volume 6 number 3 – Page 4 – The Sport Journal

Websites as Help in the Recruiting Process: An Analysis of NCAA Women’s Cross Country Programs

Submitted by: Peter S. Finley and Laura L. Finley, Ph.D.

Abstract

Universities are beginning to explore the Internet as one avenue for recruiting student-athletes, an avenue of potential use in nearly every phase of the process (Hornbuckle, 2001). Given the difficulty of recruiting for nonrevenue sports, as well as the concerns of NCAA divisions that have little or no recruiting budget, use of the World Wide Web for recruiting may hold great importance (Hornbuckle, 2001; Walsh, 1997). The purpose of this research was (a) to determine what content is featured on websites maintained by NCAA women’s cross country programs, (b) to observe any differences between NCAA divisions as to the frequency of exhibiting content, and (c) to determine areas that could be strengthened to enhance recruiting potential. A content analysis was used to analyze randomly sampled NCAA women’s cross country websites (N = 108). In general, it was found that the sites provided basic information that might be of interest to recruits, such as information about the coach and a means to submit personal information to the coach. Few sites included coaching philosophy, highlighted individual athletes, or contained photo albums, all relevant information that might be of interest to potential recruits.

Websites as Help in the Recruiting Process: An Analysis of NCAA Women’s Cross Country Programs

Recruiting potential student-athletes represents an important component of collegiate athletics. For students, the would-be recruits, “selecting a college is a time-consuming and difficult process” (Kirk & Kirk, 1993, p. 55). This process, at least for student-athletes, involves the consideration of several factors, including but not limited to a school’s geographic location, whether it is urban or rural, size of student population, academic and athletic reputations, and graduation rates, both for all student-athletes and for student-athletes in the sport of interest only (Kirk & Kirk, 1993). Students who wish to be recruited must sift through a great deal of information, often presented with clear bias. As Caryer (1996) notes,

If the student just listens to the stories, recruiting can be overwhelming; if he [she] actively seeks specific information needed to decide how to reach his [her] goals, the coaches tell him what he needs to know rather than a lot of impressive, but irrelevant stuff. (p. 13)

This highlights the importance of athletic departments presenting information for potential recruits in an efficient yet pleasing manner.

From the perspective of a coach, the recruiting process takes on greater importance with each passing year. According to Klenosky, Templin, and Troutman (2001), “Universities allocate a large portion of their athletic department funds each year for recruiting top student-athletes” (p. 95). Bill Conley, a former recruiting coordinator for football at Ohio State University, states (Caryer, 1996) that

Recruiting is the most important job a college coach has. The X’s and O’s are pretty much the same around the country, but if your X’s and O’s are bigger, faster and stronger, you have a better chance of being successful. (p. 31)

Of course, the same concept applies to other sports, such as basketball, soccer, and cross country. Coaches spend a great deal of time and money identifying recruits, maintaining contact with them, and convincing them to commit to a particular university. Efficiency of this work can perhaps be improved via technology, since, according to Hornbuckle (2001), “Much of this process can be done on the Internet by having an exceptional presence on the World Wide Web” (p. 11).

The Internet provides colleges and universities with an incredible method for reaching fans and potential recruits. According to Delpy and Bosetti (1998), “This media presents an unparalleled opportunity to reach sports fans worldwide at a fraction of traditional advertising costs” (p. 21). Further, “High school athletes today want instant access to collegiate program information in everything from program history to whether the school fields a men’s team or not” (Hornbuckle, 2001, p. 10). For providing instant access to information at a low cost, there is no better means than an effective website.

Further, Hornbuckle (2001) states, “Many athletic departments already use the Internet to assess potential recruits and determine factors that are most likely to influence their choice of school” (p. 29-30). The Internet can be used for nearly every phase of the recruiting process. Recruits can be identified via e-mail to scouts or high school coaches, and correspondence with a prospective athlete can also occur via e-mail. Potential athletes can often access a virtual tour of a campus, perhaps including training and competition facilities. Of course, the coach’s actual visit to the athlete cannot be replaced; however, for Division II, Division III, and junior college coaches, “this option may not be affordable–even more reason for these coaches to provide a first-class, usable website” (Hornbuckle, 2001, p. 12).

