Latest Articles

Effects of Three Modified Plyometric Depth Jumps and Periodized Weight Training on Lower Extremity Power

U.S. Sports Academy2013-11-25T19:27:24-06:00January 8th, 2010|Sports Coaching, Sports Exercise Science, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|

Abstract

Plyometric exercises increase muscular power and are most effective when designed to complement the specific movements required of the athletic activity. This study compared the effects of modified depth jump plyometric exercises versus a periodized weight training program on the following functional tests: one-legged vertical jump, two-legged vertical jump, 30-meter sprint, standing broad jump, and 1 RM of the seated single leg press. Sixty-four untrained participants (18-28yr) were randomly assigned to one of the following groups: hip depth jump (n = 12), knee depth jump (n = 13), ankle depth jump (n = 13), weight training (n = 13), or a control (n = 13). Experimental groups trained two days a week for 12 weeks. Statistically significant improvements were observed among the plyometric groups for functional tests of power and the weight training group for functional tests of strength and speed. Results indicate that modified plyometric depth jumps offer a greater degree of specificity related to power training in athletes.

Key Words

Hip depth jump, knee depth jump, ankle depth jump, muscle power, resistance training, plyometrics

Introduction

The term “plyometrics” refers to specific exercises which encompass a rapid stretching of muscle that is undergoing eccentric stress followed by a concentric, rapid contraction of that muscle for the purpose of developing a forceful movement over a short period of time (Chu, 1983). One particular plyometric activity, the depth jump, has been shown to improve power in the vertical jump (Batholemew, 1985; Miller, 1982; Parcells, 1977; Verkhoshanski & Tatyan, 1983). Depth jumps are a type of dynamic exercise where an individual steps off a box 20 to 80 centimeters in height, lands, and performs an explosive vertical jump (Wilson, Murphy, & Giorgi, 1996). The depth jump is thought to enhance vertical jump performance through the quickening of the amortization phase, which is the electromechanical delay from the initiation of eccentric to the initiation of concentric muscle actions of the movement (Steben & Steben, 1981).

Plyometric depth jumps have been modified to generate greater stresses at the joints of the hip, knee, and ankle (Holcomb, Lander, Rutland, & Wilson, 1996a). These variations were identified as the hip depth jump (HDJ), knee depth jump (KDJ), and ankle depth jump (ADJ). Each variation included modifications to the range of motion of the joint being emphasized during the eccentric portion of the depth jump. The HDJ, KDJ, and ADJ are thought to increase the workload, and thus power, at the particular joint for which they are named. The need for such a modification stemmed from biomechanical analysis of both the vertical and depth jumps. In biomechanical analysis of the vertical jump, the hip was found to contribute 23-39% of the total work done during the vertical jump (Bobbert, Huijing, & Van Ingen Schenaue, 1987; Bobbert, MacKay, Schinkelshoek, Huijing, & Van Ingen Schenaue, 1986; Hubley & Wells, 1983; Van Soest, Roebroeck, Bobbert, Huijing, & Van Ingen Schenaue, 1985). However, two analyses of the depth jump revealed the hip contribution to be only 19% and 13% respectively (Bobbert et al., 1986, 1987). Consequently, the traditional plyometric depth jump does not stress the hip joint to the extent that it is used during the vertical jump, the functional task it was originally designed to enhance.

Biomechanical analysis of the modified plyometric depth jumps was also performed to analyze joint contribution through total work done at each joint (Holcomb et al., 1996a). Total work at the hip, knee, and ankle joints was 80%, 5%, and 15%, respectively, during the HDJ. Analysis of the KDJ revealed contributions of 37% at the hip joint, 49% at the knee joint, and 14% at the ankle joint. The joint contributions during the ADJ were reported to be 24%, 20%, and 56% at the hip, knee, and ankle joints, respectively. Therefore, each depth jump primarily stressed the particular joint for which it was named.

The effectiveness of training programs is routinely measured via functional test performance. Functional tests usually contain a series of movements that have high correlations with athletic activity and are used for research, evaluation, and rehabilitation purposes. Biomechanical analyses of functional tests can reveal percent joint contributions to the activity. Table 1 contains the percent joint contributions of modified plyometric depth jumps and selected functional tests for this study. Although specific joint contributions have not been calculated for the 30-meter sprint or seated single leg press, some research has examined the power output of these functional tests. Researchers have identified the hip to be a dominant force producer in sprints of short duration (Mero & Komi, 1990; Mero ,Komi, & Gregor, 1992; Mero & Peltola, 1989). Wilk et al. (1996) examined the electromyographic activity of the quadriceps and hamstring muscles during a two-legged seated leg press and found a high degree of quadriceps activity, suggesting significant power contributions from the knee joint. When compared to the squat, the seated leg press allows for smaller compressive forces to the tibiofemoral joint (Escamilla et al., 1998), making the activity an ideal accommodation for untrained participants.

Table 1
Percent joint power contribution of modified plyometric depth jumps and functional tests

Holcomb Lander, Rutland, and Wilson (1996b) continued their research with a progressive resistance eight week training study comparing the modified plyometric depth jumps to other methods that have shown to significantly increase vertical jump height, including conventional plyometric depth jumps (Adams, O’Shea, O’Shea, & Climstein, M, 1992;, Blattner & Noble, 1979; Brown, Mayhew, & Boleach, 1986; Gehri, Ricard, Kleiner, & Kirkendall, 1998; Hewett, Stroupe, Nance, & Noyes, 1996; Huber, 1987; Polhemus & Burkhardt, 1980; Verkhoshanski & Tatyan, 1983; Wilson et al., 1996), countermovement jumps (Clutch, Wilton, McGown, & Bryce, 1983; Gehri et al., 1998), and weight training (Baker, Wilson, & Carlyon, 1994; Blaket, 1985; Ford et al., 1983; Stowers et al., 1983). The researchers chose to combine all three of the modified depth jumps into the training schedule of one group (Mod. Plyo) and compared that group to a traditional depth jump group (Plyo), a countermovement jump group (CMJ), a weight training group (WT), and a control group (CON). The weight training group performed four lower extremity exercises with progressive resistance including standing plantar flexion, knee extension, knee flexion, and leg press, while the control group did not train. The 51 college age male participants in the study trained three times per week for eight weeks. The exercise volume was controlled so that each group performed an identical number of repetitions, whether it involved lifting weights or jumping.

The results showed non-significant improvement for all groups during the static jump. All training groups improved performance in the countermovement jump (CMJ improved 4.0%; WT improved 4.7%; Plyo improved 6.5%; Mod. Plyo improved 4.5%), but the CON group performance decreased 3.2%. The traditional plyometric group differed significantly from the control group (9.7% difference). The lack of significant improvement of the Mod. Plyo group was attributed to a possible negative impact on the learning of the proper technique required for a successful jump due to altered range of motion of the plyometric depth jumps. We suggested that future research incorporate a longer period of training to assure a higher training effect.

Weight training has been shown to enhance power primarily through gains in peak force of the muscle rather than rate of force development (Hakkinen, Allen, & Komi, 1985a). Plyometric training of the lower extremity has been demonstrated to promote power primarily through increased rate of force development rather than increased peak force of the muscle (Bobbert, 1990; Hakkinen, Komi, & Allen, 1985b, Lundin, 1985). A positive relationship has been established between plyometric training and improvement in several functional tests of the lower extremity in addition to the vertical jump (Lyttle, Wilson, & Ostrowski, 1996; Wilson, Newton, Murphy, & Humphries, 1993). However, recent developments in modified plyometric depth jumps show promise of increased specificity for power training of the lower extremity (Holcomb et al., 1996a, 1996b). According to the principle of specificity (Wilmore & Costill, 1994), one should expect that a training program designed to stress the specific physiological systems required for the output activity would result in optimal performance. Holcomb et al. (1996b) grouped all of the modified plyometric depth jumps into one training program, which eliminated the possibility to determine the specific effects of each modified plyometric depth jump. Therefore, the purpose of this research was to assess the effects of three types of plyometric depth jumps and weight training on the (a) one-legged vertical jump with a countermovement, (b) two-legged vertical jump with a countermovement, (c) 30-meter sprint, (d) standing broad jump with a countermovement, and (e) 1 RM of the seated single leg press following a 12-week training program. The separation of the three modified plyometric depth jumps into distinct groups along with the addition of other functional tests for the lower extremity should show the increased training specificity of the modified plyometric depth jumps.

Hypothesis

Based on the biomechanical data concerning joint contributions in Table 1, the researchers formulated the following hypotheses:

• H1: Participants who trained using the hip depth jump will significantly improve their 30-meter sprint times versus the participants who train using the knee and ankle depth jumps, weight training, and the control group.
• H2: Participants who trained using the knee depth jump will significantly improve their two-legged vertical jump heights versus the participants who train using the hip and ankle depth jumps, weight training, and the control group.
• H3: Participants who trained using the ankle depth jump will significantly improve their one-legged vertical jump heights and standing broad jump distances versus the participants who train using the hip and knew depth jumps, weight training, and the control group.
• H4: Participants who weight trained the lower extremity will significantly improve their 1RM of the seated single leg press versus the participants who train using the hip, knee, and ankle depth jumps, and the control group.

Methods

Participants

Sixty-four recreationally active college-aged individuals volunteered for this study (Table 2). The participants did not perform either plyometric or weight training of their lower extremity for a period of at least six months prior to the study. After approval by the University’s IRB, all participants signed an informed consent.

Table 2
Descriptive group data

a) HDJ = hip depth jump, KDJ = knee depth jump, ADJ = ankle depth jump, WT = weight training, CON = control;
b) M = male, F = female

Participants were randomly assigned to one of five groups: hip depth jump, knee depth jump, ankle depth jump, weight training, or a control group that did not train.

Depth Jump Protocol

Three plyometric depth jump groups performed only the specific exercise for which their group was named. The exercises were performed as described by Holcomb et al. (1996b). For the hip depth jump, the subject began to flex the trunk during the fall from the box so that the trunk was flexed to 45° upon landing and continued to flex the trunk until the trunk was parallel to the ground. In the knee depth jump, the subject landed fairly erect, and flexed to beyond 90° at the knee, all while keeping the trunk erect. During the ankle depth jump, the subject remained as erect as possible when landing except for slight flexion at the knee. For all three jump groups, the participants jumped vertically with maximum effort as quickly as possible after landing.

All three depth jump groups performed an identical training protocol that included seven sets of 12 repetitions, which resulted in a total of 2016 repetitions for the 24 training sessions. Each jump set was followed by a period of rest from three to four minutes. Training intensity, defined as initial height of the depth jump, began with a 15.24 cm (six inch) drop height and progressed an additional 15.24 cm every three weeks, ending with a 60.96 cm (24 inch) drop height. The modified plyometric training groups were monitored by a researcher for correct jump form to ensure proper joint stress.

