This involves contriving situations, which accurately reflect what goes on in competition. Simulated practice helps athletes by once again creating a mental blueprint for how to react in particular situations. One method which we have found to be effective with young tennis players is to have one member of the group serving while the remainder attempt to create as much noise and disruption as possible. This forces the server to focus intently on the task at hand, and, over time, greatly improves their powers of concentration. I like to call this drill Mr or Ms Concentration. Crowd noise can also be played through loud speakers to simulate a competitive environment. Similar practices are useful for sprint starts, football kicks and basketball free throws. In fact, in any situation where there is emphasis on an individual, distraction practices such as this can be helpful. Other types of simulated practice involve practicing with 10 vs. 11 in team sports to emulate situations in which a player is sent off. Also, rather than practicing indoors, having sessions in cold and wet conditions builds mental toughness. Being strong mentally increases the chances of successfully entering the zone. The opportunities for simulated practice are only as limited as your imagination.
Pre-event Routine
Having a routine that is standardised but also flexible enough to adjust to differing competitive conditions can put athletes in control and make them feel both psyched and confident. For some athletes, the pre-event routine will start from the evening before a competition; however, being in control of the three minutes just prior to the start of competition is absolutely essential. You could suggest that athletes write down their pre-event routine, indicating what they do, what they are thinking and how they should feel in the hours and minutes leading up to competition.
Such routines involve the following checkpoints:
- What is eaten and how long before competition it is consumed
- What is packed in the kit bag
- What mode of transport is to be used
- How long before competition to arrive
- What are the reporting-in procedures
- What exactly does the warm-up routine consist of
- What will the psych-up consist of e.g., imagery, self-statements, music etc.
- What actions will be taken in the minute prior to start of competition
- What is the ideal mindset on commencement of competition
The Winning Feeling
Ask athletes to think about their most successful performance ever. Encourage them to see themselves performing ……..; what were they wearing?; who were they competing against?; what was distinct about their movements? It is important for them to recreate exactly how they felt inside during their best performance and to write down every detail so that this feeling can be recreated at will. For some athletes, time speeds up when they are performing at their best and the performance is over before they really have a chance to appreciate it. For others, time will slow down and they will feel as if they have all the time in the world to perform. Either way, the winning feeling will be a unique experience which, once identified, can be recreated at will.
The Power of Sound
Music has the ability to inspire, motivate and relax the competitive athlete. Choosing the “right” music is dependent upon what you wish to gain from the listening experience: if your goal is to psych-up, it is advisable to select upbeat music with a strong driving rhythm and lyrics that reinforce what it is that you are trying to achieve. For example, “Eye of the Tiger” (Survivor), “You’re Simply the Best” (Tina Turner) “A Kind of Magic” (Queen). Conversely, if you want music to control your pre-competition anxiety it can be both sedative and inspiring at the same time. For example, “One Moment in Time” (Whitney Houston), “My Heart Will Go On” (Celine Dion) or “Easy” (Lionel Richie). Either way, rather than have specific pieces of music imposed upon them, athletes should be encouraged to make choices which reflect their own musical preferences.
Author’s note
Dr. Costas Karageorghis is a BASES accredited scientific support and research sport psychologist. He is a member of the British Olympic Association Psychology Advisory Group and is head of sport psychology at Brunel University’s Department of Sport Sciences. Further, Dr. Karageorghis is an alumnus of the USSA MSS program and acts as the United Kingdom academic representative.
E-mail: [email protected].
Centennial Anniversary of the International Olympic Movement and Modern Olympic Games
This scholarly history of the International Olympics and modern Olympic games will be an outstanding source for scholars interested in the Olympics and all its glory. Oleg A. Milshteyn is particularly qualified as a researcher through his former affiliation in the Moscow Institute of Sport, where he was a professor of sport sociology. Some of his former students there read like a Who’s Who in the rarefied world of Olympic champions.
In preparation for this unique historical tome, Dr. Milsteyn conducted sociological interviews with 500 leading world experts from more than 80 countries regarding the Centenial Anniversary of the International Olympic Movement and Modern Olympic Games. Among those polled were outstanding Olympians; participants in the Games from 1932 in Los Angeles to 1996 in Atlanta, as well as famous coaches, scientists, journalists, IOC members, heads of the ISF, NOCs and other international and national sport bodies; culture, art, religious figures, managers, businessmen, and sponsors involved in the Olympics.
