Latest Articles

A Study of Golfers in Tennessee

U.S. Sports Academy2015-11-08T07:39:41-06:00January 27th, 2012|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Facilities, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|

### Abstract

The purpose of this study was to investigate preferred shopping behaviors of golfers in the state of Tennessee. While much research has been done on retail shopping behavior in general, little exists regarding shopping behavior in sport retail, and more specifically golf retail. While golfer behavior has been researched in other areas such as tourism, it has not been fully researched in the sport or retail literature. Since this segment of consumer spends millions of dollars per year, this study was conducted to fill the gap in the literature regarding this unique consumer. An online survey was distributed among a state-wide professional golf organization regarding preferred shopping and golf course attributes. Results showed a significant relationship between some variables, including brands/designers offered. This research will be helpful to golf retailers, golf merchandisers, golf marketers and managers, who sell, buy or deal with golf apparel and/or related merchandise to better tailor marketing and promotional activities and ultimately increase revenue. This paper is unique and applicable in the fact that golf has not been fully researched in the marketing or retail area.

**Key words:** golf, marketing, consumer behavior, retail

### Introduction

Sport and leisure have been researched in many capacities over many years. Topics encompass marketing (42), travel style (40), satisfaction (49), retail (12), behavior (72) religion (65), gender-based (38), product involvement (6), sport (74) and many others that have been analyzed to better understand this phenomena. Understanding sport and leisure and its many facets are important not only to extend retail-based research, but to present possible opportunities to uncover more about some of the still underdeveloped theories of retail and consumer behavior within this area. It has been shown that consumers will spend significant amounts of money on leisure (28). Consumer shopping behavior has been proven to be important and relevant in other industries such as the tourism industry (50, 11).

Due to the significant nature of money spent on sport and leisure by consumers, sport marketers, merchandisers and others realize the need to segment the different types of sport consumers. Some studies have addressed and studied the specialized segmentation of the sport consumer. Not only do sport consumers hold specific values and attitudes (46), but they require marketers, retailers and others to take note of their unique spending habits. Other traditional consumer behavior concepts apply to the sport consumer such as brand loyalty (8), emotional attachment (67), and brand equity (20).

#### Golf Industry

Because the sport consumer holds some of the same behavioral traits as traditional consumers, it is important to investigate the behaviors of the sport consumer in more detail. Many sports have been investigated in regard to its consumer such as the brand loyalty of baseball, wrestling (32) and football (41). To continue to investigate the sport consumer, this paper will attempt to identify golfer consumer-based behaviors. This may help all stakeholders, to include retailers, merchandisers, academics and golf managers to better understand, serve and recognize golfer segments and to determine segmentation and/or marketing strategy for applicable segments. Though this type of study has been conducted for other entities (professional golfing organizations, for example), it has not been conducted in this manner, thus adding to the small current body of literature in this area of retail study.

Participating in a sport while partaking of a leisure activity, such as a vacation, has been found to be a growing occurrence (27). Further, one activity that has received some attention is the golfing industry. Golf’s popularity continues to increase with as estimated 28.6 million participants as of 2009 (48). In fact, in 2008, golf generated approximately $76 billion in goods and services (21). Another report indicated that golfers spent $4.7 billion on equipment alone and $19.7 billion on green fees in 2002 (22). But, surprisingly, golf has been noted to be an under-researched activity (14), especially considering the impact it can make to the local and state economy. Golf travel, tourism, facility management and golf-related real estate (73) are a few of the important areas of the golf industry. It has also been estimated that the average dollar amount spent per person per golf trip was $452 with an almost 40 million golf trips taken (64). In addition, golfers spent $26.1 billion a year on golf travel (22). Research has been conducted to learn about different aspects of the sport. Topics that have been studied have included golfer’s satisfaction (53, 54) destination choice (27, 14, 34), golf course development (69) and seasonality (18). Golfing lifestyles have also been a focus of research inquiry. One study found four distinct tourist typologies within the golfing industry which were: quality-seeker, competitor, high-income and value-seeker. These typologies were chosen using many attributes and demographics such as course layout, availability of tee times, fees, income, gender and age (70). A recent article even investigated the willingness of golfers to pay for a higher environmental quality of the golf course (37). Other research has focused up on the economic impact of golf to include pricing (63, 47, 39). More specifically, several studies have been conducted that focused upon individual states and the economic impact of golf. For example, the golf industry in Florida (25), South Carolina (17), Arizona (58), Oklahoma (59) and Georgia (13) have all been studied and each revealed a significant impact to the state economy. One study indicated the economic impact of golf in Tennessee was significant. With over 200 golf courses in Tennessee, the golf industry directly employed over 5,000 people, with annual wages estimated at $97 million and a direct economic impact of over $313 million (26).

Golf is a sport that has been subject to study in regard to segmentation and thus marketing strategy. Petrick (53) found that several different segments of golfers exist by examining past behavior and experience level. Differences were found, too, in perceived value, satisfaction and intention to revisit. Golfers have also been segmented by spending habits, with heavy spenders being especially transparent in their habits (60). Another recent study found that certain segments of golfers tend to pay attention to different store attributes such as cleanliness and store appearance (36). Even length of stay in regard to the golf traveler has been noted to be of significance when analyzing different segments of golfers (4). Image of the golf destination was found to be different among different golfer segments (51). Therefore, it is important to continue to study golfers and how different segments of golfers consume and behave because the shopping behavior of consumers can impact profitability and revenue of many facets of the golf retail industry.

#### Shopping attributes and involvement

The concept and theory of involvement has long been studied and analyzed in numerous areas of research and has been proven to be connected to shopping behavior. It has been found to be important in many ways to include web site design (75), persuasion (33), and product experience (5). Product involvement in such areas as leisure studies has been described even more specifically by being termed enduring involvement which is the “the central notion is that of an abiding interest in, and attachment to, a product class which is independent of purchase or other situational factors” and has been found to be linked to leisure in three main ways: enthusiasm, experience and satisfaction. Product enthusiasm connects the consumer with the leisure activity and the products associated with the activity which transcends most one-time purchases which has been the bulk of most research regarding involvement (6). Therefore, studying golfers and their enduring involvement with golf-related products and services are important. Golfers may become involved with numerous products such as equipment, facilities, shopping behaviors, particular brands or store attributes. Enduring involvement has also been correlated to participation in the activity or product (45) and has been found to have a relationship with situational involvement (57). Enduring involvement has also been studied specifically in the golf environment. It was found that enduring involvement (activity, length of participation, attraction and risk consequence) had a positive relationship with length of participation when studied with the variable of seasonality (24). In addition, involvement has been shown to have a predictive power in regard to usage of the product (52). Involvement was also found to be important in the golf environment when determining level of involvement, the psychological commitment to a brand and attitudinal characteristics (30, 31). Golf has been studied with enduring involvement with the attribute of gender. It found that women are involved with golf for different reasons than men to include purpose, leisure entitlement and status (43).

A main variable that may influence a customer of sporting activity are store attributes. Many studies have shown that store attributes such as pricing (62, 23), atmospherics (55), product/brand selection (61), quality (9), salespeople (19), convenience (16), location (15), and image (29) all influence purchase behavior in some manner. One study found that people, who are involved in a particular sport activity every day, will most likely participate in that same activity while on a vacation (7). In addition, product involvement has been positively associated with leisure in regard to sporting activities. For example, product involvement and leisure have been shown to have a relationship in such sporting activities such as biking (68), yoga (10), boating (35) basketball (1) golf (44) and skiing (2).

However, one area ripe for development in leisure study is the consumer’s involvement and shopping behavior in regard to the consumer’s chosen sport activity. Further, one leisure activity that has shown evidence of growth and importance in regard to consumer involvement and shopping behavior is golf. It is important to understand the different types of golfers and how they behave for several reasons. First, the golfer market is a significant one since golfers worldwide number in the millions. Further, within those millions, different segments exist (53). Therefore, understanding those separate segments is important to determine leisure, marketing, retailing or other business strategy. For example, different golfer segments may be segmented by frequency of play, shopping behavior or purchase behavior. Since so little is known about different golfer segments, it is important to study these golfers and learn how to better serve them. Learning more about golfer segments will encourage, increase and generate revenue which will ultimately be beneficial to the golf retail industry, golf merchandisers and golf managers.

#### Conceptual Framework

Based on the existing literature and the lack of it in regard to combination of the variables given of store attributes, involvement and golf, an exploratory conceptual framework is offered. The following conceptual framework is posited to attempt to explain how sporting activities, such as golf, may be impacted based on involvement, specific store attributes and the patronage/re-patronage of products that may be associated with golf. This model begins by suggesting that the golf consumer’s involvement commences with a golf product or service. Thus, after becoming involved with the sport, the consumer will engage and become further involved with golf-related attributes. These attributes may be such items as the golf course itself (design, condition), the facility (pro shop, practice) staff and facility product offerings such as apparel, hard goods or availability of lessons. Because of a golfer’s proven connection with the different attributes of golfing products/services, patronage is likely to occur. Further, since golfers have been proven to be psychologically connected to a brand, it is suggested that this involvement with the golf-related attributes of the product or service, will transcend into usage or patronage of the product or service.

#### Research Objectives

While attempting to develop a business strategy for a golf retailer, golf course or destination, many variables, such as store image, cleanliness of the store, friendliness of the salespeople, frequency of play, course design or course location, must be considered. Just as any traditional retail establishment utilizes segmentation techniques to tailor their marketing to a particular target market, golf retailers and destinations in Tennessee may also like to use these techniques. Through all golf literature, little research exists regarding the analysis of golfer shopping behavior and consumption patterns. Therefore, the purposes of this study are to:

* Segment the golfing population in Tennessee to categorize golfers by shopping behavior characteristics and preferred golf course attributes.
* Present a competitive advantage strategy for golf courses regarding golfers’ shopping behavior and preferred golf course attributes in Tennessee.
* Assess the potential benefit to the relevant stakeholders of promoting golfing based on shopping behavior and preferred golf course attributes in Tennessee.

### Methods

The data were collected via an online survey as distributed by a statewide golf association in Tennessee on behalf of the researchers. The online survey was adapted from a tested and valid survey (70). The survey was pre-tested before distribution to a convenient sample of male and female golfers of all ages and resulted in no refinements.

The online survey was sent to every registered member of the golf association in the state of Tennessee. Approximately 15,000 surveys were distributed with 1,123 returned, yielding a return rate of 7.5%. Each golfer who completed the survey was given the opportunity at the end of the online survey to register for one of two $100 Visa gift cards. The participants were asked to give an email address where they could be reached if they were randomly chosen the winner. However, to maintain anonymity, the email address was given to the golf association, where the participant was then contacted by the association and not the researcher. The winners were chosen randomly using Research Randomizer (56). The data collection lasted six weeks with one reminder email sent from the golf association at the halfway point.

The questions were divided into three major sections including shopping behavior characteristics, preferred golf course attributes and demographic information. The first section asked participants, in ordinal scale format, how important particular attributes were when shopping for golf apparel and merchandise. Attributes questioned were store’s physical design and appearance, overall positive store image and reputation, and offers some type of “experience” beyond just shopping and others. Other shopping behavior questions asked about the participant’s preferred location to shop for golf merchandise and how much they spend on golf clothing and golf footwear. The second major section of the online survey consisted of preferred golf course attributes. Again, the participant was asked, in ordinal scale format, how important certain golf course/destination attributes were to them, personally. Some of the attributes on the online survey were course design, location, type of facility, discounts available and many others. Other questions were then asked regarding golf behaviors such as with whom the participant plays most often, average score, golf trips taken per year and others. The final section of the survey asked basic demographic information such as gender, age, income and zip code.

### Results

#### Participants

Demographic information was collected from 305 survey participants (due to an online survey glitch, not all participants were provided with the demographic questions). The responding participants were 88% male. The most common age range as well as the median was 50 to 59 (32%). For the 272 who reported their annual household income, the most common response was 37% indicating an income over $200,000 followed by 35% indicating it was $100,000-$199,999. The income result is reflective of other studies (71, 66) and may accurately represent the population in this study.

#### Frequencies

Due to the exploratory nature of this research, it was important to begin with frequency analysis of the behavioral questions which were survey questions one through twelve. The first question asked about ten attributes regarding shopping behavior of the participant. Knowledgeable salespeople were ranked the most important attribute followed by brands/designers offered. (Table 1.)

Question two asked the respondent to state where they mainly purchase golf merchandise. Pro shops and golf specialty stores were the main choices for purchasing golf-related merchandise. (See Table 2.)