]Method[

The present researchers were guided by three research goals, as follows:

1. Determine the specific features (content) included on websites promoting women’s cross country programs at NCAA schools.

2. Determine any differences among NCAA divisions (I, II, III) in terms of website content provided and frequency with which such content is exhibited.

3. Make recommendations for improving websites’ function as aids in the recruiting process.

The research comprises a quantitative, descriptive analysis of 108 women’s cross country websites. Using a random number generator, 36 schools in each of the three NCAA divisions were randomly selected. In selecting 36 schools, a sample was generated that represented at least 10% of all programs at each division level. Division III had the largest number of participating schools (357).

Analysis included obtaining frequency scores by each feature, overall, and by division. These scores are presented in Table 1 as the percentage of sites containing each website feature, both in each division and overall.

]Results[

As a whole, this examination revealed that colleges and universities create websites for women’s cross country that serve several primary functions. The sites contained, for the most part, headline stories (61.11%), schedules (92.59%), rosters (86.11%), results (71.30%), biographical information about the coach (70.37%), a photo of the coach (62.03%), and contact information for the coach (e-mail address, 75.92%; e-mail link, 73.15%; phone number, 62.96%). The presence of information forms for prospective athletes on over half of the sites (56.48%) supports the belief that many college and university administrators view their website as an important tool in the recruiting process. Further, the vast majority of sites that featured prospective-athlete information forms allowed them to be electronically transferred to the coach. Of 61 schools whose websites provided such prospective-athlete forms, 56 allowed them to be electronically transferred, while only 5 expected them to be mailed.

Beyond the components just described, however, the examination revealed many of the websites to be sorely lacking. The school websites were found not to promote the individuals on a team, as frequency scores were low for (a) content concerning individual athletes’ performance records (12.96%); (b) biographies of individual athletes (19.44%); and (c) photos of individual athletes (17.59%). Moreover, few schools went so far as to include even a simple team photo (23.15%).

Surprisingly, given the attention paid by websites maintained by institutions in all three divisions to promotion of their coaches, the philosophy of the program (10.19%) and the philosophy of the coach (1.85%) were almost completely absent.

]Recommendations[

It is clear from these results that many colleges and universities already see the Internet as an important point of interaction between the institution and recruits. This is evidenced by the fact that the women’s cross country program websites include letters to potential student-athletes, NCAA compliance information, and access to NCAA recruiting rules. Many sites also provide personal information forms that prospective student-athletes are invited to submit to coaches in hopes of beginning a recruiting process. Recognizing that use of the Internet for recruiting purposes is likely to continue to grow, there are a number of recommendations that can be made based on these results.

Since more than half of the schools allowed prospective athletes to electronically submit personal information, the few who still rely on “snail mail” to receive this information might be at a serious disadvantage, as prospects may not be inclined to take the time to print out the form, complete it, and put it in the mail. Furthermore, schools that neglect to provide any means for prospects to deliver personal information may be seriously hindering their recruiting process.

The literature reveals that information about the coach–especially as to the coach’s philosophy, goals, values, and style–is important to recruits (Cooper, 1996; Doyle & Gaeth, as cited in Klenosky, Templin, & Troutman, 2001). It is of interest, then, that so few of the total 108 sites viewed provided information about philosophy and that those that did offer it often limited it to the mission statement of the athletic department as a whole.

There is some potential for testimonials about a program and coach to be influential from a recruitment standpoint, yet testimonials appear to be underutilized to date, according to this research. Two Division III sites included athletes’ testimonials about their teams, while one team site included other coaches’ written endorsements of the team’s coach.

Prospective student-athletes are likely to be interested in who might be their teammates. Furthermore, recruits could conceivably have more interest in a program that clearly values and promotes its athletes as individuals. Schools in all three NCAA divisions studied could improve in this area, as their websites did not contain a great deal of information about individual athletes.