Weight Training Protocol

The weight training group’s exercises included the seated single leg press, standing calf raise, and knee extension and flexion for each leg. The weight training program was designed to first develop muscle strength with progression to workouts that emphasized muscle power. This periodized approach consisted of four phases with each phase lasting three weeks. The first phase involved three sets of ten repetitions of the subject’s ten repetition maximum for each exercise. The second phase included three sets of eight repetitions of the subject’s eight repetition maximum for each exercise. The third phase involved three sets of six repetitions of the subject’s six repetition maximum for each exercise. Finally, the fourth phase included three sets of four repetitions of the subject’s four repetition maximum for each exercise. The subject’s one repetition maximum for each exercise was measured prior to each phase, and a chart that estimates weight for designated multiple repetitions based on the one repetition maximum was used as a guide for training weight selection (Fleck & Kraemer, 1987). The weight training group completed a total of 2016 repetitions at the conclusion of the 24 workout sessions. The weight training protocol was more periodized than that of the modified plyometric depth jump groups because both repetitions and intensity were manipulated for the weight training group, whereas only intensity was manipulated for the modified plyometric depth jump groups.

Testing Protocol

Both the two-legged and one-legged vertical jumps were performed with a countermovement, with the subject’s dominant leg used for one-legged jumping. Testing procedures included having the subject standing flat-footed and erect facing a marked wall while extending the dominant arm. The highest height at which the fingers touched the wall was recorded. The subject then jumped vertically with maximum effort. The Vertec jump training system (Sports Imports, Inc., Columbus, Ohio) was used for data collection, and the best of three trials was recorded. The total vertical jump score was calculated in centimeters as the standing height score from the marked wall subtracted from the jumping height score of the Vertec. The vertical jump results along with the subject’s weight were used as variables in an equation to convert the data into Watts, a true measure of power that allows a fair comparison between participants (Sayers, Harackiewicw, Harman, Frykman, & Rosenstein, 1999). The Sayers formula (Sayers et al., 1999) is as follows: Peak Power (W) = 60.7 × [jump height (cm)] + 45.3 × [body mass (kg)] – 2055.

The standing broad jump was performed by jumping horizontally from a starting line with a countermovement. The participants began in a standing position with both feet firmly positioned on the ground. The participants jumped horizontally with maximum effort landing on both feet, and the distance covered from the heel of the foot closest to the back of the starting line was measured. The best of three trials was recorded in centimeters.

The 30m sprint was performed by running a distance of 30 meters from a stationary position as quickly as possible. The participants began in a crouched sprinter’s position without blocks and were timed using a Solo time 450 electronic timing system with a hand pad (Solo Time, Denver, Colorado). The hand pad was placed on the starting line and was contacted by the subject’s hand after an acceptable starting position was obtained. The use of this device allowed the subject to begin the sprint at his or her own command by releasing the hand from the hand pad with the initiation of the sprint. When pressure to the hand pad was released, the electronic timing device was activated until the subject crossed an electric beam at the finish line. The participants performed three sprint trials and were allowed three minutes rest between each trial. The best of three trials for the time (seconds) it took the subject to travel 30 meters was recorded.

The dominant and non-dominant leg press was performed using a Paramount leg press machine (Paramount Fitness Equipment Co., Los Angeles, California). The participants were placed in a seated position with approximately 90° of knee flexion and instructed to lift the maximum amount of weight possible using only a single leg against the weight plate. The one repetition maximum mass for the dominant and non-dominant legs was recorded in kilograms along with the subject’s seat position data to ensure identical seat position from the pre to post test.

Data Analysis

Paired sample T-tests were used to analyze the difference between pre and post-test scores. A One-Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was performed on the pre-test scores for all groups on all functional tests. Due to significant differences between groups in pre-test dominant leg press scores, Analysis of Co-variance (ANCOVA) was used for subsequent analysis of functional test data. Significant findings from ANCOVA prompted Bonferroni adjusted independent sample T-tests for post hoc analysis. These T-tests compared the group hypothesized to excel in that particular functional test to the other groups. All tests were performed at the 0.05 alpha level of significance.

Results

Percent change from pre- to post-testing for all functional tests are presented in Table 3.

30 Meter Sprint

For the 30m sprint, only the weight training group lowered their times significantly (t = 2.226, df = 1, 12; p = .046) from pre to post-test, but the group’s improvement was not found to be significantly better than any other group (F = 1.181, df = 4, 63; p = .165).

Leg Press

Significant improvements were noted for the HDJ (t = -8.130, df = 1, 11; p < .001), KDJ (t = -8.849, df = 1, 12; p < .001), ADJ (t = -4.054, df = 1, 12; p = .002), and WT (t = -9.142, df = 1, 12; p < .001) groups for the dominant leg press. The WT group recorded the most improvement and was found to be statistically greater than the ADJ (t = 1.917, df = 1, 12; p = .035) and CON (t = 6.073, df = 1, 12; p < .001) groups.

Similar results were obtained for the non-dominant leg press. Significant improvements were gained by the HDJ (t = -6.607, df = 1, 11; p < .001), KDJ (t = -8.973, df = 1, 12; p < .001), ADJ (t = -4.068, df = 1, 12; p = .002), and WT (-8.652, df = 1, 12; p < .001) groups. Even though the WT group improved the most, it was statistically superior to only the CON (t = 3.959, df = 1, 12; p < .001) group.

Standing Broad Jump

Significant improvements for the HDJ (t = -2.687, df = 1, 11; p = .021), KDJ (t = -4.466, df = 1, 12; p < .001), and ADJ (t = -6.287, df = 1, 12; p < .001) groups were observed for the standing broad jump. The ADJ group recorded the greatest improvement but was not found to be statistically greater than any other group (F = 1.386, df = 4, 63; p = .125).

Vertical Jump

For the one-legged vertical jump, significant improvements were recorded for the KDJ (t = -4.335, df = 1, 12; p < .001), ADJ (t = -2.981, df = 1, 12; p = .011), and CON (t = -2.920, df = 1, 12; p = .013) groups. Even though the KDJ group improved the greatest, it was not statistically superior to any other group (F = 1.537, df = 4, 63; p = .102).

In the two-legged vertical jump, the results showed significant improvements for the KDJ (t = -3.721, df = 1, 12; p = .003), ADJ (t = -3.865, df = 1, 12; p = .002), and CON (t = -2.792, df = 1, 12; p = .016) groups. The ADJ group showed the most improvement and was found to be statistically superior only to the WT (t = 2.380, df = 1, 12; p = .014) group.

Discussion

The influence of the principle of specificity of exercise (Wilmore & Costill, 1994) was evident when examining the results of this study. In general, the modified plyometric depth jump groups excelled in functional tests of power, while the periodized WT group performed better in functional tests of speed and strength. However, not all testing outcomes occurred as expected.

The WT group showed the greatest increases in dominant and non-dominant leg press strength. In regards to the principle of specificity of exercise, this outcome was expected since the WT group incorporated dominant and non-dominant leg press exercises in their training protocol. In addition, significant increases in leg strength were also gained by the HDJ, KDJ, and ADJ groups. Previous plyometric training studies (Adams, 1984; 14, 34) have reported gains in leg strength (12.7 to 23.8%), but not to the magnitude shown by the modified plyometric depth jump groups (29.1 to 48.4%) with this study. Chu (NSCA, 1986) describes plyometric depth jumping as an activity that acts to increase the neuromuscular system’s ability to perform concentric contraction more effectively because the forces encountered in plyometric exercises lead to greater synchronous activity of motor units and earlier recruitment of larger motor units via the myotatic reflex. Therefore, the significant increases in leg strength experienced by the modified plyometric depth jump groups may be in response to an enhanced neuromuscular system.

A review of the biomechanical aspects of lower extremity functional tests revealed the contributions of each joint to the performance of a particular functional test. Muscle activation patterns involving EMG analysis of sprint running during its initial phases show maximal power output occurring at the hip joint (Mero & Komi, 1990). Although sprinting primarily measures speed, a short distance was chosen to maximize analysis of acceleration time, thereby increasing the measurement of power. Therefore, those training for power at the hip joint should have a physiological advantage when performing a short sprint. However, only the periodized WT group improved significantly from pre to post-testing. The possible explanations for this finding include the sprinting distance, which may have been too short to emphasize power production, and the use of untrained participants, who may have had low levels of muscle strength before training.

A study concerning the kinetics of broad jumping reported the joint power contributions of the hip, knee, and ankle joints to be 45.9%, 3.9%, and 50.2%, respectively (Robertson & Fleming, 1987). The ADJ group recorded the greatest gains as expected, but the HDJ and KDJ groups also attained significant improvements. Perhaps the general gains in lower extremity power by the modified plyometric depth jump groups enabled significant improvements in broad jumping distances.

Van Soest, Roebroeck, Bobbert, Huijing, and Van Ingen Schenau (1985) reported the joint power contributions of the hip, knee, and ankle joints during the one-legged vertical jump to be 34.4%, 23.9%, and 41.7%, respectively. The greatest gains in the one-legged vertical jump were experienced by the KDJ group, but significant improvements were also recorded for the ADJ and CON groups. The CON group also achieved significance despite showing the lowest percentage of height gain of all groups. The dominance of the KDJ group in this functional test was unexpected due to its reported low involvement in the activity when compared to the other joints of the lower extremity (Van Soest et al., 1985). Perhaps the knee joint is more important to power production during the one-legged vertical jump than previously reported.

Biomechanical analysis of the two-legged vertical jump showed the joint contributions for the hip, knee, and ankle joints to range from 28 to 57%, 23 to 49%, and 20 to 35.8%, respectively (Holcomb et al., 1996a; Hubley & Wells, 1983; Robertson & Fleming, 1987; Van Soest et al., 1985). The ADJ group improved most from pre to post-test, but significant results were also recorded for the KDJ and CON groups. Although the CON group agreed not to undertake any additional training outside of their normal daily activities, perhaps the normal activities of the physical education students selected for the control group influenced their performance on the functional tests. However, this possibility is merely speculation as an exit interview was not conducted due to time constraints.

An equalization of training volume was attempted between groups in this study through equating total training repetitions. Future training studies involving modified plyometric depth jumps should examine variables such as length of training period, participants’ prior training status, and training volume and intensity. Limited research has compared the training stimuli of depth jumping versus weight lifting in regards to the magnitude of stimulus provided by each respective training repetition. Perhaps lifting a particular weight produces a greater stimulus to the muscle than depth jumping from a particular height, or vice versa.

Furthermore, the exercise performed by the WT group emphasized involvement of the entire lower extremity, while the modified plyometric depth jumps primarily stressed one particular joint and muscle group. Perhaps a fairer comparison could be made if the weight training exercises were designed to be joint specific and then compared to the respective modified plyometric depth jump. The inclusion of weight training with the plyometric exercise, which has been reported to produce a synergistic training effect in traditional plyometric activities (Lyttle et al., 1996), could also be examined.

In summary, the effectiveness of four training methods constructed for their potential improvement of strength, speed, and power among untrained participants was examined in this study. Generally, functional tests requiring power were dominated by the modified plyometric training groups while the periodized weight training group prevailed on tests emphasizing strength and speed. The strength and conditioning professional can apply these results to better create training programs for athletes desiring strength, speed, and power of the lower extremity.

About the Authors

Damon P.S. Andrew is the Dean of Health and Human Services at Troy University in Troy, Alabama. John E. Kovaleski and Robert J. Heitman are from the Department of Health, Physical Education and Leisure Studies at the University of South Alabama in Mobile, Alabama. Tracey L. Robinson is from the Department of Human Performance and Physical Education at Adams State College in Alamosa, Colorado.

