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George Minoso2025-05-16T12:49:10-05:00

LAW ENFORCEMENT USE OF FORCE: A NARRATIVE REVIEW ON THE UTILITY OF MARTIAL ARTS IN AMERICAN POLICING

George Minoso2025-05-16T12:49:10-05:00September 5th, 2025|General, Research, Sport Training|

LAW ENFORCEMENT USE OF FORCE: A NARRATIVE REVIEW ON THE UTILITY OF MARTIAL ARTS IN AMERICAN POLICING

ABSTRACT 

Problem: The lack of real-life fight training can yield inappropriate physical and psychological stress responses that result in unreasonable use of force by law enforcement officers. Purpose: This narrative review synthesizes the peer-reviewed literature on police assaults, use of force, law enforcement training, and martial arts in law enforcement with some focus on Brazilian jiu-jitsu (BJJ) training and the literature’s methodological issues to provide evidence on the potential utility of martial arts training as a critical force options component mitigator of risk and liability. Method: A qualitative narrative review was appropriate and implemented for this study. Results: This narrative review examines Brizin and Kernspecht’s general theory of combat, which is principally concerned with utilizing various strategies and tactics to achieve desired outcomes, and analyzes law enforcement training, martial arts in law enforcement, and methodological issues found in the literature. In addition, assaults on law enforcement officers and unreasonable use of force are discussed in detail, including culturally relevant examples from recent police use of force encounters. Conclusion: Robust and rigorous force options training, particularly martial arts training, can play a significant role in giving officers confidence when dealing with high-stress situations and could reduce the amount of inappropriate application of force by a police officer, which often results in injury or death of a suspect, or severe liability to the officer’s employer. Application in Sport: For coaches and those who train police officers in the philosophical and physical benefits of martial arts, integrating martial arts, such as Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu as a force option, may improve their defense and restraint skills and decision-making involving force use.  

Key Words: Brazilian jiu-jitsu, police officer training, general theory of combat, feedback, dialogue  

OVERVIEW 

This narrative review explores the potential utility of martial arts, specifically Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu (BJJ), as a force option for law enforcement officers. Law enforcement agencies face increasing pressure to reduce excessive use of force, particularly in encounters with violent subjects. Previous studies have shown that officers often lack the necessary hand-to-hand combat skills to safely de-escalate situations without resorting to lethal methods (Torres, 2020; Renden et al., 2015). In these high-stress and violent encounters, effective conflict-resolution skills are critical for protecting both officers and suspects. 

Despite the increasing incorporation of martial arts into police training programs, gaps remain in the literature regarding its long-term benefits. Research indicates that martial arts training can build confidence and improve decision-making under pressure. Yet, the full potential of such training is still underexplored in the context of law enforcement (Renden et al., 2015). This review aims to bridge that gap by analyzing the role martial arts, particularly BJJ, can play in improving officer safety, restraint techniques, and decision-making processes. 

The general theory of combat logic suggests that successful conflict resolution occurs when there is alignment between the engagement’s purpose and the combatant’s resources or characteristics (Brizin & Kernspecht, 2014). This principle underpins martial arts training, which equips officers with the necessary physical and mental skills to navigate confrontations swiftly and effectively. By synthesizing the existing literature, this review provides an overview of key areas, including: 

1. Assaults on Police Officers and Unreasonable Uses of Force: Examining notable cases and the impact of inadequate training. 

2. Combat Training and the Use of Force Continuum: Discussing current practices and historical evolution. 

3. Martial Arts Training in Law Enforcement: Assessing police officer preparation and development  

4. Current Status of Martial Arts Training in Law Enforcement: Assessing the current status and impact  

5. Research Involving Martial Arts Training in Law Enforcement: Current studies related to the topic 

6. Martial Arts Training Specifically for Police Officers: Analysis of current police officer training  

7. Recommendations for Future Research: Identifying gaps and challenges in the existing literature. 

The database searches were conducted using Google Scholar, Criminal Justice Database (ProQuest), and Criminal Justice Abstracts, selected for their relevance to criminal justice, education, and law enforcement. This review provides evidence-based recommendations for integrating martial arts into law enforcement training to enhance safety and minimize the unnecessary use of force. 

Methods 

A narrative review was selected as the appropriate methodology for this study, which aims to address the research question: How does martial arts training impact law enforcement officers in terms of use-of-force decision-making, officer safety, and overall effectiveness in American policing? 

The initial search was conducted using three electronic databases: Google Scholar, Criminal Justice Database (ProQuest), and Criminal Justice Abstracts. A total of 193 articles and books were identified through this search, which included the key terms: “Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu,” “law enforcement training,” “use of force,” “force options,” and “martial arts.” After removing duplicates and screening for relevance, the pool of sources was narrowed to 88 studies that specifically addressed martial arts training in law enforcement. These studies were retrieved and reviewed in detail, and their reference lists were further screened for additional relevant sources, though no new sources were identified. 

Full-text access was obtained for all 73 records that met the inclusion criteria, and after a comprehensive screening of titles and abstracts, these studies were included in the final review. The studies examined in this review cover general martial arts training for law enforcement, with many focusing on applying BJJ in the field. Key topics included the regulation of chokeholds, improvements in officer mental health, training, conditioning, and psychological and cognitive benefits for law enforcement officers. 

This study’s protocol followed a structured methodological framework, which consisted of the following stages: 

1. Identifying and Collecting Relevant Studies: Literature searches were performed using three databases: Google Scholar, Criminal Justice Database (ProQuest), and Criminal Justice Abstracts. The initial search terms, such as “Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu,” “law enforcement training,” and “use of force,” were established to conduct further searches across the databases. The collected studies were then screened for relevance to the research question, focusing specifically on martial arts training in law enforcement. After duplicates were removed, studies were assessed based on their eligibility criteria. Reference lists were further examined for additional sources, although no new studies were added. 

2. Study Selection: Inclusion and exclusion criteria were defined to filter relevant literature. To qualify, studies had to: (i) be from a peer-reviewed journal, a conference presentation, or a published thesis; (ii) be published in English; (iii) include documented analysis related to police use of force, officer lived experiences, martial arts training, law enforcement practices, stress mitigation, and sports performance; and (iv) be either quantitative or qualitative in nature. No restrictions were placed on the time frame, geographical location within the United States, or study population. Conflicting literature was analyzed by a colleague to reach a consensus for inclusion. After the initial title and abstract screening, a more in-depth selection occurred through full-text screening. 

3. Charting the Data: Once selected, data were extracted and charted according to various categories such as author, title, journal, publication year, geographical location, purpose, sample size, methodology, intervention type, outcomes, key findings, and barriers. These data points were organized, grouped into subtopics, and validated for accuracy. The studies were categorized based on the following subtopics: (i) assaults on police officers and unreasonable uses of force, (ii) combat training and the use of force continuum, (iii) martial arts training in law enforcement, (iv) current status of martial arts training in law enforcement, (v) research involving martial arts training in law enforcement, and (vi) martial arts training specifically for police officers. 

4. Summarizing and Synthesizing the Results: A thematic analysis was conducted to describe the reviewed literature and identify areas that have been well-researched and areas that require further exploration. Patterns and trends were analyzed across geographic locations within the United States and decades of publication. Results were categorized into themes to identify similarities, and barriers and gaps in the literature were highlighted. Based on these findings, recommendations for future research were provided. 

Narrative Review 

The historical beginning points of police departments’ preparation in the utilization of less lethal force can be followed to the 19th century, precisely when the London city police launched the practice of outfitting their law enforcement officers with truncheons, commonly known as “Billy clubs” (Clede & Parson, 1987). The club served as a customary implement utilized by law enforcement officers in both the United Kingdom and the United States during the 19th and 20th centuries. During the 1960s, the civil rights movement in the United States witnessed extensive demonstrations that were frequently met with resistance from local law enforcement agencies, resulting in the dissemination of graphic depictions of police excessive force (Kaminski & Martin, 2000). In the early 1970s, there was an increase in preference for employing nonviolent methods of subject control instead of relying on physical force like clubbing to subdue suspects (Torres, 2020). Policymakers held the perspective that this particular approach would serve as a more favorable means of enhancing the rapport between the community and law enforcement, with a focus on public perception.  

The new programs caused enhancements in several crucial domains. The policing landscape in the United States is characterized by a wide range of agencies, including many municipal, county, and state entities and federal organizations like the FBI, DEA, ATF, and Secret Service. The decentralized structure of policing in the United States has several consequences, including overlapping responsibilities, diverse funding sources, and varied training programs (Kaminski & Martin, 2000). Police departments exhibit various needs and possess varying financial resources to address these requirements. Consequently, there was a need to enhance the scope, funding, and duration of the physical defense training programs initiated during the 1970s. It should be noted that the initial programs suffered from a notable deficiency in the level of proficiency exhibited by the trainers. These trainers derived from martial arts backgrounds founded on Aikido, Karate, or Judo philosophies. According to Kaminski and Martin (2000), although these systems showed efficacy within gymnasiums and dojos, their effectiveness in real-world scenarios was frequently lacking. In addition, the growing accessibility of non-lethal resources such as pepper spray, tasers, and batons has led to a tendency among officers to rely on these tools instead of prioritizing comprehensive hand-to-hand combat training (Bowen, 2018). Ultimately, the initial fervor surrounding martial arts training frequently diminished, leading to the discontinuation of programs that necessitated consistent practice for optimal results, primarily due to financial limitations. 

During the 1990s, martial arts training saw a remarkable spike in interest. According to Reaves (2013), during the decade’s initial years, 2% to 20% of police academies incorporated unarmed martial arts training into their curriculum for cadets. According to Reaves (2013), as of 2013, the percentage stood at 99%, with individuals dedicating an average of 60 hours to training. Torres (2020) reported that nearly all individuals, 94%, have learned ground fighting, while approximately half, 49%, have been schooled in pressure point techniques. In addition to receiving hand-to-hand defensive training in police academies, it is common for officers to engage in ongoing training either through department-provided programs or personal initiatives. According to a study conducted by Morin et al. (2017), nearly half of employed law enforcement officers underwent training within the previous 12-month period. 

Inadequate defensive and offensive combat training has historically posed significant physical risks for officers and suspects. This issue began to be addressed more systematically in the mid-1970s with the development of the use of force continuum, which aimed to mitigate these risks (Desmedt & Marsh, 1990; Graves & Connor, 1992). This section synthesizes the literature on this issue. Key themes from the literature include use of force decision-making, officer safety, mental health and well-being, and community relations. 

Cases of Assaults on Police Officers and Unreasonable Use of Force 

The evolution of the problem associated with the physical risks that can occur stemming from a lack of effective combat training is perhaps best reflected in notable cases of police being injured or killed in the line of duty while amid a physical altercation, as well as those involving suspects being victimized by poor restraint and combat skills on the part of officers that led to their injury or death. Not all such cases reach national recognition, though several examples have emerged in the past several decades that highlight gaps in the tactical training of law enforcement officers (Aborisade & Oni, 2021; Akinyetun, 2021; O’Brien et al., 2019). Lyons (2017) systematically reviewed the literature on injury profiles of law enforcement officers involved in such physical altercations in North America. The authors were particularly concerned with high-risk areas in the body where officers sustained injuries, which could be used to understand better how to train them to defend themselves during conflicts effectively. Results from a synthesis of 16 studies demonstrated that the most injured areas occurred in the upper extremities and involved soft-tissue strains and sprains. 

Cases involving the unreasonable use of force by police officers also reflect gaps in current approaches to the defensive tactics training of law enforcement officers in the United States. While these cases are numerous and exhaustive and often are either not reported or do not gain national media attention, some have been more culturally relevant in recent years and illustrate the negative outcomes that can occur when police are either not equipped to defend themselves without harming a suspect or are assaulted due to a lack of defensive tactics training skills (Akinyetun, 2021; Bowleg et al., 2022; Sosoo et al., 2022). The cases of Rodney King, Edward Bronstein, and George Floyd each represent some deficit in the training of a law enforcement officer when faced with a less-than-compliant individual (Bowleg et al., 2022; Maltsev et al., 2020; Sosoo et al., 2022). Though such cases also contain racial and sociocultural connotations, they reveal areas in which martial arts training might have potentially protected the person police were dealing with.   

Combat Training and Use of Force Decision-Making 

How police officers were trained to approach and manage physical altercations on duty has also evolved since the mid-1970s (Desmedt & Marsh, 1990; Graves & Connor, 1992). During their attendance in a police academy, cadets are trained in the use of force and de-escalation tactics (Torres, 2020). Concerning the latter, officers are provided with psychological and communicative skills and tools to help reduce the severity or tension of a conflict without using physical force (Akinyetun, 2021). In most circumstances, de-escalation is a preliminary step to prevent a physical altercation and protect the officer and the suspect (Ivanovski & Nedev, 2022). When de-escalation is ineffective, officers are trained to use an appropriate amount and mode of force (Ivanovski & Nedev, 2022). In police training, force is considered to be the amount of effort necessary to warrant compliance on the part of a subject (Heusler & Sutter, 2020). The subjectivity of the concept of force and what constitutes an appropriate amount is one factor that has led to physical injury and police excessive force in many cases.  

Some concepts involving force and tactical training among police cadets are similar to Eastern martial arts principles. For example, officers are taught to balance the needs of security with the ethical rights and well-being of a suspect and to avoid inflicting physical harm unless necessary (Vera Jimenez et al., 2019). Additionally, officers are taught to use physical force as a means of self-defense primarily and as a means of restraint secondarily (Ivanovski & Nedev, 2022). The history of using force dates back to the emergence of established law enforcement in the United States, which has essentially existed since its conception (Aborisade & Oni, 2021). However, the use of force and the physical training of officers did not stem from the aim of protecting officers but, instead, from the fear that officers would abuse their power (Vera Jimenez et al., 2019). Therefore, the history and evolution of the tactical training of officers have been grounded in the ethical use of force, self-defense, and de-escalation.  

The use of force continuum dates back to the late 19th century to help officers determine the amount of force to apply based on the level of risk present in a given situation. Over time, this continuum has evolved considerably due to the development of new threats and risks to officers and civilians, such as the more widespread availability of firearms and the emergence of modern technologies and weapons that can potentially cause harm or death (Staller et al., 2019; Torres, 2020). There is no universal or standard model of the use of force continuum, and debates have existed in the literature regarding the effectiveness of policies surrounding this concept (Terrill & Paoline III, 2013). For example, Terrill and Paoline III examined the less lethal use of force policy that emerged following the high-profile Graham v. Connor case that reached the Supreme Court and involved the reasonableness of using force during an arrest. Terrill and Paoline III (2013) revealed that one in five law enforcement agencies do not have or implement a use-of-force continuum or a robust policy, and there is considerable variance in force tactics that are used between different agencies and what is considered to be an appropriate amount of force based on the level of risk that is present. This lack of consistency is one factor that may lead to cases of unreasonable use of force by police officers and also represents the necessity for implementing a tactical force model that protects both officers and suspects.  

Researchers have recently been concerned with re-examining the use of force continuum following numerous nationally relevant cases in which either suspects or police officers have been severely injured or died during a physical altercation (Staller et al., 2019; Torres, 2020). McLean et al. (2022) conducted a recent investigation on this topic, in which they presented a historical and conceptual analysis of the use of force continuum and its connection to cases of police assaults or excessive force. The authors concluded that, contradictory to previous research, resistance on the part of the suspect is not the only driver of decisions involving the use of force (McLean et al., 2022; O’Brien et al., 2019; Staller et al., 2019). Instead, the perception of threat is also a significant factor that influences such decisions and one that has been neglected in both police defensive tactics training and the peer-reviewed literature. The implementation of martial arts training, such as BJJ, may help to address this limitation based on its psychological and philosophical principles that can help officers potentially identify and perceive a threat more accurately and then appropriately use force to restrain a suspect while safely defending themselves (Facinek & Kosc, 2021). 

Martial Arts and Officer Safety 

While tactical training has been a component of law enforcement training throughout its history, martial arts training has only recently been considered a viable element of the preparation and development of police officers. One of the major developments in the integration of martial arts and general law enforcement training occurred in 2009, when Canada’s constable, Al Arsenault, first introduced the fusion of arrest and control tactics that are standard in the training of police officers with various aspects of martial arts, such as Judo (Arsenault & Hinton, 2014). This officer had been training in the martial arts since the 1980s but first developed a formal model of integrated martial arts and standard police tactical training when he began to train police officers in Judo in the early 21st century and developed several training centers throughout Western Canada for officers seeking specialized skill development (Arsenault & Hinton, 2014). Judo is a martial art that emphasized throws and disabling suspects without harming them, as well as using maximum efficiency for the mutual welfare and benefit of both the attacker and defender (Heusler & Sutter, 2020). The training centers quickly became popular and have become a staple in Canadian law enforcement.  

While martial arts training in law enforcement has become more popularized in recent years, there have been limited peer-reviewed studies examining its impact on outcomes like the safety of police officers, the safety of suspects, and the impact such training has on deterring physical altercations between the two. However, some studies have indirectly evaluated the utility and feasibility of martial arts training for police officers (Renden et al., 2015; Staller et al., 2019; Vera Jimenez et al., 2019). For example, Renden et al. (2015) sought to determine whether officers who had training in martial arts performed more effectively in self-defense and arrest scenarios when experiencing low and high anxiety levels than those who did not. A sample of officers who were and were not trained in martial arts took part in a weekly intervention in which they were taught self-defense and arrest skills based on Karate, BJJ, and Krav Maga principles. Results demonstrated that officers who had additional experience beyond the training program demonstrated the highest levels of performance under high anxiety conditions. However, the intervention significantly improved the self-defense and arrest skills of both groups. These findings illustrate the effectiveness of holistic interventions that combine principles of multiple martial arts in officers’ self-defense and arrest skills and the potential applicability of such a training program to applied scenarios involving actual suspects.  