Questions three and four asked how much the participant spends per year on golf apparel and footwear. The results showed that forty six percent (46%) of respondents spend over $250 per year on golfing apparel. Almost thirty-three percent of respondents (32.8%) answered that they spend between $101 – $150 on footwear yearly.

Question five was formatted much the same as question one. However, the main focus of this question asked not about shopping attributes, but golf course attributes and how important those attributes were when choosing where to play. The question asked about sixteen different attributes as shown in Table 3 which indicated course conditions and speed of play were ranked the highest.

The remaining behavioral questions (6-12) asked about particular behaviors of the golfers in regard to different specific important golfer attributes. Table 4 shows the most popular answer for each question which indicated the respondents tend to play with friends, play 8 or more times per month, mostly in Tennessee and at the same course.

#### Crosstabulations

Several of the survey questions were examined further to see if they were related. First, average score was examined in relationship to how much was spent on golf-related clothing and footwear. Both were significantly associated, with those having better scores spending more as shown in Table 5 and Table 6.

Question 10 (score) was also associated with responses to Question 5 (Please mark how important the following items would be when deciding where to play golf in Tennessee: course design). Those with better scores reported that course design was more important than other participants as shown in Table 7.

Fourth, Question 10 (score) was associated with Question 1 (When deciding on a place to shop for golf apparel and merchandise, how important are each of the following factors: well-known brands or designer products are offered). Those with better scores thought brands and designers offered were more important. (See Table 8).

Finally, Question 3 (How much do you spend in an average year for golf clothing?) was associated with Question 1 (When deciding on a place to shop for golf apparel and merchandise, how important are each of the following factors: well-known brands or designer products are offered). Those participants that spent $201 or more on golf clothing were more likely to indicate brands or designs offered were important or very important than were other participants.

### Tables

#### Table 1
Responses to Ten Ordinal Scale Statements Regarding Shopping Behavior Attributes

When deciding on a place to shop for golf apparel and merchandise, how important are each of the following factors?

Items may not total 100 due to rounding errors

#### Table 2
Responses to Statements Regarding Where Participants Shop for Golf Merchandise

#### Table 3
Responses to Sixteen Ordinal Scale Statements Regarding Golf Course Attributes

Items may not total 100 due to rounding errors

#### Table 4
Responses to Statements Regarding Golfer Behavior Attributes

#### Table 5
Relationship Between Score and Amount Spent on Clothing

Score and amount spent on clothing

Chi-square = 27.929; p = .022

Items may not total 100 due to rounding errors

#### Table 6
Relationship Between Score and Amount Spent on Footwear

Score and amount spent on footwear

Chi-square = 79.542; p = .000

Items may not total 100 due to rounding errors

#### Table 7
Relationship Between Score and Course Design

Score and course design

Chi-square = 36.070; p = .000

Items may not total 100 due to rounding errors

#### Table 8
Relationship Between Score and Brands/Designers Offered

Score and brands/designers offered

Chi-square = 58.700; p = .000

Items may not total 100 due to rounding errors

#### Table 9
Relationship Between Amount Spent on Clothing and Brand/Designers Offered

Amount spent on clothing and brands/designers offered

Chi-square = 92.079; p = .000

Items may not total 100 due to rounding errors

### Figures

#### Figure 1


#### Conclusion and Applications in Sport

There are several articles that have investigated the game of golf. Some have emphasized golf’s economic contributions on a regional or state level. Other research attempted to study the tourism and travel behaviors of golfers. However, this article has provided an overview of shopping behaviors of golfers specifically to the state of Tennessee. In addition, it has also attempted to identify golfer preferred shopping attributes, present possible competitive advantages and assess potential benefits to stakeholders in relation to golf course attributes in Tennessee. This research begins to identify shopping behaviors of golfers to aid in the attempt to better market to golfers and provide the golfing consumer with desired products and services.

Golf courses, golf pro shops, golf associations, such as the Association of Golf Merchandisers (3) and retail stores must develop strategies to better market to Tennessee residents (and other states and regions) who play golf. In the current study, several implications exist that may help golf managers, buyers and others who manage or sell golf products and services. First, it was found that knowledgeable salespeople were the most important attribute for a facility. Therefore, it may be important for managers to focus upon intense training of employees in regard to products and services offered. Since golf is typically a seasonal sport, employees may also be only hired for seasonal employment. This may be a problem since the employee may come and go faster than the management could train the employee. However, by training before heavy playing times, and continually training full-time staff (pros, greenskeepers, etc.), the staff can remain current in all golf trends. The second most important attribute, which was brands/designers offered could imply that the facility should research as to which brands are the most desired and/or to possibly increase brand choice. According to this survey, many golfers spend a considerable amount of money on golfing merchandise per year (almost half spent over $250 annually on apparel alone). Additionally, the literature and this study show that many golfers have a high income. Therefore, the opportunity to spend in the pro shop, where this survey reveals is where most golfers shop, has the potential to be a source of high revenue. Typically, local pro shops are small in square footage, therefore making every inch of floor space crucial. Thus, being aware of which brands are current (those seen in golfing magazines, what players are wearing on television, etc.) should be of utmost importance to managers, buyers, etc. It should be noted that the significant relationship between the amount spent on apparel/footwear and score, indicated that better scorers are willing to spend more than other players. Therefore, the manager/staff should be aware of their better scoring players and focus on them specifically by offering special promotions in which they most likely will participate.

Another important implication from this study emphasizes the importance of what attributes of a course to promote and market. According to results of this survey, course conditions and speed of play were ranked the highest in regard to course attributes. Therefore, any promotions in Tennessee should focus upon these attributes by emphasizing exemplary course conditions and course rules surrounding speed of play. Further, it was found that better scorers thought course design was most important on choosing where to play golf in Tennessee. By promoting course design (course designer, yardage, etc.) to better scoring golfers, revenue may be increased by attracting those golfers to the course. All of these strategies are highly tailored and personalized. However, these strategies adhere to current marketing trends of tailoring promotional activities to specific customers.

It is important to recognize how golfers behave in regard to shopping behaviors. Acknowledging and targeting these shoppers help managers know how to better manage their dollars in regard to marketing, determining product assortment or addition/deletion of services. Next, knowing what golfers buy is crucial to produce effective and profitable outcomes. In addition, managers should know what attributes golfers shop for when they shop for golfing goods and services. Lastly, identifying where golfers shop for merchandise and services is important for allocation and effective use of monies and resources. Knowing as much as possible about their customers will help in the construction of segmentation, targeting and customer service strategies.

It may be useful to replicate this study on a national level. One limitation of this study is that the sample did not encompass every golfer in Tennessee. However, golf is continuing to grow as a sport, a recreational activity and as tourism destinations (4). Therefore, golf is being recognized as a significant source of economic impact and revenue for local communities, states and regions. Further, additional research is needed to help retailers and other golf stakeholders not only in Tennessee, but other areas, to successfully market and sell golf products and services to potential and current consumers.