Corresponding author:

Damon P. S. Andrew, Ph.D.
Dean, College of Health and Human Services
Troy University

153 Collegeview
Troy, AL 36082
Office: 334-670-3712
Fax: 334-670-3743
dandrew@troy.edu

Adams, K., O’Shea, J., O’Shea, K., & Climstein, M. (1992). The effect of six weeks of squat, plyometric, and squat-plyometric training on power production. Journal of Applied Sports Science Research, 6, 36-41.

Adams, T. (1984). An investigation of selected plyometric training exercises on muscular leg strength and power. Track and Field Quarterly Review, 84(4), 36-40.

Baker, D., Wilson, G. & Carlyon, R. (1994). Periodization: The effect on strength of manipulating volume and intensity. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 8, 235-242.

Bartholemew, S. (1985). Plyometrics and vertical jump training. Unpublished master’s thesis. University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill.

Blakey, J. (1985). The combined effects of weight training and plyometrics on dynamic leg strength and power. National Strength and Conditioning Association Journal, 1, 60.

Blattner, S., & Noble, L. (1979). Relative effects of isokinetic and plyometric training on vertical jumping performance. Research Quarterly, 50, 583-588.

Bobbert, M. (1990). Drop jumping as a training method for jumping ability. Sports Medicine. 9, 7-22.

Bobbert, M., Huijing, P., & Van Ingen Schenaue, G. (1987). Drop jumping II: The influence of dropping height on the biomechanics of drop jumping. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 19, 339-346.

Bobbert, M., Mackay, M., Schinkelshoek, D., Huijing, P., & G. Van Ingen Schenaue, G. (1986). Biomechanical analysis of drop and countermovement jumps. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 54, 566-573.

Brown, M., Mayhew, J., & Boleach, L. (1986). The effect of plyometric training on the vertical jump performance in high school basketball players. Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 26, 1-4.

Chu, D. (1983). Plyometrics: The link between strength and speed. National Strength Coaches Association Journal, 5, 20-21.

Clutch, D., Wilton, M., McGown, C., & Bryce, G. (1983). The effects of depth jumps and weight training on leg strength and vertical jump. Research Quarterly in Exercise and Sport, 54, 5-15.

Dursenev, L., & Raevsky, L. (1982). Strength training of jumpers. Soviet Sports Review, 10, 53-55.

Escamilla, R., Fleisig, G., Zheng, N., Barrentine, S., Wilk, K., & Andrews, J. (1998). Biomechanics of the knee during closed kinetic chain and open kinetic chain exercises. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 30(4), 556-569.

Fleck, S., & Kraemer, W. (1987). Designing Resistance Training Programs. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Ford, H., Puckett, J., Drummond, J., Sawyer, K., Gantt, K., & Fussell, C. (1983). Effects of three combinations of plyometric and weight training programs on selected physical fitness test items. Perceptual Motor Skills, 56, 919-922.

Gehri, D., Ricard, M., Kleiner, D., & Kirkendall, D. (1998). A comparison of plyometric training techniques for improving vertical jump ability and energy production. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 12(2), 85-89.

Hakkinen, K., Allen, M., & Komi, P. (1985a). Changes in isometric force- and relaxation-time, electromyographic and muscle fibre characteristics of human skeletal muscle during strength training and detraining. Acta Physiologica Scandinavica, 125, 573-585.

Hakkinen, K., Komi, P., & Allen, M. (1985b). Effect of explosive type strength training on isometric force- and relaxation-time, electromyographic and muscle fibre characteristics of leg extensor muscles. Acta Physiologica Scandinavica, 125, 587-600.

Hewett, T., Stroupe, A., Nance, T., & Noyes, F. (1996). Plyometric training in female athletes: Decreased impact forces and increased hamstring torques. American Journal of Sports Medicine, 24, 765-773.

Holcomb, W., Lander, J., Rutland, R., & Wilson, G. (1996a). A biomechanical analysis of the vertical jump and three modified plyometric depth jumps. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 10, 83-88.

Holcomb, W., Lander, J., Rutland, R., & Wilson, G. (1996b). The effectiveness of a modified plyometric program on power and the vertical jump. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 10, 89-92.

Huber, J. (1987). Increasing a diver’s vertical jump through plyometric training. National Strength Coaches Association Journal, 9, 34-36.

Hubley, C., & Wells, R. (1983). A work-energy approach to determine individual joint contributions to vertical jump performance. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 50, 247-254.

Lundin, P. (1985). A review of plyometric training. National Strength Coaches Association Journal, 7, 69-74.

Lyttle, A., Wilson, G., & Ostrowski, K. (1996). Enhancing performance: Maximal power versus combined weights and plyometrics training. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 10, 173-179.

Mero, A., & Komi, P. (1990). Reaction time and electromyographic activity during a sprint start. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 61, 73-80.

Mero, A., Komi, P., & Gregor, R. (1992). Biomechanics of sprint running: A review. Sports Medicine, 13(6), 376-392.

Mero, A., & Peltola, E. (1989). Neural activation in fatigued and nonfatigued conditions of short and long sprint running. Biology of Sport, 6(1), 43-57.

Miller, B. (1982). The effect of plyometric training on the vertical jump performance of adult female subjects. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 16, 113.

NSCA (1986). Practical considerations for utilizing plyometrics. NSCA Journal, 8(3), 14-22.

Parcells, R. (1977). The effect of depth jumping and weight training on the vertical jump. Unpublished master’s thesis. Ithaca College.

Polhemus, R., & Burkhardt, E. (1980). The effects of plyometric training drills on the physical strength gains of collegiate football players. National Strength Coaches Association Journal, 2(1), 13-15.

Robertson, D., & Fleming, D. (1987). Kinetics of standing broad and vertical jumping. Canadian Journal of Sports Science, 12, 19-23.

Sayers, S., Harackiewicw, D., Harman, E., Frykman, P., & Rosenstein, M. (1999). Cross-validation of three jump power equations. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 31(4), 572-577.

Steben, R., & Steben, A. (1981). The validity of the stretch-shortening cycle in selected jumping events. Journal of Sports Medicine, 21, 28-37.

Stowers, T., McMillian, J., Scala, D., Davis, V., Wilson, D., & Stone, M. (1983). The short-term effects of three different strength-power training methods. National Strength and Conditioning Association Journal, 5, 24-27.

Van Soest, A., Roebroeck, M., Bobbert, M., Huijing, P., & Van Ingen Schenau, G. (1985). A comparison of one-legged and two-legged countermovement jumps. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 17, 635-639.

Verkhoshanski, Y., & Tatyan, V. (1983). Speed-strength preparation of future champions. Soviet Sports Review, 18, 166-170.

Wilk, K., R. Escamilla, R., Fleisig, G., Barrentine, S., Andrews, J., & Boyd, M. (1996). A comparison of tibiofemoral joint forces and electromyographic activity during open and closed kinetic chain exercises. American Journal of Sports Medicine, 24(4), 518-527.

Wilmore, J., & Costill, D. (1994). Physiology of Sport and Exercise. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Wilson, G., Newton, R., Murphy, A., & Humphries, B. (1993). The optimal training load for the development of dynamic athletic performance. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 25, 1279-1286.

Wilson, G., Murphy, A., & Giorgi, A. (1996). Weight and plyometric training: Effects on eccentric and concentric force production. Canadian Journal of Applied Physiology, 21, 301-315.

Economic Impact of Equestrians on Aiken, South Carolina

U.S. Sports Academy2016-10-12T15:01:23-05:00January 8th, 2010|Sports Facilities, Sports Management, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|

Abstract

The equestrians have played a critical role in the growth and development of the Aiken County economy. The equestrian activities in Aiken, South Carolina, consist of many different events such as polo, horse racing, horse showing, carriage driving, and fox hunting, to name a few. The input-output analysis of the Aiken equestrian industry reveals that its operations have a substantial impact on output, jobs, and income in Aiken County. Like any other industry, the equestrian industry makes a variety of input purchases that translate into flow of funds throughout the local economy. The indirect and induced effects of the equestrian industry work through numerous other sectors within the local economy and contribute to Aiken County’s economic growth and development.

Introduction

The equestrians have played a critical role in the growth and development of the Aiken County economy. Besides the local economy, the equestrian migration from the north effected Aiken’s culture and businesses. Just like any other equestrian group, the Aiken equestrians are fragmented with numerous groups, associations, and stakeholders. All of them have different interests and goals. The goal of this paper is to define the Aiken County equestrian industry and to define its economic impact on Aiken County’s economy. In order to determine the nature and scope of the local equestrian industry, an equestrian survey was designed and conducted. The survey was aimed at the equestrian enthusiasts who live and work in Aiken and Aiken County. The data obtained from this survey was utilized to provide descriptive and normative analysis of the equestrian industry and its economic profile and impact.

Equestrian Activities in Aiken County

The equestrian population, activities, and events are constantly growing in Aiken, South Carolina. The equestrian activities consist of many different events such as polo, horse racing, horse showing, carriage driving, and fox hunting, to name a few. In order to define and analyze a complex sector such as the equestrian one, an equestrian survey was conducted. The purpose of this survey was to highlight a set of equine-related activities that are present in Aiken. The survey was distributed to randomly selected individuals considered to be horse owners and/or enthusiasts. An electronic version of the survey was sent to several different equestrian associations with an appeal to share the survey with their members. Furthermore, hard copies of the survey were placed at different locations in Aiken and 20% of the participants returned their responses. The survey had eight sections with questions related to equine activities, inventory, labor and capital expenses, equine expenses, gross receipts, tourism related activities, and general information.

The first survey question asked participants to define their equestrian activities in the past 12 months while specifically determining the number of days spent in Aiken versus the number of days spent in other counties in South Carolina and elsewhere. Figure 1 illustrates participants’ responses to the first question. The obtained data suggests that a majority of the equestrian activities are pleasure related (48%), followed by competition (21%), breeding (18%), and racing (13%). Individuals whose equestrian activities consist of pleasure riding and breeding spend more than 50% of their time in Aiken, while racing and competition account for one-third of responders’ time spent in Aiken. Responses indicate that the states of Pennsylvania, Delaware, and Wyoming are “other locations” where “local” equestrian enthusiasts spend their time.

When asked to define more specific activities within major categories, 17% and 21% of participants report that they enjoy fox hunting and polo, respectively. According to the survey results, the polo activists spend more than 55% of their time in Aiken, versus 45% for fox hunting enthusiasts. Fourteen percent of the survey participants indicate that trial riding (both English and Western) is their preferred equestrian activity in Aiken. These particular equestrian individuals spend about 30% of their time in Aiken and the other 70% outside of South Carolina. Eight percent of the participants report dressage as their main equestrian activity with 44% of their time spent in Aiken. Five percent consider driving as their leading discipline with 35% of their time in Aiken and 65% outside of South Carolina. Nineteen percent of the respondents are jumper and/or hunter enthusiasts with 47% of their time spent in Aiken. Four percent of participants select lessons, training, and fundraising as their dominant equestrian activity with 43% of their time spent in Aiken. Figure 2 illustrates different types of equestrian activities conducted in Aiken.

Horse Population in Aiken County

To address the equine inventory in Aiken, the second survey question asked participants to identify the equine breed they own or board. According to the data, the estimated total equine inventory in Aiken County tops 6,785 horses. As indicated by Figure 3, the most dominant breed is still Thoroughbred (32%) followed by Quarter Horse (22%), Warm Blood (9%), Ponies (9%), Tennessee Walker (6%), Pinto/Paint (6%), Miniature (5%), Mules and Donkeys (4%), Draft Horses (2%), and several other breeds (5%).