Division II and Division III institutions could furthermore do a better job of updating the headline stories on their websites. Regular updates give potential recruits a reason to revisit a site repeatedly, allowing them to assess the reputation of the team in an ongoing process.The connection represented in repeated visits to a website may help keep a school in the recruit’s mind over extended periods. Offering e-mailed updates of team progress through the season, as well as maintaining a “heritage” page and archived and current results and records, may be of further use in presenting a team’s reputation to site visitors.

Many of the university websites examined provided information about athletic facilities like the football stadium or basketball arena. Few, however, included information about the home cross country course. The information would not be difficult to include, and recruits would very likely be interested in the venues in which they would train and compete.

In an era of visual learners (Lester, 2000), pictures may go a long way toward impressing a recruit. Unfortunately, in all three NCAA divisions studied, most sites failed to provide a photo album or even a team picture. Digital cameras, typically available through athletic departments, could facilitate this process quite easily. Enlargeable thumbnail pictures would be helpful in decreasing downloading time.

To be sure, the Internet represents a powerful innovation that can play a major part in the recruiting process. This research is a first step in understanding, and thus in better utilizing, websites as aids in recruiting student-athletes. Future research could include analyses of websites for other sports, both revenue and nonrevenue. Further, it will be important to establish student-athletes as a source of data, inquiring of them which website features might most influence their college choices.

Table 1

Frequency of Website Features of NCAA Women’s Cross Country Programs, in Percentages

	Division I	Division II	Division III	Overall
Headline Stories	91.67	38.89	52.78	61.11
Team/Program
Schedule	94.44	86.11	97.22	92.59
Roster	86.11	83.33	88.89	86.11
Results (current)	80.56	58.33	75.00	71.30
Team Photo	8.33	27.78	33.33	23.15
Program Philosophy	19.44	5.56	5.56	10.19
Heritage Page	16.67	2.78	16.67	12.04
Individual Information
Performance Records	25.00	2.78	11.11	12.96
Biographical Sketch	44.44	5.56	8.33	19.44
Photo	33.33	13.89	5.56	17.59
Coach Information
Photo	69.44	47.22	69.44	62.03
Biographical Sketch	75.00	61.11	75.00	70.37
Coaching Philosophy	0.00	0.00	5.56	1.85
E-mail Address	86.11	61.11	80.56	75.93
E-mail Link	86.11	58.33	75.00	73.15
Phone Number	69.44	55.56	63.89	62.96
Photo Album	19.44	19.44	8.33	15.74
Archive
Headline Stories	58.33	16.67	13.89	29.63
Record Book	36.11	8.33	30.56	25.00
Rosters	25.00	13.99	5.56	14.81
Results	61.11	33.33	30.56	41.67
Prospective Athletes
Letter to Prospective Athletes	41.67	8.33	13.89	29.63
Personal Information Form	63.89	33.33	72.22	56.48
Electronically Transferred Personal Information Form	52.78	30.56	72.22	51.85
NCAA Clearinghouse
Recruiting Rules Information	30.56	8.33	0.00	12.96
Compliance Information	33.33	2.78	2.78	12.96
Additional
Course Description	16.67	0.00	11.11	9.26
Map to Course	5.56	0.00	2.78	2.78
Course Records List	5.56	2.78	0.00	2.78
Training Venues Information	8.33	0.00	5.56	4.63
Camps/Clinics Information	25.00	13.89	0.00	12.96
Offer E-mail Updates	36.11	2.78	8.33	15.74
Listing of Alumni Bios	2.78	0.00	0.00	0.93
Alumni Bio Questionnaire	2.78	0.00	0.00	0.93
Alumni E-mail List	5.56	0.00	0.00	1.85
Athletes’ Testimonials	0.00	0.00	5.56	1.85
Other Coaches’ Testimony About the Coach	0.00	0.00	2.78	0.93
University Quick Facts	11.11	11.11	25.00	15.74
Video Webcast of Meet	0.00	2.78	0.00	0.93
Coach Interviewed on Video	0.00	2.78	0.00	0.93

]References[

Caryer, L. (1996). The recruiting struggle: A handbook. Columbus, OH: Partners Book Distributing.