### References

1. Alexandris, K., Douka, S., Bakaloumi, S., and Tsasousi, E. (2008), “The influence of spectators’ attitudes on sponsorship awareness: as study in three different leisure activities”, Managing Leisure, Vol. 13, No. 1, pp. 1-12.
2. Alexandris, K. Kouthouris, C., Funk, D. and Chatzigianni, E. (2008), “Examining the relationships among lesisure constraints, involvement and attitudinal loyalty among recreational skiers”, European Sport Management Quarterly, Vol. 8, pp. 247-264.
3. Association of Golf Merchandisers. Official Web site, available at: <http://agmgolf.org/> (accessed 5 January 2011)
4. Barros, C., Butler, R., Correia, A. (2010), “The length of stay of golf tourism: a survival analysis”, Tourism Management, Vol. 31, pp. 13-21.
5. Bennett, R. and Hartel, C. and McColl-Kennedy, J. (2005), “Experience as a moderator of involvement and satisfaction on brand loyalty in a business-to-business setting”, Industrial Marketing Management, Vol. 34, No. 1, pp. 97-107.
6. Bloch. P. and Bruce, G. (1984), “Leisure behavior and product involvement”, Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 11, pp. 197-202.
7. Brey, E. and Lehto, X. (2007), “The relationship between daily and vacation activities”, Annals of Tourism Research, Vol. 34, No. 1, pp. 160-180.
8. Bristow, D. and Sebastian, R. (2001), “Holy cow! Wait ‘til next year! A closer look at the brand loyalty Chicago Cubs baseball fans”, Journal of Consumer Marketing, Vol. 18, No. 3, pp. 256-275.
9. Chao, P. (2008), “Exploring the nature of the relationships between service quality and customer loyalty: an attribute-level analysis”, The Services Industry Journal, Vol. 28, No. 1, pp. 95-116.
10. Chen, H. (2009), “A Study of Yoga Participants’ Leisure Motivation, Enduring Involvement and Benefits of Leisure”, available at: <http://etd.lib.leader.edu.tw/ETD-db/ETD-search/view_etd?URN=etd-0627109-013708> (accessed 20 August 2010).
11. Clemons, E. and Gao, G. (2008), “Consumer informedness and diverse consumer purchasing behaviors: Traditional mass-market, trading down, and trading out into the long tail”, Electronic Commerce Research and Applications, Vol. 7, No. 1, pp. 3-17.
12. Cole, S. (2005), “Comparing mail and web-based survey distribution methods: Results of surveys to leisure travel retailers”, Journal of Travel Research, Vol. 4, No. 4, pp. 422-430.
13. Cooter, R. (2003). “An economic impact study of the golf industry on the state of Georgia”, available at: <http://commodities.caes.uga.edu/turfgrass/georgiaturf/Articles/Misc/Economic%20Impact%20Study%20of%20Golf%20Industry%20in%20GA%20(01-03).pdf> (accessed 9 September 2010).
14. Correia, A., Barros, C, and Silvestre, A. (2007), “Golf tourism repeat choice behaviour in the Algarve: a mixed logit approach”, Tourism Economics, Vol. 13, No. 1, pp. 111-127.
15. Dellaert, B., Arentze, T., Timmermans, H. (2008), “Shopping context and consumers’ mental representation of complex shopping trip decision problems”, Journal of Retailing, Vol. 84, No. 2, pp. 219-232.
16. Erdem, O., Oumlil, B., Tuncalp, S. (1999), “Consumer values and the importance of store attributes”, International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management, Vol. 27, No. 4, pp. 137 – 144.
17. Flowers, J. (2006), “The economic impact of golf in South Carolina”, Columbia, SC Cooperative Extension Service, available at: <http://www.scprt.com/files/Research/SCGolfEconomy.pdf> (accessed 9 September 2010).
18. Garau-Vadell, J. and Borja-Sole, L. (2008), “Golf in mass tourism destinations facing seasonality: A longitudinal study”, Tourism Review, Vol. 63, No. 2, pp. 16-24.
19. Ghosh, P., Tripathi, V., Kumar, A. (2010), “Customer expectations of store attributes: A study of organized retail outlets in India”, Journal of Retail and Leisure Property, Vol. 9, No. 1, pp. 75-87.
20. Gladden, J. and Funk, D. (2002), “Developing an understanding of brand association in team sport: Empirical evidence from consumers of pro sport”, Journal of Sport Management, Vol. 16, pp. 54-81.
21. Golf 20/20. Official Web site, available at: <http://www.golf2020.com/> (accessed 17 August 2010).
22. GolfChannel. Official Web site, available at: <http://www.golfchannelsolutions.com/markets/usa> (accessed 18 August 2010).
23. Gutman & Mills (1982), “Fashion life style, self concept, shopping orientation, and store patronage: An integrative analysis”, Journal of Retailing, Vol. 58, No. 2, pp. 64-86.
24. Havitz, M and Howard, D. (1995), “How enduring is enduring involvement? A seasonal examination of three recreational activities”, Journal of Consumer Psychology, Vol. 4, No. 3, pp. 255-276.
25. Haydu, J. and Hodges, A. (2002), “Economic impacts of the Florida golf industry”, (Economic information report [EIR 02-4]). Gainesville, Florida. Food and Resource Economic Department, Florida Cooperative Extension Service, available at: <http://hortbusiness.ifas.ufl.edu/pubs/EIR02-4r.pdf> (accessed 10 September 2010).
26. Haydu, J., Hodges, A. and Hall, C. (2002), “Economic impacts of the turfgrass and lawncare industry in the U.S.”, (Economic information report [FE632]). University of Florida Extension, available at: <http://www.greenindustryalliance.com/national_economic.pdf> (accessed 10 September 2010).
27. Hennessey, S., Macdonald, R. and Maceachern, M. (2008), “A framework for understanding golfing visitors to a destination”, Journal of Sport and Tourism, Vol. 13, No. 1, pp. 5-35.
28. Hong, G., Fan, J., Palmer, L. and Bhargava, V. (2005), “Leisure travel expenditure patterns by family life cycle stages”, Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing, Vol. 18, No. 2, pp. 15-30.
29. Hsu, M., Huang, Y., Swanson, S. (2010), “Grocery store image, travel distance, satisfaction, and behavioral intentions: evidence from a midwest college town”, International Journal of Retail and Distribution Management, Vol. 39, No. 2, pp. 115-132.
30. Iwasaki, Y. and Havitz, M. (1998), “A path analytic model of the relationships between involvement, psychological commitment and loyalty”, Journal of Leisure Research, Vol. 30, No. 2, pp. 256-281.
31. Iwasaki, Y. and Havitz, M. (2004), “Examining relationships between leisure involvement, psychological commitment and loyalty to a recreation agency”, Journal of Leisure Research, Vol. 36, No. 1, pp. 45-73.
32. James, J, and Ross, S. (2004), “Comparing sport consumer motivations across sports. Sport Marketing Quarterly, Vol. 13, pp. 17-25.
33. Karmarkar, U. and Tormala, Z. (2009), “Believe me, I have no idea what I’m talking about: The effects of source certainty on consumer involvement and persuasion”, Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 36, No. 6, pp. 1033-1049.
34. Kim, S., Chun, H., and Petrick, J. (2005), “Positioning analysis of overseas golf tour destinations by Korean golf tourists”, Tourism Management, Vol. 26, pp. 905-917.
35. Kuentzel, W. and Heberlein, T. (2008), “Life course changes and competing leisure interests as obstacles to boating specialization”, Leisure Sciences, Vol. 30, No. 2, pp. 143-157.
36. Lee, J., Kim, H., Ko, Y and Sagas, M. (2011). The influence of service quality on satisfaction and intention: a gender segmentation strategy. Sport Management Review, 12, 4.
37. Limehouse, F., Melvin, P. and McComick, R. (2010), “The demand for environmental quality: an application of hedonic pricing in golf”, Journal of Sports Economics, Vol. 11, No. 3, pp. 261-286.
38. Lloyd, K. and Little, D. (2010), “Self-determination theory as a framework for understanding women’s psychological well-being outcomes from leisure-time physical activity”, Leisure Sciences, Vol. 32, No. 4, pp. 369-385.
39. Loomis, J., Tadjion, O., Watson, P., Wilson, J., Davies, S., Thilmany, D., (2009), “A hybrid individual-zonal travel cost model for estimating the consumer surplus of golfing in Colorado”, Journal of Sports Economics, Vol. 10, No. 2, pp. 155-167.
40. Madrigal, R. (1995), “Personal values, traveler personality type and leisure travel style”, Journal of Leisure Research, Vol. 27, No. 2, pp. 125-142.
41. Mahoney, Madrigal and Howard. (1999), “The effect of individual levels of self-monitoring on loyalty to professional football teams”, International Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship, Vol. 1, No. 2, pp. 146-167.
42. Mayo, E. and Jarvis, L. (1981), “The psychology of leisure travel: effective marketing and selling of travel services”, CBI Publishing, Boston, MA.
43. McGinnis, L. (2002), “Examining the gender gap in participatory golf using a ritual dramaturgical framework and gender perspective”, ETD collection for University of Nebraska – Lincoln. Paper AAI3055282, available at: <http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/dissertations/AAI3055282> (accessed 10 September 2010).
44. McGinnis, L., Gentry, J., and McQuillan, J. (2009), “Ritual-based behavior that reinforces hegemonic masculinity in golf: Variations in women golfers’ responses”, Leisure Sciences, Vol. 31, No. 1, pp. 19-36.
45. McIntyre, N. (1989), “The personal meaning of participation: enduring involvement”, Journal of Leisure Research, Vol. 21, No. 2, pp. 167-179.
46. Meir, R. (2000), “Fan reaction to the match day experience: A case study in English professional rugby league”, Sport Marketing Quarterly, Vol. 9, No. 1, pp. 34-42.
47. Mulligan, J. (2001), “The pricing of a round of golf; the inefficiency of membership fees revisited”, Journal of Sports Economics, Vol. 2, No. 4, pp. 328-340.
48. National Golf Federation. Official Web site, available at: <http://www.ngf.org/> (accessed 17 August 2010).
49. Neal, J., Sirgy, M. and Uysal, M. (1999), “The role of satisfaction with leisure travel/ tourism services and experience in satisfaction with leisure life and overall life – does good service produce satisfied customers?”, Journal of Business Research, Vol. 44, No. 3, pp. 153-163.
50. Oh, Y., Cheng, C., Lehto, X. and O’Leary, J. (2004), “Predictors of tourists’ shopping behaviour: Examination of socio-demographic characteristics and trip typologies”, Journal of Vacation Marketing, Vol. 10, No. 4, pp. 308-319.
51. Oliveira, N., Correia, A. and Silva, F. (2008), “Golf destination image – a course of tourist perspectives”, available at: <http://www.casee-feualg.org/workingpapers/CASEE_WP19_2008.pdf> (accessed 29 October 2010).
52. Park, H. (1996), “Relationships between involvement and attitudinal loyalty constructs in adult fitness programs”, Journal of Leisure Research, Vol. 28, No. 4, pp. 233-250.
53. Petrick, J. (2002), “Experience use history as a segmentation tool to examine golf travellers’ satisfaction, perceived value and repurchase intentions”, Journal of Vacation Marketing, Vol. 8, No. 4, pp. 332-342.
54. Petrick, J. and Sheila J. Backman. (2002), “An Examination of the Determinants of Golf Travelers’ Satisfaction”, Journal of Travel Research, Vol. 40, No. 3, pp. 252-258.
55. Price, K. (2010), “Online atmospherics: the impact of color and music on purchase intention”, International Journal of Electronic Marketing and Retailing, Vol. 3, No. 2, pp. 97-113.
56. Research Randomizer. Official Web site, available at: <http://www.randomizer.org/> (accessed 23 August 2010).
57. Richins, M., Bloch, P. and McQuarrie, E. (1992), “How enduring and situational involvement combine to create involvement responses”, Journal of Consumer Psychology, Vol. 1, No. 2, pp. 143-153.
58. Schmitz, T. (2006), “Economic impacts and environmental aspects of the Arizona golf course industry”, available at: <http://www.golf2020.com/reports/golffinalreport.pdf> (accessed 9 September 2010).
59. Schmitz, T. (2007), “Economic contribution of the golf industry to the Oklahoma economy”, available at: <http://www.golf2020.com/Reports/Oklahoma%20%20Impact%20Report.pdf> (accessed 9 September 2010).
60. Shani, A., Wang, Y., Hutchinson, J., and Lai, F. (2010), “Applying expenditure-based segementation on special-interest tourists: the case of golf travelers,” Journal of Travel Research, Vol. 49, No. 3, pp. 337-350.
61. Shim & Kotsiopulos (1992), “Patronage behavior of apparel shopping: Part I. Shopping orientations, store attributes, information sources, and personal characteristics”, Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, Vol. 10, No. 2, pp. 48-57.
62. Shim & Kotsiopulos (1993), “A typology of apparel shopping orientation segments among female consumers”, Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, Vol. 12, No. 1, pp. 73-85.
63. Shmanske, S. (2001), “Price discrimination at the links”, Contemporary Economic Policy, Vol. 16, pp. 368-378.
64. SRI International. (2005), “U.S. Golf Economy”, available at: <http://www.sri.com/news/releases/11-14-02.html> (accessed 10 September 2010).
65. Stodolska, M. and Livengood, J. (2006), “The effects of religion on the leisure behavior of american muslim immigrants”, Leisure Research, Vol. 38, pp. 293-320.
66. Stynes, D., Sun, Y., Talhelm, D. (2000), “Michigan Golf Tourists – Economic Impacts”, available at: <http://www.golf2020.com/CurrentNews/EconomicImpact_golfMI2000_14.pdf> (accessed 29 December 2010).
67. Sutton, W., McDonald, M. and Milne, G. (1997), “Creating and fostering fan identification in professional sport”, Sport Marketing Quarterly, Vol. 6, No. 1, pp. 15-29.
68. Tsai, W. (2010), “The related research of the bike-participants’ optimism, leisure involvement and positive emotion”, available at: <http://ethesys.yuntech.edu.tw/ETD-db/ETD-search/view_etd?URN=etd-0630110-003103> (accessed 29 December 2010).
69. Warnken, J., Thompson, D. and Zakus, D. (2008), “Golf course development in a major tourist destination: Implications for planning and management”, Environmental Management Vol. 27, No. 5, pp. 681-696.
70. Wilson, J. and Thilmany, D. (2006), “Golfers in Colorado: The role of golf in recreational and tourism lifestyles and expenditures”, Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing, Vol. 20, pp. 127-144.
71. Wilson, J., Watson, P., Thilmany, D., and Davies, S. (2004), “Golfers in Colorado: The Role of Golf in Recreational and Tourism Lifestyles and Expenditures”, available at: http://www.cogolf.org/uploads/impact/profile.pdf (accessed 20 December 2010).
72. Woodside, A. MacDonald, R. and Burford, M. (2004), “Grounded theory of leisure travel”, Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing, Vol. 17, No. 1, pp. 7-39.
73. World Golf Foundation. (2005), “Golf Economy Report”, available at: <http://www.golf2020.com/Reports/2005%20Golf%20Economy%20Report.pdf> (accessed 13 October 2010.)
74. Yan, L., Gao, S., Zhang, X., and Liu, J. (2010), “The relationship between leisure sports industry and economic growth”, Journal of Hebei University of Technology, Vol. 39, No. 2, pp. 60-63.
75. Young H. and Lennon S., (2010), “Effects of site design on consumer emotions: role of product involvement”, Journal of Research in Interactive Marketing, Vol. 4, No. 2, pp. 80 – 96.

### Corresponding Author

Kelly Price, Ph.D.
Assistant Professor of Marketing
East Tennessee State University
Department of Management and Marketing
P.O. Box 70625
Johnson City, TN 37614
(423) 439-4422

<pricekb@etsu.edu>

Kelly is an Assistant Professor of Marketing at East Tennessee State University. Her research consists of issues related to golf and consumer behavior. Her professional experience includes twelve years of retail management including golf management, buying and marketing.

The Effect of Coordination Training Program on Learning Tennis Skills

U.S. Sports Academy2013-11-22T22:53:34-06:00January 26th, 2012|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|

### Abstract

The aim of this study was to define which coordination abilities are the most important in tennis and to identify whether a coordination training program will improve the learning process of tennis skills (backhand and forehand). Fifteen expert coaches in tennis completed a check list of five coordination abilities and suggested that the most important coordination abilities for tennis players are “kinaesthetic differentiation” and “reaction time”. Based on the results from the questionnaires, the program designed to practice the two most important coordination abilities. Participants were 48 novice children (age 11 ± 2 years). They were randomly divided into two group, the experimental group (EG, n=24) and the control group (CG, n=24). Both groups followed tennis training program 3 times/wk for eight weeks. Participants of the experimental group performed a specific coordination program for 20 min before the skills practice and participants of control group performed the traditional practice. The tennis skill performance and learning assessed using observation technique in five basic elements of every skill. There were three measurements, pre, post and retention test, one week after post test without practice. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) with repeated measures (2 group X 3 measures) revealed that there was significant interaction between groups and measures. The Bonferroni post hoc analysis revealed that experimental group perform better than the control group in the post test and in the retention test in the two skills. The results of this study indicated that coordination training program help athletes to learn and perform the forehand and backhand tennis skills better.

**Key words:** Coordination abilities, kinaesthetic differentiation, reaction time, tennis skill

### Introduction

In sports where technique is of great importance, it is essential all athletes could perform refined skills. Tennis is a sport which demands high level of coordination abilities (1). The term “coordination” has been defined in the literature as the ability to perform complex motor skills. Hirtz, (2, 3) suggested a list of 5 basic coordination abilities: reaction, rhythm, balance, kinaesthetic differentiation and space – time orientation. Practicing the coordination abilities seem to be necessary and has to take place during childhood and adolescence, as a form of an “additional technique training” (4). This term includes additional drills that will improve virtuosity, stability and the coordination of special sport techniques. In most sports the training of skill alone is not enough for learning and stabilizing the new skill, thus, there is a need of specific drills which will facilitate the learning process of the skill. Previous studies (5, 6) developed a theory with regard to the coordination requirements for each sport. The abilities of coordination (specific for each sport) are “hidden” under each sport skill and facilitate athletes to maximize their performance in this skill (6, 7).