While these findings demonstrate the benefits of martial arts training for police officers, including interventions that contain elements of BJJ, there have been some limitations of such interventions in the literature. For example, results from the Renden et al. (2015) study demonstrated that their martial arts intervention did not significantly prevent participants from performing worse under high anxiety conditions compared to low anxiety conditions. The presence of anxiety within a potential physical altercation or circumstance that has escalated appears to have a universally negative impact on police officers, regardless of their martial arts experience (O’Brien et al., 2019). The negative impact of anxiety on performance has been documented widely in the literature across numerous disciplines and contexts (Khatsaiuk et al., 2021; O’Neill et al., 2019; Staller et al., 2019). This impact reflects the need to prepare officers more effectively to negotiate high-tension situations in the line of duty, and the integration of principles of martial arts within standard police training may help address this limitation (Staller et al., 2019).  

Interplay Between Martial Arts and Improved Community Relations 

Implementing widespread and standardized martial arts training can potentially improve the strained relationship between the public and law enforcement (Parks, 2022). The implementation of enhanced training programs has been found to have a positive impact on the likelihood of reducing fatal encounters between law enforcement officers and suspects, consequently resulting in a decrease in mortality rates and an improvement in the overall sense of safety and self-confidence among police personnel (Parks, 2022; Renden et al., 2015). According to Parks (2022), enhancing the efficacy, accountability, and self-assurance of the police force can contribute to a greater level of public confidence, thereby reinforcing the prevailing perception of law enforcement. 

Considering some of the altercations with racial subtext that have gained national attention in recent years, researchers have also sought to investigate the extent to which martial arts training may effectively remedy police interactions involving people of color that occur in the field. Parks (2022) presented a review and conceptual paper documenting the need and potential advantages of martial arts training to mitigate violence caused by perceived or actual racial bias by or toward law enforcement personnel. The author noted the disproportionate number of cases that involve White officers and African-American suspects, which appears to be indicative of at least one of two factors, including racial bias in the perception of a threat on the part of law enforcement personnel and/or an increased real threat of violence on the part of African-American suspects (Parks, 2022). Due to the ability of martial arts to integrate psychosocial training and reduce stress and anxiety during physical altercations, martial arts training may help improve decision-making on the part of officers and more accurately perceive the threat level. 

Current Status of Martial Arts Training in Law Enforcement 

Based on the accumulation of evidence associated with martial arts training in law enforcement, researchers have synthesized the existing literature through systematic reviews and meta-analyses to draw broader and generalized conclusions about the utility of such interventions. Duarte and Ferraz (2022) conducted one of the most recent systematic reviews on martial arts and combat sports training among law enforcement officers. The authors found just five studies across five academic databases that met the inclusion criteria. However, despite the small body of evidence on this topic, the authors found that martial arts and combat sports training were associated with significant and consistent improvements in tactical performance and reductions in injury rates, anxiety, and stress. These findings confirm studies showing the positive effects that martial arts training can have on physical performance, mental health, and the ability to manage stress and anxiety (Duarte & Ferraz, 2022; Kukić et al., 2019; Staller et al., 2019). Whether or not such training significantly enhances these outcomes among law enforcement in applied situations and outside of simulated environments warrants further investigation in the literature.   

Literature from outside the United States has revealed the positive impacts of martial arts training on law enforcement personnel’s general health and well-being, irrespective of its influence on actual performance during arrest and control scenarios in the field. For example, martial arts training has been a key component of the training of police officers in many Eastern countries for centuries and has also been widely adopted throughout central European countries like Serbia (Kukić et al., 2019). Facinek and Košč (2021) documented the impacts of martial arts training on the general fitness and mental health/well-being of police officers in Slovakia, where such training has been implemented for multiple decades. According to these authors, martial arts training involving Taekwondo, Judo, and Aikido has been linked with Slovakian officers’ increased fitness and mental health (Facinek & Košč, 2021). Thus, it is probable that martial arts training is also associated with improved performance in applied circumstances, though further research is needed to understand these impacts.  

Researchers have recently increased efforts to understand how martial arts training can improve law enforcement officers’ self-defense and restrain skills, psychological outcomes, and general well-being. Fully embracing a specific martial art also generally warrants the adoption of a particular philosophy and set of values that can correspond to an enhanced sense of spiritual and mental health (Heusler & Sutter, 2020). Thus, martial arts training can have many advantages besides improving combat and defense skills (Maltsev et al., 2020). These benefits appear to align with the physical requirements of police work and law enforcement in general.  

Torres (2020) conducted a recent investigation of the psychological impacts of martial arts training on confidence, motivation, apprehensiveness, and use of force self-efficacy among more than 1,000 patrol officers in the United States. Results demonstrated that martial arts training significantly predicted high levels of perceived self-efficacy involving the use of force, motivation, and (low) apprehensiveness. These findings provide insight into the multidimensional benefits of martial arts training and the ability of martial arts to improve self-efficacy regarding the use of force decision-making and agree with previous research on this topic to illustrate the diverse benefits of martial arts and how they potentially are conducive to optimal police performance (Heusler & Sutter, 2020). Many of the most essential benefits are psychological.  

Martial arts may offer more complete and holistic training than that currently offered in police academies (Schaeffer, 2024). There are four sources of self-efficacy: past successful experiences, physical mastery of the task, verbal persuasion, and vicarious experience (Bandura & Walters, 1977). Through martial arts training and embracing the core principles and philosophies, each of these four sources is present (Xu et al., 2020).  

Recent studies have shown that teaching individual techniques within martial arts disciplines is associated with improved physical abilities needed to perform law enforcement duties effectively. For example, Khatsaiuk et al. (2021) conducted an intervention to examine the effects of a martial arts technique known as Katsumoto on the explosive force of 62 Ukrainian police officers. Results demonstrated that the technique significantly improved this outcome based on kinematic data generated from electrodes placed on officers’ bodies while they performed various defense and restrain maneuvers. These findings align with several other studies demonstrating the benefits of specialized martial arts technical training on law enforcement skills (Staller et al., 2021). Martial arts training can be integrated with typical police training at the academy level and through additional skill development opportunities throughout the career of law enforcement personnel.  

A trend in the literature associated with martial arts training among law enforcement is that most programs that incorporate such training offer relatively watered-down versions of an amalgam of disciplines, such as Karate, Kung-Fu, and Judo. These programs usually take the form of additional training opportunities for officers during overtime hours, in which basic movements are taught and practiced. Therefore, while martial arts training appears to offer improvements in many physical and psychological skills, such training could potentially be more effective if a single discipline was taught and mastered instead of just physical techniques from several different forms of martial arts.  

Another problem with the lack of emphasis on the psychological and philosophical aspects of martial arts training is that, in such cases, less emphasis is placed on the cognitive skills, such as awareness, how to perceive a threat, and how to manage anxiety, and this can still result in ineffective decision-making in tense and high-anxiety situations. This may be one of the reasons why studies have shown that officers with martial arts technical training implement significantly better use-of-force decisions in low anxiety conditions, but officers with and without such technical training demonstrate impaired performance in high anxiety conditions (Ermasova et al., 2020; Renden et al., 2015). A more comprehensive training focusing on just one discipline could theoretically improve officers’ physical and mental skills and more adequately prepare them for high-tension situations while on duty.  

Martial Arts and the Mental Health and Well-Being of Officers 

While martial arts training among American law enforcement began to emerge in the 1980s and 1990s, it was in the early 2000s that the first literature related to this topic was produced (Hect, 2016). This evidence primarily pertained to widely practiced martial arts such as karate and kung-fu techniques for self-defense or to restrain a suspect. With the emergence of BJJ in the law enforcement community, especially with the Gracie combatives program and Gracie University’s partnership with various law enforcement agencies, police seem to be shifting to grappling as their primary means of subduing a suspect. However, only recently have the first studies associated with BJJ training concepts such as neck restraints (choking) begun to appear in scholarly journals (Hickman et al., 2021).  

No recent studies have been published in scholarly, peer-reviewed journals that have exclusively examined the impacts of BJJ training on law enforcement personnel. Some dissertations associated with this topic have been produced but have not yet been published in peer-reviewed journals (Harmon, 2022; Rinderer, 2022). For example, Harmon (2022) conducted a qualitative, exploratory study investigating the perceptions of law enforcement personnel concerning the feasibility of BJJ training. The twelve participants unanimously agreed that BJJ training was likely to be effective and feasible as a supplement to traditional training efforts used within police academies. Additionally, Rinderer (2022) examined the perceived feasibility of BJJ training for rehabilitating from post-traumatic stress disorder for law enforcement personnel. Once again, there was general agreement that BJJ training was perceived to be both feasible and likely beneficial in addressing issues related to post-traumatic stress disorder, such as inhibitions in engaging in physical altercations with suspects resulting from past traumatic experiences. 

Several of the most essential effects of martial arts training, including BJJ, are psychological and cognitive. Based on the findings of recent studies, there is evidence showing that martial arts training is likely to be beneficial for law enforcement personnel in terms of physical and psychological outcomes. Context-specific evidence is needed based on the tendency for different areas across the United States, as well as different police departments within these areas, to have varying philosophies and policies regarding officer physical training and conditioning.  

Martial arts training offers a range of physical and mental benefits and a large body of evidence that supports its efficacy among law enforcement personnel (Figueiredo et al., 2020). For example, a study highlights the therapeutic value of BJJ, noting its ability to provide hard sparring sessions with minimal physical risk, thereby offering psychological benefits and stress relief (Bueno et al., 2022). This is particularly important for police officers, who often face high-stress situations and need effective outlets for managing stress. Furthermore, limitations in previous studies that applied a conglomerate of martial arts showed that a homogenized approach lacked psychological benefits. In contrast, BJJ’s singular and evidence-based training program is particularly conducive to the mental and physical needs of police work, making it a valuable discipline for law enforcement training (Rinderer, 2022). 

Martial Arts Training Specifically for Police Officers 

Differences exist among law enforcement agencies, such as the United States Secret Service and the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), that warrant different physical and cognitive skills (Kukić et al., 2019). Street-level patrol officers are more likely to be engaged in physical altercations daily in the line of duty than other law enforcement officers, and the physical conditioning, defensive tactics skills, and cognitive ability to make a split-second decision regarding the use of force must perpetually be at a high level (Baldwin et al., 2019). For this reason, being trained in martial arts, including BJJ, is potentially more conducive to the skills required for a street-level police officer than other specialized areas of law enforcement. 

Studies exist that have examined the impacts of martial arts training in various aspects of police work. However, many of these have combined different martial arts or have only used specific techniques taught within these arts rather than a comprehensive philosophical and psychological embracing of the martial art. For example, Gardner and Al-Shareffi (2022) examined the potential effectiveness of martial arts training to regulate decisions about chokeholds among police officers and the skill demonstrated in applying such holds. The authors discussed numerous recent cases of the incorrect application of chokeholds and other forms of restraint used by police officers, which led to the injury or death of suspects. According to Gardner and Al-Shareffi (2022), training police officers in martial arts may help improve decision-making regarding applying air and carotid chokes to subdue suspects safely while restricting their movement. However, the actual effectiveness of this training on this outcome was not tested. The authors recommended implementing a policy that requires police officers to be trained in martial arts to improve officers’ physical restraint skills and cognitive decision-making. 

One of the dilemmas presented in both anecdotal evidence and documented in the literature of law enforcement and criminology scholars is the time and resource constraints within many police departments, which can prevent the ability to implement additional training for officers beyond what is currently standard. Physical fitness and conditioning requirements and standards differ by state. There is currently no universal or standardized training program for police officers, and martial arts training may offer an affordable and time-efficient means to bridge this gap. Zhang (2022) highlighted the importance of consistent physical education among police officers but documented many of the barriers that currently exist to doing so, such as police understaffing and the increased stress that is placed on already overworked officers regarding additional physical conditioning requirements. According to Zhang (2022), online physical education courses that contain martial arts skills may potentially be an effective medium to address these barriers and provide police officers with the physical training they need to meet conditioning requirements, as well as to enhance their defense and restraint skills. Zhang (2022) developed an online police physical education system containing PHP language, a widely-used open-source scripting language suited for web development, and an InitPHP (initialization hypertext processor) framework, a lightweight PHP framework designed to streamline and enhance the efficiency of web application development. The author suggested this system could optimize police conditioning and improve the mode of physical education and the current teaching mechanism used in the field. However, while this program may have many potential benefits over current strategies to train police officers, it has yet to be tested empirically or applied in a real sample of law enforcement personnel. 

Researchers have recently documented the trend for theories and conceptual papers to be presented involving the use of force and the potential for techniques within martial arts to improve the physical conditioning and skills of police officers, but the lack of evidence demonstrating outcomes associated with these theories and concepts. McLean et al. (2022) examined police agencies, use of force regulations, training initiatives, approaches for disciplining problem officers, supervision, and dimensions and issues associated with potential solutions in the United States. Results showed that many promising ideas have been presented in the literature, though there have been few strategies that have been tested via empirical research or involving actual cases in the field (McLean et al., 2022). These findings align with other studies in which martial arts training has been promoted as a means of offering multidimensional physical and psychological benefits to officers, and these techniques have been researched using scientifically rigorous methodologies (Alispahic & Hadzikadunic, 2020; Bondarenko et al., 2020; Wang, 2020). Thus, the current need within the literature related to the physical training of police officers is to test the ideas and theories presented by researchers advocating for martial arts, including BJJ specifically. 

One of the reasons that research related to martial arts and their impacts on the physical and cognitive skills of police officers has stalled is that little remains known regarding the actual feasibility of implementing a martial arts training program in specific police departments, or the experiences of police officers who have been trained in these disciplines. Before implementing interventions involving martial arts or changing policies to incorporate these practices in the general physical training of officers, evidence is needed regarding the experiences of officers who have trained in these disciplines and their perceptions of the feasibility of implementing martial arts training across an entire department (Anh, 2022). The evidence that is obtained from such research may lead to increased insight into the likely impacts of martial arts training on a police officer’s psychological and physical skills and ways in which to address potential barriers that are documented (Moreno et al., 2024). Therefore, research must be conducted in police departments and settings to make evidence-based recommendations for decision-makers in law enforcement. 

While there have been no recently published studies involving the potential feasibility and impacts of martial arts training for police officers in the United States, there have been investigations of the effects of these forms of martial arts in other countries and the territory of Guam. For example, Farrer (2019) investigated the therapeutic effects of BJJ training for police officers in Guam who had been exposed to traumatic incidents. The researchers found that a holistic BJJ intervention was associated with improvements in the mental health and well-being of officers who had been involved in traumatic conflict situations while on duty or who had otherwise witnessed traumas, such as homicides. These findings agree with other studies involving both the mental and physical benefits of martial arts and how fully embracing the mental and physical aspects of martial arts and not just the techniques themselves are necessary to maximize the benefits (Farrer, 2019). One of the problems with previous studies involving the effects of police combative training is that they have focused strictly on the physical aspect of training while ignoring philosophical concepts, such as the intersection of power with knowledge and the integration of mind and body (Ban et al., 2021; Dworzecki & Nowicka, 2019). More evidence is needed regarding the effects of more comprehensive martial arts training, particularly for supporting the mental health of police officers, especially those who have suffered from post-traumatic stress following observing or being a part of a highly stressful situation while on duty.  

Themes 

Multiple themes emerged from this narrative review. The themes were identified and categorized, and studies were grouped into key law enforcement and martial arts training categories. Most studies produced one specific theme within the context of martial arts training while acknowledging others to a lesser degree; however, some overlap of themes emerged in studies. Table 1 groups all studies by theme, variable, citation, and geographical region. 

Table 1. Summary of Themes, Variables Assessed, and Studies 

Theme	Variable(s) Assessed	Studies
Use of Force Decision-Making	Cognitive processes, restraint techniques	Renden et al. (2015); Hickman et al. (2021); Staller & Körner (2021); McLean et al. (2022)
Officer Safety	Injury reduction, physical preparedness	Torres (2020); Facinek & Kosc (2021); Lyons et al. (2017); Huesler & Sutter (2020)
Mental Health and Well-Being	Stress management, PTSD mitigation	Farrer (2019); Bueno et al. (2022); Zavala & Chan (2021); Parks (2022)
Community Relations	Trust, corporation, minority interactions	Parks (2022); Chanin et al. (2018); Vera Jimenez et al. (2019); Gardner & Al-Shareffi (2022)

Results 

This narrative review identified four main thematic areas in the literature on martial arts training for law enforcement: (i) use of force decision-making, (ii) officer safety, (iii) mental health and well-being, and (iv) community relations, (i) use of force decision-making, (ii) officer safety, (iii) mental health and well-being, and (iv) community relations. 

1. Use of Force Decision-Making: Studies showed that martial arts training, including BJJ, enhances officers’ decision-making processes regarding the use of force. For example, Renden et al. (2015) found that officers trained in BJJ demonstrated improved restraint techniques and a higher level of control in high-stress situations, potentially reducing the incidence of excessive force. Additionally, Hickman et al. (2021) suggested that martial arts training helps officers make more appropriate use-of-force decisions, leading to better outcomes during confrontations. Additional support from Staller & Körner (2021) and McLean et al. (2022) emphasized the importance of ongoing development in use-of-force training to refine decision-making capabilities in dynamic and challenging situations. 