Cooper, K. (1996). What the basketball prospect wants to know about you! Coach and Athletic Director, 65(7), 24-26.

Delpy, L. A., & Bosetti, H. A. (1998). Sport management and marketing via the World Wide Web. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 7(1), 21-27.

Hornbuckle, V. (2001). An analysis of usability of women’s collegiate basketball Websites based on measurements of effectiveness, efficiency and appeal. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Northern Colorado.

Kirk, W. D., & Kirk, S. V. (Eds.). (1993). Student athletes: Shattering the myths and sharing the realities. Alexandria, VA: American Counseling Association.

Klenosky, D. B., Templin, T. J., & Troutman, J. A. (2001). Recruiting student athletes: A means-end investigation of school-choice decision making. Journal of Sport Management, 15, 96-106.

Lester, P. M. (2000). Visual communication: Images with messages (2nd ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Walsh, J. (1997). Everything you need to know about college sports recruiting. Kansas City, MO: Andrews McMeel.

]Author Note[

Peter S. Finley; Laura L. Finley

U.S. Sports Academy2013-11-26T21:17:41-06:00February 18th, 2008|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Facilities, Sports Management, Women and Sports|Comments Off

The Individual Offensive Strategies of Taiwanese Collegiate Students in Basketball

Submitted by: Chia-Ming Chang, Cheng-feng Chiu And Steve Chen

Abstract

The
purpose of this study was to investigate the preferential
individual offensive strategies of male Taiwanese collegiate
students. A self-designed questionnaire was utilized to evaluate
students’ perception on offensive strategies. Subjects were
asked to select top-5 preferential strategies from nine choices
as they were put at specific spots based on the role of a
position. Among the 185 completed surveys, the number of valid
surveys was 163 that yielded a 78% return-rate. The statistical
methods for analyses included descriptive statistics and Chi-square
analyses. The alpha level was set at .05. Based on the results
of Chi-square, there were significant differences existed
among subjects’ choices on offensive strategies (p<0.05).
No significant differences (p<0.05) were found when subjects’
choices were compared at different side of blocks. The descriptive
analyses indicated that the number-one offensive choice at
the both sides of low post area for center, power forward,
and point guard were “pivoting”, “screening”,
and “catching the ball”, respectively. The favorite
offensive strategies of small forward and shooting guard were
“catching the ball” and “getting open”
at the right block, and their choices were simply switched
at the other block. At the top of the key, the number-one
offensive choice for center, power forward, small forward,
shooting guard and point guard were “setting screen”,
“pivoting”, “getting open”, “getting
open”, and “catching the ball”, respectively.
Apparently, subjects’ top-three choices on offensive strategies
had clearly demonstrated the common mentalities that were
instructed by many basketball coaches. However, since “shooting”
was not a top-3 choice at any spot for any role, coaches may
need to encourage students to take more shots.

Introduction

Purpose
of the Study
Basketball is one of the most popular sport activities among
Taiwanese collegiate students. It is also the most popular
sport among all of the PE curriculums at the collegiate level
in Taiwan. Basketball involves several basic playing skills
such as running, jumping, catching, passing, rebounding, shooting,
dunking and various combinations of movements. Due to variances
in size, fitness level, specific technique, and offensive
strategies, players usually are assigned to different playing
roles and positions. Generally their roles can be divided
into the following five different positions: power forward,
small forward, center, point guard, and shooting guard (Lee,
2000; and Huang & Wang, 2002). Based on players’ specific
roles on the court, each position usually would demonstrate
a unique style of play at different spots of the court. For
examples, forward players can be extremely active around the
free-throw line extended area. They should be able to score
both in the paint and perimeter. They are usually the best
scorers of the team, and should involve in some rebounding
and passing duties. This is why most of forwards need to possess
great size, speed and leaping ability (Wu, 1998). Most of
the centers work in an area less than 5m away from the basket
(Wong, 1999b). They work at an area that is always under heavy
traffic. Since they usually initiate the attack at the low-post
area, they must possess skills to catch the ball firmly, seal
off the defender, and use all kinds of fake moves to score
(Wong, 1999b; Wang & Wang, 2002). Centers must have ability
to score one-on-one and secure rebounds. Defensively, they
usually provide the best help on penetrations (Wang, 1997b);
therefore, the strength of the center may indicate the success
of the team. Guards are usually the “core” of a
basketball team. They are usually the leaders and the organizers
of the team offense. They normally operate at the top of the
key and try to create shooting opportunities for other teammates
by making good pass and penetration. They should be a good
long and mid-range shooter, and also score in penetrations
(Huang & Wang, 2002). In order to fully maximize the playing
ability of each specific position, coaches would also teach
necessary techniques to elevate players’ individual skills.
Possessing strong individual offensive skills is an essential
element to build the team offenses and success. The skills
that players have acquired would naturally become preferential
moves under circumstances.