Derri, Mertznidou and Tzetzis (8) evaluated dynamic balance and body coordination between athletes (rhythm and gymnastics) and non athletes and found that athletes had significant better dynamic balance and body coordination. Also, it was proposed that the athletes should be practiced with sport specific coordination drills in order to optimize their performance.

Furthermore, Starosta, Rostkowska and Kokoszka (9) studied the water feeling at water sports with the use of questionnaires based on the 5 basic coordination abilities: reaction, rhythm, balance, kinaesthetic differentiation and orientation. The questionnaires were given to athletes from different water sports (swimming, synchronized swimming and diving) and to their coaches. The study showed that different swim phases depended differently on the coordination abilities.

The efficiency of coordination training in sports was supported by the results of experimental studies carried out on basketball players (17), handball players (10), football players (men and women) (11, 12) volleyball players and kick boxers, tae kwon do, single combats (Greco-Roman and free-style wrestling) (13) and on judo (14). A study with young tennis players (15) proposed that the abilities which contribute mostly on proper service motion were: body coordination, reaction time and the ability of throwing at a target.

Although coordination abilities are essential learning requirements in order to perform well and to develop optimal tennis strokes and movement technique (1), there are not many studies in tennis with regard the use of coordination abilities in learning process of basic skills.

The aim of the present study was to define which coordination abilities are the most important for tennis players and to identify if an additional coordination training program will improve the learning process of the tennis skills (backhand, and forehand).

### Method

#### Participants

In the present study participated 48 novice athletes (22 male and 26 female) of sport club, aged between 9 – 13 years old (11 ± 2 years). They were randomly divided into two groups, the experimental group (EG, n = 24) and the control group (CG, n = 24). The participants had training experience in tennis one year. These individuals voluntarily participated in this experiment.

#### Identification of coordination abilities

In order to identify which coordination abilities are the most important in tennis players, questionnaires were given to 15 expert tennis coaches. They were asked to evaluate the coordination abilities from the most important to the least important for tennis players. The coordination abilities that were valued: 1) kinaesthetic differentiation, 2) space and time orientation, 3) rhythm, 4) reaction and 5) balance. Based on these results the two most significant abilities were selected as tennis specific coordination abilities and an intervention programme was planned. Kinaesthetic differentiation, with regard to the movement perception, was defined as the ability that allows a player to control internal and external information, adapt it and use it correctly. Space and time orientation is the ability to determine and modify the position and movements of the body in space and time according to tennis court and/or an object in motion (tennis ball and opponent). Rhythm was defined as the ability to capture an acquire rhythm from an external source and to reproduce it in movement. Reaction is the ability to identify simple or complex situation rapidly and find the appropriate motor solution. Finally, balance was defined as the ability to maintain perfect body position during stroke performance (static) and recover the initial position (dynamic).

#### Intervention Program

Based on the results from the questionnaires, the coordination program designed to practice the two most important abilities: the kinaesthetic differentiation and reaction time. The intervention was a specific coordination program and performed before the tennis training session for eight weeks, three times per week. In each session the participants practiced four drills for five minutes each. Special attention was given given to make the drills fun and appropriate for athletes’ age and training experience.

#### Procedure of measurements

All participants had five minutes warm-up, and then performed 10 backhand and 10 forehand strokes period. These activities were recorded by a video-camera for the initial technique evaluation (pre-test). An expert tennis coach evaluated the backhand and forehand technique at five basic elements: i) the grip, ii) the side-way stance, iii) the elbow position before the touch, iv) the touch and v) the follow through.

A score was given for each participant (ten trials X the score of the sum of five elements of skill). After five weeks, when the intervention program was completed, a technique evaluation (post-test) for all players took place in the same way as the initial measurement. Finally after a week, without practice in these two skills, a technique evaluation (retention test) was performed to all players in order to examine if the participants learned the skills.

#### Statistical analysis

The Pearson (r) correlation was performed between the measurements from one day to the next day (test, retest) by an expert coach in tennis, in order to evaluate the observer’s internal reliability. There was high correlation in test and retest (r=0.97, p=0.000).

A one-way ANOVA determine if there were initial differences between groups in the two tennis skills. Two-way repeated measures ANOVA was used to test the difference in the technique performance of the skills in three measurements (pre, post, and retention test) between the two groups (EG and CG). The Bonferroni test was used for the post hoc analysis where appropriate. The level of statistical significance was set at p< 0.05.

### Results

#### Initial measurements

The data were normally distributed. The one-way ANOVA revealed no significant differences between the groups EG (Experimental) and CG (Control group) at pre-test in backhand (F_1,47 = 0,68 p > 0.05) and forehand (F_1,47 = 0,44 p > 0.05), which means that the two groups were began experiment with a similar level of technique.

#### Performance in Forehand

The two-way repeated measures ANOVA revealed significant interaction between the groups (F_2,92 = 46,36, p < 0.000) and measurements, main effect of measurements (F_2,92 = 161,22, p < 0.000) and main effect of group (F_1,46 = 73,58, p < 0.000). Mean and standard deviation for each group are presented in Table 1.

Specifically revealed significant differences in technique performance of forehand between groups EG and CG at post test (p < 0.05) and at retention test, a week after the completion of the intervention without practice, there was still a significant difference between group EG and CG (p < 0.05). LSD post-hoc analysis revealed that there were significant differences from pre to post-test and from pre-test to retention test of participants of experimental group. These means that the participants of experimental group were better than the participants of control group in forehand skill technique performance (Figure 1).

#### Performance in Backhand

Two-way repeated measures ANOVA revealed significant interaction between the groups (F_2,92 = 26,94, p < 0.001). In addition, a main effect for measurement (F_2,92 = 114,08, p < 0.000) and group (F_1,46 = 19,49, p < 0.000) was revealed.

Specifically revealed significant differences in technique performance of backhand between groups EG and CG at post test (p < 0.05) and at retention test, a week after the completion of the intervention without practice, there was still a significant difference between group EG and CG (p < 0.05). Mean and standard deviation for each group are presented in Table 2.

LSD post-hoc analysis revealed that there were significant differences from pre to post-test and from pre-test to retention test of participants of experimental group. This means that the participants of experimental group were better of participants of control group in backhand skill technique performance (Figure 2).

### Discussion

Coordination abilities are essential in order to develop and perform optimal tennis strokes (forehand and backhand) and the movement techniques (1). The aim of the present study was to define which coordination abilities are the most important for tennis players and to identify if an additional coordination training program will improve the learning process of the tennis skills (backhand, and forehand). Specifically it was suggested that kinaesthetic differentiation and reaction are the most important abilities for tennis. Thus, coordination exercises targeting those abilities as supplementary to tennis training sessions can improve the learning process of the backhand and forehand technical elements.

The results revealed that participants of the experimental group learned the two tennis skills (backhand, and forehand). The present findings for young tennis players aged 9 – 13 years old are in agreement with the bibliography (4). It was supported that coordination abilities are basic elements for an athletic skill. Also, practicing those abilities with specific exercises has a better result at improving the technique of those skills (16). Differentiation and reaction seem to be valuable in tennis as in other sports. Zwierko, Lesiakowski, and Florkiewick, (17) showed that coordination abilities such as orientation, differentiation, reaction, balance and the technical skills are necessary parts of the basketball players’ practice. Martin (18) claimed that kinaesthesia is very important for movement perception and motor skills learning. It has been suggested that kinaesthetic ability is developing rapidly until the age of ten and the well – trained persons are quite superb at this ability (8).

Roloff (19) suggested as a person’s kinesthia develops, the possibility of learning new motor skills increases. A study with volleyball players (20) found that rhythmic ability is important, while kinaesthetic differentiation ability is limited to this sport. In addition a study in rhythmic gymnastics (21) mentioned the importance of kinaesthesia to high performance. Also, it has been reported a relationship between reaction and the performance for basketball players (22, 23) karate athletes (24). A study which examined eye-hand and eye-foot reaction showed that there was significant difference between soccer players and non-athletes (25).

In general, in tennis the ability to react quickly at the net or on the return of serve or to volley a high-speed passing shot is very important (1). In addition, the present study showed that improving the ability to react with an additional training program to tennis practice, has a positive effect on the learning process of the technique of backhand and forehand. It has been suggested that age is related to coordination abilities and that there was a linear relationship between age and coordination performance for ages 4 – 7 years old (26). Participation in tennis by itself cannot develop the coordination abilities. The training of children should be focused on versatile education corresponding to certain need. Delimitation of this study was that the intervention last only 8 weeks and the long learning and retention of skills were not assessed in the present experiment.

### Conclusions

According to the results of the present study, the ability of kinaesthetic differentiation and reaction are primary connected to high performance tennis skills. Furthermore, practicing those abilities will help to improve the learning procedure of the backhand and forehand complex technique.

### Applications In Sport

Coordination abilities are important during tennis play, and their development from the early age is essential. Specifically, coaches who work with young players will have to include coordination exercises into their daily training program through which these tennis specific coordination abilities will be practiced. In this way the learning procedure will be more fun, and not through a classic, “boring” program. The goal for the coaches is not only the technique improvement but also, to fulfil the need of young players for fun.

### Tables

#### Table 1
Means and standard deviations of participants of two groups in forehand skill

#### Table 2
Means and standard deviations of participants of two groups in backhand skill

### Figures

#### Figure 1
The performance in technique evaluation of groups in forehand


#### Figure 2
The performance in technique evaluation of groups in backhand


### References

1. Bourqouin, O. (2003). Coordination. In: Strength and Conditioning for tennis, A.Q. Machar Reid, and Miguel Crespo. London, UK: International Tennis Federation, ITF Ltd, 71-77.
2. Hirtz, P. (1985). Coordination abilities in school sports. Volk und Wissen, Berlin.
3. Hirtz, P. (1997). Coordination Training. In: Schnabel G., Harre D., Borde A. (Hrsg.): Trainingswissenschaft. Leistung. Training. Wettkampf. Berlin. 225-230.
4. Abernethy, B. (1988). The effects of age and expertise upon perceptual skill development in a racquet sport. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 59, 210-221.
5. Martin, D., Carl, K., & Lehnertz, K. (1995). Tecnica sportiva e allenamento della tecnica. Didattica del movimento, 97/98, 37-54.
6. Neumaier, A. (1999). Koordinatives Anforderungsprofil und Koordinationstraining. In: H. Mechling & A. Neumaier (Hrsg.). Reihe: Training der Bewegungskoordination. ln: Sport und Buch Strauss.
7. Neumaier, A., & Mechling, H. (1994). Taugt das Konzept “koordinative F?higkeiten” als Grundlage f?r sportartspezifisches Koordinationstraining? In: Steuer- und Regelvorg?nge der menschlichen Motorik, Blaser, P., Witte, K., Stucke, C., (Hrsg.). Sankt Augustin: Academia, 207-212.
8. Derri, V., Mertzanidou, O., & Tzetzis, G. (2000). Assessment of dynamic balance and body coordination in female athletes of rhythmic and gymnastics, 9 – 15 years old. Exercise and Society, 26, 55-62.
9. Starosta, W., Rostkowska, E., & Kokoszka, K. (2003). The Concept of “Water Feeling”, Its Significance, Determining Conditions and Formation in the Opinion of Coaches of Various Swimming Sports. Kinesiology, 13, 17-32.
10. Lidor, R., Argov, E. & Daniel, S. (1998). An exploratory study of perceptual-motor abilities of women: novice and skilled players of team handball. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 86, 279 – 288.
11. Witkowski, Z. (2003). Koordinacjonnyje sposobnosti junych futbolistow: diagnostika, struktura, ontogenez (praca doktorska) (in Russian). Moskwa.– 232 s
12. Witkowski, Z., & Ljach, W. (2004). Cwiczenia ksztaltujace koordynacyjne zdolnosci motoryczne w pilce noznej. Centralny Osrodek Sportu, Warszawa. – 198 s.
13. Gierczuk, D. (2004). Coordination Training as a Factor Streamlining of the Goal-Oriented and Special Stage during the Schooling of Wrestlers (Ph. D. Thesis)]. AWF, Kraków.
14. Pietrow, A.M. (1997). Centralnoje programmirowanie mechanizmow realizacji koordinacjonnych sposobnostej sportsmenow i ich pedagogiczeskoje obosnowanie. Awtoref. siss. …dokt.ped.nauk. Moskwa. – 48 s.
15. Mantis, K., Zachopoulou, E., & Mavridis, T. (1998). A battery of tests for evaluating abilities related to the tennis serve. Journal of Human Movement Studies, 35, 73 – 88.
16. Druckman, D., & Swets, J. A. (1988). Enhancing human performance. Washington: Washington: National Academy Press.
17. Zwierko, T., Lesiakowski, P., & Florkiewick, B. (2005). Selected aspects of motor coordination in young basketball players. Human Movement Science, 6, 124-128.
18. Martin, D. (1988). Training im Kindes und Jugendalter, ed. D. Karl Holfmann. Martin, Carl, K., & Lehnertz, K. Schorndorf, Deutschland.
19. Roloff, L. (1952). Kinesthesis in relation to the learning of selected motor skills. The Research Quarterly, 16, 210 – 217.
20. Kioumourtzoglou, E., Michalopoulou, M., Tzetzis, G., & Kourtessis, T. (2000). Ability profile of the elite volleyball player. Perceptual and motor Skill, 90, 757-770.
21. Kioumourtzoglou, E., Derri, V., Mertzanidou, O., & Tzetzis, G. (1997). Experience with perceptual and motor skills in rhythmic gymnastics. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 84, 1363 – 1372.
22. Brooks, M. A., Boleach, L. W., & Mayhew, J. L. (1987). Relationship of specific and non-specific variables to successful basketball performance among high school players. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 64, 823-827.
23. Pavlidou, S., Michalopoulou, M., Aggeloussis, N., & Kioumourtzoglou, E. (2006). Relationship between perceptual and motor abilities on fundamental basketball skills in 8-13 Years Old Children. Inquiries in Sport & Physical Education, 4, 399 – 408.
24. Mori, S., Ohtani, Y., & Imanaka, K. (2002). Reaction times and anticipatory skills of karate athletes. Human Movement Science, 21, 213-230.
25. Montes – Mico, R., Bueno, I., & Candel, J. (2000). Pons a M. Eye -hand and eye – foot visual reaction times of young soccer players. Optometry, 71, 775-780.
26. Kambas, Α., Fatouros, J., Aggelousis, Ν., Gourgoulis, V., & Taxildaris, Κ. (2003). Effect of age and sex on the coordination abilities in childhood. Inquiries in Sport & Physical Education, 1, 152 – 158,