Altogether, 230 audio recorded hours in 12 languages were made. In 1997-’98, all of this unique information was translated, processed and analyzed in the Jubilee Olympiad International Research Project. This work is still ongoing as Dr. Milsteyn is working on a manuscript of a book with the same title. The collected material is so voluminous, that only one tenth has been utilized to date. There are strong indications that, when completed, Milsteyn’s work will be studied intensely by sport scientists, journalists, sport historians, and students.
Dr. Milsteyn would like the opportunity to finish writing his book and translate it into English and/or other languages. To realize this, he is looking for any creative cooperation, including coauthorship.
Individuals or organizations interested in working with Dr. Milsteyn may contact him at:
Dr. Oleg Milshteyn
Proufsoyuznay 144-131
Moscow 117321, Russia
Home phone: (7 095) 429-5790
Office telephone: (7 095) 242-8452
Fax: (7 095) 247-0844
Email: [email protected] (for Dr. Oleg Milshteyn)
Centennial Anniversary of the International Olympic Movement and Modern Olympic Games
This scholarly history of the
International Olympics and modern Olympic
games will be an outstanding source for scholars interested in
the Olympics and all its glory. Oleg A. Milshteyn is particularly
qualified as a researcher through his former affiliation in the Moscow Institute
of Sport, where he was a professor of sport sociology. Some of his
former students there read like a Who’s Who in the rarefied world
of Olympic champions.
In preparation for this unique
historical tome, Dr. Milsteyn conducted sociological interviews with 500 leading world experts from more
than 80 countries regarding the Centenial Anniversary of the
International Olympic Movement and Modern Olympic Games. Among
those polled were outstanding Olympians; participants in the
Games from 1932 in Los Angeles to 1996 in Atlanta, as well as famous coaches,
scientists, journalists, IOC members, heads of the ISF, NOCs
and other international and national sport bodies; culture, art, religious
figures, managers, businessmen, and sponsors involved in the Olympics.
Altogether, 230 audio recorded
hours in 12 languages were made. In 1997-’98, all of this unique information was translated,
processed and analyzed in the Jubilee Olympiad International Research Project.
This work is still ongoing as Dr. Milsteyn is working on a manuscript
of a book with the same title. The collected material is so voluminous,
that only one tenth has been utilized to date. There are strong indications
that, when completed, Milsteyn’s work will be studied intensely
by sport scientists, journalists, sport historians, and students.
Dr. Milsteyn would like the
opportunity to finish writing his book and translate it into English and/or other languages. To realize
this, he is looking for any creative cooperation, including coauthorship.
Individuals or organizations interested in working with Dr. Milsteyn may
contact him at:
Dr. Oleg Milshteyn
Proufsoyuznay 144-131
Moscow 117321, Russia
Home phone: (7 095) 429-5790
Office telephone: (7 095) 242-8452
Fax: (7 095) 247-0844
Email: [email protected] (for Dr.
Oleg Milshteyn)
USSA Distance Learning Course Survey Results
For the fifth consecutive year, the annual results of the USSA Distance Learning Course Evaluation Survey are clearly positive. The surveys were administered to all students (N=693) who were enrolled in distance learning courses during the 1997-98 academic year. The surveys were anonymously administered at the time the students took their final examinations in each distance learning course.
The USSA Distance Learning Course Surveys are organized into four sections including: Student Profile, Course Content and Structure, Faculty Evaluation,and Overall Rating of the Course.
Student Profile
Four hundred ninety four (71.3%) of the students had previously taken a distance learning course at the United States Sports Academy. Six hundred forty (92.4%) were satisfied with their communication with the USSA Distance Learning Office. Six hundred nineteen (89.3%) of the students reported their course material was delivered in an acceptable amount of time.
Six hundred seventy four (97.3%) of the students felt their registration process was satisfactory. Five hundred sixty six (81.7%) of the students are planning to take additional distance learning courses at the United States Sports Academy. Five hundred thirty two (76.8%) of the students are employed in a sport-related field. Six hundred ninety two (99.9%) of the students had access to one or more of the following technologies: computer, computer with CD-ROM capability. E-mail, World Wide Web/Internet, fax machine, VCR, or audiotape player.
Course Content and Structure
There were sixteen questions in this section of the USSA Distance Learning Course Evaluation survey. These questions surveyed the students’ opinions regarding course content, course objectives, the textbook for the course, the enabling activities, library resources, and the final examination. The culminating question for this section was question # 2.16 which asked “I would recommend this course to a friend and/or colleague.”
The statistical mode or more commonly known as the most frequently occurring score was “agree” for fifteen of the sixteen questions and “strongly agree” for Question # 2.7 which stated “The textbook contributed to my understanding of the subject.”