Many
of the previous researches on offenses had geared toward the
analyses of a team’s offensive patterns (Chao & Chao,
1995; Lu, 1996; Pan, 1997; Wong, 1998 and 1999a; and Hsu 2002).
They provided less information on individual offensive skills
and teaching tips for collegiate students to learn the individual
skills. The authors of the article wish to examine how collegiate
students perceive a specific situation and formulate their
offensive strategies at certain locations. Hopefully, this
study can provide useful concepts and norms to help students
build up understanding of the game and acquire proper offensive
techniques.

This
study examines the individual offensive strategies of students
by observing how they would initiate a movement in a designated
situation without concerning the presence of defenders. Although
in reality, the presence of defenders certainly would affect
a player’s determination on moves, this study would neglect
this factor and directly record the preferential response
of players at a particular location. Since there are always
some certain preferential acts that a person may engage based
on the human behavior, we can all assume that there must be
some types of preferential offensive movements that players
may like to make in certain situations. The purpose of this
study would attempt to investigate those preferential individual
offensive strategies of Taiwanese collegiate players. The
research questions would focus on how a player initiate the
decision to make a move at various spots based on players’
perceptions of playing roles.

Methods

Subjects
and Scope of the Study
Two hundred and seven male students of the Mingchuan University
who have enrolled in the Spring Semester of the year 2001
were invited to participate in this study. They came from
seven different basketball classes and were varied in class-levels.
Researchers had obtained 185 returned questionnaires, and
22 copies were invalid. The number of valid copies was 163
that yielded 78% of return-rate. The average height and weight
of subjects were 170.72 + 7.9 cm and 62.57 + 10.02 kg, respectively.

Research
Tools
This study utilized a self-designed questionnaire to evaluate
students’ perception on offensive strategies. The contents
of the survey included two parts. The first part contained
demographic information such as height, weight, class-level,
varsity experience, and playing position. The second part
of the survey examined players’ offensive strategies. Three
spots were designated for the purpose of the study. They were
both right and left low-post blocks, and top of the key. Each
student had viewed and perceived the question based on the
role of a specific position, such as center, point guard,
or small forward, etc. Then he would select the top five preferential
choices as the offensive strategies according to the location
and the role that he had perceived. Nine offensive strategies
that were available for chosen included:

dribbling,
pivoting,
catching
the ball,
shooting,
cutting
down,
dribble
penetration,
getting
open,
setting
a screen, and
rebounding.

These
strategies were common basketball skills that were adapted
by players in different situations (Pan, 1997; Wang, 1998;
Huang & Wang, 2002; and Wang & Wang, 2002).

Data
Analyses
There were163 valid copies available for data analyses after
eliminating 22 copies of invalid questionnaires. The data
were analyzed by the SPSS for Window 10.0 program. The statistical
methods for analyses include descriptive statistics and Chi
square analyses. The alpha level was set at .05?