### Corresponding Author

Eleni Zetou, Dr
Papanikolaou 148
57010 Pefka, Thessaloniki
<elzet@phyed.duth.gr>
0030-2310-675280

Dr Eleni Zetou is Assistant Professor in Motor Learning, in Department of Physical Education and Sport Sciences of Democritus University of Thrace. She was also national Volleyball coach, vice president of Greek Volleyball Federation and member of Greek Academy of Physical Education.

Throwing Techniques for Ultimate Frisbee

U.S. Sports Academy2013-11-22T22:54:13-06:00January 5th, 2012|Sports Coaching|

### Abstract

The goal of this study was to determine if certain throwing techniques for the sport of Ultimate Frisbee were advantageous relative to other techniques. The defense can attempt to force a thrower to utilize a specific throw; knowing the advantages of different throws can influence a defender’s decision to force the thrower to use a certain throw.

Motion capture was used to monitor the flight of a disc (Discraft Ultrastar 175g) for three throwing techniques. The two main groups of throws were backhand (BH) and forehand (FH) throws, with the forehand throws divided into a closed forehand grip (CF) and a split forehand grip (SF). Sixteen participants were recruited with experience ranging from 3 years to 8 years based on survey. Throws were analyzed with regards to linear velocity, angular velocity, precession, and accuracy. Players threw a total of 45 throws: five throws for all combinations of the three throwing techniques combined with three objectives: accuracy, maximum spin, and maximum velocity. The order of the nine throwing groups was randomized.

Throws were analyzed for linear velocity, angular velocity, precession, and accuracy. Linear velocity was calculated by measuring the distance traveled in the first 0.02 seconds of flight, and angular velocity was measured by calculating the time required for four unique points on the disc to complete one rotation. Precession was measured by calculating the average angular deviation from the average normal plane of the disc, and accuracy was measured by the distance between the center of the disc and the target at closest approach using a quadratic fit to the known flight path.

There was a very strong linear correlation between linear velocity and angular velocity. There was no difference in linear velocity between backhand and forehand throws, although the closed grip forehand had a higher linear velocity than the split grip forehand. Backhand throws had higher angular velocities than forehand throws for a given speed; there was no difference in angular velocity between closed grip and split grip forehand throws. Backhand throws had less precession than forehand throws, and there was no difference in precession between closed grip and split grip forehand throws. There were no statistically significant differences in accuracy between any of the throws.

These results show that backhand throws tend to have more spin and wobble less making the backhand a superior throw. Throws with less spin have greater instability; as a defender, forcing the thrower to utilize a forehand throw would result in a throw with less stability than a backhand throw. Forehand throws did not perform better than backhand throws for any category tested.

Additionally, new players are often taught that the split-grip forehand is a bad throw, and that the closed-grip forehand should be used instead. The results show that the split-grip forehand performs on par with the closed-grip forehand with the exception of maximum velocity. New players should not be discouraged from using a split-grip forehand while learning the mechanics of the forehand, as the only disadvantage is a slight decrease in maximum velocity.

**Key Words:** Forehand, Backhand, Flick, Frisbee

### Introduction

In the sport of Ultimate Frisbee, players use two primary throws: backhand and forehand. My hypothesis, from personal experience, is that backhand throws will wobble less, have less spin, be more accurate, and travel faster than forehand throws. The aim of this study was to determine if one throw had a comparative advantage with respect to linear velocity, angular velocity, precession, and accuracy. Also, the split-grip forehand is often thought of as an inferior throw relative to the closed-grip forehand. The closed-grip forehand is expected to outperform the split grip forehand.

Players must be able to utilize both throws as the defenders can force players to throw one way or the other by positioning their bodies on a certain side of the thrower. As a defender, knowing advantages and disadvantages of each throw can factor into defensive strategies to increase the chances of a disc being thrown with sub-optimal flight characteristics as a result of differing throwing techniques. This may cause a higher incidence of turnovers due to incomplete passes.

Previous research has shown that a disc thrown with less angular velocity will result in a throw with less stability (1). Therefore, whichever throw has higher angular velocities will be the more stable throw and will be more likely to reduce turnovers. The angular velocity of a disc in flight does not have a significant effect on lift and drag coefficients (2).

### Methods

#### Participants

Participants were recruited by open invitation to the St. Louis Ultimate Association and both the Washington University in St. Louis men’s and women’s club ultimate teams. Participants completed a questionnaire to determine experience and skill level. The skill level was a ten point scale with 1=Beginner, 4=Recreational, 7=Competitive college, and 10=Elite. Of the participants, 5 were placed in the ‘elite’ category and 11 were placed in the ‘non-elite’ category. Experience was divided into seven categories: 0-1 years, 1-2 years, 2-4 years, 4-5 years, 5-8 years, 8-15 years, and 15+ years (see Table 1). No participants were excluded from the study and all participants performed the same number of each test.

Testing occurred at the Washington University School of Medicine Human Performance Lab after the participant signed the IRB-approved informed consent form. No financial compensation was provided for participating in the study.

#### Data Collection

Data were collected using a Motion Analysis system consisting of six high-speed Eagle Digital Cameras at 250 Hz and Cortex software. Three cameras were located above and behind the thrower (relative to the direction of the throw) with one camera directly behind the thrower, and the other two cameras located a couple meters to either side. These cameras were focused on the latter portion of the throw. The other three cameras were located in the same arrangement, but above the target, and focused on the volume around the thrower. This set up provided the largest capture volume so the throw would be in view of at least two cameras at all times. Seven reflective markers were used. One marker was placed on the thumbnail of the throwing hand with one marker in the center of the disc and three markers placed approximately five inches from the center marker in a triangular formation. Additionally, one marker was placed adjacent to one of the perimeter markers to provide an asymmetric model. The final marker was placed on a target, used to evaluate accuracy. Participants stood approximately 2.5 meters from the target and net. Participants threw 45 total throws consisting of nine categories: Backhand Accuracy (BH_A), Backhand Spin (BH_S), Backhand Velocity (BH_V), Closed Forehand Accuracy (CF_A), Closed Forehand Spin (CF_S), Closed Forehand Velocity (CF_V), Split Forehand Accuracy (SF_A), Split Forehand Spin (SF_S), and Split Forehand Velocity (SF_V). The order was randomized for each participant prior to data collection. For each category, participants had two practice throws followed by three throws, which were used for analysis.

#### Variables

The following variables were calculated: linear velocity, angular velocity, precession, and accuracy. For each throw, data processing began when the marker on the disc closest to the thumb marker was 0.3 meters away from the thumb marker indicating the disc had left the thrower’s hand. Linear velocity was calculated by computing the distance traveled over the first 0.02 seconds (5 frames). Angular velocity was calculated by tracking the time required for five different pairs of markers to complete one cycle. A cycle began when one marker’s y-coordinate crossed the other marker’s y-coordinate. The cycle ends after the first marker’s y-coordinate crosses the second marker’s y-coordinate twice. The angular velocity was calculated by averaging the times for each of the five pairs. Precession was calculated by calculating the average angular deviation from the average plane of the disc. The angles were calculated by taking the cross product of two vectors defined by two of the perimeter markers and the center marker. Accuracy was calculated by measuring the closest approach of the projected flight path to the center of the target. The flight path projection was calculated using a quadratic fit to the known flight path.

#### Statistical Analysis

The data were analyzed using SPSS Statistics® and Microsoft Excel®. Two sample paired t-tests were used to compare different throws and two sample t-tests (assuming equal variance) were used to compare elite vs. non-elite players. The significant threshold employed was p < 0.05. Regression analysis was used to determine whether correlations existed between linear velocity and both angular velocity and precession. Since angular velocity varied by linear velocity, the ratio of angular velocity to linear velocity was used to determine which throw achieved the highest angular velocities.

### Results

#### Elite vs. Non-Elite

The only difference found between elite and non-elite players was the maximum speed of throws: elite players had higher maximum velocities than non-elite players. There was no difference in accuracy, precession, or angular velocity to linear velocity ratios. With the exception of maximum velocity, no differences were found between elite and non-elite players; as a result, throw comparisons included both elite and non-elite players (see Table 2).

#### Throw Comparison

No significant differences were found between backhand and closed grip forehand or backhand and split grip forehand velocities. Closed grip forehands were found to have higher maximum velocities than split grip forehands. Backhand throws had an average maximum velocity of 20.1 m/s, closed grip forehand throws had an average maximum velocity of 20.6 m/s, and split grip forehands had an average maximum velocity of 19.2 m/s.

Backhand throws were found to have a higher angular velocity / linear velocity ratio than both closed grip and split grip forehands by more than 4 RPM per meter per second. No differences were found in the angular velocity / linear velocity ratio for closed grip forehands vs. split grip forehands (see Figure 1).

When participants were instructed to throw for maximum spin, throws were found to have higher angular velocity to linear velocity ratios than throws for accuracy and velocity; differences of greater than 5.5 RPM per meter per second were found for all three grips (see Table 3).

No correlation was found between velocity and precession.

No differences were found in accuracy for backhand, closed grip forehand, or split grip forehand throws, with average distances varying by less than 0.03 meters (1.25 inches). Backhand throws were found to have less precession than both closed grip forehands and split grip forehands by more than 35%. No differences were found between closed grip forehands and split grip forehands (see Figure 2)

Strong linear correlations were found between angular velocity and linear velocity when considering throws for maximum velocity and accuracy. values of greater than 0.9 were found for all three categories.

### Discussion

This study has limits that should be taken into consideration. First of all, several of the subjects have learned their throwing techniques from the same group of players, so certain efficiencies or inefficiencies in technique may affect results. Secondly, all participants use a closed-grip forehand; closed-grip forehand throws have been practiced by the participants, whereas split-grip forehand throws have not been practiced. Additionally, participants were throwing in a room with expensive equipment; participants may have altered their throws to ensure they hit the net. Accuracy data may have been inconclusive because the target was located 2-3 meters from the thrower. Also, certain throws may be more accurate for shorter distances and less accurate for longer distances. Limitations of being in a confined space may have prevented any significant results related to accuracy. The cameras also had a difficult time of tracking the higher velocity throws (18+ m/s). As a result, flight paths had to be reconstructed from partial data.

Backhand throws appear to be superior to forehand throws due to the higher angular velocity (see Figure 1) and less precession (see Figure 2) than forehand throws. Morrison found that angular velocity increases the stability of the disc (1) as the angular momentum provides gyroscopic stability, so backhand throws should be more stable than forehand throws. There were no differences in maximum linear velocity or accuracy between backhand and forehand throws. The only difference between the two forehand throws was that closed-grip forehands were thrown faster than split-grip forehands (see Table 3). There were no differences in the angular velocity to linear velocity ratio, precession, or accuracy for split-grip and closed-grip forehands.