The obtained data was used to estimate the total and average value of equine inventory in Aiken County. Table 1 provides the estimated average value per breed for Aiken County. According to this data, the most valuable breed in Aiken is Warm Blood ($17,907.00) followed by Thoroughbred ($16,982.00). The survey showed the average equine value for all breeds is $5,002.00. The total estimated equine value for all breeds included in survey is $59,086,223. This somewhat higher total value of all horses in Aiken County is due to a high percentage of Thoroughbred horses present in the county and their respective high market value.

Table 1
Estimated Horse Value Per Breed

Equestrian Industry Capital Expenditures and Gross Receipts

The equestrian industry is very important to the local economy as it affects numerous and diverse activities such as agriculture, business, sport, entertainment, and recreation. The equestrian industry has introduced thousands of new people to the area in terms of owners, riders, trainers, etc. In order to determine the scope of the equestrian sector, the survey respondents were asked several questions about their capital expenditures and gross receipts. The participants were asked to list their annual capital related costs for the following categories: new equine purchases, new building and equipment investment, building and equipment depreciation, fencing investment, and interest on investment. The largest capital expenditure were new building and equipment investments (56%) followed by the new equine purchases (36%). Figure 4 illustrates capital related spending for the year 2007.

In addition to this, the respondents were asked to list the value of their personal property, business property, land, and any other category they relate to their equestrian activities. The responses indicate that business property (e.g. farm, barn) are the most valuable properties in this category (49%) followed by personal property (39%), and land (11%). Figure 5 illustrates these responses.

When asked about the taxes they pay to state and local government, the respondents indicate that the taxes paid to state government account for 46% of their total tax burden, followed by Aiken County taxes (32%), and Aiken City taxes (19%). The government permits, licenses, and/or contracts account for 3% of total tax spending of the Aiken equestrian industry.

Employment and Labor Earnings

The equestrian industry has its effect on the local labor market as well. Survey question # 3 asked respondents to report the number of full-time, part-time, and seasonal workers they employed for the past 12 months. Besides these three labor categories, two other categories – family members and others – were also choices for respondents. According to the results obtained from the survey, far more full-time workers are employed by the Aiken equestrian industry than any other worker. Seasonal workers are the second largest labor category, followed by family members, part-time, and other workers. Not every survey participant provided employment and labor earning responses. The total number of all workers across survey respondents who answered these two questions was 751. Such a high number of workers clearly support the constant care and management which horses require. Figure 6 summarizes the responses regarding equine related labor. The respondents report 243 full-time, 106 part-time, and 200 seasonal workers employed by the Aiken equestrian industry. In addition, there are 163 family members who contribute to the local equestrian sector. Under the “other” category, respondents indicate 39 contract-workers were hired during the past 12 months. Question # 3 also asked respondents to indicate the total equine-related payroll expenses for the past 12 months. The total reported payroll in 2007 was $3,122,300.00. This indicates a relatively high level of compensation given the fact that almost 22% of equine related labor are family members and 41% are part-time and seasonal workers combined.

Tourism Related Activities and Benefits

Tourism activity generates a wide variety of benefits to the local economy such as tax revenues from travel-related expenditures and new employment opportunities. When tourists arrive in an area, they spend money on products and services acquired from the local business community. Businesses that benefit directly from tourism include lodging establishments, restaurants and bars, recreational facilities, amusement parks, gas/convenience stores, department stores, and sporting goods retailers. Over the past several decades, tourism in Aiken County has been steadily increasing and this growth can be related to the boom in the equestrian industry. The equestrian industry is bringing more and more people in for riding lessons, to watch the shows, to shop in the equine stores, to buy horses, and to attend polo and other equestrian events.

The survey of tourists was conducted during the spring time and that is when the Aiken equestrian community draws the most attention due to the Triple Crown events. A total of 96 surveys were filled-out and the data was analyzed to reveal some important characteristics of tourists visiting Aiken. Fifty percent of respondents had previously been to Aiken on more than one occasion. This indicates a high rate of return visitors with a majority of them stating that they repeat this visit at least 2-4 times. Generally, the people that responded with a higher number of return visits to Aiken also indicated a family and/or friend connection with Aiken or a horse association referral.

Figure 7 illustrates the results from the question that asked participants about the events that brought them to Aiken. The majority of respondents were either visiting family/friends (37%) or they were visiting a horse event (34%). For some of the respondents, these two categories were interchangeable. The other three “referral” categories for tourists to choose from were golf (11%), historical attractions (9%), and other (9%). The visitors who had family/friends and horse association connections also indicated that they did not need tour guide services while in Aiken. These respondents also characterized Aiken as “exciting for tourists” (67%). The remaining 33% stated that Aiken was not particularly exciting either because there is “no nightlife for single tourists” or there is very “limited activity for families.”

Economic Impact of the Equestrian Industry on Aiken County’s Economy

The equine related businesses bring over a billion dollars into the South Carolina economy and support suppliers throughout the state. These contributions are very important as industries such as tourism, marketing, and many others are impacted by the equestrian industry. This is important from the economic perspective as it is much easier to grow and maintain an existing, productive industry than to build a new one. Therefore, in this section the equestrian expenditures are reported as they serve as a main determinant of the size of this industry.

Table 2
Total Equestrian Related Expenditures in 2007

There are several main sources of equestrians’ expenditures in Aiken County. The equestrian survey asked participants to report their equestrian related expenditures for 2007. All together there were 32 expenditure categories which were combined into eight groups: boarding fees, equine purchases, stable lease payments, animal health, feed, grooming, fees, and maintenance. The total equestrian industry expenditures (without labor and capital costs) for 2007 were $14.17 million and are reported in Table 2.

As Table 2 and Figure 8 indicate, the equestrian expenditures were spread widely among the eight selected categories. The main expenditure categories reported by the participants were horse-related fees (21%), which include training, track, breeding, and show/tournament related fees. The second largest category was new equine purchases (18%). Grooming came in the third place (16%) and includes expenses such as farrier, clothing and other supplies (for both individuals and horses), grooming supplies, saddle & tack, advertisement, utilities, insurance, etc. The fourth largest category was animal health (15%), which included veterinarian fees, medicine, hospital-surgery/lab work, and other health related services. Boarding fees accounted for 10% of total equestrian expenditure while feed (feed, feed supplements, seeds, etc) and maintenance expenditures (fertilizers, building and equipment repair, fencing, etc) accounted for 9% and 7% respectively.

This study estimates an annual cost of $7,393.00 per horse, which amounts to $50.163 million in total spending produced by the equestrian sector. This immediate impact of the equestrian industry on Aiken County’s economy is a solid base for the County’s economic growth and development. However, in addition to the direct economic impact of the Aiken equestrian industry, there are additional indirect effects or so called “ripple” effects that get created by the initial equestrian spending. Numerous workers in Aiken County are employed by the local equestrian industry and those jobs provide workers with income which enables them to purchase goods and services from our local economy. These purchases are translated into additional economic impacts of the Aiken equestrian industry. These multiplied effects are explained and discussed in the following section.

Input-Output Analysis, Multiplier Effects & Economic Impact

It is important to measure the interrelationship of the equestrian industry with other industries in Aiken County. This study uses an economic input-output analysis in order to understand the inter-industry relationships between the Aiken equestrian industry and the local economy as well as the long-term impacts that result from equestrian businesses and activities. There are numerous economic models that can generate economic multipliers and estimate the long term benefits of an industry. However, this study uses the economic impact software program IMPLAN (IMpact Analysis for PLANning) to estimate the total economic contribution of the equestrian industry to the Aiken County economy. With this input-output model the purchases and sales of commodities between industries, businesses, and final consumers can be easily traced and analyzed. The input-output model uses the multiplier analysis to estimate the direct and indirect contribution of an industry. For example, total spending by the equestrian industry for labor, feed, veterinarian services, insurance, etc. create employment and income for businesses in those sectors. The output multiplier will measure the effect of a $1 change in an industry’s sales on the output of all other local industries.

The intention is to use the input-output model to estimate the “multiplier” portion of the equestrian industry’s impact on the Aiken County economy. However, the “equestrian industry” is not a well defined industry by the existing standard defined by the North American Industry Classification System (NAICS). In other words, while there are numerous other industries well defined by the United States Census Bureau and NAICS (e.g. farming, mining, manufacturing, trade, etc.), the equestrian activities are considered to be a part of the agricultural sector. Therefore, any spending regarding the equestrian sector (according to this definition) contribute to supporting the suppliers of the agricultural sector. However, the equestrian industry goes beyond the agricultural sector. Many race tracks and stables in Aiken County are not part of farm operations and not all horses are kept on farms. This makes it difficult to use a standard input-output model to estimate the economic impact of our local equestrian industry. Given the responses obtained from the equestrian and the tourist surveys, this study defines an equestrian industry as the one that reaches and affects numerous other industries and activities such as the agricultural sector, farm construction and maintenance, hunting, sporting goods, real estate, veterinary services, accounting and advertising services, hotels and other accommodations, and spectator sports. Based on the findings from the two surveys conducted, these 11 different industrial activities are closely related and affected by the Aiken equestrian industry. Therefore, when the economic impacts of the equestrian industry were estimated, a unique model that reflects diverse and multiple-industry related activities of the Aiken equestrian industry was created. All 11 above mentioned industries were combined and averaged out to obtain an economic impact that the equestrian industry has on our local economy.

The study estimates four different kinds of equestrian industry effects on our local economy:

1. Direct Effects are associated with the Aiken equestrian industry’s direct gross receipts.
2. Indirect Effects represent the relationship between different firms working through input purchases of goods and services.
3. Induced Effects are economic impacts that arise from spending of household income earned by workers employed by the Aiken equestrian industry.
4. Total Economic Impact of the Aiken equestrian industry is calculated as the sum of the direct, indirect, and induced effects of the Aiken equestrian industry.

The economic benefits gathered by the Aiken community are best measured in terms of the number of jobs created and the amount of personal income accruing to local residents. In the case of the equestrian industry, there are certain direct effects associated with the $50.163 million in total spending and estimated 1,329 full-time workers. The impacts of the equestrian industry on employment are given in Figure 9. As mentioned earlier, the Aiken equestrian industry itself accounts for 1,329 jobs. There are an additional 283 jobs due to indirect effects and 202 jobs due to induced effects. In total, 1,814 jobs in Aiken County can be attributed to the operations of the equestrian industry. The estimated 1,329 jobs translate into 1.7% of total jobs in Aiken County and this makes the equestrian sector an important local employer.

Furthermore, this study estimates the impact of the equestrian industry on the local household income. These estimates are given in Figure 10. There are $16.93 million in income effects that result directly from the local equestrian industry. In addition to this, there are indirect linkages that account for an additional $2.09 million, and the induced effects are another $217,513.00. In total, the impact of the Aiken equestrian industry on household income is estimated to be $19.25 million annually in 2007.