In all cases, the majority of the students agreed or strongly agreed that course content was carefully planned; the requirements for the courses were adequately explained; the course objectives were clearly expressed; the course objectives were achieved; the course materials provided a clear set of expectations; the content of the course contributed to my understanding of the subject; the textbook contributed to my understanding of the subject; the enabling activities met my learning needs; the enabling activities were challenging; the access to library resources was adequate; the supplemental course materials helped to facilitate their learning; the fifteen week deadline was adequate to complete this course; the examination covered the material/skills emphasized in the course; the examination questions and answers were phrased clearly; the concepts and skills presented will help them on the job and that they would recommend the course to a friend and/or colleague.
Faculty Evaluation
There were ten questions in this section of the USSA Distance Learning Course Evaluation survey. These questions surveyed the students’ opinions regarding adequate access, clarity of instructions, interaction, discussions, feedback, and commitment to professional conduct. The culminating question for this section was question # 3.10 which asked “The faculty member seems to care about my learning.”
The highest amount of student satisfaction on the USSA Distance Learning Course Evaluation surveys was evident in the Faculty Evaluation Section. The mode was strongly agree for seven of the ten questions in this section including the culminating question of “The faculty member seems to care about my learning.” The mode was agree for the remaining three questions in the Faculty Evaluation section.
In all cases, the majority of the students either strongly agreed or agreed that they had adequate access to the instructor; adequate opportunity to ask questions of the faculty member; the faculty member was clear with instructions and directions; interaction with the instructor caused me to think more in depth on the subject; the discussions with faculty helped to facilitate learning; the faculty member was effective in encouraging participation and interest; the faculty member provided useful feedback in facilitating learning; the faculty member facilitated underlying theory into practice; the faculty member possessed commitment to high standards of professional conduct and the faculty member seems to care about my learning.
Overall Rating of the Course
There were four questions in this section of the USSA Distance Learning Course Evaluation survey. These questions surveyed the students’ opinions regarding whether the course relates underlying theory to practice, the course met expectations, and a comparison of the amount of time spent in student preparation for the course. The culminating question for this section was question # 4.4 which asked “I believe that I learned as much through the Distance Learning delivery method as I have in previous residential graduate classes.”
The mode was agree for three of the four items in this section. The mode was strongly agree for the culminating question. The majority of the students either agreed or strongly agreed that the course relates underlying theory to practice; the course met expectations; compared with other courses taken by Distance Learning, the same or more time was spent in preparation; and that the students learned as much through the Distance Learning delivery method as in previous residential courses.
Development of an Athletic Training Curriculum for Universities in South Korea
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to develop a competency based undergraduate sports medicine curriculum for universities in the Republic of Korea (R.O.K.). The survey questionnaire used in this study was derived from five performance domains and universal competencies of the 1995 Role Delineation Study For Entry-Level Athletic Trainers (NATA-BOC, 1995).
The sample in this study consisted of all 180 athletic trainers, medical doctors, and sport educators from the Korean Society of Sports Medicine (KSSM) in the R.O.K. One hundred eighty survey questionnaires were sent to the subjects. Of the 180 questionnaires, 104 were returned out. Two were discarded because they were incomplete. The 102 questionnaires yielded a 56.7% overall return rate. Frequencies, percentages, means, and standard deviations were computed to describe the data. One way ANOVA and Scheffe post-hoc tests were used to analyze the data.
Results of this study indicated that there was a strong need for a sports medicine curriculum in the R.O.K. The subjects rated the NATA sports medicine competencies in five performance domains to be either “important” or “very important”. The results of one-way ANOVA tests indicated there were statistically significant differences between groups in their competency ratings in Domain I, Domain II, Domain III and Domain V. The results of the Scheffe post-hoc tests indicated the means of competency ratings in the four domains by the athletic trainers were statistically significantly higher than the means of the medical doctors. In general, the findings of this study support competencies developed by the NATA and utilized by most United States colleges and universities. The researcher made a few modifications of the current NATA approved curriculum, commensurate with the findings of this study.
Introduction
Since the 1988 Olympic Games in Seoul, interest in sport activities and sport education has grown rapidly in the Republic of Korea (Lim, 1997). However, there is a prevalence of sport injuries in secondary schools, colleges and universities in the R.O.K because young athletes are susceptible to injury (An, Yoo & Kim, 1992). Most institutions in the R.O.K. do not provide a qualified athletic trainer because there is no formal, standard sports medicine training program in the R.O.K. (Lee, 1995).