Angular velocity can be predicted accurately by knowing linear velocity and intent of throw (maximum linear velocity, angular velocity, or accuracy). No predictors of precession were found in the study.

No previous studies have compared flight characteristics of forehand and backhand throws.

### Conclusion

Based on the results obtained, it would be advantageous to force the opposing team to throw forehand throws. Doing so results in throws with less stability as a result of less angular momentum, and more precession. It is possible that lower angular velocity and higher precession could lead to a decrease in distance traveled and stability. Additionally, higher precession values could expose the disc to more drag, causing the wind to affect the throw more.

Based on the results for forehand throws, the only advantage to throwing with a closed grip is the maximum attainable velocity. By using a closed grip, participants did not show any improvement in angular velocity or precession. Thus, the only instance where a closed-grip forehand is advantageous relative to a split-grip forehand is when a player is trying to throw for distance.

The hypothesis that backhand throws would wobble less was shown to be true and that backhand throws would have less spin was shown to be false. The hypotheses that backhand throws would be more accurate and travel faster were not supported by any results.

Overall, it appears that it would be advantageous to force the offense to throw more forehand throws than backhand throws and new players should not be discouraged from learning to throw a split-grip forehand while learning throwing mechanics.

### Applications In Sport

From a strategic standpoint, teams can change defensive strategies to force the opposition to use an inferior throw. Additionally, new players can be taught advantages and disadvantages of different grips. New players are often taught that the split-grip forehand is inferior to the closed-grip forehand, although the only disadvantage of the split-grip forehand is the maximum speed of the throw. For new players, if the split-grip is more comfortable than the closed grip, they will achieve the same angular velocity and precession as a closed-grip throw.

### Acknowledgements

I would like to sincerely thank Dr. Jack Engsberg for making this research possible. He welcomed my research proposal with open arms, having nothing to gain from the study. Jack has a true passion for helping others and I am extremely fortunate to be one of the many persons he has helped. He has guided me through every step of the research process offering invaluable advice along the way. Jack, thank you for being an amazing mentor and great friend.

### REFERENCES

1. Morrison, V.R. (2005). The Physics of Frisbees. Mount Allison University Physics Department.
2. Hummel, Sarah Ann (2003). Frisbee Flight Simulation and Throw Biomechanics. Office of Graduated Studies of the University of California Davis.

### TABLES

#### Table 1
Participant Survey

**Note:** Standard Deviations appear in parentheses below the means.

#### Table 2
Comparison of Elite and Non-Elite Players

**Note:** BH is backhand, FH is forehand.

** Denotes significantly different from non-elite (p < 0.05)

#### Table 3
Throw Comparison

**Note:** BH is backhand, CF is closed grip forehand, and SF is split grip forehand. A is accuracy, V is velocity, and S is spin.

** Denotes significantly different from CF (p<0.05), ^ Denotes significantly different from SF (p<0.05)

† Denotes significantly different from V (p<0.05)

‡ Denotes significantly different from S (p<0.05)

### Figures

#### Figure 1
Graph of Angular Velocity vs. Linear Velocity


#### Figure 2
Graph of Precession vs. Linear Velocity


### Corresponding Author

Jack R. Engsberg, PhD
Washington University School of Medicine: Human Performance Laboratory
4444 Forest Park, Campus Box 8505
St. Louis, MO 63108
<engsbergj@wustl.edu>
314 – 286 – 1632

### Main Author

Evan Winograd
Washington University School of Engineering and Applied Science
6985 Snow Way Drive Box 6861
St. Louis, MO 63130
<ewinograd@go.wustl.edu>
713-805-8609

### Author Bios

#### Evan Winograd
Evan Winograd is an undergraduate student studying Mechanical Engineering at the Washington University in St. Louis School of Engineering and Applied Science.

#### Jack Engsberg
Jack Engsberg is a Professor of Occupational Therapy and Neurosurgery at Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis. His work in the Human Performance Laboratory focuses on rehabilitation for persons with disabilities including cerebral palsy, stroke, scoliosis, spinal deformity, spinal cord injuries, and amputations using high-speed motion capture systems, force plates, electromyography, and an isokinetic dynamometer.

The Lifestyle and Sport Activity of Secretaries

U.S. Sports Academy2013-11-22T22:54:24-06:00January 5th, 2012|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Exercise Science, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology, Women and Sports|

### Abstract

#### Purpose
The aim of the study was to analyse the sports activity and lifestyle of secretaries in Slovenia.

#### Methods
A questionnaire with 37 variables was completed by 104 secretaries from different places within Slovenia. We calculated the frequencies and contingency tables, whereas the statistical characteristics were determined on the basis of a 5% risk level.

#### Results
We established that 26% of the secretaries were obese; most of the time secretaries are sitting down, working with their fingers, and are in forced positions. 56% of the secretaries occasionally take medicines; most of their pain occurs in the neck region, of the back, the shoulder region and in the loins; other common problems include insomnia, emotional exhaustion, and headache. The majority of secretaries engage in sporting activities on the weekend and 2 – 3 times weekly; most of them practiced sport in an unorganized way, with their family or by themselves. A good 20% engaged in an organized sport in a sport club or society, where fitness can also be classified. A good 20% practiced sport in an unorganized way, with their friends. It was established that those secretaries who engaged in an unorganized sport activity were accompanied by their friends or family. Those practicing an organized sport were mainly alone.

#### Conslusion
Secretaries who are frequently active often have a lower Body Mass Index (BMI), take painkillers less often or never, and believe that sport has a great impact on their health.

#### Applications in Sports
Sports clubs and associations should prepare appropriate activities for secretaries which will fullfil their interest, health, and wellbeing.

**Key words:** working conditions, wellbeing, health.

### Introduction

Modern professions are completely different from those undertaken in the past. Cutting-edge technology, robotics, and computer science have disburdened the human labour force and thus caused an increase in the demand and supply of office workers (secretaries, administrators, clerks etc.) whose sedentary jobs are characterized by long hours in forced postures. It is clear to see that the working conditions have drastically changed. Besides that, the leisure time and leisure activity preferences have also changed. According to the results of the latest studies, sport and recreation activities are being promoted and are increasingly gaining ground (13). The effects were first seen with highly educated people as they are aware of the potential negative consequences of a sedentary lifestyle, which is why they include a suitable sport activity in their everyday life (7, 9, 10). The fact that Slovenia is among the top European Union (EU) member states in terms of the physical activity of the population is more than encouraging. However, the latest studies show that 37.91% of adult residents of Slovenia are physically inactive (11). Due to the pressure to achieve higher productivity at work, the desire to be promoted and the aspirations for a higher income there is simply not enough time to engage in sport (8). People of different professions find themselves constantly pressed for time.

The work of secretaries is highly specific. Secretaries spend most of their working time in forced postures, sitting in unventilated offices, looking at a computer monitor most of the time, memorising huge amounts of information, and this all burdens them psychically and physically. Due to the many positive impacts of sport on physical, emotional and mental well-being (the condition of being contented, healthy, or successful) and given the nature of their work, it is highly recommended that secretaries engage in a sport activity (12). Long hours of sitting in front of a computer in a bent posture are detrimental to the human body. An appropriate sport activity can alleviate or even eliminate problems caused by a sedentary job (6). What is meant by appropriate sport activity is a recreational physical activity which positively affects both health and well-being (mood, sleep and self-confidence) (1).

This study aimed to establish the correlation between the sport activity of secretaries and some selected healthy lifestyle factors. For this purpose, a sample of secretaries was surveyed to establish the correlation between secretaries’ sport activity and the characteristics of their living environment as well as between the state of their nutrition and the type of their sport activity. We also established the frequency of health problems which precondition secretaries’ active engagement in sport activities.

### Methods

#### Sample of subjects

The sample included 104 randomly selected secretaries from different parts of Slovenia. The sample was selected at the congress of secretaries. The subjects were aged 23 to 61 years, while their average age was 41. Their jobs included personal assistant, business secretary and administrator.

#### Sample of variables

The study was based on a survey questionnaire consisting of 37 questions which enquired about social, environmental and work factors, the frequency and type of sport activity, nutrition, health condition, and psychical well-being (14). The data acquisition process was carried out in compliance with the Personal Data Protection Act. Subject gave informed consent for this study. The study was approved from the Etics Commission.

#### Data-processing methods

The data were processed using the SPSS-15.0 statistical program at the Computer Data Processing Department at the Faculty of Sport in Ljubljana. The basic statistical parameters and contingency tables were calculated. The subprograms FREQUENCIES and CROSSTABS were used for the calculation. The probability of a correlation between the variables was tested by a contingency coefficient. The statistical significance of the differences was accepted at a two-way 5% alpha error level.

### Results

#### Body characteristics

Body weight and height were self-reported. BMI was calculated from those data. Average BMI for secretaries was 23.7, indicating that the secretaries participating in the study had a normal body weight.

#### Working conditions

The secretaries’ working conditions varied (Table 1): sitting, standing – straight, standing – bending, lots of walking, working with fingers, working with hands, frequent forced posture (head and neck, turn of the torso, deep bending posture). Most secretaries spend almost all day sitting on a chair, working with their fingers and are in a forced postures. 10% of them stated these three combinations and 10% the combination of sitting and working with fingers

#### Taking work home

Secretaries often take work home with them. Sometimes they have to finish assignments at home, at other times they bring home their stress, problems, and burdens. Nearly 70% of the secretaries confirmed they sometimes feel the pressures of their work when at home (Figure 1).

#### Secretaries’ current health condition and their taking of painkillers

Most secretaries (57.7%) assessed their health condition as good. As many as 56% of them occasionally take medicines. It is statistically characteristic that those secretaries who take medicines more frequently less frequently engage in a sport activity. We established that nearly 40% of the surveyed secretaries never take any painkillers. Occasional use was reported by 56% and frequent use by 5%.

#### Secretaries’ injuries in the past three months and health problems

91.3% of the secretaries reported no injuries had been sustained in the past three months. The most frequent pains occurred in the neck, shoulder girdle, and the lumbar part of the spine. Also frequently reported were insomnia, emotional exhaustion, and headache. Other pains occur less frequently.

#### Secretaries’ absences from work

We established that 75.5% of the secretaries had not been absent on sick leave in the past six months. In the same period, 17.6% of the secretaries were on sick leave for less than 14 days. The reasons for their sick leave mainly included respiratory diseases (53.3%), care for other family members (16.7%), and injury at work or outside work (6.7%).

#### Secretaries’ assessment of the impact of sport on their health

It was established that the secretaries were aware of the importance of sport activity for their health, as nearly one-half (45.6%) of them assessed the positive impacts of sport on their health as strong, whereas the rest (53.4%) assessed them as very strong.

#### Frequency of engaging in sport

Most of the secretaries engaged in sport on weekends and 2-3 times a week. Only 4.9% of them stated they never engaged in sport (Figure 2). The time most of the secretaries dedicate to sport ranges from 35 minutes to 2 hours.

#### Types of sport activities

It was established that the secretaries engaged in several different sports at a time. The most practiced sports include cycling, fast walking, mountaineering, and swimming; skiing is also popular. One-quarter of the secretaries practice racquet sports. These sports constitute a type of physical activity which one may adapt to one’s momentary well-being and general physical fitness and, what is more, they enable the venting of psychical tensions typical of a secretary’s work. Degenerative changes in the body are not an obstacle to practicing racquet sports.

#### Method of practicing sport

Most of the secretaries practice sport in an unorganized way, with their family or by themselves. A good 20% of them engage in an organized sport in a sport club or society and the same percentage practice sport with their friends in an unorganized way. Racquet sports are undoubtedly among those activities which require only a small financial input and can be practiced nearly everywhere due to the availability of sport facilities and grounds and the fact that they can be modified to suit individual needs. It was established that those secretaries who engaged in a sport in an unorganized way were accompanied by their friends or family. Those who practiced an organized sport were mainly doing it by themselves.

#### Sport inactivity and motives for sport activity and against it

The reasons for sport inactivity lie primarily in the lack of time, fatigue, and lack of motivation, as well as inadequate organization. The motives for sport activity relate to different reasons: practice sport means to relax, maintain and improve one’s health, maintain and improve one’s physical fitness, and have a good feeling from doing something for oneself.

#### Impact of sport activity on well-being

Most of the secretaries who practice sport are more self-confident and efficient in their work. A good mood and relaxation are typical indicators of well-being and the secretaries reported being full of vitality and energy. They also enjoy better sleep after a sport activity. They reported that their tenacity, strength, flexibility, and adroitness have improved. Most of them claimed they were able to better withstand psychological pressures. All but one agreed they were not tired more than usual after engaging in a sport activity. The same was true for pain in the legs. Only three of them thought that pain in their legs was due to sport activity.