Finally, the economic impact of the Aiken equestrian industry can also be gauged by analyzing the effect of an average dollar in output on our local economy. In terms of the output multiplier of the equestrian industry, one dollar of spending by this industry leads to $1.65 of spending in the local economy. In other words, for every dollar of spending made by local equestrians, an additional 65 cents is generated for the Aiken County economy. Relative to other industries that dominate the Aiken economy, this multiplier is smaller than the ones produced by the manufacturing sector (2.05) or the construction sector (2.10). However, the equestrian multiplier is still larger than the FIRE multiplier of 1.51 (FIRE – Finance, Insurance, and Real Estate). Figure 5.4 illustrates direct, indirect, induced, and total output effects that the Aiken equestrian industry has on our local economy. The $50.16 million in direct gross receipts leads to an additional $11.76 million in indirect effects and an additional $9.89 million in induced effects for a total of $71.82 million.

Therefore, the key indicators of equestrian activities include total industry output, total income, and employment. Table 3 and Figure 12 summarize all the above mentioned effects of the equestrian industry on our local economy. The total estimated impacts of the Aiken equestrian industry are $71.81 million in gross output, 1,814 workers, and $19.25 million in labor earnings. The indirect effects are $11.76 in gross output, 283 workers, and $2.09 million in labor earnings, while the induced effects are $9.89 in gross output, 202 workers, and $217,513 in labor earnings.

Table 3

This input-output analysis of the Aiken equestrian industry reveals that its operations have a substantial impact on output, jobs, and income in Aiken County. Like any other industry, the equestrian industry makes a variety of input purchases that translate into flow of funds throughout the local economy. The indirect and induced effects of the equestrian industry work through numerous other sectors within the local economy and contribute to Aiken County’s economic growth and development.

Summary

The equestrian industry of Aiken provides many economic and cultural benefits to the people who live here. Aiken’s equine industry presents itself in many different ways starting from local business development to veterinarians, furriers, dentists, boarders, and other businesses closely related to horses. The current study estimates substantial benefits to the Aiken County economy through the creation of jobs, labor income, and output. Besides the economic benefits and contributions, the equine industry is very influential as it effects Aiken’s social, cultural, and financial environments. Given Aiken County’s strong reliance on industries susceptible to external factors – industries such as administrative and waste services, manufacturing, and construction – it is a recommendation of the current study to nurture the equestrian industry as an important economic cluster. The equestrian industry is an existing economic cluster of firms and institutions whose activities interconnect with the rest of the Aiken County economy. Nurturing the equestrian industry of Aiken should be the long-term goal. Industries such as tourism, accounting, marketing, and many others are impacted by continued growth of the Aiken equestrian industry.

References

South Carolina Department of Agriculture. (2008). South Carolina Market Bulletin. (Volume 83). Columbia, South Carolina: Author.

U.S. Bureau of Census. (2007), North American Industry Classification System. Washington, DC: Author.

Dr. Sanela Porca and Dr. J. Ralph Byington
School of Business Administration
University of South Carolina Aiken
Aiken, South Carolina 29801
803.641.3340

Do BCS Schools Have an Advantage over Non-BCS schools in APR Rankings? An Early Examination

U.S. Sports Academy2016-10-20T14:15:38-05:00October 5th, 2009|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Facilities, Sports Management|

Abstract

This paper will examine academics and athletics. In particular it will review the NCAA’s newest academic measuring tool, the Academic Progress Report. The APR was the NCAA’s response to calls for academic integrity. It is intended to ensure eligibility for student-athletes and to serve as a check and balance on athletic departments. The scores are meant to provide institutions with a clear set of goals for each team and to set a higher priority on academics in collegiate athletic departments. We will try and answer the question: Do BSC schools have an advantage over non-BCS schools in APR rankings?
(more…)

The Perceived Role of Senior Women Administrators in NCAA Division I Institutions

U.S. Sports Academy2016-10-20T14:25:43-05:00October 5th, 2009|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Coaching, Sports Management, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology, Women and Sports|

Abstract

The Senior Woman Administrator (SWA), originally named the Primary Woman Administrator (PWA), is a role designed to return to women a voice in the operations of intercollegiate athletic departments that was lost as a result of the takeover of the AIAW by the NCAA. The purpose of this study was to examine the role of the SWA as it exists today and as it could become in the future. The Senior Woman Administrator Survey was developed and administered to all NCAA Division I SWAs. Senior Woman Administrators overwhelmingly disagreed with the statement suggesting they have been given responsibilities that are appropriate for their job. Further, in order for SWAs to have authority that is more than advisory in nature, they must have final decision making authority in budget and personnel. Finally, SWAs indicated that their primary functions were advocating for women’s athletics, gender equity, and serving as a role model.

Introduction

Women’s intercollegiate athletics was built on the foundation of physical education programs for female students. Athletics for women was governed and administered by female physical education teachers and coaches. In the beginning, women’s athletics programs were operated with an educational philosophy emphasizing participation over competition. Demand began to rise for more competitive women’s athletics and a governing agency to ensure appropriate administration. This demand resulted in the creation of the Association for Intercollegiate Athletics for Women (AIAW). The AIAW began forming in the late 1960s, became fully functional in 1971, and was in control of women’s athletics by the summer of 1972 (Hult, 1994; Hult in Hult & Trekell, 1991).

The educational focus of the AIAW is well documented. The Association’s leadership was intent on maintaining a “student-centered, education-oriented model” (Hult in Hult & Trekell, 1991). The first significant attack on this unique model of intercollegiate athletics came with the Kellmeyer case in 1973. This class action lawsuit was filed by a group of tennis players and their coaches challenging the AIAW’s ban on offering athletic scholarships. The leadership within the AIAW reluctantly admitted defeat and permitted member institutions to provide athletic scholarships to female student-athletes. The Kellmeyer case is recognized as one of the Association’s first steps in moving away from its original focus on education and moving toward the more commercialized model of intercollegiate athletics used by the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) (Hult in Hult & Trekell, 1991; Wu, 1999, 2000).

Title IX of the Education Amendments, which passed in 1972 and banned discrimination at educational institutions that received federal funds, led to reforms that made athletic opportunities for male and female students more equitable. This new legislation brought explosive growth in participation by female athletes (Hult, 1994). Title IX introduced a new standard in that opportunities for female athletes were now being compared to opportunities for male athletes in terms of the quantity and quality of the opportunities. Women sought equitable participation opportunities as well as equitable support in scholarships, benefits, and services. As opportunities within women’s sports continued to increase, the governing body for men’s athletics, the NCAA, saw both an opportunity and a threat. An opportunity in that the NCAA anticipated that, with the implementation of Title IX, women’s athletics was going to be significantly funded, and thus, discussion began within the NCAA to include women within the organization (Hult in Hult & Trekell, 2001). A threat in that the NCAA was concerned that the resources needed to support women’s programs would be redirected from the men’s programs. In an attempt to manage both situations, the NCAA made plans to offer championships for women and to eventually take over the AIAW. In 1981, women’s basketball championships were offered for women by the AIAW, the NAIA, and the NCAA (Trekell & Hult, 1991). The NCAA takeover of the AIAW in 1982 eventually resulted in the consolidation of men’s and women’s intercollegiate athletic programs, which left many female administrators and coaches of women’s programs without jobs or in secondary positions (Hult, 1994). The most devastating aspect of the demise of the AIAW was that within the AIAW, women controlled 90 percent of the programs. Within the NCAA membership, women were part of an organization where 95 percent of the voting representatives were male and knew little if anything about the philosophies of the AIAW (Grant, 1989). According to Uhlir (1987) “by 1979-1980, over 80 percent of all collegiate athletic administrations were merged, and 90 percent of the merged administrations had men at the helm. Frequently, the woman displaced was more qualified—with more experience, a higher degree, academic rank, and tenure.” With the loss of jobs or the relegation to secondary positions, women lost decision-making opportunities at the campus level as well as representation at national conventions, and these opportunities have never been recovered (Acosta & Carpenter, 2002).

The role of Senior Woman Administrator (SWA), initially called the Primary Woman Administrator (PWA), was designed to return to women the administrative opportunities they had lost and to ensure that women had a voice in the administration of intercollegiate athletic programs (Hult, 1994; National Collegiate Athletic Association, 2002). Today, considerable effort is still aimed at understanding the role of SWA for those who are already in, or who aspire to fill, senior administrative roles in athletic programs because of the changes that have occurred since the AIAW-NCAA consolidation in 1982 (Copeland, 2005; Hosick, 2005). In order for SWAs to be effective administrators, their role must be clearly understood, and they must have adequate levels of influence on administrative strategies and courses of action within athletic departments not just on issues related to gender equity and women’s sports (Gill-Fisher, 1998; National Collegiate Athletic Association, 1994; Watson, 1994). When an SWA is excluded from discussions beyond gender equity, compliance, or academic advising, the role of the SWA is limited and the entire athletics department is deprived of the insight this person can provide to enhance the experiences of all.

Until the role of the SWA is clearly understood, both the SWA and her constituents will continue to be frustrated with the results of her leadership. Unless action is taken to remedy less than desirable situations, the results will have little impact (Watson, 1994). It is hoped that athletic administrators will utilize this study in examining the role of the SWA on their campuses and assist this person in contributing more fully to the overall administration of the athletic program, thus making the SWA a viable and integral member of the athletic department and campus leadership.

The purpose of this study is to examine the role of the Senior Woman Administrator as it currently exists and as it could become in the future in order to make recommendations for a more clearly understood and utilized role. In order to accomplish this, answers to the following research questions were sought: (1) Do SWAs perceive that they are being given appropriate responsibilities for their role? (2) Do SWAs perceive that they have decision-making power in budgeting? and (3) What is the SWA’s role in the advancement of women in athletics?

Method

Participants and Procedure

All NCAA Division I Senior Woman Administrators (SWA) were surveyed. Each member institution within the NCAA Division I is required to list a Senior Woman Administrator on the NCAA Institutional Representatives Form that is completed annually by the athletic department (D. Oberhelman, personal communication, July 2002). In addition to the SWA, each institution’s CEO (Chief Executive Officer), AD (Athletics Director), FAR (Faculty Athletic Representative), and Compliance Coordinator is listed on this form (D. Oberhelman, personal communication, July 2002). SWA addresses were obtained from The National Directory of College Athletics, an official publication of the National Association of Collegiate Directors of Athletics (National Association of Collegiate Directors of Athletics, 2002). Envelopes were addressed generically to the Senior Woman Administrator. Each NCAA Division I institution should have identified an SWA on their NCAA Institutional Representatives Form and, therefore, has already designated someone to receive mail addressed in this manner (D. Oberhelman, personal communication, July 2002). Survey packets were sent to all SWAs in NCAA Division I and included a letter of introduction, the coded Senior Woman Administrator Survey, and a postage-paid, return envelope. Surveys were coded only for the purpose of tracking responses to prevent reminder postcards from being sent to those who had already returned surveys. For those who had not returned surveys, a follow-up postcard was sent 18 days after the survey packets were sent.

Materials

The data collection instrument used in this study was the “Senior Woman Administrator Survey” developed through literature review, a related survey conducted by the NCAA, and interview responses gathered from three SWAs in NCAA Division I institutions in the southeast. In 1994, the NCAA’s Committee on Women’s Athletics used a similar survey. Selected items from the NCAA Survey were used with permission. The Senior Woman Administrator Survey included items designed to assess the perceptions of the SWA and her role in the athletic department.

In developing the Senior Woman Administrator Survey, interview responses were gathered from three SWAs at NCAA Division I institutions. Interview items were divided into the following sections: Demographics, Perceived Leadership Style, Relationships within Athletic Department, and Conclusion. The interview questions were open-ended in nature and the approved protocol allowed for probing questions as appropriate. Interview responses were transcribed. Responses found to be consistent among subjects or very unique in nature were then used to formulate survey items.