2. Officer Safety: Research indicated that martial arts training contributes to enhanced officer safety. Torres (2020) showed a significant reduction in injuries among officers who received martial arts training, attributing this to improved defensive skills and physical preparedness. Similarly, Facinek & Kosc (2021) found that martial arts training increased officers’ ability to manage physical altercations, safely reducing the risk of injury. Lyons et al. (2017) and Heusler and Sutter (2020) further corroborate these findings by discussing physiological and training adaptations that mitigate risks and enhance defensive capabilities in policing contexts. 

3. Mental Health and Well-Being: Among the martial arts, BJJ training was particularly associated with positive mental health outcomes for law enforcement officers. For example, Farrer (2019) suggested that officers who participated in BJJ training reported lower levels of stress and anxiety, as well as improved overall well-being. Bueno et al. (2022) supported these findings, showing that BJJ training can serve as an effective stress management tool. Zavala & Chan (2021) and Parks (2022) provide further support that integrated training programs that include martial arts can significantly enhance psychological resilience and reduce occupational stress among police officers. 

4. Community Relations: The influence of martial arts training on community relations was also explored in the literature. Parks (2022) concluded that martial arts training promotes more controlled and less aggressive interactions with suspects, which can help build trust and cooperation between law enforcement and the community. Chanin et al. (2018) concluded that improved officer conduct resulting from control tactics training can enhance public perception of the police and foster stronger community partnerships. Vera Jiménez et al. (2019) and Gardner and Al-Shareffi (2022) add to this discussion by showing that tactical and mindful use of force can improve public perceptions of police and foster stronger community partnerships. 

The findings from this review highlight the significant impact BJJ training on law enforcement practices, particularly in terms of use of force decision-making, officer safety, mental health, and community relations. The studies reviewed indicate that martial arts training can enhance officers’ physical and cognitive skills, leading to better outcomes during confrontations and improved overall well-being. 

Discussion 

The findings from this narrative review highlight the potential benefits of martial arts training, especially BJJ training, in enhancing law enforcement practices across four key areas: use of force decision-making, officer safety, mental health and well-being, and community relations. This section interprets those results, discusses their implications, acknowledges limitations, and outlines directions for future research. 

Use of Force Decision-Making 

The results consistently demonstrate that training improves officers’ decision-making processes regarding the use of force. In high-stress situations, officers trained in BJJ displayed enhanced restraint techniques and greater control, reducing the likelihood of excessive force (Renden et al., 2015; Hickman et al., 2021). These findings suggest that integrating martial arts into law enforcement training can address conflict resolution’s physical and cognitive demands, equipping officers to make better decisions under pressure. This aligns with the growing emphasis on de-escalation techniques in policing, where officers are encouraged to control confrontations without resorting to extreme measures. 

Officer Safety 

Officer safety emerged as a critical theme in the reviewed studies. The research indicates that martial arts training significantly reduces injury rates among law enforcement personnel. Officers who undergo regular training are better prepared to manage physical altercations, using defensive tactics that minimize harm to both themselves and suspects (Torres, 2020; Facinek & Kosc, 2021). This underscores the importance of martial arts training, particularly BJJ training, as part of comprehensive police training programs, as it improves physical fitness and defensive capabilities, leading to safer outcomes in confrontational scenarios. By reducing injuries, BJJ training can also lower medical and legal costs associated with police use of force. 

Mental Health and Well-Being 

It seems the mental health benefits of BJJ are quite notable. Officers frequently experience stress, anxiety, and burnout due to the nature of their work. BJJ training has been shown to alleviate these psychological burdens, providing a valuable outlet for stress relief and emotional resilience (Farrer, 2019; Bueno et al., 2022). By incorporating martial arts training into officer wellness programs, law enforcement agencies can address their personnel’s physical and mental health. The long-term effects of BJJ on mental health are particularly promising, as they contribute to reduced stress, better decision-making, and overall well-being in high-pressure environments. 

Community Relations 

Martial arts’ influence on community relations is perhaps the most significant finding. The literature suggests that martial arts training fosters more controlled and less aggressive interactions between law enforcement officers and the public, improving trust and cooperation (Parks, 2022; Chanin et al., 2018). This is crucial in today’s climate, where high-profile incidents of excessive force often shape public perception of law enforcement. By promoting restraint and respect, BJJ can serve as a bridge to rebuild trust between police and communities, contributing to more effective, community-centered policing. 

Implications of the Research Results 

The research findings strongly indicate that integrating BJJ into law enforcement training could significantly enhance officers’ decision-making skills, physical preparedness, and mental resilience. Studies consistently show that martial arts training improves control in high-stress situations, reducing the use of excessive force (Renden et al., 2015; Torres, 2020). Given the increasing public scrutiny of law enforcement, this training could be vital in preparing officers to handle complex encounters more effectively. Additionally, regular BJJ training could foster improved officer conduct, strengthen relationships with the communities they serve, and contribute to safer policing practices overall. 

Limitations of the Review 

This review has several limitations. Notably, the possibility of selection bias exists, as studies were identified through specific databases and may not encompass all relevant research. The methodologies of the reviewed studies also varied, making it difficult to compare findings directly. For example, some studies relied on self-reported data, which could introduce recall and response biases, potentially affecting the reliability of the results. Also, most studies focused on law enforcement practices in the United States and Europe, which limits the generalizability of the findings to other regions with different policing contexts. Future studies should address these limitations by conducting more rigorous, geographically diverse research on the long-term effects of martial arts training in law enforcement. 

Recommendations for Future Research 

Based on the gaps identified in the literature, future research should explore how law enforcement personnel describe their lived experiences with BJJ and other martial arts training. Qualitative studies that capture officers’ perspectives on the efficacy and feasibility of this type of training would provide valuable insights. Harmon (2022) conducted a qualitative exploratory study on the perceived efficacy of BJJ for law enforcement, but the findings are not yet published, and the study’s design limits its generalizability. Future research should focus on context-specific investigations to understand how officers perceive martial arts training as effective and logistically feasible within their units or communities (Facal, 2022). Additionally, the lack of recent phenomenological studies on this topic highlights a gap that future researchers could address. More research is needed to understand how martial arts training impacts officers’ long-term professional and personal development, particularly in regions outside of the U.S. and Europe. 

Conclusion 

This narrative review highlights the critical role that martial arts training can play in improving law enforcement practices. The findings suggest that integrating martial arts into training programs enhances officers’ decision-making, physical preparedness, and mental resilience, equipping them to handle high-stress situations more effectively. By reducing the likelihood of inappropriate use of force, martial arts training addresses a significant need within law enforcement, where incidents of excessive force continue to attract public scrutiny. While BJJ was frequently mentioned in the literature, the broader implications of martial arts training—including disciplines such as judo, karate, and other grappling arts—are equally relevant. These training programs not only improve officers’ physical skills but also instill the mental discipline necessary for managing violent encounters with minimal harm. This approach reduces the risk of injury to both officers and suspects while mitigating the liability law enforcement agencies face. In addition to physical benefits, martial arts training provides psychological advantages, such as reduced stress and anxiety, contributing to better decision-making and overall officer well-being. By promoting restraint, discipline, and control, martial arts can foster improved relationships between law enforcement and their communities. These findings suggest that martial arts training should be a fundamental component of law enforcement programs, potentially improving outcomes in both officer safety and public relations. 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 

The authors confirm that all the research in this work has met ethical guidelines and adhered to the legal requirements of the United States of America. In addition, the principal investigator is compliant with the Collaborative Institutional Training Initiative (CITI) Program on social and behavioral researchers and social and behavioral responsible conduct of research training. Furthermore, this work was not funded, the authors declare no conflict of interest, and it did not contain studies with human participants or animals performed by the principal investigator. 

George Minoso2025-05-16T11:58:41-05:00

Comparing the differences in PlayerLoad during kickboxing and sparring in professional MMA athletes

George Minoso2025-05-16T11:58:41-05:00August 30th, 2025|General, Research, Sport Training|

Comparing the differences in PlayerLoad during kickboxing and sparring in professional MMA athletes

ABSTRACT 

Purpose: MMA involves the combination of grappling and striking combat sports with short, explosive movements and rapid change of direction that can be monitored through Catapult GPS units to quantify external load of MMA training. The primary aim of this study is to provide data on the differences between external load and internal load in MMA athletes using Catapult Sports Playerload and Heart Rate during MMA sparring and kickboxing sessions. Methods: Eighteen male (n=18) MMA competitors (30.6 ± 0.8 years, 180.8 ± 5.0 cm, 89.5 ± 12.8 kg) participated in the study. Subjects must have competed in 4 professional or amateur MMA bouts. Subjects participated in one MMA sparring session and one kickboxing session. Paired t-tests were performed to compare the means of ratings of perceived exertion (RPE), session duration (Duration), average heart rate (HRavg), maximum heart rate (HRmax), Player Load (au) (PL), and Player Load per Min (au/min) (PL/Min) metrics between the kickboxing and sparring sessions. Pearson correlation coefficients were calculated to explore the relationships between variables. Multiple regression analysis was used to examine the effect of age, height, and weight on internal and external training load variables (RPE, Duration, HRavg, HRmax, Player Load, PL/Min) during both practice sessions. All data was analyzed using SPSS version 29 and significance was set at p ≤ 0.05. Results: The paired t-tests revealed significant (p ≤ 0.05) differences between kickboxing and sparring for multiple variables including RPE, Duration, and Player Load Min. Player Load/Min was significantly greater during MMA sparring compared to kickboxing (p = 0.040). Conclusion: In conclusion, PL/Min is significantly higher during MMA sessions compared to kickboxing sessions alone. Understanding these differences can inform MMA trainers and sports scientists to properly adjust training regimens with their athletes. This study adds to the growing body of evidence of reliability and practical application of Catapult Sports to quantify external load in MMA athletes during MMA and kickboxing sessions. Application in Sport: Currently, there are no methods to track external workload in MMA athletes. Tracking PL for preparation of an upcoming bout may enhance the training protocols of MMA skill coaches by planning training load distribution in advance. The volume of MMA training sessions can be quantified via external workload and can be used as a baseline for MMA skill coaches and trainers to dictate future training sessions. 

Key Words: Catapult Sports, GPS, LPS, combat sports, training load, external load  

INTRODUCTION 

Tracking athletes’ external load using microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) has become commonplace in sports (13). The MEMS contain inertial sensors such as accelerometers, gyroscopes, and magnetometers in single player worn units that connect to global positioning systems (GPS) and local positioning systems (LPS) to accurately track external load in athletes (14). Catapult Sports (Catapult Innovations, Melbourne, Australia), provides wearable MEMS units with tri-axial accelerometry, tri-axial gyroscopes, and tri-axial magnetometers (1). These qualities of Catapult MEMS units help quantify the magnitude of change in acceleration. Catapult Sports proposed the idea of Playerload® (PL) an arbitrary unit (au) of external load that quantifies the sum of accelerations and magnitude of change in acceleration across the medial-lateral (X), anterior-posterior (Y), and vertical (Z) planes (1). These systems allow insight into distance and speed-oriented metrics that accumulate over a training session to quantify external load through PL. Given the accessibility of GPS and LPS to record outdoor signal, GPS-based wearable tracking devices typically assess outdoor sports and have an array of data to support their use (2, 11, 16). Previous research has reported sports that occur indoors will have difficulty recording speed and distance-oriented metrics, and that older GPS units have low inter-unit reliability across various GPS models (1, 14). However, a paper by Luteberget and colleagues (2018) set out to determine the validity of position, distance traveled, and instantaneous speed of a commercially available LPS (Catapult ClearSky T6, Catapult Sports, Australia) for indoor use. The researchers found that for indoor sports, LPS raw data compared with the gold standard reference system (infrared light-based camera system), showed measures of position, distance traveled, and instantaneous speed had low errors and can be used in pair with time-motion analysis. A paper in 2020 by Theodoropoulos et al. supports the use of GPS units for indoor sports claiming the LPS technological advancements from Catapult Sports has improved accuracy by increasing sampling rate to 100-120 Hz to become more sensitive to rapid changes in velocity and direction. With the improvements in technology of the GPS units, recording indoor in elite and professional athletes has become popular, with data on but not limited to basketball and mixed martial arts (MMA) (3-7, 16). Body worn accelerometry has been used to measure external load in multiple combat sports, including MMA, taekwondo (TKD), and submission grappling (3-7, 10, 18).   

MMA involves the combination of grappling and striking combat sports with short, explosive movements and rapid change of direction that can be monitored through Catapult GPS units to quantify external load of MMA training (6). The reliability of Catapult GPS units appears to be satisfactory. Hurst et al. (2014) examined the intra-unit reliability of portable accelerometry using Catapult Sports and found the units could be reliable to determine the external workload (PL) of isolated MMA striking and grappling techniques. Further research has been completed in submission grapplers as well as comparing MMA sparring to isolated MMA techniques to provide intra-unit reliability data (4-5). There appears to be a gap in the literature between unit reliability and providing data for MMA coaches and practitioners to utilize PL. Del Vecchio et al. (2018) found utilization for PL in TKD athletes, providing evidence that striking martial arts can be monitored through GPS. Currently, there are minimal studies to examine PL accumulation in MMA sparring using Catapult Sports GPS units (3, 6). Kirk et al. (2020) investigated the pacing of MMA sparring with Catapult Sports accelerometers during 3 x 5-minute rounds and accumulating PL throughout each round as well as total mean PL. Blood lactate analysis and PL showed significant correlations over the 3 x 5-minute rounds, providing evidence for a relationship between PL and physiological response. In another study, Kirk et al. (2023) examined the relationship between internal and external loads of weekly MMA training. However, measuring external load and internal load in competition for MMA athletes is not feasible, and methods are needed to assess physiological responses to the demands of MMA (15). Replicating the intensity of an MMA bout is difficult, however, MMA sparring can mimic the intensity seen in the cage and is a feasible way to understand the external workload of MMA athletes. Furthermore, because MMA requires training in various disciplines, such as kickboxing, understanding the external workload differences in MMA sparring and kickboxing can enlighten sports scientistss who work with MMA athletes and trainers. Therefore, methods such as PL need to be further understood to provide practitioners with data on how to replicate the demands of MMA training and competition.   

Based on previous literature on external and internal load in MMA, the primary aim of this study is to provide GPS metrics during MMA training that may be a viable option for allowing coaches to plan training load distribution in advance. The researchers hypothesize that differences will exist between external and internal load in MMA athletes using Catapult Sports PL and PL/min during MMA sparring and kickboxing sessions.  

The current study investigated internal and external load metrics in MMA athletes. The researchers utilized Catapult Sports GPS accelerometers by measuring PL, PL/min, HR, and RPE to compare the differences between MMA and kickboxing training sessions. The methods section details the participants, procedures, data collection and statistical analysis used. The results of this study present statistical comparisons between MMA and kickboxing training sessions, while the discussion and application of sports section attempt to outline how MMA trainers and sports scientists may incorporate Catapult Sports GPS into MMA training sessions to enhance training protocols. 

METHODS 

Participants 

Eighteen male MMA competitors participated in the study. Subjects’ height and weight were measured by a stadiometer. Inclusion criteria for this study includes active fighters who have taken part in at least 4 professional or amateur MMA bouts and medically cleared to fight. Exclusion criteria for this study includes fighters with 4 or fewer MMA bouts and those not medically cleared to participate. Analysis of this deidentified dataset underwent institutional review and was approved (2015-156-NSU).   

Procedures 

Participants wore 8-ounce MMA sparring gloves, shin pads, MMA shorts, a groin protector, and a t-shirt or rash guard for MMA sparring. For the kickboxing session, participants wore 16-ounce kickboxing gloves, shin pads, MMA shorts, a groin protector, mouthpiece and a t-shirt or rash guard. Vector S7 (Catapult Innovations, Australia) triaxial accelerometers with a sampling rate of 100 Hz provided at 1kHz were used to record external load. The accelerometers were placed in the manufacturer’s garment on the upper torso, positioning the unit at the T3-T4 vertebrae. Each unit was calibrated during the morning of data collection in line with Catapult Sports recommendations. The accelerometers were used to determine the mean total player load and the mean player load per minute for MMA and kickboxing sessions. Player Load data from the accelerometers were recorded in arbitrary units (au). Average heart rate (HRavg) and maximum heart rate (HRmax) were collected. Data collection of Player Load, HRavg, and HRmax was recorded via Openfield v1.14.0 software (Catapult, Canberra, Australia). The accelerometers are connected via Bluetooth to one Vector Receiver from Catapult. The Vector Receiver was strategically placed just outside the mats to not interfere with the participants training session. The study took place at a professional MMA gym supervised by professional MMA coaches. The duration of the kickboxing and MMA sessions were up to the MMA coach’s discretion. The researchers began recording data in the OpenField app when the coaches began the MMA and kickboxing sessions and stopped recording when the coaches ended the sessions. Participants were instructed to train as they would under normal conditions. Participants were asked their rating of perceived exertion (RPE) (1-10) of the training session and were recorded following each session. 

Data Analyses  

Descriptive statistics were calculated for mean and standard deviations of all the demographic variables (height, weight, age). Paired t-tests were performed to compare the means of ratings of perceived exertion (RPE), session duration (Duration), average heart rate (HRavg), maximum heart rate (HRmax), Player Load, and Player Load per Min (PL/Min) metrics between the kickboxing and sparring sessions. Pearson correlation coefficients were calculated to explore the relationships between variables. Multiple regression analysis was used to examine the effect of age, height, and weight on internal and external training load variables (RPE, Duration, HRavg, HRmax, Player Load, PL/Min) during both practice sessions. All data was analyzed using SPSS version 29 and significance was set at p ≤ 0.05.  