#### Employers’ role in the secretaries’ sport activity

Most of the secretaries believed that sport and recreation belonged to the private sphere of each individual. 20% of them thought that their employer should support their sport activity at least morally. The same percentage of secretaries said their employer sponsored sports events and employees’ sport clubs. Only three secretaries wished for sport activities to be included in the work process (exercises in the workplace, recreational facilities in the company). The employers did not award their employees for sport achievements (Figure 3).

The selected variables (14) were cross-checked using contingency tables in the CROSSTABS subprogram of the SPSS statistical package and the results showed a statistically significant correlation between the BMI and frequency of engaging in sport (k = 0.644, p = 0.001). A more frequent engagement in sport conditioned a lower BMI. The differences between taking medication and a frequent engagement in sport were also statistically significant (k = 0.444, p = 0.034). The more physically active secretaries only rarely took painkillers or never. The assessed health condition and frequency of engaging in sport were also statistically significantly correlated (k = 0.490, p = 0.004). A more frequent engagement in sport preconditioned a good health condition. The secretaries’ opinion on the impact of sport on their health and the frequency of engaging in sport were also statistically significantly correlated (k = 0.593, p = 0.002). The physically active secretaries believed that sport had a strong impact on their health.

### Discussion

The World Health Organization (WHO) defines obesity as excessive fat accumulation that presents a risk to health (1977). Women generally have more body fat than men. Men and women whose fat exceeds 25% and 30%, respectively, are obese. The results of our study showed that 26% of the secretaries were obese. In an extensive study involving the adult population of Slovenia, Zaletel Kragelj and Fras (15) established that as many as 40.1% of the individuals surveyed were obese and 38.5% had a normal weight. This leads us to conclude that the surveyed secretaries had a lower BMI than the Slovenian average. With reference to the above, in the future it would be reasonable to establish the ratio between the muscle mass and fat mass.

Good working conditions are certainly an essential element of the better performance of an employee, which is why good employers always strive for a better working environment for their employees (12). It was established in our research that the secretaries mainly work in the following working conditions: sitting, standing – straight or bending, and lots of walking. The study results showed that the secretaries most frequently sit, work with fingers and in forced postures. Due to such working conditions they should do specific gymnastic exercises several times a day to compensate for their long maintained sedentary positions.

Another important finding of our study was the frequency of taking medication. It these research was established that as many as 56% of the secretaries occasionally take medicines. Other researchers have found similar findings (14). In their research was namely established that the majority of people (even 70%) suffer from various intestinal difficulties for several years as a result of taking painkillers such as ibuprofen. They reported taking painkillers all too often.

Our findings about the secretaries’ injuries in the previous three months are encouraging because as many as 91.3% of the secretaries had sustained no injuries in the said period. We established that 75.5% of the secretaries had not been absent on sick leave in the past six months. In the same period, 17.6% of the secretaries were on sick leave for less than 14 days. The reasons for their sick leave mainly include respiratory diseases (53.3%), looking after other family members (16.7%) and injury at work or outside work (6.7%). The predominant diseases in terms of the percentage of absences on sick leave were diseases of the skeleton and bone system and connective tissues, followed by injuries and infections outside work, with injuries and infections at work occupying third place. In women, frequent reasons for an absence include pregnancy and diseases in the prenatal and postnatal periods (2). This is also comparable with the findings of our research.

As regards the secretaries’ current health conditions, it can be concluded that they correspond with the Slovenian average; however, the latter is considerably higher than that in the EU. A comparison with a relevant EU study reveals that Slovenians are more burdened by health problems caused by work. Nearly every second employee reports pain in the back (45.9%), one-quarter (25.7%) complain about frequent headaches and four employees out of ten (38.2%) suffer from muscle pain. The EU averages are considerably lower (3, 5).

The analysis of the secretaries’ opinions about the importance of sport, frequency, type and method of engaging in sport yielded the results presented in the continuation. We assess the secretaries’ opinion about the importance of sport activity as good. An opinion as such is not enough, but the findings show that the secretaries corroborate their views with concrete activities. Namely, 55.7% of them practice a sport between 35 minutes and two hours mainly two to three times a week. In view of the Slovenian average established by Doupona Topič and Sila (4), namely that the Slovenian active population engages in sport 3.25 hours a week on average, we realised that the secretaries can be classified among the physically active population of Slovenia. In terms of the chosen type of sport activity, with the most popular being cycling, fast walking, mountaineering and swimming, this can be compared to the Slovenian average, for women, where high percentages also represented morning gymnastics, equestrian sports and martial arts (4). Most of the secretaries practiced sport in an unorganized way, with their family or by themselves. A good 20% engaged in an organized sport in a sport club or society, where fitness can also be classified. A good 20% practiced sport in an unorganized way, with their friends. It was established that those secretaries who engaged in an unorganized sport activity were accompanied by their friends or family. Those practicing an organized sport were mainly alone. The results of the Slovenian average show that unorganized sport activities are still predominant in Slovenia as 40.2% of people practice sport in this way. Less than 25% of the population practice organized sports (4). We believe that an employee’s opinion about sport and their method of engaging in sport (unorganized) is also influenced by their employer. Most secretaries (59.3%) answered the question about their employer’s support of their sport activity by saying that the employer considered sport activity as a private sphere of life. 25.3% of employers support sport activity at least morally.

### Conclusion

It has been established that sport activity plays an increasingly important role in the everyday life of the secretaries. Due to specificity of their work which exerts psychical and physical pressure on them secretaries are engaging in sport more frequently. This positively affects their well-being, health, general fitness, and lifestyle. In our sample, the frequency of practicing a sport and the time of practice were comparable to and higher than the Slovenian average for adults of the same age. The type of sport activity was also comparable. In our opinion, more attention should be paid to the organization of sport activities as the majority of secretaries engage in an unorganized physical activity. It was also established that the secretaries hoped for some organized types of sport that would be provided by their employers. The latter insufficiently support their secretaries’ sport activity. Most of them believe that sport is a private sphere of life, not part of work. They support sport activity only morally as they mainly fail to award sport achievements, sponsor sport events or include sport activities in the work process.

### Applications In Sport

The secretaries are aware of their work, presumptions, and life. They proved this with their low rate of absences on sick leave. They should be offered more possibilities for engaging in organized sport activities and be supported by their employers financially, not only morally. Consequently, they will reduce their excessive use of painkillers and alleviate the pain in their neck, lumbar part of the spine and shoulder girdle, which are consequences of the frequent forced postures they must adopt. At the same time, they will also improve their psychical, physical, and social life.

### Acknowledgments

Authors agree that this research has non-financial conflicts or interest. This includes all monetary reimbursement, salary, stocks, or shares in any company.

### References

1. Backović Juričan, A., Kranjc Kušlan M., & Mlakar Novak, D. (2002). Slovenia on the move project – move to health. International conference: Promoting health through physical activity and nutrition. Radenci: 68-70.
2. Bolniški staž. [Sickness absence of the job]. Retrieved August 5, 2010, from Institute of Public Health of the Republic of Slovenia, Web site: <http://www.ivz.si/Mp.aspx?ni=78&pi=6&_6_id=52&_6_PageIndex=0&_6_groupId=2&_6_newsCategory=IVZ+kategorija&_6_action=ShowNewsFull&pl=78-6.0>
3. Dobre delovne razmere v Sloveniji ogrožata visoka stopnja delovne intenzivnosti in zdravstvene težave, ki jih povzroča delo. [Good working conditions in Slovenia threatens a high degree of labor intensity and health problems caused by work]. Retrieved May 17, 2009, from Eurofound, Web site: <http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/press/releases/2007/070917_sl.htm>.
4. Doupona Topič, M., & Sila, B. (2007). Oblike in načini športne aktivnosti v povezavi s socialno stratifikacijo [Types and methods of sport activity in relation to social stratification]. Šport, 3: 12-16.
5. Gibson, S., Lambert, J., & Neate, D. (2004). Associations between weight status, physical activity, and consumption of biscuits, cakes and confectionery among young people in Britain. Nutrition Bulletin, 4: 301.
6. Görner, K., Boraczyński, T., & Štihec, J. (2009). Physical activity, body mass, body composition and the level of aerobic capacity among young, adult women and men. Sport scientific and practical aspects, 2: 5-12.ž
7. Meško, M., Videmšek, M., Štihec, J., Meško Štok, Z., & Karpljuk, D. (2010). Razlike med spoloma pri nekaterih simptomih stresa ter intenzivnost doživljanja stresnih simptomov. [Gender differences in some symptoms of stress and intensity of experiencing stress symptoms] Management, 2: 149-161.
8. Mlinar, S., Štihec, J., Karpljuk, D., & Videmšek, M. (2009). Sports activity and state of health at the casino employees. Zdravstveno varstvo, 3: 122-130.
9. Mlinar, S., Videmšek, M., Štihec, J., & Karpljuk, D. (2009). Physical activity and lifestyles of Hit casino employees. Raziskave in razprave, 3: 63-88.
10. Morabia, A., & Costanza, M.C. (2004). Does walking 15 minutes per day keep the obesity epidemic away? American Journal of Public Health, 3: 437-440.
11. Sila, B. (2007). Leto 2006 in 16. študija o športnorekreativni dejavnosti Slovencev [Year 2006 and the 16th study on sport-recreational activity of Slovenians]. Šport, 3: 3-11.
12. Videmšek, M., Karpljuk, D., Meško, M., & Štihec, J. (2009). Športna dejavnost in življenjski slog oseb nekaterih poklicev v Sloveniji. [Sports activities and lifestyle of some employers in Slovenia]. Ljubljana: Faculty of sport, Institute for kineziology.
13. Videmšek, M., Štihec, J., Karpljuk, D. & Starman, A. (2008). Sport activity and eating habits of people who were attending special obesity treatment program. Collegium antropologicum, 3: 813-819.
14. Zajec, J. (2006). Povezanost športne dejavnosti tajnic z izbranimi dejavniki zdravega načina življenja. (Unpublished bachelor’s thesis). Ljubljana: Faculty of sport.
15. Zaletel-Kragelj, L., & Fras, Z. (2005). Stanje gibanja za zdravje pri odraslih prebivalcih v Sloveniji [The status of the exercise for health of adult population of Slovenia]. In: Expert conference ‘Exercise for Adults’ Health – status, problems, supportive environments. Ljubljana: Institute of Public Health of the Republic of Slovenia, 23-26.

### Tables

#### Table 1
Secretaries’ working conditions

#### Table 2
Types of sport activities

### Figures

#### Figure 1
Percentage of feeling the pressures of work at home


#### Figure 2
Percentage of engaging in sport


### Corresponding Author

assist. Jera Zajec, Ph.D.
University of Ljubljana
Faculty of Education
Kardeljeva ploščad 16, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia, Europa
<jera.zajec@pef.uni-lj.si>
gsm: 0038640757335

Jera Zajec, Ph.D. is the assistant professor in Faculty of Education in Ljubljana. She is a member of sport cathedra. Her bibliography contains article all over the word. Her interests in researching are wilde and contains development in motopedagogic for preschool children to adults.

Acute Effects of Combined Elastic and Free-weight Tension on Power in the Bench Press Lift

U.S. Sports Academy2013-11-22T22:55:06-06:00January 4th, 2012|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Coaching, Sports Facilities, Sports Management|

### Abstract

The present study investigated the acute effects on power following the bench press exercise with a combination of elastic band and free-weights vs. free weight only. Eight college-aged males and females participated in this study. All 8 subjects were college track and field athletes that participated in throwing events. The participants performed two bench press training sessions that consisted of three sets of five repetitions. One session used a combination of elastic band (15% of total resistance) and free-weight exercise (85% of total resistance), while the other session consisted only of a free-weight exercise (100%). Power was measured twice at 50% of their one repetition maximum (1 RM) at the conclusion of each lifting session. Analysis via repeated measures Ancova (Treatment by Time covaried for gender) revealed a significant effect for Time (F= 5.951, p=0.05) and a significant two way interaction for Treatment*Time (F=54.093, p<0.001). The present investigation demonstrated an initial power measurement that was greater for the combined group rather than the free-weight only group. This information is potentially beneficial for many different groups of trainee’s.