Results

General
Information of Descriptive Analyses
The general information listed subjects’ class-level, varsity
experience, and playing position. Basing on the class-level
distribution, sophomore was the biggest class that consisted
50 subjects (30.5%). Twenty-eight seniors (17.1%) made up
the smallest class. Most of the subjects (N= 89; 54.3%) had
participated for the intramural basketball teams or even high
levels before; and there were 75 (45.7%) subjects who have
never played an official basketball game yet. In term of players’
playing positions, 65 (39.6%) people had played forward position.
The numbers of players who played at guard and center positions
were 73 (44.5%) and 26(15.9%) respectively.

Preferences
on Offensive Moves at Each Designated Spot
The descriptive analyses concluded the following statements.
At the right low-post block, the number one offensive choice
for center, power forward, small forward, shooting guard and
point guard were “pivoting”, “screening”,
“catching the ball”, “getting open”, and
“catching the ball”, respectively. At the top of
the key, the number one offensive choice for center, power
forward, small forward, shooting guard and point guard were
“setting screen”, “pivoting”, “getting
open”, “getting open”, and “catching the
ball”, respectively. The favorite offensive strategies
of center, power forward, and point guard at the left low-post
block were exactly the same as theirs at the right side. The
exceptions were the choices of small forward and shooting
guard. Their choices just simply switched as the side had
changed. The Table 1. listed the top-3 preferences of subjects
at each different spots.

Table
1. The top-3 preferences of subjects at each different spots

Location	Preference	Role of Positions
		Center	Power Forward	Small Forward	Shooting Guard	Point Guard
Right block	1	(2)	(8)	(7)	(3)	(3)
	2	(5)	(7)	(3)	(7)	(1)
	3	(1)	(5)	(6)	(6)	(8)
Top of the key	1	(8)	(2)	(7)	(7)	(3)
	2	(7)	(3)	(3)	(8)	(7)
	3	(9)	(6)	(8)	(3)	(1)
Left block	1	(2)	(8)	(3)	(7)	(3)
	2	(5)	(6)	(7)	(3)	(7)
	3	(6)	(9)	(8)	(6)	(1)

*
(1) dribbling, (2) pivoting, (3) catching the ball, (4) shooting,
(5) cutting down, (6) dribble penetration, (7) getting open,
(8) setting a screen, and (9) rebounding

Based
on the results of Chi-square, there were significant differences
existed among subjects’ choices on offensive strategies (p<0.05).
This means that students actually favor certain kind of choices
at each spot in term of viewing themselves through a specific
role of positions. However no significant difference (p<0.05)
was found when subjects’ choices were compared for different
side of blocks.

Conclusions
and suggestions

According
to results of the study, there were significant differences
existed among subjects’ choices (p<0.05) in term of viewing
from a specific role of positions. Since each position usually
has been trained to follow a specific role, the results of
the study clearly show this phenomenon. Perimeter players
such as point guard, shooting guard and small forward would
try to receive passes or get open for clear passes at the
low-post block. They are usually taught by the coaches to
get open in order to score an easy basket under the rim or
shoot from outside (Huang & Wang, 2002). Inside players
such as center and power forward would demonstrate the fundamental
low post move by showing “the pivot” move. They
were also taught to set screens at both high- or low-post
(Lu, 1996; and Wong & Shuei, 1998). Apparently, subjects’
top-three choices on offensive strategies have demonstrated
the common mentalities that were instructed by many basketball
coaches.

A
good sign to notify is that subjects did not perceive their
offensive strategies differently at the opposite side of the
block, either. This means that players may not decide to do
one thing at a particular side, but never intend to do the
same move at the opposite side. Otherwise, they choice will
become very predictable at one spot.
Surprisingly, “shooting” was not a top-3 choice
at any spot according to any role. This may indicate that
players are probably too cautious about their move, or they
are afraid of taking shots (perhaps due to lack of confidence).
Most of the coaches in the United States will emphasize the
importance of power plays. It is probably more appropriate
to see those who play at center and power forward positions
looking for shots more often (Wong, 1999b). Taiwanese coaches
may need to point out this fact during classes and practices.

References

Chao,
C.P., & Chao, J.C. (1995). Zone defenses in basketball.
University and College
Physical Education, 16, 66-74.