The value of having an athletic trainer in secondary schools, colleges and universities for the prevention and treatment of athletic injuries has been well-documented (Hossler, 1993; Rankin, 1998). The findings of these studies indicated an athletic trainer provided by institutions significantly reduced the rate of injury and re-injury.
The National Athletic Trainers’ Association (NATA) and many researchers in the United States have studied professional preparation for athletic trainers since the inception of the NATA. Competencies developed by the NATA and utilized by most United States colleges and universities served as a basis to develop a competency based undergraduate sports medicine curriculum in the R.O.K.
Methods
Subjects
The sample in this study consisted of all 180 members of the Korean Society of Sports Medicine (KSSM). Athletic trainers, medical doctors, and sport educators in the R.O.K. comprised this membership. The researcher obtained a list of the member names and addresses from the KSSM officials. One hundred and four questionnaires were returned. Two of these were discarded because they were incomplete. The 102 questionnaires yielded a 56.7% overall return rate.
Instrument
Following a review of related literature, an initial survey questionnaire instrument to measure the importance of the competencies of entry-level athletic trainers was derived from five performance domains and the universal competencies of the NATA role delineation study, third edition (NATA-BOC, 1995).
Statistical Analysis
Frequencies, percentages, means, and standard deviations were used to describe the data. One way ANOVA and the Scheffe post-hoc tests were used to analyze subject demographic characteristics. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted to determine the differences between means of competency ratings in five performance domains based on the subject employment. When the results of the ANOVA test were statistically significant, the Scheffe post-hoc test was conducted to determine where differences between means existed. Statistical significance was accepted at p<.05.
Results
Demographic Characteristics of Subjects
Of the total 102 subjects, 26 (25.5%) were athletic trainers, 32 (31.4%) were medical doctors and 44 (43.1%) were sport educators. The majority of the subjects were males, had an advanced degree, and were in the age group of 31 – 50 years. Most subjects (80.3%) had one to 10 years of experience in sports medicine, whereas the rest had no experience in sports medicine. Only fifty percent of the subjects devoted 25% or more of their daily work to sports medicine.
Most subjects (87.2%) expressed “needed” to “strongly needed” for a sports medicine curriculum in the R.O.K.
Ratings of NATA Competencies
The findings indicated the subjects rated the NATA five domains of sports medicine competencies to be either “important” or “very important”. The subjects rated Domain II (Recognition, Evaluation, and Immediate Care of Athletic Injuries) to be the most important. Domain III (Rehabilitation and Reconditioning of Athletic Injuries), Domain I (Prevention of Athletic Injuries), Domain V (Professional Development and Responsibility) and Domain IV (Health Care Administration) followed in order of importance.
The results of one-way ANOVA tests indicated there were statistically significant differences between the subject groups in their competency ratings of Domain I (Prevention of Athletic Injuries), Domain II (Recognition, Evaluation and Immediate Care of Athletic Injuries), Domain III (Rehabilitation and Reconditioning of Athletic Injuries) and Domain V (Professional Development and Responsibility). Statistical significance was not found for Domain IV (Health Care Administration). The results of the Scheffe post-hoc tests indicated the means of competency ratings in the four domains by the athletic trainers were statistically significantly higher than the means of the medical doctors.
Ratings of Sports Medicine Curricular Components for R.O.K. Universities
The subjects rated all 11 areas of basic knowledge to be “important” to “extremely important”. The most important area was domain-specific content. The other areas of the basic knowledge, ranked in order from most to least important, were as follows: athletic training evaluation, human anatomy, human physiology, exercise physiology, biomechanics, psychology/counseling, organization and administration, nutrition, physics and pharmacology.
The majority of the subjects believed a sports medicine program should be housed in the physical education (sport) department/college. Most subjects believed it is “very important” to “extremely important” to have an internship in order for students to prepare for careers in sports medicine. The majority of the subjects thought it necessary for a student to have more than 1,000 work hours for a successful internship experience in sports medicine. The majority of the subjects believed the internship should be for 12 semester credit hours.
An Undergraduate Sports Medicine Curriculum for Universities in the R.O.K.
The findings support competencies developed by the NATA and utilized by most colleges and universities in the United States. The researcher made a few modifications to the current NATA approved curriculum, commensurate with the findings of this study. The following subject areas comprise an undergraduate sports medicine curriculum for universities in the R.O.K.:
- Sports Medicine Subject Areas
- First aid and emergency care
- Prevention of athletic injuries/illnesses
- Evaluation of athletic injuries/illness
- Therapeutic modalities
- Therapeutic exercise
- Administration of athletic training programs
- Science Subject Areas
- Human anatomy
- Human physiology
- Exercise physiology
- Kinesiology/biomechanics
- Health Related Subject Areas
- Nutrition
- Psychology/Counseling
- Personal and community health
The above subject areas should constitute the academic core of the curriculum. However, institutions should not be required to offer specific courses, as long as there is evidence that each subject area is addressed within the curriculum and students are able to demonstrate an acceptable level of knowledge and skills in each area.