RESULTS 

Eighteen male, MMA (30.6 ± 0.8 years, 180.8 ± 5.0 cm, 89.5 ± 12.8 kg) competing professionally were used for this within-subjects design study comparing kickboxing and sparring practice sessions. The paired t-tests revealed significant (p ≤ 0.05) differences between kickboxing and sparring for multiple variables including RPE, Duration, and Player Load Min (Table 1). The RPE during MMA sparring was significantly higher than during kickboxing (p = 0.008). Player Load Min was also significantly greater during MMA sparring compared to kickboxing (p = 0.040). Interestingly, the duration for sparring was significantly shorter than for kickboxing (p = 0.002). No additional significant differences (p ≥ 0.05) were found between sessions. 

Table 1: Paired t-test results comparing kickboxing and sparring (Mean ± SD) 

	Kickboxing	Sparring	t-statistic	p-value
RPE	6.0 ± 1.6	7.6 ± 1.9	-3.245	0.008*
Duration (min)	67.8 ± 6.7	52.0 ± 11.3	3.992	0.002*
HRavg (bpm)	155.0 ± 3.4	143.5 ± 0.7	2.217	0.059
HRmax (bpm)	182.5 ± 5.5	176.5 ± 2.5	1.223	0.269
Player Load	444.6 ± 153.4	373.8 ± 102.5	1.943	0.083
Player Load per Min	6.49 ± 1.80	7.23 ± 1.72	2.395	0.040*

*Significance set at p ≤ 0.05. 

Additionally, correlations were utilized to establish relationships. Correlational analysis demonstrated a strong, positive correlation between RPE and HRavg during kickboxing (r = 0.87, p < 0.01). Similarly, the analysis demonstrated a moderate, positive correlation between Player Load and HRavg during sparring (r = 0.65, p < 0.05). A non-significant weak negative correlation (r = – 0.230, p = 0.410) exists between weight and PlayerLoad kickboxing (PLkick), and between weight and PlayerLoad/min kickboxing (PL/mkick) (r = -0.213, p = 0.447). A non-significant weak negative correlation (r = -0.431, p = 0.335) exists between weight and PlayerLoad sparring (PLspar), and between weight and PlayerLoad/min sparring (PL/mspar) (r = -0.485, p = 0.270). No additional significant correlations (p ≥ 0.05) exist between variables during kickboxing or sparring. Finally, a multiple regression analysis was utilized to predict internal and external training load variables. The regression analysis indicated that age, height, and weight provided non-significant results as predictors of internal and external training loads during both kickboxing and sparring. Specifically, for player load during kickboxing, the coefficients for age, height, and weight were -10.91 (p = 0.109), 2.08 (p = 0.717), and -2.39 (p = 0.475), respectively (R² = 0.290). For Player Load during sparring, the coefficients were -2.67 (p = 0.512), 1.97 (p = 0.473), and -0.29 (p = 0.910), respectively (R² = 0.195). For PL/min during kickboxing, the coefficients were -0.24 (p = 0.205), 0.05 (p = 0.804), and -0.03 (p = 0.716), respectively (R² = 0.371). For PL/min during sparring, the coefficients were -0.16 (p = 0.236), 0.04 (p = 0.716), and -0.03 (p = 0.616), respectively (R² = 0.264). For HRavg during kickboxing, the coefficients were -1.67 (p = 0.180), -0.14 (p = 0.871), and -0.01 (p = 0.974), respectively (R² = 0.503). For HRavg during sparring, the coefficients were -0.12 (p = 0.493), 0.19 (p = 0.089), and -0.01 (p = 0.776), respectively (R² = 0.251). For HRmax during kickboxing, the coefficients were -2.33 (p = 0.127), 0.02 (p = 0.985), and 0.08 (p = 0.888), respectively (R² = 0.423). For HRmax during sparring, the coefficients were -0.49 (p = 0.662), 0.13 (p = 0.808), and 0.17 (p = 0.722), respectively (R² = 0.138).   

I

DISCUSSION 

As wearable devices are becoming more popular in sports science, knowledge about the reliability and application of these metrics is essential to providing recommendations to optimize MMA athlete performance. Existing research has shown that body-worn accelerometric devices are reliable in determining the external workload for a range of mixed martial arts (MMA) techniques (10). However, to the authors’ knowledge, this is the first study to provide descriptive statistics comparing wearable device data in specifically a kickboxing session and an MMA sparring session. With the use of a Catapult Sports GPS accelerometer, the current study of 18 mixed-martial arts athletes focused on comparing different metrics including RPE, duration of session, HR, and PL during the two separate sessions. Overall findings found significant differences in RPE, duration, and player load per minute between the kickboxing and sparring sessions.  

  Although PL did not show any significant difference between the training sessions, PL/min was significantly greater in the sparring session than during the kickboxing session (p = 0.040). During the kickboxing sessions, the average PL/min amongst the 18 athletes was 6.49 ± 1.80 while during the sparring sessions, the average PL/min was 7.23 ± 1.72. Vector magnitude (VM), a measurement of external workload and a variant of PL, was recorded in a study completed on TKD athletes. A 45-minute training session produced a mean VM accumulation of 322.7±309.5 au with a VM of 6.8±6.5 au/min (18). Similarly, the kickboxing session from the current study produced a PL/min of 6.49 ± 1.80, however, the total VM of the TKD athletes was closer to the MMA sessions producing 373.8 ± 102.5. Kirk et al. (2020) reported a single 15-minute (3 x 5-minute round) simulated MMA bout produced accumulated PL of 224.32 ± 26.59 au with round 1 accumulating PL 77.61 ± 9.92 (PL/min 15.37 ± 1.71), round 2 accumulating PL 71.48 ± 10.56 (PL/min 14.30 ± 2.11), round 3 accumulating 65.39 ± 8.61 (PL/min 13.08 ± 1.72). In the same study, Kirk and colleagues found a direct negative non-significant relationship between PL/min and blood lactate, suggesting that PL can be used to identify when a MMA athlete is fatiguing. The results of the current study found one MMA session to accumulate PL of 373.8 ± 102.5 au, while MMA training sessions (striking, grappling and MMA) has shown a mean PL of 310.6±112 au (6).  

In the current study, the durations of the sparring sessions were significantly shorter compared to the kickboxing sessions, but MMA sparring was accompanied with higher PL/min. The sparring sessions were full contact MMA sparring including kickboxing, grappling, and overall, more movement compared to the kickboxing session which was solely kickboxing. While session durations were made at the discretion of the coaches, the intensity and rigor displayed during sparring sessions may explain the significant difference in duration. Furthermore, the higher PL/min in MMA sparring compared to kickboxing may be explained by the variety of movements and techniques used in MMA sparring compared to kickboxing alone (i.e. wrestling, jiu-jitsu). This notion is supported by the higher RPE observed in MMA sparring (7.6 ± 1.9) compared to the kickboxing session (6 ± 1.6). Interestingly, HRavg was higher in the kickboxing session (155 ± 3.4) compared to the MMA session (143 ± 0.7), suggesting that sparring is subjectively harder than kickboxing, even at lower heart rates. This may be explained by the array of attacks that can be used in sparring compared to kickboxing, making sparring more cognitively fatiguing. In an existing study, PL showed capability of quantifying external load of grappling-based training sessions (5). While measurements of external load are specific to the sport being studied, it is described as the physical work during a training session (8). RPE exertion in the current study was also significantly higher during sparring compared to kickboxing (p = 0.008).   

  Previous research has also examined PL metrics in different ways. In a study conducted by Kirk et al. (2015), amongst 8 MMA fighters, the PL was compared for over 20 specific sparring techniques, both in isolation and in a sparring bout. Results found that during the sparring bout, intensity used for punches was significantly greater than intensity used for kicks. Amongst other significant data, PL for single-leg takedowns was significantly higher compared to double-leg takedowns. Understanding the intensity of movements can be beneficial to coaches and athletes in managing fatigue and developing training protocols (4, 7).   

  Outside of MMA, wearable accelerometric devices have been used in a variety of other sports including rugby, soccer, and basketball (9). Semi-professional soccer players had their PL monitored over the course of 44 training sessions with an average duration of 90.4 ± 23.0 minutes per session. The researchers found a mean PL of 789.2 ± 224.9, much higher than the kickboxing or MMA sessions, although the duration of the training sessions was almost twice as long. In a study of 17 professional basketball players of different positions, PL/min data was used to compare the intensity of the players and noted specific physical demands of each position (16). The PL/min was the highest in guards (12.1 ± 2.0 au), then forwards (10.5 ± 1.5 au) and centers (10.7 ± 1.8 au). Our data adds to this growing body of research as it supports the predictive capability of PL metrics on intensity of workout and enhancing training protocols for MMA athletes.   

This study comes with limitations. Recording GPS signal indoors can become obstructed as walls and corners can disturb the quality of the signal. The participants have a large discrepancy in experience in MMA bouts, with some subjects having 4 amateur bouts and other subjects having competed in 30 professional bouts. The experience difference with the small sample size makes it difficult to apply the results throughout the MMA population given the variation in performance levels. The data was also limited to only two training sessions.    

CONCLUSIONS 

In conclusion, Catapult Sports accelerometry can be a useful method for measuring external load in MMA athletes. MMA sparring appears to produce a greater external workload and perceived exertion compared to kickboxing sessions alone, indicating a higher intensity for the MMA training session. Previous research in mock MMA sparring bouts has found higher PL/Min than the MMA sparring and kickboxing sessions from the current study, however, TKD athletes produce similar relative external workloads compared to MMA athletes in kickboxing sessions. To our knowledge, this study was the first of its kind to compare external load during MMA and kickboxing sessions. Future research should explore tracking external load in MMA athletes over multiple training sessions or a fight camp to allow MMA skill coaches to better implement Catapult Sports into their programming.  

APPLICATIONS IN SPORT 

This study, as well as previous research, continues to highlight the reliability and practical applications of GPS tracking in MMA. The evidence supports the notion that GPS wearables can monitor external load in MMA sparring, kickboxing, taekwondo, and submission grappling. Determining external load normative values in MMA athletes can enhance sports scientists understanding of adequate volumes of training. Based on external load values from previous training sessions, MMA skill coaches can allocate workload volumes to the various skill development aspects of the sport. This may improve the programming of training schedules for an upcoming bout. Furthermore, the MMA athletes in the present study did not report discomfort while training with the accelerometers, pointing to the capability of GPS tracking in high-performance MMA environments.  

George Minoso2025-05-16T10:54:51-05:00

Exploring varsity sport readiness in college cricket: A content analysis of the stated purpose of existing college cricket clubs

George Minoso2025-05-16T10:54:51-05:00August 16th, 2025|General, Research|

Martin Barrett, PhD is an Assistant Professor of Sport Management at Frostburg State University in Frostburg, MD. His research interests focus on the emergence and development of non-traditional sports.

Jeffrey R. Farr, PhD is an Assistant Professor of Sport Management at The University of Alabama in Tuscaloosa, AL. His research interests focus on understanding the relationships between families and youth sport participation.

Exploring varsity sport readiness in college cricket: A content analysis of the stated purpose of existing college cricket clubs

ABSTRACT 

The purpose of this study was to explore the readiness of cricket to be elevated from the auspices of student-run structures on university campuses to the varsity level. To do so, a content analysis of college cricket club purpose statements was conducted to establish why such groups facilitate cricket activities. Content from 35 publicly accessible college cricket club constitutions was collected and the textual data analyzed using a process of emergent coding. The results of the content analysis established increasing awareness of and interest in cricket and bringing people together as the two most frequent purpose statements within the sampled college cricket clubs. Furthermore, a purpose typology based on three dimensions – performance, participation, and promotion – was created by aggregating the discreet statements into likeminded themes. Just over two-thirds of the sample disclosed performance as part of their purpose, which points to how most college cricket clubs are organized around competition and performance; thus, demonstrating an assumed readiness for, or at least alignment with the emphasis of, varsity-level athletics. However, campus recreation professionals supporting college crickets should recognize how these groups often have a multi-faceted purpose that extends to participation and promotion, which means college cricket clubs are well-placed to play a central role in popularizing the sport in the United States, as well as contributing to institution-level priorities such as student recruitment and retention. 

Key words: college sport, club sport, cricket, purpose statements, sport development 

INTRODUCTION 

Cricket is a fast-growing sport in the United States. Today, there are more than 200,000 playing cricketers in America, double that in New Zealand (34). There are also now an estimated 10 to 20 million cricket fans across the country (37). Moreover, revenue in the US cricket market is projected to reach $90 million this year (34). Much of this growth is arguably attributable to the establishment of a sustainable professional men’s cricket tournament – Major League Cricket – which started in 2023, as well as the United States co-hosting the 2024 International Cricket Council T20 World Cup alongside the West Indies. Cricket is also set to be featured in the Los Angeles Olympics in 2028. Another salient factor in the growth of cricket stateside is the “transformative influence of South Asians, who, with their unwavering passion and dedication, have brought their love and expertise of cricket to these regions from their home nations” (17). For instance, as of 2022 the United States was home to about 4.8 million Indian Americans (30). 

At US colleges and universities, cricket exists at the sub-varsity level in the form of club sports, student organizations, and intramural activities. The exact number of colleges and universities boasting active cricket clubs is unclear. In 2017, American College Cricket – the then governing body of the sport at the collegiate level – claimed to have 70 member colleges across both the United States and Canada (2). Yet, college cricket in the United States has a rich history. Notably, robust cricket competition existed on the campus of Haverford College from the early 1850’s with the college competing in one of the first reported intercollegiate contests against the University of Pennsylvania in 1864 (15). The first intercollegiate cricket governing body was established in 1881 when the University of Pennsylvania, along with four other institutions – including Haverford College, formed the Intercollegiate Cricket Association (25). 

More recently, however, a new governing body came to the fore – the Collegiate Cricket League (CCL). In December 2024, the CCL announced a first-of-its-kind 10-over tournament to take place in Spring 2025 culminating with national finals, $50,000 in available prize money for teams, and a coveted trophy (28). Furthermore, the tournament is set to rival the global exposure of the NCAA (28). CCL’s strategy is built on a desire to establish cricket as a varsity sport at US colleges and universities through the investment of media and sponsorship revenues that will enable schools to offer scholarships and invest in state-of-the-art facilities (28). 

Elevating college cricket to a varsity sport – albeit outside the purview of the NCAA – raises important questions about the current structures and systems of organized cricket on college campuses and, therefore, the readiness of a critical mass of institutions to make this leap. Varsity-level college sport in the United States is a cultural phenomenon. Intercollegiate athletic departments articulate through their mission statements the intent to achieve both academic and athletic excellence (40). However, intercollegiate athletics also serves a plethora of additional purposes including positive contributions to increased enrollment, increased national exposure, and strengthened ties to alumni and the university community (29). Certain aspects of varsity and club sport programs at the college level are alike. For instance, college sport clubs have performance or competition-based goals (7). Moreover, Warner, Dixon, and Chalip (41) describe how both sport contexts bring together individuals with common interest in sport and provide avenues to develop elite athletes. Also, club sport participants experience growth through their extra-curricular involvement – mostly through gains in leadership skills, time-management, and school pride associated their roles as club sports leaders (11). However, distinct differences exist between the purpose of varsity and club sport programs. As examples, college sport clubs have administrative goals such as increasing participation numbers, as well as social goals such as network building (7). In this way, club sport shares similarities with student organizations, which “create opportunities for leadership development, learning, student engagement, and fostering of shared interests” (43). Student organizations exist in multiple forms including – but not limited to – academic organizations, community service organizations, and multicultural organizations (10). Importantly, sporting activities on college campuses are governed through all three systems: varsity sport, club sport, and student organizations. 

While the vision of CCL is ambitious, the increasing popularity and growing demand for cricket means the sport is seemingly well-placed to make further breakthroughs in the evolving landscape of college sports. The purpose of this research is to understand the current state of organized cricket structures on US college and university campuses. Specifically, this research is guided by the following research questions: 

RQ1. For what purpose(s) are organized cricket activities facilitated on US college campuses?  

RQ2. To what extent do the purpose(s) of the groups facilitating organized cricket activities differ based on their classification? 

In answering these research questions, inferences are then made on the potential synergy between existing college cricket activities and possible future varsity-level college cricket activities. Thus, the outcome of this research is to provide an assessment of the short-term readiness of college cricket to become elevated as a recognized intercollegiate varsity sport, which has implications for not only those who organize such activities on campus but also those who govern the sport.  

METHODS 

Research Design 

This research adopted a qualitative research design with a goal to elicit a “comprehensive summarization, in everyday terms, of specific events experienced by individuals or groups of individuals” (22). The method used to achieve this goal was a document content analysis. In broad terms, content analysis is the analysis of the content in a message where the message forms the basis for drawing inferences and conclusions about the content (27, 31). The central premise of content analysis is to distil words into fewer content-related categories (9). 

Data Collection 

As previously mentioned, the exact number of colleges and universities boasting active cricket clubs is unclear. Therefore, the first step within the data collection process was to establish a current baseline of active college cricket clubs (i.e., the total population). To complete this initial step, an extensive multi-pronged search of secondary data sources was conducted. This search for cricket clubs began by searching for evidence of intercollegiate competition, which was conducted by visiting the website of the National College Cricket Association (i.e., hereafter referred to as NCAA; a governing body currently responsible for convening an annual amateur national championship that is preceded by qualifying regional championships). Beyond searching for evidence of competitive cricket activities, further internet search engine and social media key word searches were conducted (e.g., “university cricket club” and “college cricket club”). These key word searches enabled a snowball effect whereby the published activities of college cricket clubs disclosed details of involvement by other college cricket clubs. Finally, targeted searches of specific colleges and universities with large numbers of international students were conducted. This targeting was justified by how cricket participation and fandom in the United States is dominated by the Indian diaspora – both in terms of the growing native-born Indian American population (i.e., second- and third-generation immigrants), but also foreign-born nationals who relocate stateside (see 21, 33). The term “active” was operationalized as evidence of facilitation of at least one cricket-related activity by the club across the 2024-25 academic year inclusive of summer 2024 (i.e., June 1, 2024 to March 1, 2025).  