The Senior Woman Administrator Survey consists of three parts: Part I: Demographic Profile, Part II: Position/Institutional Profile, and Part III: SWA Perceptions. Part I: Demographic Profile included questions regarding sex, race, education level, and professional experience. Part II: Position/Institutional Profile included questions designed to describe the SWA’s role at the institution as well as provide information about the institution. Part III: SWA Perceptions was designed to assess the SWA’s perceptions of her role within the athletic department including the areas of appropriate responsibilities, authority, decision-making, leadership, value to the athletic department, and job satisfaction.

Face validity of the instrument was evaluated by a panel of experts consisting of one NCAA Division I SWA, one NCAA Division I Compliance Coordinator, and one Associate Professor of Coaching and Sport Administration. After the face validity test, minor adjustments were made to the survey. Internal consistency was determined by administering the survey to 28 NCAA Division II SWAs in the southeast. Chronbach’s alpha was used to assess internal consistency and eliminate any items with low item-total correlation. Using Chronbach’s alpha, the internal consistency was determined to be .96. No items were eliminated from the survey.

Following the initial mailing to all NCAA Division I institutions and an 18 day follow-up postcard, 150 (46%) usable surveys were returned. An analysis of the data was conducted as follows: (a) Demographic Profile Information responses and Position/Institutional Profile responses were analyzed through the use of descriptive statistics with frequencies and percentages of responses tabulated for each item and each alternative within each item, (b) Senior Woman Administrator Perception responses were analyzed through the use of inferential statistics with frequencies and percentages for responses in each category being compared to determine if observed differences were statistically significant at the p < .05 level, and (c) Responses regarding the perceived role of the SWA within the athletic department including the areas of appropriate responsibilities, authority, decision-making, leadership, value to the athletic department and job satisfaction were analyzed through the use of descriptive statistics with frequencies and percentages of responses tabulated for each item and each alternative within each item. Responses were indicated on a Likert-type scale with the following scores: 1: Strongly Disagree, 2: Disagree, 3: Somewhat Disagree, 4: Somewhat Agree, 5: Agree, and 6: Strongly Agree.

Results and Discussion

Appropriate Responsibilities

In response to the statement, “I have been given responsibilities that are not appropriate for my job,” 73.9% disagreed at some level with this statement. Table 1 shows the responses to this item.
SWAs overwhelmingly disagreed with the statement suggesting that they have been given responsibilities that are appropriate for their role. In the development of the Senior Woman Administrator Survey, interviews were conducted to assist in survey construction. One interviewee suggested that “whenever it was time to plan a party, I was asked to plan it.” Overall, the responses to this item indicate that progress has been made in accepting the SWA into the fraternity of athletic administration. It is also important to note that responses were received primarily from SWAs at Football Bowl Subdivision (formerly Division IA) institutions. These are the premiere institutions in the country, and they may have been the most diligent in developing the role of the SWA at their institutions.

Budget Decisions

In response to the statement, “I have final decision-making authority on budgetary decisions,” 61.0% of SWAs disagreed at some level with this statement. Table 2 shows the responses to this item.

In order for the SWA to have authority that is more than advisory in nature, she must have final, decision-making authority in the area of budgetary decisions. This finding is consistent with Claussen and Lehr (2002) who determined that, “SWAs possess only advisory authority for most functions analyzed.” For example, if the coach of a sport reports to the SWA and the SWA has denied a request for money to be allocated in a particular way, the coach should not be able to approach another athletic administrator and be granted his or her request. Furthermore, the SWA should have access to the paperwork that is submitted confirming that the money requested was spent as permission was given. For example, if a coach is told that he or she is not permitted to take the team to a movie on a road trip, the SWA should have access to the voucher submitted by the coach upon their return to confirm that the coach did not take the team to a movie. Unless the SWA is given the authority to grant and deny permission for spending coupled with the access to accountability methods, greater opportunity exists for her authority to be subverted.

Advancement of Women in Athletics

SWAs indicated that, for the most part, their primary functions should include functioning as an advocate for women’s athletics (n=128), gender equity (n=116), and serving as a role model (n=109), Table 3.

It is interesting to note that these primary functions do not necessarily cross over into the overall administrative strategies of athletic departments. Not minimizing the importance of the advocacy functions indicated, but it is the crossover into the overall scheme that women are looking for in the position of the SWA, “a female voice at the table, many times the only female voice,…providing a diverse, different view—a different perspective” (Stallman cited in Copeland, 2005). Claussen and Lehr (2002) found that SWAs had little decision making authority in marketing, development, promotions, and sponsorships, thus, limiting the scope of their involvement. As reported by McKindra (2009), a recent study conducted by the NCAA indicates an 8.2 percent increase the number of women serving in administrative positions. The increases have come in the positions of business manager, graduate assistant, academic advisor, and administrative assistant (McKindra, 2009). While the recent increases in women administrators seems to provide cause for celebration, a close look at these positions reveals advances in positions that do not cross over into the overall administration of the athletic department. Further, serving as an advocate for women is not enough, and when an SWA’s role is limited to advocacy then that individual’s impact on the overall administration of athletics programs is reduced (Copeland, 2005). If SWAs see their role as primarily dealing with women and their issues, then it will be difficult to persuade others that they need access to the other operations of the athletic department (Gill-Fisher, 1998).

Conclusions

The position of Senior Woman Administrator (SWA) was designed to include women in the administration of intercollegiate athletics, an opportunity that was lost for many as a result of the AIAW-NCAA consolidation (Hult, 1994; National Collegiate Athletic Association, 2002a). Overall, SWAs seem to be satisfied with the contributions they are making to their respective athletic departments, yet there still exists today some ambiguity regarding the role and function of SWAs. Those who are already in, or who aspire to fill, senior administrative roles in athletic programs may have a clear understanding of the role and function of the SWA as it is intended, but those working with the SWA, including coaches, athletic administrators, and university administrators are often unclear as to the role and function of the SWA.

In order for SWAs to be effective administrators, their role must be clearly understood. In addition, they must have adequate levels of influence on administrative strategies and courses of action within athletic departments, not just on issues related to women’s athletics (Gill-Fisher, 1998; National Collegiate Athletic Association, 1994; Watson, 1994). When SWAs are given authority in particular areas, i.e., budget issues, they need to be given access to the tools for accountability. Further study should examine whether or not the experience gained while serving in the role of SWA is adequate to advance the careers of these athletic administrators into positions of higher rank or authority or if the persons who fill the role of SWA are seen only as advocates for women’s athletics.

In order to gain a more accurate picture of the role of the SWA as it exists and as it could become at NCAA Division I institutions, continued research needs to be conducted on the perceptions of the SWA by members of the athletic department and other campus administrators regarding the role of the SWA on their campuses. Further, the women who fill the role of SWA need to consistently seek opportunities for involvement in all facets of the athletic department, not just issues related to female student-athletes, and in other aspects of campus leadership. As the NCAA and the member institutions seek to more clearly understand and utilize the role of the SWA at all divisions, those institutions which have effectively integrated the role of the SWA into the campus leadership should make recommendations for best practices in these areas.

Tables

Table 1

SWA Perceptions of Responsibilities Given Not Appropriate for Their Job

Strongly Disagree                   37                                25.3                   25.3
Disagree                                  51                                34.9                   60.2
Somewhat Disagree                20                                13.7                   73.9
Somewhat Agree                    20                                13.7                   87.6
Agree                                        9                                  6.2                   93.8
Strongly Agree                          5                                  3.5                   97.3

Table 2

SWA Perceptions of Decision-Making Power in Budgeting                                                   

Strongly Disagree                   26                                17.8                 17.8    
Disagree                                  42                                28.8                 46.6
Somewhat Disagree                21                                14.4                 61.0    
Somewhat Agree                    27                                18.5                 79.5
Agree                                      24                                16.4                 95.9
Strongly Agree                          4                                  2.7                 98.6

Table 3
 In your opinion, what should be the primary functions of the SWA?

Functioning as an advocate for
women’s athletics                               128                              88.3
Gender Equity                                    116                              80.0
Serving as a Role Model                     109                              75.2
Mentoring                                             85                              58.6
Strategic Planning                                 72                              49.2
Personnel Evaluation and
Recruitment                                          69                              47.6
Budget                                                              58                              40.0
Marketing of women’s athletics           48                              33.1    
Fundraising for women’s athletics        36                              24.8
Other                                                     30                              20.7
Facilities Development                         24                              16.6
SAAC Supervision                               21                              14.5
Compliance Issues                                13                                9.0
Game Management                               11                                7.6
Sport Supervision                                    5                                3.4
Academic Advising                                4                                2.8

References

Acosta, R.V. & Carpenter, L.J. (2002). Women in intercollegiate sport: a longitudinal study—twenty five year update 1977-2002.

Claussen, C.L. & Lehr, C. (2002). Decision making authority of Senior Woman Administrators, International Journal of Sport Management, 3(3), 215-228.

Copeland, J. (2005, August 15). Association takes steps to improve understanding of ‘SWA’. NCAA News, 42(17), A3-A4, Retrieved May 10, 2009, from http://www.ncaa.org/wps/ncaa?key=/ncaa/ncaa/ncaa+news/ncaa+news+online/2005/association-wide/association+takes+steps+to+improve+understanding+of+_swa_+-+8-15-05+ncaa+news

Gill-Fisher, P. (1998). SWA position needs planning and support. The NCAA News. Indianapolis, IN. Retrieved from http://www.ncaa.org/news/1998/19980316/comment.html#1
Grant, C.H.B. (1989). Recapturing the vision. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance, 60(3), 44-48.

Hosick, M. B. (2005, August 15). SWAs perceive a lack of involvement in finance, personnel. NCAA News, 42(17), A3-A3, Retrieved May 10, 2009, from http://www.ncaa.org/wps/ncaa?key=/ncaa/ncaa/ncaa+news/ncaa+news+online/2005/association-wide/swas+perceive+lack+of+involvement+in+finance%2C+personnel+-+8-15-05+ncaa+news

Hult, J.S. (1991). The saga of competition: Basketball battles and governance war. J.S. Hult & M.

Trekell (Eds.). A Century of Women’s Basketball: From frailty to Final Four (pp. 223-248). Reston, VA: National Association for Girls and Women in Sport.

Hult, J.S. (1991). The legacy of AIAW. J.S. Hult & M. Trekell (Eds.). A Century of Women’s Basketball: From frailty to Final Four (pp. 281-307). Reston, VA: National Association for Girls and Women in Sport.

Hult, J.S. & Trekell, M. (1991). A century of women’s basketball: from frailty to Final Four. Reston, VA: National Association for Girls and Women in Sport.

Hult J.S., (1994). The story of women’s athletics: manipulating a dream 1890-1985. D.M. Costa & S.R. Guthrie (Eds.), Women and sport: interdisciplinary perspectives (pp. 83-106). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

McKindra, L. (2009, July 9). Study shows slight gains for women administrators, NCAA News, Retrieved July 9, 2009, from http://www.ncaa.org/wps/ncaa?key=/ncaa/ncaa/ncaa+news/ncaa+news+online/2009/association-wide/study+shows+slight+gains+for+women+administrators_07_09_09_ncaa_news

National Association of College Directors of Athletics (2002). The 2002-2003 National Directory of College Athletics. Cleveland, OH: Author.