An internship should be a minimum of 1,000 hours of work experience in the sports medicine field. The internship should include all of the knowledge and skills specific to the five domains of athletic training.
Discussion
The results of this study indicated the subjects rated all NATA competency items to be “important” to “extremely important.” This would support the results of the NATA’s role delineation study (NATA-BOC, 1995). However, the rating of the NATA competency items by all of the subjects in this study were slightly lower than a similar study (Rudy, 1997). Rudy indicated all competency items were found to be “very important” to extremely important.” This may be explained by the differences in the subjects in Rudy’s study. The subjects in the present study were not only athletic trainers, but also medical doctors and sport educators, whereas Rudy’s study included only athletic trainers. The findings of the present study indicated athletic trainers were found to rate each competency significantly higher than medical doctors and sports educators.
Although it was still rated as being between “important” and very important,” the least important area of the 11 areas of basic knowledge areas in this study was pharmacology (Mean = 3.16). Rudy also found pharmacology (Mean = 3.49) to be the least important in his study. It may be meaningful to have pharmacology as a unit in other courses or make it a one or two-credit course.
The internship was found to be a very important component of a sports medicine curriculum in this study. The majority of the subjects in this study indicated a need for a minimum of 1,000 hours, whereas the current guidelines of the NATA approved program require a minimum of 800 hours.
Recommendations
Based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations are made for the development and implementation of an undergraduate sports medicine program in the R.O.K.
- Ministry of Education officials in the R.O.K. should consider the curriculum model developed from this study as a standard for new undergraduate sports medicine programs.
- University officials in the R.O.K interested in establishing an undergraduate sports medicine program should use the curriculum model as a basis for program development.
- Universities should have a program director who has wide experience in the field of sports medicine and teaching experience in sports medicine. If qualified personnel can not be found in the R.O.K., consideration should be made to recruit personnel from the United States.
- To improve sports medicine programs, university officials in the R.O.K. should consider developing an international exchange program with American institutions which have credible sports medicine programs.
- The program director should develop good relationships with sports medicine organizations and communities in the R.O.K. in order to provide students with internships and increased job opportunities.
- The program director should consider having sports medicine experts as adjunct faculty members for the university. The adjunct faculty members can share their expertise with students, which may make the program stronger.
- University officials should consider providing a sports medicine program to prepare students for entry-level athletic training along with a teaching credential in order to provide students with more job opportunities and higher salaries. The curriculum should meet the requirements of athletic training and teaching.
The following recommendations are made for further study:
- This study should serve as a basis for developing a graduate sports medicine curriculum in the R.O.K.
- As the scope and practice of athletic training changes, similar studies should be conducted periodically to update competencies of entry-level athletic trainers and to modify the curriculum accordingly.
- A replicate study could be conducted to develop an undergraduate sports medicine curriculum for other countries that lack professional preparation programs in sports medicine.
- Additional research should be conducted to determine the reasons for differences in the evaluation of the competencies by athletic trainers, medical doctors and sport educators.
References
An, I., Yoo, T., & Kim, C. (1992). A study of high school students’ sports activity and related injuries in Jinju. Korean Journal of Sports Medicine, 10(1), 63-76.
Hossler, P. (1993). The high school athletic training program – An organization guide. Dubuque IA: Kendall/Hunt Publishing.
Lee, E. (1998). How to become an athletic trainer, Tennis Korea, 11, 76-77.
National Athletic Trainers’ Association. (1995) 1995 Role delineation study of the entry-level athletic trainer.
Lim, B. (1997). The relationship between the leisure types and the satisfaction of the university students. The Journal of Hankuk Sports Association, 35(4), 408-440.
Rudy, J. (1997). Educational requirements for high school athletic trainers. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Department of Secondary Education, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansa.
Rankin, J. (1989). Athletic training education – new dimensions. JOPERD, 68-71.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to acknowledge the following people for their special contributions which made this study possible: Dr. Lawrence Bestmann, Dr. William Carroll, Dr. Richard DeSchriver, Dr. Jae-Woo Kim, Dr. Pete Koehneke, and Dr. Young-Jun Park.