This initial data collection step, which was a precursor to the main data collection, was conducted over the month of February 2025. The outcome yielded a total of 106 active college cricket clubs. As shown in Figure 1, these active college cricket clubs were geographically dispersed but with concentrated hubs in the Boston, New York, DC, Chicago, and Los Angeles metropolitan areas. This total population was further divided into three classification categories. Specifically, 55 college cricket clubs existed within the institution’s club sport program, 42 college cricket clubs existed as registered student organizations, and nine college cricket clubs appeared to be either unaffiliated with their host institution or their status regarding governing authority was not disclosed. 

The next data collection step involved accessing the most recent constitutions for the active college cricket clubs. These documents were sourced via the host institution’s website either through their dedicated club sport program pages or their registered student organization databases. Importantly, publicly accessible constitutions were not available for all college cricket clubs in the total population. In fact, 35 constitutions were accessed to form the sample population. Within this sample population, 22 college cricket clubs existed as registered student organizations alongside 13 within the institution’s club sport program. 

With 35 constitutions accessed, the next step was extracting consistent content from each document. Organizational purpose is multi-faceted. At a basic level, purpose defines the remit and scope of business activities (18). Purpose also extends the what to the why by articulating an organization’s reason for being (14). Importantly, constitutions often vary according to the needs of each organization (8). While variance was evident within the constitutions sampled for this research, the information provided within Article II relative to organizational purpose provided the most consistent and relevant source from which to interpret the stated purpose of said clubs and student groups. Article II content within the sampled constitutions ranged anywhere from a minimum of 18 words to a maximum of 77 words. 

To prepare the data for analysis, the Article II content for each of the college cricket clubs in the sample population was standardized into a series of discreet one-sentence statements. Importantly, this data preparation step did not alter the meaning of the Article II content; rather the focus was a grammatical one through the elimination of run-on sentences that included two or more independent ideas presented together without proper use of punctuation or conjunctions. In sum, data collection yielded 102 statements and 1,752 words of textual data for analysis. This process was akin to how Krippendorff (20) defines sampling versus context units in content analysis. Specifically, the Article II content are considered the sampling units (N=35), whereas the statements formed the context units (N=102). 

Data Analysis 

Of utmost importance with content analysis is reliability. Ultimately, “different people should code the same text in the same way” (42). The following passage outlines the decisions made by the researchers to ensure reliability.  

Based on the variation within the Article II content, the researchers agreed to use a multiple classification system whereby each context unit could be assigned to more than one category or recording unit (19). In the absence of an existing content analysis dictionary, the researchers also agreed to develop inferred categories. Specifically, with an emergent coding approach, categories are established following some preliminary examination of the data (35). The researchers then adhered to the steps outlined by Haney and colleagues (13) in conducting emergent coding in content analyses. First, the researchers reviewed the statements and independently formed a checklist. Second, the researchers met (virtually) to reconcile differences in the checklists. Third, the researchers agreed to use a consolidated checklist to independently apply coding. The checklist included 12 specific features of the data that communicated a reason why the clubs facilitated cricket activities on campus (i.e., open codes). Based on relationships among the specific features, the open codes were combined to create three axial codes. Figure 2 provides a summary of the coding categories – both open and axial – that emerged through the data analysis process, along with representative quotes from the textual data. 

The fourth step in the emergent coding process was to tally the frequency at which the open codes were evident in the data. This process was completed independently by the researchers using manual coding whereby each of the context units were categorized under one or more of the 12 checklist items. As per Roaché’s (32) method, a 94.83% agreement was calculated (i.e., 110 agreements and 116 total coding decisions). To reconcile these differences, the researchers met one more time and reached consensus on 114 recording units. While a third reviewer or adjudicator was not involved, the researchers resolved disagreements through open discussion whereby the researchers took notice of which codes were used by the other researcher and listened to their rationale for using a code before the disagreement was reconciled (6). The open code tallies were then aggregated using the axial codes to place each of the sample college cricket clubs into one of seven categories based on their purpose (i.e., a sort of purpose typology). The seven typologies included: 1) Performance only, 2) Participation only, 3) Promotion only, 4) Performance and Participation, 5) Performance and Promotion, 6) Participation and Promotion, and 7) Performance, Participation, and Promotion. Each college cricket needed just one open-coded purpose statement in any of the axial coding categories to be labelled as adopting that broader level purpose.  

RESULTS 

Purpose of Existing College Cricket Clubs 

Regarding the open coding of purpose statements and as shown in Table 1, almost two thirds of the sampled college cricket clubs disclosed as their dominant remit and scope to increase awareness and interest in cricket (n=22, 62.86%). There were a further five specific purposes that emerged from the sample that were relatively common (i.e., evidence across one-third to one-half of the sampled college cricket clubs). These purposes included bringing people together (n=18, 51.43%), providing cricket as recreation (n=16, 45.71%), improving the cricket skills of players (n=14, 40.00%), competing against other teams (n=12, 34.29%), and introducing cricket to new players (n=12, 34.29%). 

When aggregated to the axial coding level, the analysis (see Table 2) establishes that over one-third of the sample had a purpose that spanned across participation, performance, and promotion (n=13, 37.14%), which represents the most common typology. None of the sampled college cricket clubs had a one-dimensional purpose focusing exclusively on performance. In fact, a majority (n=30, 85.71%) of sampled college crickets had a multi-faceted purpose that extended across at least two of the three purpose categories. 

Variation in Purpose by Classification 

As can be seen in Table 3, there are two typologies where some variation existed based on classification. First, a greater proportion of college cricket clubs classified as student organizations had a three-pronged purpose (n=10, 45.45%) compared to college cricket clubs classified as club sports (n=3, 23.08%). Second, more college cricket clubs classified as club sports disclosed a dual performance and promotion purpose (n=3, 23.08%) compared to college cricket clubs classified as student organizations (n=0, 0%). Beyond this variation, the distribution of college cricket clubs classified as club sports and student organizations had similar results across the remaining five typologies. 

DISCUSSION 

In the context of this research, readiness for varsity status would imply that a critical mass of existing college cricket clubs exists with a purpose akin to those of a varsity sport program (i.e., an emphasis on performance). The findings establish that just over two-thirds of the existing college cricket clubs sampled disclose “performance” as part of their purpose, which means their reason for being centers around supporting competitive, extramural opportunities. These findings are consistent with Czekanski and Lower’s (7) study, which identified performance or competition-based goals as one of four distinct themes emerging from collegiate sport club functions. However, when looking at the discreet purpose statements, only two of the sampled college cricket clubs included mention of athletic excellence as part of their purpose (e.g., to win a national championship). Another key omission from the purpose statements sampled, that is also evident within varsity sport, is reference to academic success. This finding is perhaps expected given how club sports and student organizations exist as extracurricular activities (i.e., optional, non-academic activities), whereas varsity sport at least purports a self-perpetuating cocurricular existence (i.e., school-sponsored programs that enhance students’ learning experiences outside the traditional classroom setting). Overall, college cricket clubs appear not to be skewed towards performance as their central purpose. Instead, many college cricket clubs disclose the intent to have a performance arm to their organization, but one that operates in tandem or combination with a multi-faceted purpose. 

Promotion was another salient theme within the purpose statements sampled, which refers to how college cricket clubs’ reason for being focuses on promoting and popularizing the sport. Czekanski and Lower (7) refer to such goals as “administrative” in nature as they relate to the function of the club. Nevertheless, Czekanski and Lower (7) also highlighted goals such as increasing the number of participants as another distinct theme within club sport organizations. The results of this research establish how over two-thirds of the sampled college cricket clubs see themselves as cricket-specific community sport development agencies, which are organizations responsible for increasing participation rates in sport and building capacity to facilitate sporting opportunities (26). In fact, the scope of the “community” to which college cricket clubs bear responsibility ranged from city to region to the nation. As an example, one sampled college cricket club disclosed within their purpose the goal to “promote the sport of cricket at the university and the USA.” These are grand purposes for organizations that are traditionally under-resourced or self-financed on a pay-to-play model basis. For context, a national sport governing body like USA Lacrosse invests over $2 million a year in the sport’s development (39). 

A lack of research exists that is dedicated to understanding how the classification of student-led groups impacts the purpose of such groups. This research responds to that dearth of research – albeit in the very specific context of cricket. Ultimately, this research found that students organized around a sport activity have a mostly consistent reason for being irrespective of their classification as a club sport or student organization. Perhaps this absence of distinct variation is indicative of how most recreational sport departments – the departments responsible for supervising club sports – are housed within the division of student affairs (11), which also where student organizations report. Using the University of Wisconsin-Madison as an example, both registered student organizations and sport clubs follow student organization resource and policy guides (36). In addition, both registered student organizations and sport clubs must have officers as students and consist of 75% student membership (36). Yet, the results of this research point to some subtle differences between the purpose of college cricket clubs classified as club sport organizations versus student organizations. Interestingly, two of the 13 club sport college cricket clubs sampled included no mention of performance within their purpose statement. This finding is perhaps explained by the variability in Article II language and how some club sport college cricket clubs chose to articulate their reason for being (14); rather than the remit and scope of business activities (18). In this way, competition and performance is implied, if not stated.  

CONCLUSION 

Irrespective of the readiness of the existing organized college cricket structures, cricket has a difficult path to achieving varsity status. Notably, and given its traditional team sport nature, cricket is unlikely to receive a federal Title IX exemption like esports (see 3). Therefore, any attempts to elevate cricket to varsity status would likely need to be through a strategic elevation of women’s cricket first. And while not within the scope specifically of this research, any cursory glance into college cricket activities will unearth an almost exclusively male dominated space. Furthermore, interest and participation in cricket among women and girls is low in the USA as the sport has “suffered from an inadequate domestic structure and a lack of investment and organizational interest in developing a more inclusive and welcoming environment” (38). So, while little promise exists in elevating college cricket to varsity status in its current form, this research does point towards a readiness for increased emphasis and investment in competitive men’s college cricket. The challenge, as stated, is the viability of an elevation to varsity status or whether the elevation occurs within the parameters of the existing club sport model.  

One of the limitations of this research is the inability to secure constitutions for a greater proportion of the total population of existing college cricket clubs. One way the researchers considered accounting for this was to collate mission statements from other sources such as social media profiles and bios. However, to uphold the integrity of the content analysis and ensure the data being analyzed was comparable, a decision was made to stick exclusively to the content found within constitutions. The authors also recognize how there could be a disconnect between what college cricket clubs disclose in their constitutions versus what happens in reality; like how Chelladurai (5) differentiates between the stated and real goals of sport organizations. Future research should explore any possible differences between the actual activities of college cricket clubs versus how college cricket clubs are formalized constitutionally. Also, this research was framed from the perspective of college cricket clubs and their readiness for varsity-level sport. Therefore, future research should also look to understand the perceptions of those working within varsity sport – so intercollegiate athletic administrators – on the path forward for college cricket in the United States. 

APPLICATIONS IN SPORT 

Those entities responsible for convening intercollegiate competition – whether that be the CCL or NCCA – should, if not already, look to the purpose of individual college cricket clubs when canvasing for increased participation in intercollegiate competition. This research, if generalizable across the total population of college cricket clubs nationally, suggests few if any of these organized cricket structures consider performance as their only purpose. Ultimately, college cricket clubs are heterogenous in relation to their core activities and reason for being (i.e., many are not operating as pseudo-varsity, non-scholarship athletic programs). 

This research also has relevance to USA Cricket in their continued attempts to guide the development of the sport nationally. Notably, USA Cricket recognizes that the sport has not yet found a way to integrate effectively into colleges, but had also committed to develop a plan that promotes the meaningful engagement of cricket by colleges across the nation (37). That plan appears to be the establishment of CCL, which has been developed by the National Cricket League USA but in partnership with USA Cricket (see 28). Importantly, this research suggests USA Cricket and CCL’s plan does tap into multiple priorities of existing college cricket clubs – namely through the provision of additional extramural competition, as well as the increased awareness of cricket that planned media exposure will bring. 

This research also suggests that many college cricket clubs adopt a “grow the game” in addition to or instead of a “high performance” philosophy. As a result, universities and colleges may also be well-placed to support other strategic themes within USA Cricket’s Foundational Plan such as to increase participation, which again was a salient reason for being for many college cricket clubs in the sample. This purpose has potential value given how students at institutions of higher education appear more willing and likely to get involved in all kinds of organizations when compared to other settings and life stages (23). Such participation objectives could be achieved collectively through, for example, a refresh and revamp of the NIRSA/ICC Campus Cricket Program, which contributed to 40 colleges and universities offering intramural cricket to nontraditional audiences over a two-year period (16).  

This research also has relevance to campus recreation professionals supporting the efforts of college cricket clubs. Given the multi-faceted role of college cricket clubs across performance, participation, and promotion dimensions, these organizations are contributing against multiple strategic priorities of higher education institutions. Given how many colleges and universities are removing diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) programs, perhaps non-varsity college sport is an indirect means through which higher education institutions can continue to promote DEI among their student bodies. Cricket has potential as a unifier – especially for the South Asian population in North America (see 1). But, as mentioned, the results of this research suggest college cricket clubs are organized to proactively grow the game among non-traditional audiences and bring people together from different ethnic and cultural backgrounds in the process. Alternatively, non-varsity college sport is likely to boost student retention rates, as well as a potential increase in international student enrollment moving forward (i.e., a lucrative market in the face of the domestic enrollment cliff). One institution that clearly recognizes this potential is Wichita State University who worked with the local Parks and Recreation agency to construct a cricket field to help the circa 3,100 international students on campus to feel more at home (24). As such, campus recreation professionals should look to highlight the purpose and resulting outcomes of college cricket clubs when advocating for fair allocation of institutional funds to support such activities.  

George Minoso2025-08-11T08:11:47-05:00

Navigating Anxiety and Aspiration: Mental Health and Intrinsic Motivation Among Black Former Student-Athletes at a Division I HBCU

George Minoso2025-08-11T08:11:47-05:00August 9th, 2025|General, Sports Health & Fitness, Sports Medicine, Sports Studies, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|

Authors: Michael M. Bivins EdD

Michael M. Bivins, EdD, is the founder and educator for Pride and Strive Inc. He is also an adjunct faculty member at the United States Sports University. His research interests include various health-related issues, including nutrition and the mental health of student-athletes.

Navigating Anxiety and Aspiration: Mental Health and Intrinsic Motivation Among Black Former Student-Athletes at a Division I HBCU

ABSTRACT

Purpose: An individual’s mental health can influence their decision-making and thought processes. For National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) student-athletes, their mental health can impact their academic success. This study examined how mental health and intrinsic motivation influenced the academic success of seven Black former student-athletes at an HBCU (Historically Black Colleges and Universities). The mental health of student-athletes can play a significant role in their intrinsic motivation. Methods: Using qualitative analysis, the researcher interviewed former student-athletes who participated in semi-structured interviews analyzed using NVivo 12 of their experiences as a Black male and female student-athletes at an HBCU. The study consisted of seven Black student-athletes who played football or basketball for at least one year at an HBCU. The HBCU chosen represented NCAA Division Ⅰ in the Mid-Eastern Athletic Conference (MEAC). The researcher meticulously organized the qualitative study using the software NVivo 12, ensuring a comprehensive and reliable research process. Results: The data collected were rigorously analyzed to identify themes that emerged from the interviews. The data revealed four themes: 1) Anxiety, 2) Self-Motivation, 3) Social Life, and 4) Support from coaches and administration. Conclusions: The seven former student-athletes identified different factors contributing to their mental health and motivation for academic success. The overall environment at the HBCU, family support, and interactions with non-student athletes, coaches, faculty, and staff played a significant role in their psychological well-being and success. The researcher proposed recommendations for future research to explore the mental health issues of student-athletes at other institutions.

INTRODUCTION

Many student-athletes nationwide compete in the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA). Their goal is to get an education while competing in their respective sport. According to the National Collegiate Athletic Association (n.d.), the NCAA is divided into Divisions Ⅰ, Ⅱ, and Ⅲ. NCAA Division Ⅰ has more than 300 colleges/universities and over 6,000 teams, with opportunities for over 170,000 student-athletes. 

Black student-athletes comprise most football and basketball players competing within NCAA Division Ⅰ. Ingraham (2020) noted that Black student-athletes make up sixty percent of basketball and football rosters while only representing eleven percent of the other sports rosters. Many studies examined Black student-athlete perspectives of competing within the NCAA Division Ⅰ athletics over the years. Numerous studies highlighted how Black student-athletes felt exploited by their colleges/universities. The exploitation of college athletes has been a topic of discussion for many years (Van Rheenen & Atwood, 2014). As exploitation can take different forms, the common theme for many student-athletes included athletic and economic factors. There is also a lack of educational emphasis from their college/university (Logan et al., 2017).

The college experience and motivation to succeed will vary from person to person, and everyone will have the goals they want to achieve. Many student-athletes must endure different obstacles that can strain their mental health. Some mental health problems include depression, anxiety, and dealing with different traumas. For black student-athletes, a supportive college environment can be essential to their athletic and academic success.

Over the past few years, mental health has been an essential topic of discussion among many people. Student-athletes are uniquely juggling their education and competing in their sport. Many student-athletes compete in the NCAA to get an excellent education at their respective institutions. The word student-athlete reminds everyone that students in the NCAA are at their college mainly for educational purposes. Student-athlete is a term that lawyers of the NCAA created in 1955 to avoid the notion that the players were employees (Posner & Schneider, 2021). This study examined the mental health and intrinsic motivation of seven black former student-athletes who competed in an HBCU (Historically Black Colleges and Universities) football and basketball program. The study examined the student-athletes intrinsic motivation and their influence by mental health factors, which included anxiety, stress, and social pressures.