National Collegiate Athletic Association. (1994). Summary of the survey to review the roles of senior woman administrators at NCAA member Institutions. Kansas City, KS: Author.

National Collegiate Athletic Association. (2002). Senior Woman Administrator [Brochure]. Indianapolis, IN: Author.

Uhlir, G.A. (1987). Athletics and the university: the post-woman’s era. Academe, 73 (4), 25-29.

Watson, V. (1994). Survey: confusion surrounds SWA role. The NCAA News, 31(36), 1, 14, 16.

Wu, Y. (1999). Kellmeyer: The lawsuit that ruined women’s control of intercollegiate athletics for women? Proceedings of the North American Society for Sport History. Retrieved from www.la84foundation.org/SportsLibrary/NASSH_Proceedings/NP1999/NP1999zl.pdf

Wu, Y. (2000). From educational model to commercial enterprise: The philosophical change of U.S. women’s intercollegiate athletics in the Title IX era. Proceedings for the North American Society for Sport History. Retrieved from www.la84foundation.org/SportsLibrary/NASSH_Proceedings/NP2000/NP2000zzzw.pdf

Identifying and Assessing the Elements of Intentional Infliction of Emotional Distress in Sport

U.S. Sports Academy2013-11-25T19:35:53-06:00October 5th, 2009|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Management, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|

Introduction

Horror stories of outlandish behavior by coaches in the sport milieu: many have heard the stories, to one extent or another. Many have personally dealt with the accompanying emotions of dread, humiliation, discrimination, and fear that coaches have imposed during practices and games. Many have suffered immeasurably while helplessly watching their child endure torment at the hands of an abusive coach or coaches. Many have asked the same questions: What can be done? What good can possibly come from garnishing discussion with the coach, athletic director or administrator? Will the ordeal continue with new vigor because the problem was brought out into the open? Parents often struggle with these types of questions, wavering in a sea of indecision, wishing for easy solutions to unfortunate situations. And so the questions remain: what can be done; are there potential solutions; and where can one seek advice?

Assuming that the parties involved have exhausted all possible common sense remedies such as speaking directly with the coach and/or the administration, the logical next step would be to turn to tort law within the legal system. A tort is defined in The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (1982) as “a wrongful act, damage, or injury done willfully, negligently, or in circumstances involving strict liability, but not involving breach of contract, for which a civil suit can be brought” (p. 1280). According to the Free Online Law Dictionary (2009) a tort has three elements that a plaintiff must ascertain in court. First, it must be established that the defendant be under a legal duty to act in a certain way. Second, it must be shown that the defendant breached this duty by failing to match his or her actions accordingly. Third, it must be shown that the plaintiff suffered injury or loss as a direct result of the defendant’s breach.

The difficulty faced by courts considering sport related tort cases in regards to coaching behaviors is to distinguish an exact point where coaches have crossed the line. Because the alleged abuse is emotionally centered, it is difficult to discern emotional abuse from coaching tactics used to motivate athletes to perform at higher levels. Tort law that specifically targets this type of behavior is intentional infliction of emotional distress (IIED).

IIED is a tort claim that focuses on intentional conduct resulting in extreme emotional distress which causes a mental reaction such as anguish, grief, or fright in response to another person’s actions that brings about recoverable damages. According to Personal Injury Law (2009), to successfully prove a claim for IIED, one must establish four elements: the defendant acted intentionally or recklessly; the defendant’s conduct was extreme and outrageous; the defendant’s act is the cause of the distress; and the plaintiff suffers severe emotional distress as a result of the defendant’s conduct. Unfortunately, these four elements consist of ambiguous wording including such terms as reckless, extreme, outrageous, and severe that attempt to describe defendant actions. Elusive terms such as these have helped to create a confused tort that means “entirely different things to different judges” (Russell, 2008) resulting in wide-ranging court decisions and ones that are difficult to win.

Purpose

The purpose of this paper is to identify and assess the elements of intentional infliction of emotional distress (IIED) and discover legal precedent. An attempt will be made to uncover potential solutions, if any are to be found, that can be employed when confronted with the unfortunate events that surround IIED within the sport environment.

Significance

Understanding the elements of intentional infliction of emotional distress will benefit athletic directors, coaches, athletes, parents, spectators, team owners, commissioners, and others associated with sport. It is essential to appreciate the legal aspects of sport because unique situational variables will inevitably arise in the sport milieu. Garnishing an appreciation of past legal precedent can benefit those suffering from the anguish created by IIED. Recognizing potential solutions can be a comfort to those directly and indirectly involved.

Review of Literature

Intentional Infliction of Emotional Distress

Intentional infliction of emotional distress (IIED) is a tort that was created to address the threat of emotional harm that results in extreme emotional distress. IIED is also referred to as the tort of “outrage” because the defendant’s conduct is so extreme that it produces the response “outrageous!” from an average member of the community (Rapp, 2008). Outrageous behavior must be conduct that is atrocious and beyond the standards of a civilized society.

To characterize conduct that is “extreme and outrageous” and consequently meet the second element of IIED, one must determine what types of conduct would go beyond all reasonable bounds of human decency. The Legal Aid Society of San Francisco (2009) notes that “outrageous conduct does not include annoyances, hurt feelings, insults, rough language, or bad manners that a reasonable person is expected to endure.” This statement begins to provide advice to those suffering emotional distress at different levels; the law is not intended to handle frivolous claims. Although the emotional distress may not seem frivolous to those involved, the courts take a look at the severity of the distress including the intensity and duration to meet the fourth element of IIED. Severe or extreme levels of emotional distress must be long lasting and of the nature that no reasonable person is expected to endure. Severe or extreme levels may consist of highly distasteful emotions such as fright, grief, shame, humiliation, embarrassment, anger, or worry. Behavior that breaks criminal law would automatically meet the “extreme and outrageous” standard.

The first element of IIED points to the intentionality of the infliction of emotional distress. To meet this element, the defendant must conduct behavior that is pre-meditated and intended to cause harm rather than simply demonstrate mean-spirited actions. Ultimately the courts have the final say as to what is “extreme and outrageous” since case law has not provided an exact definition. The LSU Law Center’s Medical and Public Health Law Site (2009) points out that Missouri courts have stressed in Viehweg v. Tanny that a defendant’s conduct must be “more than malicious and intentional…and liability does not extend to mere insults, indignities, threats, annoyances, or petty oppressions.” It then stands to reason if the first element is established as a result of the defendant’s intentional conduct, then the third element (the defendant’s act is the cause of the distress) is also established.

Ambiguity

The ambiguity of the tort of outrage may open a window of doubt by giving a person enough skepticism to wonder whether the legal system can provide relief. Michael P. Ehline, Personal Injury Attorney (2009) provides a vivid example in his video clip that may give a bit more insight into what exactly is an “outrageous” situation. His example describes a circumstance where a person can claim IIED. If an individual’s child is attacked and killed in front of them by a person with ax, then claiming IIED is appropriate. This illustration gives us a graphic example of what type of heinous behavior would constitute as an utterly intolerable action in a civilized society. Other examples would include watching a child die in an accident from a distance or receiving a letter from someone falsely claiming that a parent, child, sibling, or spouse had died. These examples are ones in which the emotional distress is a reaction to some type of gruesome event or a horrible incident occurring in a violent situation. These examples help to put the tort of IIED into perspective. The majority of emotional distress that many have endured is not compensable.

Gap-filler

Over the years, the tort of IIED has become a “gap-filler” according to the Texas Supreme Court (Intentional Torts, 2009). The gap-filler’s purpose is to supplement other forms of recovery by providing an answer for barbaric conduct that might otherwise go unresolved. In other words, IIED is to be claimed only when more established tort doctrines are not applicable and the intentional harm is so severe that the plaintiff has no other means to rectify the situation. Thus IIED is a “gap-filler” as it can never overlap another tort.

Accepting that IIED is often characterized as a “gap-filler” and used very rarely only whenever the emotional distress is so extreme and outrageous, it makes one question if this tort can be of any help at all when it comes to dealing with abusive coaches in the sport milieu. As noted earlier in the case of Viehweg v. Tanny, IIED liability does not include mere insults, indignities, threats, annoyances, or petty oppressions. Also previously noted is the fact that outrageous conduct does not include hurt feelings, rough language, or bad manners that a reasonable person is expected to endure. Because the legal system is designed to address wide-ranging, ambiguous situational behaviors, one may never know if their own personal circumstances are behaviors that a reasonable person is expected to endure, unless the case is taken to the courts. The conduct endured may turn out to be extreme or outrageous in the eyes of a jury.

“Outrageous” Cases

It is pertinent to discover court cases that have dealt with claims of outrageous behavior to gain a better understanding of legal precedent. One case described by Simon (2009) recently met the definition of “outrageous” when a claim for IIED concerned an employee that was abused at work. In the case of Rothwell v. Nine Miles School District, the plaintiff, employed as a custodian, was ordered to clean up the mess of a suicide victim of whom she knew personally. Prior to cleaning up the mess, which included gruesome remains of the deceased, Rothwell was ordered to go through classrooms to look for bombs. At the suicide scene, she had found a book bag of which she began to open the contents until the police told her to stop. A little later, she watched the bomb squad detonate a bomb that was found in that same book bag and learned that there was another bomb also detonated at the football field. Rothwell became sick from post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and won her case due to emotional distress that was intentionally inflicted as a result of the District and Superintendant’s actions.

In a recent sports related case, a Kentucky high school head football coach, David Stinson, has been indicted on the charge of reckless homicide for the death of one of his players. On August 20, 2008, 15 year old Max Gilpin collapsed at practice from heat stroke and died three days later (FindLaw, 2009). Allegations were made in the case that the coaching staff denied the players water breaks on a day with a heat index of 94 degrees. Truman (2009) stresses in his blog that coaches “use denying water as punishment and somehow they feel the kids need to tough it out” and feels that this type of behavior is “inexcusable recklessness.” Even though the case was criminal in nature, one can imagine the emotional distress the athletes endured on that extremely hot day. Not to mention the distress of watching their teammate collapse and eventually die from heat stroke. If the coach punished the athletes by denying them water on a hot day, one can only imagine other kinds of emotionally distressing tactics that may have been put into practice with the team. In this case, the coach was caught utilizing these kinds of tactics through the untimely death of Max Gilpin.

A recent, well-publicized sport case between Major League Baseball pitcher Roger Clemens and his former trainer Brian McNamee actually did involve an IIED claim. Clemens claimed that McNamee fabricated the pitcher’s steroid abuse in an account that appeared in Senate Majority Leader George Mitchell’s 409 page report on the illegal use of steroids and other performance enhancing drugs. Clemens alleges that the untruths spoken by McNamee caused him severe emotional distress. Rapp (2008) suggests that there is one thing that McNamee did that might successfully make one claim the response of “outrageous!” Rapp avows that McNamee “kept dirty bandages, and Roger’s bodily fluids, in sealed bags for years, just in case he might need them later.” This type of behavior is, admittedly, highly unusual and disturbing. So much so that one can see the logic in making an IIED claim in this sport case.