**Key Words:** Elastic tension, Strength Training, Acute Training Effect

### Introduction

Recently, there have been a number of investigations that have assessed the impact of combined elastic band and free-weight exercise. These bands have been shown to provide predictable variable resistance when applied to free weight exercises such as the back squat and bench press (5,7). Exercise professionals are continually trying to discover novel ways to increase strength and power gains. Wallace et al. (12) demonstrated that power was acutely increased in the back squat exercise with the addition of elastic tension. It was suggested from this research that an 80% free-weight/20% elastic tension ratio might be optimal. Stevenson et al. (10) also found that the combination of elastic band and free-weight exercise during the back squat can significantly increase rate of force development. Experienced power lifters and strength and conditioning professionals have claimed elastic band resistance combined with traditional training produces strength gains for several years (4,8,9). Anderson et al. (1) demonstrated an increase in the bench press and squat exercise strength after training with the addition of elastic tension for an athletic population. In this study, the back squat 1-RM improvement was nearly three times higher for the combined group. In addition, the bench press increase was doubled for the combined group. Furthermore, the combined group’s lower body average power increase was nearly three times better than the free-weight only group. Anderson et al. (2008) used the 80/20 ratio that was suggested by earlier studies. Anderson’s study demonstrated that combined elastic band and free-weight exercise was a viable option to use to train experienced lifters. That study also demonstrated that the group using the combination exercise experienced slightly less resistance at the bottom of the movement when the joints may be under maximal stress in free-weight training. Thus, band training may also provide reduced risk in back squat and bench press exercises.

Triber et al. (11) concluded that the combination of elastic and free-weight exercise provided beneficial effects on strength and functional performance in college-level tennis players. The experimental group experienced significant gains in both internal and external rotation torque. That same study concluded that an elastic band training program strengthened the rotator cuff muscles of collegiate baseball pitchers (11). Band training has the unique ability to target specific muscles, which can be beneficial for numerous sports teams. Using a combination of elastic band and free-weight exercise can also mimic the strength curve of most muscles better. A muscle’s strength curve denotes the alteration in strength of that muscle during the entire range of motion in a certain movement (13). Along these lines, it has been reported that combined elastic and free-weight exercises provided greater force during the first 25 percent of the eccentric phase and last ten percent of the concentric phase of a lift as compared to free-weights alone (3).

Elastic tension has also been reported to impact the neuromuscular performance. Page and Ellenbecker (6) claim that elastic band exercise imparts a higher neuromuscular control resulting in improved balance, gait and mobility. As stated, the gains resulting from the combination of elastic band and free-weight exercise are abundant and the use of this treatment is growing among professionals; though the acute effects on power have yet to be documented. Therefore, the purpose of the present investigation was to determine how if at all, combined elastic tension applied to a normal bench press training session affects power.

### Methods

The present investigation was approved by the local institutional review board and employed a within subjects design, with random assignment. The participants gave informed consent prior to participating and included: four male (age: 20.5±2.1yrs, height:1.82±0.07m, weight: 112.68±15.03kg) and four female (age: 19.9±1.7yrs, height: 1.76±0.05m, weight: 100.78±28.47kg) college track and field athletes involved in the throwing events (shot put, discus, hammer). The participants performed in a counterbalanced within-subjects design, two bench press training sessions that consisted of 3 sets of 5 repetitions at 85% of their 1-RM. The athletes had recently undergone a 1-RM assessment as part of practice; which was supervised by the research team and the weight selected for the treatment was based on this assessment.

One session consisted solely of resistance provided by a standard Olympic barbell with plates, which equated to 85% of the athletes previously determined one repetition maximum, the second session consisted of combined resistance where 85% of 1 RM was derived from 85% tension provided by an Olympic barbell with plates and 15% provided by Elastic Bands (Jump Stretch Inc., Youngstown, OH.). The 85% free weight and 15% elastic tension treatment was based upon previous research performed in our laboratory that suggested that this was an appropriate split for effective training between the isotonic tension provided via free weight and variable resistance by the elastic bands (2).

Immediately after the training sessions, the participants were asked to bench press 50% of 1RM at maximum velocity, in order to generate the greatest amount of watts possible. The participants performed two lifts at 50% of 1RM after each treatment, separated by a rest period of 90 seconds. The two sessions were separated by a 72 hour wash out period as to avoid undo fatigue affecting the results. The order of treatment was randomized so that half the participants lifting under the combined elastic band and free weight condition went first, with the other half lifting in the free weight only condition went first. During the second visit the participants lifted under the other treatment.

Instruments

Power was measured twice, with a minimum of 90 sec rest between measurements at 50% of 1-RM, following the conclusion of both lifting sessions, using a Max Factor tether type potentiometer (Max Rack Inc, Columbus, OH.). This instrument demonstrated reliability in pilot testing with Intraclass correlations of greater than 0.99 on repeated measures testing.

Statistical Analysis

Results of the present investigation were analyzed via a treatment (Combined free-weight and elastic tension vs. free weight only) by time (attempts 1,2) repeated measures Ancova (covaried for gender). The inclusion of the covariate was necessary based upon the natural differences in strength that existed between the male and female athletes in the present investigation. All statistical tests were performed with the use of a modern statistical software package (SPSS ver 17.0 for Macintosh). The criteria for statistical significance was set a priori at alpha <0.05.

### Results

Intraclass correlation analysis suggested good reliability on all measures for the present investigation (>0.99). Analysis performed via repeated measures Ancova (Treatment by Time covaried for gender) revealed a significant main effect for Time (F= 5.951, p=0.05) and a significant two way interaction for Treatment*Time (F=54.093, p<0.001).

The subjects initial measurements of power immediately following the training session was higher in the combined elastic treatment (437.5+34.89 watts) as compared to the free-weight only condition (391.88+41.01 watts). (see Table 2)

### Discussion

The current study extended previous studies by using both male and female participants that were college track and field athletes. All 8 subjects were involved in throwing events and therefore trained regularly with resistance exercises such as a bench press with the involvement of both elastic and free-weight training. The present investigation revealed a differential response in power following training sessions that utilized combined elastic and free weight tension as compared to free weight only.

Affects have been seen with a combination of elastic band and free-weight tension in the past. Bellar et al. (2011) reported around a 5lbs increase in 1RM bench strength after only 3wks of training with a combination of elastic bands and free weights. Anderson et al. (2008) reported changes in power production with athletes who utilized a combination of elastic and free-weight tension. The current study builds upon these findings and notions by experts in the field (Mannie 2005, Simmons, 2007) who suggest adding elastic tension can have acute effects. Based upon these data, during the course of an upper body lifting session it appears that athletes are able to maintain more power when training with a combination of elastic tension and free-weights.

The recorded power was notably different between the sessions that used a combination of an Olympic barbell and an elastic band and those that only used an Olympic barbell. The difference between the two separate 50% 1-RM power assessments for the combination group was only 1 watt, while the difference between the free-weight only group was close to 46 watts. This finding is notable as the attempts post combined training were essentially identical, whereas the first attempt under the free weight only treatment was lower than the second by 46 watts. This suggests that the free weight only treatment may have acutely resulted in a reduction in power production capability that was washed out by the second attempt. The first power output between the two treatments differed by almost 35 watts. After the 90 second rest, the second power output of each group was extremely close, differing by 10 watts. The initial measurement of power following the training was higher for the group that performed the bench press with the combination of the elastic band and the free-weight, but the two different groups seemed to retain the same amount of power at the end. The overall results of the study suggest that in the immediate period following bench press training, athletes who use combined elastic and free weight tension will be better suited to activities that rely on greater power production, such as throwing a shot put. This finding is important as coaches often pair activities in complex training schemes.

### Conclusions

The present investigation has shed light onto the acute affects of combining elastic tension with free-weight exercise on power production in athletes. Further research should continue to explore the effects of power, strength, rate of force development, velocity, eccentric activity and neuromuscular stimuli when performing combination activities with both elastic band and free-weight exercises. It is plausible that given the data from the present investigation, chronic adaptations to training with elastic resistance in combination with free-weights may have been caused by lesser reductions in power during acute training sessions. If this acute effect does manifest in this fashion, then it would have ramifications as to the training volumes athletes utilize with this modality to gain maximum adaptations. The current research on the topic of combining elastic and free weight training is very limited and mostly focused on the back squat and bench press. Hence, investigations and applications on diverse exercises should be considered in forthcoming research.

### Applications In Sport

Based upon the present investigation, it would immediately appear at the conclusion of a training session that athletes retain more power production post combined elastic and free-weight training as compared to free-weight training alone. This information is potentially beneficial to professionals who work with athletes, as complex training is often incorporated into the program design. This form of training often involves the performance of a skill related activity post-resistance training bout.

### Tables

#### Table 1
Participant characteristics given in Means ± SD.

#### Table 2
Watts Produced by Treatment and Attempt given in Means ± SD.

### References

1. Anderson, C.E., Sforza, G.A., Sigg, J.A. (2008) The effects of combining elastic and free weight resistance on strength and power in athletes. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 22(2), 567-574.
2. Bellar, D., Muller, M., Ryan, E.J., Bliss, M.V., Kim, C-H, Ida, K Barkley, J.E., Glickman, E.L. (2011) The Effects of Combined Elastic and Free Weight Tension vs Free Weight Tension on 1 RM Strength in the Bench Press. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 25(2), 459-463.
3. Israetel, M.A., McBride, J.M., Nuzzo, J.L., Skinner, J.W., Dayne, A.M. (2010) Kinetic and kinematic differences between squats performed with and without elastic bands. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 24(1): 190-194.
4. Mannie K. Strike up the band training, the benefits of variable resistance. (2005) Coach Athletic Director, 75, 8-13.
5. Neelly, K., Carter, S.A., Terry, J.G. (2010) A study of the resistive forces provided by elastic supplemental band resistance during the back squat exercise: a case report. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, in press. Epub ahead of print retrieved June 20, 2011, from <http://journals.lww.com/nscajscr/Abstract/2010/01001/A_Study_Of_The_Resistive_Forces_Provided_By.119.aspx>
6. Page, P., & Ellenbecker, T. S. (2005). Strength Band Training. In Strength Training with Elastic Resistance [Excerpt]. Retrieved from Farnsworth Group website: <http://www.champaign411.com/sports_fitness/excerpts/strength_training_with_elastic_resistance>
7. Shoepe, T.C., Ramirez, D.A., Almstedt, H.C. (2010) Elastic band prediction equations for combined free-weight and elastic band bench presses and squats. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 24(1), 195-200.
8. Simmons, L. (2007, March 5). Advanced programs for beginners. In Elite Fitness Systems [Article]. Retrieved March 22, 2011, from Elite Fitness Systems website: <http://totalphysiqueonline.com/2007/03/05/advanced-program-for-beginners/>
9. Simmons, L. (2009, July 15). Training athletes vs. full meet powerlifters [Web log post]. Retrieved from <http://www.wannabebig.com/training/powerlifting-and-functional-strength-for-athletics/q-a-with-westside-barbells-louie-simmons/>
10. Stevenson, M. W., Warpeha, J. M., Dietz, C. C., Giveans, R. M., & Erdman, A. G. (2010). Acute effects of elastic bands during the free-weight barbell squat exercise on velocity, power, and force production. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 24(11), 2944-54.
11. Treiber, F. A., Lott, J., Duncan, J., Slavens, G., & Davis, H. (1998, July). Effects of theraband and lightweight dumbbell training on shoulder rotation torque and serve performance in college tennis players. Am J Sports Med, 26(4), 510-15.
12. Wallace, B.J., Winchester, J.B., McGuigan, M.R. (2006) Effects of elastic bands on force and power characteristics during the back squat exercise. J. Strength Cond. Res., 20(2), 268-27.
13. Woodrup, J. (2008). Band Training for Explosive Vertical Gains. In Vertical jumping [Article]. Retrieved March 22, 2011, from Vertical Jumping website: <http://www.verticaljumping.com/band_training.html>

### Corresponding Author

David Bellar
225 Cajundome Blvd
Department of Kinesiology
University of Louisiana Lafayette
<dmb1527@louisiana.edu>

### Author Bios

#### Sara Prejean

Sarah Prejean is an undergraduate student studying exercise science in the department of kinesiology at the University of Louisiana at Lafayette

#### Lawrence Judge

Lawrence Judge is an associate professor and coordinator of the graduate coaching program at Ball State University. Dr. Judge has a long-established background in coaching track and field athletes and an extensive research background in coaching behavior, moral issues, and competitiveness versus participation in athletics, specifically in youth sports.

#### Tiffany Patrick

Tiffany Patrick is an undergraduate student studying exercise science in the department of kinesiology at the University of Louisiana at Lafayette

#### David Bellar

David Bellar is an assistant professor and director of the human performance lab in the department of kinesiology at the University of Louisiana at Lafayette. Dr. Bellar has a background in coaching track and field athletes, and researching performance attributes within this population.