Students have different levels of intrinsic motivation when dealing with the obstacles and challenges they may face during their transition into college (Daniels & Araposatathis, 2005). The mental health of student-athletes can play a significant role in their intrinsic motivation. This study looked at former student-athletes who provided an in-depth analysis of their experiences as Black male and female student-athletes at an HBCU. As many HBCUs compete within the NCAA Division Ⅰ athletics, it is common for top African American student-athletes to ultimately choose to attend larger PWIs (Predominantly White Institutions) (Hill, 2019). To date, very limited research has examined the mental health of Black former student-athletes who competed at an NCAA Division Ⅰ HBCU. As there are a small number of HBCU Division Ⅰ football and basketball programs, this study provided a research gap into the perspective of a small population compared to Black former student-athletes who competed at a PWI.

The Environment of Black Student-Athletes

According to Beamon (2014), African American student-athletes at PWIs face difficulties that include social and academic integration and various forms of racism.

One of the biggest stereotypes cited in the study was the perception that African American students at PWIs are only there for their athletic ability and not academics. The stereotype was toward both African American student-athletes and non-athlete African American college students. Tran et al. (2021) stated that student-athlete status might be an advantage for White student-athletes but a disadvantage for Black student-athletes when considering their peers’ perception of their academic success and intelligence.

In a study, Beamon (2014) noted that many African American student-athletes experienced racism beyond the classroom. Respondents revealed that sports did not necessarily bring different races and cultures together. Many respondents have felt a racial divide in the locker room. Experiencing racism can contribute to the mental health burden of Black individuals in the United States (Volpe et al., 2020). Cooper and Newton (2021) Mentioned that discriminatory incidents are not isolated to athletics but shared through academic and social spaces. Moreover, Museus et al. (2018) stated that college students are more contented and have a better sense of belonging when around people from the same cultural background.

Self -Determination Theory and Intrinsic Motivation

Self-determination theory (SDT) is a theory that explores human motivation and personality, where an individual can achieve self-determination through various factors (Ryan & Deci, 2000). The theory investigates an individual’s growth tendencies and inner psychological needs, which are the foundation of self-motivation. Within SDT, three essentials influence individual satisfaction. They include competence, relatedness, and autonomy (Ryan & Deci, 2000). However, it is essential to note that environmental factors can sometimes act as barriers, hindering self-motivation, social functioning, and overall personal well-being (Ryan & Deci, 2000).

Motivation consists of energy, direction, and persistence, which all contribute to the activation of an intention (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Furthermore, motivation has a high value due to the results that occur from it (Ryan & Deci, 2000). People are motivated by different factors with varied experiences and consequences (Ryan & Deci, 2000). There are different types of motivation that one may experience. Intrinsic motivation is an inherent form of motivation that leads to personal satisfaction (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Legault (2016) described intrinsic motivation as the engagement in activities or behaviors that are intrinsically satisfying. Intrinsic motivation is the highest level of self-determination (Holopainen et al., 2021). Intrinsic motivation is a natural inclination toward assimilation, mastery, and interest important to cognitive and social development (Ryan & Deci, 2000). People can be motivated by the value of an activity (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Another form of motivation Ryan and Deci (2000) noted is extrinsic motivation. Extrinsic motivation is the performance of an activity to achieve a separable outcome (Ryan & Deci, 2000). 

The Mental Health of the Black Student-Athlete

According to the NCAA, a recent study showed that mental health issues are still a significant concern among all NCAA student-athletes (Johnson, 2022). As Black students transition from high school into college, the accumulation of stress associated with the transition becomes a concern (Brittian et al., 2009). All student-athletes, generally, have been viewed as at risk for anxiety, depression, substance use, eating disorders, and performance-related stress (Kilcullen et al., 2022). African Americans tend to suffer from diseases related to mental illnesses, such as stress and anxiety, disproportionately (Reid & Smalls, 2004). According to Armstrong et al. (2015), only 20% of college students with mental health issues seek help from the provided services.  Student-athletes underutilize their health and counseling services more than non-student-athletes (Armstrong et al., 2015). The opposing views on seeking mental health help are prevalent in African American communities (Alvidrez et al., 2008).

Armstrong et al. (2015) also stated that the stigma of seeing a counselor is a weakness within the athletic subculture. The NCAA has recognized that their student-athletes mental health should become more emphasized (Henry, 2022). The NCAA has also acknowledged coaches’ role in helping student-athletes get the support and treatment they may need (Nocera, 2016).  There is a high probability that student-athletes on every college campus have some form of mental health issue, and Noncognitive characteristics of student-athletes have influenced academic performance (Comeaux & Harrison, 2011). 

Lindberg (2021) alluded to a crisis in the NCAA where there continues to be a significant percentage of student-athletes who ask for help managing stress and anxiety.  Furthermore, a survey conducted in 2015 found that 30% of student-athletes reported feeling overwhelmed (Lindberg, 2021). Coaches and parents of student-athletes usually emphasize performance over personal growth and character (Lindberg, 2021). 

Sense of belonging

Penner et al. (2021) noted that a sense of belonging, and a positive environment are essential to a student’s mental health and potential for academic achievement. In a study, Penner et al. (2021) stated that having a friendly and supportive faculty/staff contributed to a sense of belonging. A warm and friendly environment from other students on campus will also contribute to a sense of belonging. According to O’Keeffe (2013), a sense of belonging is also a contributing factor when considering the retention rates of all students. O’Keeffe (2013) noted that the institution must create an environment where students feel welcomed and accepted. The Need to Belong Theory states that belonging should be essential in all humans and cultures (Baumeister & Leary, 1995). Baumeister and Leary (1995) maintained that belongingness should entail an individual having a certain minimum quantity and quality of social contacts and interactions.  

According to Baumeister and Leary (1995), belongingness has two main features. The first feature is frequent contact and interactions with others. The second and equally important feature of belongingness is the feeling that a bond or relationship becomes marked by stability, emphasizing the importance of long-term connections in the Need to Belong theory. 

METHODS

Subjects and Instrumentation

For the study, the participants were Black male and female, former student-athletes who played football or basketball for at least one year at an HBCU. The HBCU selected represented NCAA Division Ⅰ in the Mid-Eastern Athletic Conference (MEAC). For research, a selection of seven participants represented students from different graduating years. The graduating years for the student-athletes ranged based on the year the participants entered college. The graduating years were essential to the study because they gave the researcher an idea of how the student-athletes viewed their HBCU over the years regarding their mental health and intrinsic motivation.

The instrument used was an interview guide. Conducting in-depth interviews was essential for this study because it helped understand the student-athlete’s experiences. 

The study employed semi-structured interviews, a method in which the researcher asked the participants questions related to two broad topics. The researcher chose the approach to foster a more natural and open conversation, respecting the individuality of each participant and enabling the researcher to understand the student-athlete’s experiences better.

• RQ1: What influence did faculty and staff at the HBCU have on Black male and female student-athletes when examining their mental health and intrinsic motivation to succeed academically?
• RQ2: How has the overall environment at the HBCU helped the student manage their mental health and intrinsic motivation for academic success?

Table 1 indicates a summary of demographic information of the participants.

Table 1:

 Demographic of Participants

Characteristic	Number
Gender
Female	2
Male	5
Sport
Men’s Basketball	2
Women’s Basketball	2
Football	3
Graduated
Men’s Basketball	1
Women’s Basketball	2
Football	3

Table 2 represents the sport and year the participants left the institution.

Table 2:

Year Student Left Institution

Year	Sport
2009	Football
2010	Football
2013	Football
2016	Men’s Basketball
2019	Women’s Basketball
2020	Women’s Basketball
2021	Men’s Basketball

Table 3 represents the age of the participants at the time of the interview.

Table 3:

Age of Participants (at the time of interviews)

Participant	Age
Football Athlete 1	35
Football Athlete 2	35
Football Athlete 3	31
Male Basketball Player One	31
Female Basketball Player One	25
Female Basketball Player Two	24
Male Basketball Player Two	23

Validity and Reliability

The researcher ensured the trustworthiness of the data collected and used peer debriefings from an expert in the mental health field and another experienced qualitative researcher to validate interpretations, increase objectivity, and minimize researcher bias. Peer debriefing helped in the formation of unbiased questions during the interviews. Furthermore, the researcher used reflexibility and approached the interviews with an open mind. Although not a former student-athlete, the researcher attended two HBCUs. The researcher needed to put any personal experiences of past interactions with HBCU student-athletes aside to ensure transparency and trustworthiness of the data collected.

NVivo 12 was chosen for qualitative research because it helped the researcher identify patterns in the participants’ responses. Further, NVivo helped the researcher identify any connections or relationships in the participants’ overall experiences. The themes that were developed were analyzed based on the patterns revealed by analyzing the software.

Procedures and Data Analysis

The researcher employed purposive sampling to select participants for the study. The selection of participants involved carefully judging who best fit the study’s criteria. Specifically, the researcher contacted eight (8) Black former student-athletes who had previously played football and basketball at the selected HBCU. Seven of the participants responded and agreed to take part in the research. 

The Institutional Review Board (IRB) approved the study of the participation of former student-athletes. Before the interviews, the researcher sent the participants an informed consent document to be signed and returned. The researcher also sent the participants a demographic questionnaire to be answered and returned. The researcher constructed a total of 14 open-ended questions for the interviews. The researcher asked follow-up questions that allowed the participants to elaborate honestly. With permission from participants, the researcher video-recorded the interviews and used Zoom recording software. The former student-athletes provided consent for recording. The average interview length was 20 minutes. 

Data were analyzed to identify themes that emerged from the interviews. During the interviews, the researcher took additional notes for reference. The interviewer transcribed the data using transcription software. NVivo 12 was used to organize and analyze the data. To ensure the accuracy of the data, the author checked all transcripts and video-recorded interviews. When analyzing, the researcher identified codes. The codes were then further analyzed to identify themes within the data.

RESULTS

After the researcher conducted and analyzed the interviews, five themes emerged.  The themes included the following:

1. Anxiety (Research Questions One)
2. Self-Motivation (Research Questions Two)
3. Social Life (Research Question Two)
4. Support from coaches and administration (Research Question One)

Table 4 indicates the themes that emerged and representative quotes of the participants interviewed.

Table 4:

Themes and Representative Quotes

Theme Overview	Representative Quotes
Theme 1: Anxiety
Codes for anxiety included: overwhelmed, balancing school and athletics, mental health services, and religion.	“I actually had to go to the wide receiver coach and tell him that I had to remove myself from off of the team because I felt my grades were [suffering].”
	“So, when you are a student athlete at the division one level, you are waking up at four o’clock in the morning working out. Then, you have to get study hall hours.”
	“Having better [mental health] services was probably the biggest thing that I would change about my experience.”
	“Pray. [I] Definitely pray.”
Theme 2: Self-Motivation
Codes for self-motivation included: Intrinsic motivation, and family support.	“I’ve just learned to be mentally tough. And that was definitely instilled in me from a young age.”
	“Oh yeah. So that was the easiest part for me. My family. I was just trying to be the first in my family to graduate college, which I have done.”
Theme 3: Social Life
Codes for social life included: non-student-athletes, HBCU culture, and other student-athletes.	“Being around other people [non-student-athletes] … It’s real fun.”
	“Everything was so positive … Everybody.
	“I did hang out with the [other] athletes of course.”
Theme 4: Support from coaches and faculty members
Codes for the support from coaches and faculty members included: Scheduling, academic advisors, coaches, and support from professors.	“No [scheduling conflict]. My own advisors pretty much set everything up for me.”
	“There would be times when I would turn to one of the academic advisors, who was there [for support].
	“I was fortunate enough to have a coach who … cared about what you were doing off the field.”
	“I did rely on my assistant coach … She was amazing … I had really bad anxiety during that time.”

Theme and Codes

Note. The figure represents the four codes that relate to the theme.

All participants in the study mentioned experiencing some form of anxiety throughout their collegiate careers. Two of the seven participants used their religion, where they relied on prayers to get through some of their challenges. With the anxiety that the student-athletes experienced, the participants felt overwhelmed. All Participants mentioned it was often challenging to balance school and athletics. Female basketball player one was overwhelmed by the demands of her sport and not getting what she felt was the HBCU experience she always wanted. The theme of anxiety connects to research question one. It appeared that the administration, coaches, and faculty did not have a significant influence on the participants to seek mental health assistance, as five of the seven participants were not aware of mental health services offered.

Theme and Codes

Note. The figure represents the two codes that relate to the theme

The theme of self-motivation was associated with research question two. The overall environment did not hinder the participant’s goals for academic success, as six of the seven participants expressed the need to take advantage of their opportunity to get a college degree while doing what they loved in their sport. Football athlete three mentioned that his self-motivation came from different areas in his life. One thing that motivated him was feeling like he did not do well academically in high school. He wanted to prove that he could do better academically at the collegiate level. Four of the seven participants mentioned their families and used them as intrinsic motivation to succeed academically. Football athlete two and Football athlete three mentioned that they got their intrinsic motivation to succeed academically from seeing people within their family graduate with their college degrees. They wanted to continue with the success they already saw in their families. 

Theme and Codes

Note. The figure represents the three codes that relate to the theme

As there was a high demand for the participants to manage athletics and academics, most participants mentioned that having a social life was essential. Research question two was associated with the theme of social life. There were positive interactions with others on campus. Six of the seven participants in the study mentioned that they had friends who were non-student-athletes.  Male basketball player one and male basketball player two mentioned that they appreciated many non-student-athletes during college.

Female basketball player two mentioned that she had good relationships with other students in her major department as she believed that healthy relationships with others were important.  Football athlete three and male basketball player one also mentioned they had good relationships with student-athletes and non-student-athletes.

Theme and Codes

Note. The figure represents the four codes that relate to the theme

Support from coaches and faculty members was one of the most compelling themes related to research question one. Six of the seven participants appreciated the support they received from their coaches and faculty members. All participants mentioned that support was necessary for their mental health and overall success. The support came in different forms that included scheduling, mentorship, and mental well-being.

DISCUSSION

Research Question One: What influence did faculty and staff at the HBCU have on Black male and female student-athletes when examining their mental health and intrinsic motivation to succeed academically?

The study’s findings revealed that faculty and staff had an impact on their student-athletes. Consistent with prior research by Penner et al. (2021), the friendly and supportive faculty/staff contributed to a sense of belonging. There was tremendous encouragement from the participant’s coaches and professors to excel in their education. In addition to the support from coaches and professors, two participants also mentioned that academic advisors played a tremendous role in their academic development. The study was consistent with the self-determination theory. As Ryan and Deci (2000) cited, competence, relatedness/connectedness, and autonomy are three conditions of the Self-Determination Theory (SDT) that influence intrinsic motivation. The support of faculty and coaches indicated autonomy and competence. Autonomous supportive teachers enhance their students’ intrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000).

All participants in the study mentioned that they experienced some form of anxiety and felt overwhelmed as a student-athlete. As the mental health of student-athletes is important, it is also vital to examine how they deal with their mental health issues. College faculty and administration should continue to take note of their role in minimizing the psychological distress of their students. Consistent with prior research conducted by Johnson (2022), mental health issues were a significant concern among the student-athletes.

It is important to note that two of the seven participants were female. There was a notable difference in the gender dynamics regarding mental health issues. In contrast to the male participants, the female participants heavily relied on their coaches for emotional support when they felt they missed their families. In addition, female basketball player one was the only participant who utilized the mental health services offered. The study revealed that the female participants were slightly more mindful of their psychological well-being.

At HBCUs, the significant presence of Black coaches and faculty members, in contrast to PWIs, has a profound cultural influence on their students. As Klopfenstein (2005) noted, culturally similar teachers can positively influence students of the same culture. The warmer relationship between coaches and their student-athletes at HBCUs, as reported by Murty et al. (2014), further underscores this cultural influence. Many participants expressed their gratitude for the support their coaches provided. 

Collectively, the student-athlete’s narratives support faculty and staff’s critical role in their academic development. Five of the seven participants heavily relied on their coach’s support and mentioned that their coaches played a significant role in their academic development. Academic advisors also played a critical role and helped the student-athletes get through challenging tasks. The positive feedback and interactions from coaches, faculty, academic advisors, and family members helped the former student-athletes achieve autonomy and competence. The participants believed they were in an environment that fostered their ability to achieve their academic and athletic goals. According to the SDT, a competent individual would feel like they can master a task and have the confidence to succeed and grow (Ryan & Deci, 2020). Ryan and Deci (2020) stated that there is a link between intrinsic motivation and the fulfillment of the needs for autonomy and competence. This study highlights the influence of staff and faculty at the HBCU in encouraging the student-athlete’s intrinsic motivation to succeed academically.

Research Question Two: How has the overall environment at the HBCU helped the student manage their mental health and intrinsic motivation for academic success?

The participants benefited from the social life outside of athletics, and there was interaction and support from non-student-athletes on campus. Most participants appreciated the HBCU culture; they felt it was an overall supportive environment. The study revealed consistent findings with prior research conducted by Museus et al. (2018), which found that college students are more contented and have a better sense of belonging when around people from the same cultural background.

The study revealed that positive interactions with teammates and other student-athletes from different sports on campus were critical for success. In the SDT, people have a high sense of relatedness when they experience connections with other people, enhancing their sense of belonging (Ryan & Deci, 2020). Communication and support of other student-athletes were effortless due to the commonalities that they shared. In addition to the positive interactions with other student-athletes, participants also felt connected with non-student-athletes.