These three lawsuits, the Rothwell, Gilpin, and Clemens cases, are three examples where one can easily see behaviors that were extreme and outrageous. A large amount of litigation that center on IIED claims contains elements that are more ambiguous in nature and are difficult to prove. Taking a look at successful and a bit vague IIED court cases, although not sport related, will provide a deeper understanding of legal precedent.

Successful ambiguous cases

Litigation victories for cases claiming IIED are not abundant especially in the sport venue. IIED claims that have awarded large sums of money for emotional distress establish precedent and provide background knowledge for future, potential litigation. The following two cases are extremely different, yet both show aspects of emotional distress that was severe and invasive.

The first case involves a civil suit brought forth by the plaintiffs regarding outrageous behavior of their next door neighbor. The case, Efros, et al., v. Giles, awarded the plaintiffs $350,000 for their claim of IIED. Giles was already criminally charged with aggravated stalking, malicious destruction of property, and malicious annoyance by writing (Verdicts & Settlements, 2008). Police discovered Giles to be the source behind the anonymous graphically suggestive and threatening letters directed toward the plaintiffs and also the vandalism of their home where Giles had thrown rotting fruit, eggs, D-cell batteries and feces. He also smeared feces on the automobiles in their driveway. For this behavior, the plaintiffs won their IIED claim as they stated they have been forever changed by Giles’ behavior which caused their severe and continual emotional distress. This case does show extreme criminal actions of which the defendant was sentenced two to five years in prison; however, it also shows that individuals can lean on the legal system when dealing with extreme and outrageous behavior of this sort.

The second civil court case finds a former high school teacher awarded a monetary amount for her IIED claim. Janis Adams alleged that administrators did not take proper action when an underground student newspaper made crude assertions about her (Walsh, 2002). The newspaper included articles written about Adams as a porno star and made vulgar references about the teacher and members of her family. Ms. Adams claimed that although preliminary disciplinary action was taken up with some of the students involved, school administrators did nothing to stop the distribution of the newspapers on campus. As a result, she was subjected to a severe, outrageous, and offensive work environment, which the administrators failed to remedy. Ms. Adams was awarded $1.1 million for lost earnings and $3.25 million for the IIED claim – totaling an award of $4.35 million.

Both of these unique cases show that it is possible to receive monetary damages for the intentional infliction of emotional distress. Although each case dealt with extremely different issues, together they show that individuals in society are not expected to deal with such outlandish behavior that causes emotional distress.

“Something more”

After a thorough review of legal precedent, one can begin to compare the emotional distress that is occurring within their individual sport milieu to determine the next step to assuage the problematic situation. If it is determined that the behavior of the one in charge (typically the coach) is bringing forth harmful consequences, then one is encouraged to seek legal counsel and sue for damages under the tort of IIED. However, if it is determined that the behavior is simply not bizarre enough to claim outrage in a civilized society, then court costs may not be worth incurring litigation.

Determining that legal recourse is not a viable option and assuming that the coach’s behavior is not going to change because all efforts have led down a windy path to nowhere, there must be “something more” that one can do to handle an oppressive situation. Each scenario will be different than the next and that “something more” solution will vary from case to case. Simply stated, there are no easy answers. It all boils down to making a determination as to what one can and cannot control.

Summary and Conclusions

Restatement of the Purpose

The intent of this paper is to identify and assess the elements of intentional infliction of emotional distress (IIED) and discover legal precedent. An attempt will be made to uncover potential solutions that can be employed when confronted with the unfortunate events that surround IIED within the sport environment.

Summary

The tort of intentional infliction of emotional distress is designed to bring about recoverable damages for those who have suffered from mental anguish, grief, or fright in response to another person’s actions. The elements required to prove an IIED claim include ambiguous terminology that have resulted in wide-ranging court decisions. IIED, also designated as the tort of outrage, must include conduct that goes beyond all reasonable bounds of human decency. Because case law has not provided an exact definition of outrageous behavior, the courts must decide if the behaviors are severe enough to win an IIED claim. In review of successful case law, the wins demonstrate that individuals in a civilized society should not have to deal with emotionally distressing, outrageous behaviors. On the other hand, drawing the line between “extreme and outrageous” emotionally distressing behaviors and finding potential solutions outside the legal environment is not an easy matter.

Conclusions and Potential Solutions

When dealing with emotionally distressing coaching behaviors, an individual should review legal precedent and seek legal counsel if the behavior is deemed as severe and outrageous. Already formulating that one cannot control the coach, there are two potential solutions if legal action is not a viable option: to quit and do something else or to find a way to deal with the abusive situation. Choosing to remain on the team and deal with an unfortunate situation is not easy. It has already been determined that to make an IIED claim, outrageous conduct does not include mere insults, indignities, threats, annoyances, and petty oppressions. A coach that utilizes tactics such as these is truly not worth the accompanying mental anguish, yet many individuals love the sport so intensely that they cannot dream of quitting. If this is the case, one must turn to positive psychology to find a way to handle emotional distress that will inevitably be encountered.

Individuals may not be able to control the coach, but they can control personal reactions to bad coaching behaviors. Athletes (and often their parents) need to develop a mental strategy to cope with emotionally distressing situations. There are two strategies that can be employed to develop a personal mental plan. The two tactics are: 1) determining psychological type for self-understanding, development, and problem solving; and 2) utilizing cognitive strategies by accepting the importance of positive expectations and implementing positive self-talk.

The first part of the mental strategy is to determine psychological type by taking the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI). The MBTI is a self-report questionnaire designed to provide feedback to enhance an understanding of personal self, motivations, natural strengths, and potential areas for growth (Myers, 1998). The MBTI, based on Carl Jung’s theory of personality and further developed by the mother/daughter team of Myers and Briggs, provides an individual with one of sixteen personality preference scales. Each of the sixteen types consist of a four letter personality preference code which can help an athlete understand the following: the way one prefers to focus their attention and energy; the way one prefers to take in information; the way an individual prefers to make decisions; and how one orients themselves to the external world. With this information, athletes can learn more about themselves. The type code allows an athlete to see their characteristics, view how others may see them, and identify areas of potential growth. In a perfect world, it would be nice to know the personality type of the coach or coaches to gain a better understanding of the characteristics frequently associated with his or her type. Even without this information, one can study the sixteen types and attempt to match characteristics of the coach with a particular type. Empowered with this information, athletes can better understand themselves and in the process begin to understand others around them – specifically to recognize and attempt to understand the coach’s behavior. Having this type of insight won’t completely take away the emotional distress factor, but it might soften the edges of the hurtful words or behaviors.

The second part of the mental strategy is concerned with cognitively appreciating the importance of positive expectations and utilizing positive self-talk. To prove the essence of positive expectations, Waitley (1978), conducted interviews with “winners” from various fields of endeavor. He then grouped the characteristics of the “winners” into categories of five “attitude qualities” which include positive self-expectancy, self-image, self-control, self-esteem, and self-awareness. These five “attitude qualities” are found within the self-talk of winners – no matter what circumstances come their way. With practice, athletes can internalize all five positive attitudes, which in turn affect positive expectations of self. To restate once again, athletes may not be able to control their coaches, but they can control their own state of mind when dealing with bad behaviors by incorporating cognitive strategies. In emphasis, Singer (1980) claims that implementing a cognitive (or mental) strategy can favorably affect one’s emotions, such as reduce anxiety, focus attention, maintain concentration, and cope with stress.

Concluding Statements

The tort of intentional infliction of emotional distress (IIED), otherwise known as the tort of outrage, is a viable legal option. Although the tort is not set up to handle frivolous claims, it is frustrating that the majority of emotional distress is not compensable. To be subjected to bad coaching behaviors with very little opportunity for recourse is extremely maddening to all involved. Is one supposed to chalk up the negative experience as a good life lesson – teaching the principle that “life’s not fair?” Is one supposed to simply deal with bad behaviors until something drastic happens like the untimely death of Max Gilpin? Other than the legal option of claiming IIED for extreme and outrageous activities, there are only two other viable solutions: to quit the sport and attempt to move on; or dig down deep into the trenches and develop a mental strategy in an effort to maintain sanity. Regrettably, either option is heartbreaking when one is submersed in a very unfortunate situation.

References

American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (2nd ed.). (1982). Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company.

Efros, et al., v. Giles, 07-084713-CK (2008).

Ehline, M. P. (n.d.). What is ‘intentional infliction of emotional distress’ under tort law?
Retrieved July 24, 2009, from http://www.videojug.com/expertanswer/intentional-torts-2/what-is-intentional-infliction-of-emotional-distress

FindLaw. (n.d.). High school coach David Stinson indicted in Max Gilpin’s heat
stroke death. Retrieved July 28, 2009, from http://commonlaw.findlaw.com/2009/01/high-school-coach-david-stinton-indicted-in-max-gilpins-heat-stroke-death.html

Free Online Law Dictionary. (n.d.). Tort law: Legal definition of tort law. Retrieved July 27, 2009 from: http://legal-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/p/Tort%20Law
Intentional Torts, (n.d.). Intentional infliction of emotional distress (IIED) tort in Texas.
Retrieved July 25, 2009 from, http://www.texas-opinions.com/law-IIED-intentional-infliction-of-emotional-distress

Legal Aid Society of San Francisco. (n.d.). Intentional infliction of emotional distress in the
workplace: Your legal rights. Retrieved July 24, 2009, from http://www.las-elc.org/IntentInflictionEmotDistress.pdf

LSU Law Center’s Medical and Public Health Law Site. (n.d.). Elements of intentional infliction
of emotional distress. Retrieved July 24, 2009, from http://biotech.law.lsu.edu/courses/tortsF01/IIEM.htm

Myers, I. B. (1998). Introduction to type: A guide to understanding your results on the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (6th ed.). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press, Inc.
Personal Injury Law. (n.d.).What is intentional infliction of emotional distress? Retrieved July
24, 2009, from http://www.quizlaw.com/personal_injury_law/ what_is_intentional_inflicti.php

Rapp, G. (2008, May 29). Intentional tort of last resort alert: Clemens adds “outrage”
claim to McNamee suit. Retrieved June 21, 2009, from http://sports-law.blogspot.com/2008_05_01_archive.html

Russell, F. (2008, April 1). Reformulating outrage: A critical analysis of the problematic tort of IIED. Vanderbilt Law Review. Retrieved June 21, 2009, from
http://www.allbusiness.com/legal/torts-intentional-torts-libel-slander/10595672-1.html

Simon, E. (2009, May 11). Important win against employer for inflicting serious emotional distress. Ellen Simons’ Employee Rights Post. Retrieved July 24, 2009, from
http://www.employeerightspost.com/2009/05/articles/intentional-infliction-of-emot/important-win-against-employer-for-inflicting-serious-emotional-distress/

Singer, R. N. (1980). Motor learning and human performance (3rd ed.). New York: Macmillan.

Truman, K. (2009, January 26). Pleasure Ridge Park football coach charged with reckless
homicide. Retrieved July 25, 2009, from http://www.injuryboard.com/printfriendly.aspx?id=256070

Verdicts & settlements: Jury finds couple entitled to distress damages. (2008, August 11).
Michigan Lawyers Weekly.

Viehweg v. Vic Tanny Intern. of Missouri, Inc., 732 S. W. 2d 212, 213 (Mo.App.1987).

Waitley, D. (1978). The psychology of winning. Chicago: Human Resources.

Walsh, M. (2002, March 20). L.A. teacher $4.35 million harassment verdict. Education Week,
21.