The study indicated that student-athletes who have connections and gain support from non-student-athletes can have a positive impact. The positive interaction with non-student-athletes on campus also enhanced a sense of belonging. The sense of belonging enhanced the participant’s intrinsic motivation because the interactions with others did not add stress, anxiety, or other mental health issues. A high sense of belonging can increase a student’s motivation, academic engagement, and confidence (Kelly et al., 2024).

The participants demonstrated high self-motivation, as six of the seven participants had high levels of intrinsic motivation to succeed in academics, leading to their college degrees. The participants wanted a promising career after college. The theme of self-motivation emphasized the role of outside influences, such as family and friends, on student-athletes. The interviews did not reveal that the participants had a high athletic identity. When student-athletes perceive themselves as having high levels of athletic identity, there is a negative correlation between their academic motivation and grade point averages (GPA) (Bimper, 2014).

None of the participants mentioned that they experienced any form of racism on campus. Previous studies cited that Black student-athletes experience racism at PWIs.  Beamon (2014) stated that Black student-athletes felt negatively stereotyped at their PWI. Tran et al. (2021) stated that the perception of a student-athlete at PWIs is positive for White student-athletes and negative, with a disadvantage for Black student-athletes when considering their peers’ perception of their academic success and intelligence. The study participants did not feel negatively stereotyped as being academically inferior.

This study highlights HBCUs’ relevancy and cultural role to Black students, whether student-athletes or non-student-athletes. Shuler et al. (2022) noted that many Black students believe that HBCUs are culturally relevant and safe environments that are free from any racial hostility they perceive at PWIs. Furthermore, students who attend HBCUs are more likely to graduate and achieve advanced degrees (Shuler et al., 2022). As noted in the study, there is a heavy emphasis on academic achievement from coaches, faculty, and administration.

CONCLUSIONS

This study examined the mental health and intrinsic motivation of Black former student-athletes at one selected HBCU. The former student-athletes represented NCAA Division Ⅰ. Results indicated that family support and positive interactions with others on campus, including non-student-athletes, faculty, and coaches, can positively impact a student-athlete’s mental health. The research conducted highlighted the relevancy of the self-determination theory. When examining an individual’s potential for academic success, there is an emphasis on components of the theory (relatedness, autonomy, and competence) throughout the study. The NCAA must continue to encourage their institutions to accentuate the importance of managing the mental health of their student-athletes. Implementing policies that underline the importance of mental health services and resources can improve well-being. A limitation of this study is the selection of one HBCU. As the college experience can vary from person to person, researchers can expand this study to former NCAA Division Ⅰ student-athletes who attended other HBCUs. In addition, expanding to HBCU NCAA Division II and III would help get the perspective of student-athletes who compete at different levels. Another limitation was a focus on student-athletes who competed in football and basketball. Future research must consider student-athletes from various sports to build on this study’s findings. In addition, future research should explore the mental health and intrinsic motivation of Black former student-athletes who attended PWI compared to those who attended HBCUs. As there are different methodological approaches, a cross-sectional comparison with Black former student-athletes at PWIs and HBCUs would help understand the differences in the student’s environment, psychological health, and interactions with others.

APPLICATIONS IN SPORT

The NCAA can use this study to continue encouraging their student-athletes to use their schools’ mental health services. Additionally, this study can encourage the NCAA and other institutions to implement and update policies supporting mental health awareness. Administrators at HBCUs can use the information presented in this study to develop and implement policies geared toward their student-athletes. Moreover, this study can help faculty members and coaches better understand their role in helping student-athletes increase their psychological well-being and motivation to succeed academically.   

George Minoso2025-05-16T09:56:27-05:00

The Novelty of New Stadiums: Evidence from 40 Years in Major League Baseball 

George Minoso2025-05-16T09:56:27-05:00July 26th, 2025|General, Sport Education, Sports Facilities, Sports Management|

Authors: Richard Flight¹ and Mark Mitchell²

Richard Flight, PhD is Associate Professor of Marketing at Coastal Carolina University in Conway, SC. He previously worked in minor league baseball with the Memphis Redbirds and Birmingham Barons as well as Division I college athletics at Samford University.

Mark Mitchell, DBA is Professor of Marketing at Coastal Carolina University in Conway, SC. He has served for 10 years as the NCAA Faculty Athletics Representative (FAR). He has conducted much research on minor league sports.

The Novelty of New Stadiums: Evidence from 40 Years in Major League Baseball

ABSTRACT

Purpose: The purpose of this study is to advance a new model to estimate the stadium novelty effect for newly-built Major League Baseball (MLB) stadiums over the last 40 years. Unlike prior studies that use nominal annual attendance data, this study uses marginal attendance change to capture the impact new stadiums have on attendance when mitigating (or controlling for) the impact that team performance has on attendance.

Methods: The incidence of the construction of new MLB stadiums is identified over a 40+ year period. Using a difference-in-differences (DiD) method, a base attendance model is estimated. Then, the new stadium construction observations are added to capture the effect they have on predicted attendance. Unique to this study, marginal change in attendance is used rather than change in (absolute) nominal attendance. Year-over-year percentage change in attendance helps nullify key deficiencies in prior studies such as stadium size disparities and variations in market size. Additionally, this research combines the effects of extensive team performance variables and player salaries to control for non-stadium externalities which also impact attendance.

Results: There have been 23 new MLB stadiums built from 1980-2023. Stadiums for expansion teams or team relocations are not included in this study. Collectively, the MLB teams that built new stadiums see, on average, a 29.6% increase in attendance during the first year in the new stadium with effects lasting up to 21 years. When controlling for other factors (player salaries, winning percentage and other team statistics) the novelty effect is significant (b = .216) in multiple regression analysis.

Conclusion: Teams that build new baseball stadiums can expect an increase in attendance when controlling for team performance and player salaries. This effect holds even while some new stadiums were purposefully built to have fewer fans and offer a ‘closer-to-game’ fan experience. In other cases, the addition of luxury boxes reduced the number of available seats but added a class of seats that demand a premium price from consumers. This strategy allowed teams to cultivate new fans and new revenue streams for their teams.

Application in Sport: A baseball stadium is a fixed asset with an anticipated lifespan. No stadium lasts forever in its original form. At some point, a stadium must be remodeled or replaced to meet the needs of current consumers or fans may shy away from attending games. New stadiums can help grow attendance, diversify the fan base, and develop new revenue streams to help teams compete financially in Major League Baseball.

Key Words: stadium novelty effect; Major League Baseball; attendance; new stadium construction; franchise expansion

The Novelty of New Stadiums: Evidence from 40 Years in Major League Baseball

INTRODUCTION

Ballpark managers, team owners, and city officials often cite lagging attendance as the prime reason to build new sport facilities and stadiums. They argue an out-of-date stadium discourages fan attendance and recommend the investment in new-and-improved stadiums. A key goal associated with building a new facility is revenue growth by increasing fan attendance with the promise of an enhanced fan experience, often with an expanded premium ticket and entertainment options. These new facilities often offer operating efficiencies with the use of new technology to lower operating costs and boost profit margins for stadium operators (28).

Historically, when a team builds a new stadium their observed attendance goes up (35). Anecdotally, a new facility brings greater enthusiasm from not only the fan base but also from media partners, advertisers, and players that see grandeur in the new stadium. For example, the Atlanta Braves moved from Turner Field (located in downtown Atlanta) to then-named SunTrust Park (located in the northern suburbs) in 2017. Total attendance for the first season at Sun Trust Park increased approximately 24% over the final season at Turner Field. The new stadium offered a comprehensive gameday experience including dining and shopping that went beyond a traditional baseball game. Further, the suburban location was more accessible to many fans, including expanded parking facilities (32). Though fan attendance can sometimes decline after the opening year (38), the average attendance per game in Atlanta’s SunTrust Park actually increased in year two and year three (3).

The purpose of this study is to advance a new method to estimate the Stadium Novelty Effect in Major League Baseball by examining newly-built MLB stadiums and the associated attendance figures over a 40+ year period. First, a brief description of relevant literature is provided. Next, the study methods are presented as well as the data analysis plan. Finally, the findings are presented and the implications for baseball team owners and communities are advanced.

THE IMPACT OF NEW STADIUMS IN SPORT

Fan Attendance and the Fan Experience

The phenomenon of attributing increased fan attendance to the introduction of a new stadium is known as the Stadium Novelty Effect (2, 7, 8, 14, 18, 27). This effect, also referred to as the Honeymoon Effect (4), has been observed in numerous applications including: European soccer (10, 35); baseball (6); basketball (5); and hockey (18).

There is broad agreement that attendance tends to increase with the introduction of a new stadium. There is less agreement on the duration of this positive impact on attendance. In early literature by Noll (26), the stadium novelty effect was estimated to last somewhere between seven and eleven years. More recently, Hamilton and Kahn (16) estimate a much shorter three-year duration of this temporary surge in attendance. Others suggest the temporary upward shift is followed by a return to the original attendance levels with limited long-term benefits (14, 36). Howard and Crompton (18) conclude that the initial stadium novelty effect is limited often to just a single year with eventual declines after the first year in the new facility after studying NFL, MLB, NBA and NHL leagues. Most recently, Bradbury (5) suggested a new stadium will bring an initial surge in attendance that breaks down over the initial ten-year period.

One motivation for new stadium construction and renovation is the fan’s experience based upon the facility and its service environment. It must be noted, however, that sport fans can vary in their degree of fandom and their subsequent expectations during game attendance. Both Hoehn and Szymanski (17) and Porat (30) detail a spectrum from casual to involved or committed. Meanwhile, Samra and Wos (33) provide a fan typology including temporary, devoted, and fanatical.

A seminal question to ask is ‘how do fans derive value from the ballpark experience?’ To varying degrees fans value the quality of on-the-field performance. They also value the experience of a game delivered in a safe, clean, and exciting environment provided by a new stadium. Frequently the call for greater amenities is made in the argument for building a new stadium. In fact, it is asserted that new stadiums may become attractions within themselves regardless of team performance (1, 18). The new stadium setting incorporates features that modern, state-of-the-art facilities are expected to have. The ‘stadium as an attraction’ position suggests that fans immerse themselves in the new stadium atmosphere regardless of team performance. In essence, the team’s performance may not be great, but the atmospherics of the stadium creates a pleasurable experience worth the cost and worthy of repeatedly returning for another game. In short, some fans place greater value on the on-field product, whereas others place it on the atmosphere and conditions of the stadium.

While fan experience is vital, the fan base’s devotion to the team and team brand will certainly influence their willingness to attend games. Some teams are known to have loyal fans and seemingly have little trouble reaching stadium capacity. The Chicago Tribune ranked all 30 major league baseball teams by team value (34). Not surprisingly, there is a significant correlation (r = .66) between this team valuation and average team attendance since 1980 (3). These estimated team valuations are provided in Table 1.

Table 1: MLB Teams Ranked by Team Valuation (with Corresponding Fan Attendance) 

Rank	Team	2024 Valuation ($B)	Average Home Attend (1980-2023)
1	New York Yankees	5.59	2,986,328
2	Arizona Diamondbacks	4.28	2,353,169
3	Los Angeles Dodgers	3.75	3,333,426
4	Chicago Cubs	3.67	2,619,327
5	Boston Red Sox	3.6	2,583,650
6	San Francisco Giants	3.21	2,501,129
7	New York Mets	2.48	2,486,904
8	St. Louis Cardinals	2.235	2,998,742
9	Philadelphia Phillies	2.22	2,339,642
10	Houston Astros	2.19	2,167,333
11	Atlanta Braves	2.165	2,297,852
12	Los Angeles Angels	2.04	2,737,988
13	Washington Nationals	2.0	1,760,801
14	Texas Rangers	1.84	2,285,151
15	San Diego Padres	1.65	2,084,153
16	Seattle Mariners	1.62	2,009,274
17	Chicago White Sox	1.54	1,845,744
18	Toronto Blue Jays	1.53	2,460,458
19	Minnesota Twins	1.52	1,982,394
20	Baltimore Orioles	1.46	2,425,704
21	Cleveland Indians	1.375	1,843,168
22	Colorado Rockies	1.36	2,769,199
23	Detroit Tigers	1.33	2,144,746
24	Cincinnati Reds	1.325	2,016,894
25	Oakland Athletics	1.3	1,769,573
26	Milwaukee Brewers	1.29	2,132,008
27	Pittsburgh Pirates	1.26	1,679,759
28	Miami Marlins	1.14	1,464,552
29	Kansas City Royals	1.1	1,845,441
30	Tampa Bay Rays	1.03	1,400,312

New Stadiums in MLB

While an expensive and disrupting proposition, building a new stadium is somewhat common in Major Lague Baseball. From 1980-2023, 23 new stadiums were built for non-expansion or relocation teams. Additionally, 5 other new stadiums were built for new franchises (including the Montreal Expos move to Washington, DC). The timing of new stadium constructions between 1980 – 2023 is presented in Figure 1. An overview of the stadiums themselves is provided in the Appendix.

Figure 1: Newly-Built Major League Baseball Stadiums by Year (1980-2023) 

Over a thirty-year span the positive impacts of the new stadium effect have been measured by researchers using a variety of methods. Calculating the aggregate impact of new stadiums in Major League Baseball, Fort (11) provides a methodology typical of this research that specifies the difference between the first year in the new stadium and the previous five-year’s averages for those teams that built new stadiums. Fort (11) finds the change in attendance for a select period to be a positive net increase of 624,000 fans for teams that built new stadiums. Conversely, those teams that did not build new stadiums realized a net increase of 96,000 fans over the same time period.

While this common approach speaks to the impact new stadiums have on league attendance, debate continues as to the team and market specific nature of the stadium novelty effect and how to best measure them. Recently, van Ours (35) employed a ‘difference-in-differences’ (DiD) method with a sample of 8 Dutch stadiums. Here, the researchers used a control group to establish an initial model, then introduced new stadium data and observed the change or difference between the two in a two-way fixed effect regression.

This study also uses the ‘difference in differences’ (DiD) method. Unlike prior studies that use attendance per team while also employing time-dependent independent variables, this study uses percentage change in attendance from the immediate prior year for each team including those with new stadiums. Using marginal (or percentage) change in attendance from the prior year marks a deviation from prior studies that use nominal annual attendance as the dependent variable with additional prior years attendances as independent variables. Using prior attendance as independent variables, as in time series modeling, generates significant multi-collinearity concerns and effectively overfits most lagged time series or autoregressive moving average (ARIMA) models. Using nominal change in attendance from one year prior does not carryover anticipated attendance which tends to overfit the model. Further, the use of marginal annual change mitigates the effects of wide variations in both stadium and market sizes across the vast time horizon studied here.

METHODS

This study uses Major League Baseball attendance records, team on-field performance, and new stadium construction data from the 1980 through 2023 playing seasons. In all, 30 teams are represented in the total data set with 23 new stadiums built during that 40+ year time span. The initial subject pool includes Major League Baseball (MLB) team attendance and performance data from 1979 through 2023 which were accessed and downloaded from the data aggregator baseball-reference.com (a depository for sports performance data). The data analysis plan for this study consisted of three stages.

Stage One

The purpose of Stage One is to collect team performance and fan attendance data. Refinements will be made to the data where warranted. For example, team relocations or the awarding of expansion teams do not offer a before-and-after scenario to analyze the stadium novelty effect. So, the data for these years will be excluded. In addition, data attached to seasons that experienced work stoppages are also excluded as it is assumed attendance figures tied to these reasons are atypical for a variety of reasons (such as fan resentment, etc.). Finally, fan attendance data during the COVID-19 period were eliminated as fan attendance limits, public health concerns, and lingering fan apprehension to attend group events impacted game attendance.

Stage Two

The purpose of Stage Two is to develop a base model to predict fan attendance in the absence of a new stadium using the difference-in-difference methodology. Then, team performance and team salary data for each year and team is regressed on the percentage change in team attendance from year to year (the dependent variable). This model can be used to predict attendance and will be later extended to include the effects of new stadiums in Stage Three.

Stage Three

The purpose of Stage Three is to add new stadium attendance observations to the base model along with the addition of a dummy variable to identify these figures as attached to the introduction of a new stadium. It is here that the final results are calculated and the summary findings advanced.

PRESENTATION OF DATA ANALYSIS

Stage One – Refining the Sample Size

Team performance and attendance data were downloaded by team and year from 1980-2023 (inclusive). 26 teams played from 1980-1992, with expansion to 28 teams in 1993, and then again to 30 teams in 1998. Counting each team during this time span, there are 1,288 observations in the initial data set. As previously noted, this study uses a ‘difference-in-differences’ or DiD approach. Bradbury (5) states “a primary concern with DiD comparisons is the selection of control units that are devoid of treatment effects; therefore, it is imperative to exclude observations of teams that may be experiencing novelty influences from existing venues or entering new markets through team relocations and league expansions.” For this reason, new stadium observations were omitted for expansion franchises, including Colorado (1993), Florida (1993), Tampa Bay (1998), and Arizona (1998). Additionally, the relocation of the Montreal Expos to Washington, DC in 2005 was also omitted given the new stadium in a new market had no comparable previous season attendance data.

Impact of Labor Disputes. During the timeline of the study, there were two significant work stoppages (1981 and 1994) due to labor-management disputes. These years pose two challenges observed in the data.

During each strike year, the dependent variable (percent change in attendance) was (on average) noticeably lower than expected.

During the year following the 1981 strike (1982), the dependent variable was (on average) noticeably greater than expected.

These two anomalies lead to an uncontrollable externality that isn’t explained by performance, marketing, or stadium effects and warrant exclusion. As such, the seasons of 1981, 1982, and 1994 are excluded from this analysis.

Impact of COVID-19 Global Pandemic. The 2020 MLB regular season was reduced to 60 games and played without fans. The post-season was played at neutral sites (Globe Life Field Arlington, TX; Minute Maid Park in Houston, TX; Petco Park in San Diego, CA; and Dodger Stadium in Los Angeles, CA). Given the lack of fans (and attendance data), the 2020 season was excluded from this analysis.

Impact of Pent-Up Demand Following Global Pandemic. The lingering effects of COVID seem to decline during the 2022 season as evidenced by the spike in game attendance. This behavioral change by fans caused the dependent variable (percent change in attendance) to be greater than expected for the 2022 season. As illustrated in Figure 2, the reader will note the high and low spikes in average percent change in attendance. These ‘dips’ and ‘spikes’ represent externalities outside the scope of this study. As such, the 2022 season was also excluded from this analysis.

Figure 2: Average Percent Change in MLB Attendance by Year (1980-2023) 

Tracking the Revisions to the Sample. Collectively, five MLB seasons (1981, 1982, 1994, 2020, and 2022 we excluded from this analysis for the reasons noted above. Additional data adjustments included accounting for individual abnormal ‘outlier’ observations. Individual observation outliers are identified using Mahalonabis Distance2 analysis (15). In doing so, 117 observations are found to be structurally outside of the norm and were also excluded from this analysis. The final data set consists of 1,001 observations for study analysis. A summary of refinement process that affected the sample size is provided in Table 2.

Table 2: Summary of the Refined Sample Size Used in This Analysis 

	Existing Stadiums	New Stadiums	TOTAL
All Years	1,206	23	1,228
Excluding franchise expansion, relocations, strike and COVID effected years.	1095	23	1118
Final sample excluding outliers.	978	23	1,001

Stage Two – Creating the Base Model to Predict Attendance (Without New Stadium Data)

Following a difference-in-differences (DiD) methodology (see 5, 35), this stage creates a base model to predict attendance in the absence of any new stadiums. This base model specifies the predictive ability of team variables (such an on-field player performance and player salaries) on attendance. Team performance and salary data from each eligible team and year (i.e., where no new stadium or major stadium renovations occurred) is regressed on the percentage change in attendance (dependent variable). This base model will first be used to predict attendance while later this base model will be extended to include the effect of new stadiums.

While year-over-year marginal change in attendance is the dependent variable, the independent variables include team statistics for offense, defense, and pitching as well as total player payroll (see Table 3 for list of variables). Prior literature has incorporated a limited selection of performance variables and team salary and lagged prior year attendance to predict attendance. Our approach is to incorporate 28 performance variables simultaneously:

By doing so, the model is able to construct a broader test of variables which may affect attendance. As an economic growth component, payroll suggests that greater player payrolls translate into better on-field performance which impacts attendance (21). It should be noted that the model specification does not incorporate time dependent variables as one might find in a time series analysis. Thus, there is not a controlling element for economic inflation or timely building trends that may emerge over a 40-year time horizon. While league expansion has taken place, study does not use new stadiums as there is no pre- and post-construction paired data.

Table 3: Independent Variables Used in Base Model  

Variable Categories		Variable	Description
Team:		Salary	Estimated player payroll. (Standardized)
		Win Percentage	Total wins divided by games played.
		Home Win Percentage	Total wins divided by games played at home only.
		Run Difference	Average difference in runs scored vs runs allowed.
Offense:		Runs Scored per game	Average runs scored per game.
		Hits	Number of hits in the year.
		Doubles	Number of doubles in the year.
		Triples	Number of triples in the year
		Home Runs	Number of home runs in the year.
		Runs Batted In	Number of Runs-Batted-In in the year.
		Stolen Bases	Number of bases stolen in the year.
		Caught Stealing	Times caught stealing in the year.
		Batter Walks	Number of walks in the year.
		Batter Strike Outs	Total batter strike outs in the year.
		Team Batting Average	Number of hits divided by at bats for the team.
		On-Base Percentage	Times reached base divided by plate appearances.
		Slugging Percentage	Percentage of hits weighted by based reached.
Pitching:		Runs Allowed Per game	Average runs allowed per game.
		Team ERA	Average runs given up divided by 9.
		Hits Allowed	Hits allowed by pitchers in a year.
		Home Runs Allowed	Home runs allowed in a year.
		Walks Allowed	Walks allowed in the year.
		Strike Outs Pitched	Strike outs pitched in the year.
Defense:		Defensive Efficiency	Estimate of balls in play that result in converted outs.
		Assists	Assists made in the year.
		Errors Committed	Errors committed in the year.
		Double Plays Turned	Double Plays made in the year.
		Fielding Percentage	(Putouts + Assists) / (Putouts + Assists + Errors)

Using IBM’s SPSS (version 29.0.1.0) a liner regression is performed using a stepwise entry method for variable selection. This method allows the most attractive variables to be entered into the model first, while consecutively testing, dropping, and adding variables until the best-fitting model emerges.

Stage Three – Creating the Extended Model to Include New Stadium Data

Once a base model is estimated, new stadium attendance observations are added to the sample along with a dummy variable coded for new stadium observations. As noted earlier, 23 new stadiums (observations) are added during this stage which are reflected in this new variable. The new variable that is built into the model during this stage accounts for the presence of a new stadium, coded by ‘1’ while all other observations (existing stadiums) are coded ‘0’. If the stadium novelty effect exists, then the regression coefficient (beta) for the new dummy variable will be significant and the model fit (r2) will improve. Similar to Stage Two, the dependent variables were retained by using a stepwise entry method for variable selection. This stage provides a comparative model directed by the difference-in-difference approach.

RESULTS

Predictive Models

Base Model Without New Stadium Data. A primary goal of this study is to measure the stadium novelty effect while controlling for the influence of team performance and player salaries. During Stage Two, a base model is estimated using a stepwise regression which retained the best predictive variables and strongest model fit. The sample under investigation for base-mode specification has 978 observations resulting in an adjusted r2 fit of .198 and significant F statistic. (see Table 4).

Table 4: Base Model Fit Statistics and Coefficient Estimates 

R	R Square	Adjusted R Square	Std. Error of the Estimate
0.450	0.202	0.198	0.155
	Sum of Squares	Df	Mean Square	F	Sig.
Regression	5.579	5	1.116	46.429	<.001
Residual	22.012	916	.024
Total	27.591	921

	Unstandardized Coefficients (Beta)	Std. Error	Standardized Coefficients (Beta)	t	Sig.	VIF
(Constant)	-.977	.113		-8.627	<.001
Winning Percentage	.957	.084	.372	11.345	<.001	1.35
Salary	-.043	.007	-.251	-5.862	<.001	2.112
Strikeouts / Game	.025	.007	.159	3.648	<.001	2.189
Hits	.000	.000	.102	3.146	.002	1.197
Stolen Bases	.000	.000	.083	2.645	.008	1.120

Extended Model Including New Stadium Data. Upon the addition of new stadium observations during Stage Three, the extended model demonstrates an increase in model fit (r2) from .198 to .230. Moreover, the new stadium dummy variable is significant (.001) and strong when compared to the other variable’s standardized betas, at .216, only “winning percentage” and “batting average” serve as better predictors of changes in attendance from year to year. (see Table 5).

Table 5: Extended Model (with New Stadium Variable) Fit Statistics and Coefficient Estimates 

R	R Square	Adjusted R Square	Std. Error of the Estimate
.486	0.236	0.230	0.157
	Sum of Squares	Df	Mean Square	F	Sig.
Regression	7.085	7	1.012	41.199	<.001
Residual	22.921	933	.025
Total	30.006	940
	Unstandardized Coefficients (Beta)	Std. Error	Standardized Coefficients (Beta)	t	Sig.	VIF
(Constant)	-.730	.072		-10.201	<.001
Winning Percentage	.950	.093	.359	10.240	<.001	1.502
New Stadium	.274	.037	.216	7.480	<.001	1.016
Salary	-.050	.007	-.277	-6.627	<.001	2.138
Strike Outs / Game	.023	.007	.139	3.362	<.001	2.075
RBIs	.000	.000	.151	3.937	<.001	1.789
Walks (Hitter)	.000	.000	-.109	-3.019	.003	1.600
Stolen Bases	.000	.000	.073	2.396	.017	1.124

The Magnitude of Stadium Novelty Effects

In this study we define the year prior to a new stadium as a “base-year” and then compare attendance in the new stadium to the base-year. This comparative process found an average change in attendance of 29.6% during the first year of play in a newly-constructed stadium. This 29.6% increase in attendance equates to an average increase of 762,263 fans for a new stadium’s inaugural season. Meanwhile, average marginal change for each successive year remains positive until year 21 as illustrated in Figure 3. By comparison, the average annual change in attendance increases for non-new stadium observations was just 2.36%, or an average increase of 63,553 fans for the study timeframe.

Figure 3: Average Percentage Change in Fan Attendance by Stadium Age 

As other studies indicate, attendance attributed to a new stadium is greatest during the first year and diminishes over time. In fact, based on study data new MLB attendance appears to decay at a rate of 1.19% per year after the introduction of the new stadium given the correlation of stadium age (in years) and percent change in attendance (r = .84). While it is unclear if all the factors contribute to attendance decay, it is plausible that the newness or novelty of the stadium diminishes while its new amenities become outdated and/or worn out. This study appears to provide a longer and slower decline in attendance extending Noll (26) that finds the stadium novelty effect is between seven and eleven years and dismisses the one-to-three-year effects that Hamilton and Kahn (16), Voight (36), Greenberg and Gray (14), and Howard and Crompton (18) all find.

A novelty of these findings is the approach used by defining the dependent variable as percent change in attendance in an effort to remove externalities that cannot be controlled across franchises. Annual attendance models using nominal annual attendance fail to capture the effect of stadium size variations and the size of the attendance variable which overweighs time-series data and can capture a very large portion of systemic error from year to year.

The Impact of On-Field Team Performance

This study further advances the current literature on stadium novelty effects by testing numerous team performance variables. Prior studies included a limited number of team performance variables such as “winning percentage” or “playoff appearances” (22). This study’s initial variable pool of 28 performance-related variables offers a more exhaustive list of performance metrics to (assumedly) better capture the influence of team performance on attendance in the presence of stadium novelty effects. In doing so, we find that five variables play a significant role in determining attendance, including: (a) winning percentage (b=.354, <.001); (b) strikeouts per game (b=.139, <.001); (c) RBIs (b=.151, <.001); (d) walks by hitter (b=-.109, .003); and (e) stolen bases (b=.073, .017). Meanwhile, team player salary (b=-.277, <.001), while a significant variable, appears to be negatively associated with attendance change. This finding is unusual and unexpected based on common perceptions that higher paid athletes tend to attract more attention.

As noted, a team’s winning percentage is found to be a key performance driver to attendance. As one can imagine, teams that perform better attract more fans. Data suggests that there is a significant correlation (r = .477) between winning percentage and home attendance figures (3). Likewise, “team ERA” is negatively associated with attendance (r = -.208) and “team batting average” is positively correlated with attendance (r = .221). In short, fans generally show up in greater numbers when teams improve on-field performance. On average, teams realize a modest 1.2% increase in home winning percentage a year after the new stadium is built, which is consistently found in other research (see 19, 20, 29, 31, 37).

CONCLUSIONS

This research builds further support for the impact new stadiums have on short-term fan attendance and financial outcomes. The building of a new stadium can be expected to increase season attendance by 29.3% for the first year of play. That elevated first-year attendance does not last forever. Rather, it tends to decline by approximately 1% per year for the next 20 years. During this entire 20-year span, overall fan attendance tends to remains higher than would have been predicted had the new stadium not been built in the first place.

By (a) modifying the dependent variable to a percent change in attendance and (b) including many more performance indicators as dependent variables, this study adds to the richness of the ongoing research into stadium novelty effects. Limitations of the study include the lack of multi-sport applications as this study focuses on Major League Baseball and does not include other professional sports such as soccer, football, or basketball. In addition, it does not include developmental and/or non-professional leagues.

Moreover, we do not account for cultural trends that may occur promoting or detracting from new stadium construction. Notably, over the time horizon, stadiums have moved from large capacity multi-use facilities to smaller ‘baseball-only’ spaces. Also, there is an increasing trend to re-locate stadiums outside of dense urban areas, Finally, the trend of sprawling multi-business complex models has also added to the art of new stadium construction. Today, new stadiums are built with an economic ecosystem surrounding the facility to include dining, entertainment, and other hospitality venues such as hotels. Finally, the model outlined in this research, while demonstrating sufficient fit statistics, fails to capture all the variation in marginal attendance change on a year-over-year basis. As such, future research should seek to include additional independent variables that can improve the model.

Stadium novelty effects are real and substantial. This study presents a new method to be used to measure and predict their impact on total attendance in any sport and at any level (college, professional, etc.).

APPLICATION IN SPORT

A baseball stadium is a fixed asset with an anticipated lifespan. No stadium lasts forever in its original form. At some point, a stadium must be remodeled or replaced to meet the needs of current consumers or fans may shy away from attending games. New stadiums can help grow attendance, diversify the fan base, and develop new revenue streams to help teams compete financially in Major League Baseball. While, new stadiums represent new branding opportunities, they also offer teams the opportunity to reach new audiences with improved and updated amenities. These benefits likely translate to greater financial outcomes for the team, however the financial debate is complicated affecting many stakeholders. While team owners may be obvious benefactors, the financial incentives offered by local governing bodies reflect a mutual perceived benefit from the broader tax-paying community.

As noted above, the introduction of a new stadium tends to trigger a large increase in first year attendance (over 29%) and while that figure tends to decline over time, the net result is that total attendance tends to stay higher than it would have been in the absence of new stadium construction for the next 20 years. This suggests local governments should be willing to consider some level of public financing for stadium construction for a minimum of 20 years, and possibly longer.

For teams that played in the 1980 MLB season, 6 teams continue to play in their original (albeit updated) stadiums: Boston Red Sox; Chicago Cubs; Kansas City Royals; Los Angeles Angels; Los Angeles Dodgers; and Oakland Athletics. Sixteen MLB teams have occupied 2 stadiums over this period while 3 teams have played in 3 different home stadiums over this 40+ year period. One team (the Montreal Expos) relocated to Washington, DC.

At the time of this writing, 3 new MLB ballparks have been projected including the Oakland A’s new park in Las Vegas with an estimated price tag of $1.75 billion as well as new parks in Tampa Bay and Kansas City. Meanwhile, the Chicago White Sox are exploring new park opportunities (9, 12). Beyond Major League Baseball, new stadium construction is viewed as an integral part of any team brand and fan-base strategy. At least five new Minor League Baseball parks have been built since 2020 including: Beloit Sky Carp’s ABC Supply Stadium; Kannapolis Cannon Ballers’ Atrium Health Ballpark; Worcester Red Sox’ Polar Park; Rocket City Trash Pandas’ Toyota Field; and the Wichita Wind Surge’s Riverfront Stadium (23, 25). It will be interesting to see the impact of these new stadiums on fan attendance in their respective cities.

The issue of new stadium construction and/or the massive remodel of existing baseball stadiums is also taking place in NCAA Division I baseball. The Board of Regents of Georgia State University (located in downtown Atlanta) have approved the construction of a new downtown baseball stadium in the footprint of the old Atlanta-Fulton County Stadium. The new stadium will allow the team to play closer to campus than their current stadium which is located 12 miles from their center-city location (13). Old Dominion University will play its entire 2025 baseball season in away games and/or nearby minor league stadiums (as available) as it remodels its on-campus baseball stadium (24).

Over the last decade, many schools in the Southeastern Conference (such as the University of Florida, University of Kentucky, Mississippi State University, and the University of South Carolina) have greatly expanded, or even replaced, their college baseball stadiums. This wave of stadium updates is expected to continue and spread to other sports and facilities. These new stadiums may possibly extend the research on stadium novelty effects into college sports.

Sports fans have many options for their time, attention, and entertainment dollar. Teams cannot assume casual fans will continue to attend games just because it is part of the local culture. Increasingly demanding fans want an updated fan experience, even in historical stadiums like Wrigley Field in Chicago or Fenway Park in Boston. This study demonstrates that overall attendance goes up when new MLB stadiums are built. While this spiked year-one attendance may decline modestly each year, this ‘decline’ is from an elevated number of fans due to the introduction of new stadium in prior years. So, in an interesting way, the ‘bonus attendance’ of the new stadium provides the cushion (or pays for) the modest reductions in attendance over time. Then, at some point in the future, the team may begin discussions of replacing their now 30-year-old stadium (again).

CONCLUDING REMARKS

When baseball fans wax poetically about their memories of MLB games from their childhoods, these descriptions are not limited to their favorite players. Embedded in these memories are the sights-and-sounds of the stadium, such as the glow of the lights for a night game, the call of the popcorn vendors, or the smell of a hot dog cooking on the grill. Enhancing the in-stadium fan experience is an integral part of success in the sports industry of today.

As noted earlier, 3 MLB teams have played in 3 different home stadiums over the timeframe of this study:

Atlanta Braves: Atlanta-Fulton County Stadium to Turner Field to the current Truist Park.

Minnesota Twins: Metropolitan Stadium to the Hubert Humphry Metrodome to the current Target Field.

Texas Rangers: Arlington Stadium to The Ballpark at Arlington to the current Globe Life Field.

It will be interesting to see the lifespan of these newer stadiums. When Atlanta-Fulton County Stadium, Metropolitan Stadium and Arlington Stadium were all originally constructed, no one could dream of the day when these shining new stadiums would be replaced. Living decades in the future, we know ‘the rest of the story.’ These stadiums have been replaced … and their replacement stadiums have been replaced. The long-term cycle continues.