Hsu,
H.H. (2002). Three-men offense in basketball. University and
College
Physical Education, 60, 39-42.

Huang,
H.H., & Wang, L. (2002). Analysis of woman basketball
skills. Journal of Deh
Yu College of Nursing and Management, 17, 53-63.

Lee,
C.H. (2000). An easy way to learn basketball. Taipei, Taiwan:
Er-chiang Publishing.

Lu,
C.S. (1996). A study of male college Secondary Class basketball
players in attacked-
defense skill. Journal of National Art Institute, 59, 376-386.

Pan,
Y.H. (1997). The analyses of defensive and offensive strategies
in basketball.
University and College Physical Education, 32, 103-108.

Wang, T.M. (1997a). The team-offense skills and their instructional
designs for post
players in basketball. University Taiwan University Physical
Education, 28, 55-61.

Wang,
T.M. (1997b). Both offensive and defensive skills and their
instructional designs
for post players in basketball. University Taiwan University
Physical Education, 28, 63-72.

Wang,
Y.M., & Wang H.C. (2002). Different types of fakes in
basketball. Physical
Education of College and University, 60, 17-21.

Wong,
T.L., & Shuei, H.P. (1998). Move without the ball as an
offensive strategy in
basketball games. National Education, 39(2), 66-70.

Wong,
T.L. (1999a). Team offenses. National Education, 39(4), 34-39.

Wong,
T.L. (1999b). The offensive strategies of inside moves for
low post players.
Taiwan Sports, 102, 36-39.

Wu,
B.Y. (1998). Developing a forward player. Journal of Tungnan
College, 21, 219-224.

U.S. Sports Academy2015-10-24T01:31:39-05:00February 18th, 2008|Sports Coaching, Sports Management, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|Comments Off

An International Physical Fitness Test for the Arab World

Submitted by: Thomas P. Rosandich, United States Sports Academy

Abstract

The United States Sports Academy, in cooperation with Bahrain’s Supreme Council for Youth and Sports, presented the Arab world with its own international physical fitness test battery based on normative data collected from Arab youth ages 9 to 19 years. One of the few fitness tests developed outside the Western world, the test is believed to be the only one based on analysis of empirical data collected among Arab youth. It is designed to measure speed, strength, suppleness, and stamina, the basic components of any physical activity. Since its introduction to 199 physical education teachers by the president of the United States Sports Academy, Dr. Thomas P. Rosandich, more than 20,000 boys and girls have been tested with the comprehensive battery.

Test Battery

The test battery includes the following:

50-m test (relative power, speed)
Flexed-arm hang (relative strength, strength)
10-m shuttle run (relative power, speed, suppleness)
Back throw (absolute power, speed, suppleness)
1,000-m run (aerobic/anaerobic capacity, stamina)

This test battery has been adopted by more than 21 nations throughout the years.

1. 50-METER DASH

Equipment: Stopwatch

Procedure: A standing start is used; the hands cannot be touching the ground. On the signal “Come to your mark,” the testing participant stands with both feet behind the starting line, with one foot slightly advanced. When the participant is ready and motionless, the starter gives normal verbal instructions, “Set,” and after a brief pause, “Go.” The timer starts the clock when the participant moves. The participant sprints for 50 m, past the finish line, avoiding any tendency to slow down before crossing the finish line. Time in seconds and tenths of seconds is recorded.

2. FLEXED-ARM HANG

Equipment: Stopwatch, 4-cm-diameter bar whose height prevents participants from touching the ground

Procedure: The participant climbs a ladder near the bar until the chin is at bar level. The participant grasps the bar, keeping the hands shoulder width apart. The backs of the hands must be toward the face, with the thumbs under the bar. The chin should be level with the bar. On the command “Ready, go,” the participant removes the feet from the ladder. Simultaneously, an assistant removes the ladder and prevents any forward swinging of the legs. The stopwatch is started when the participant’s feet leave the ladder and is stopped when the chin falls below the level of the bar or when keeping the chin level with the bar requires tilting the head backward. Time in seconds is recorded.

3. SHUTTLE RUN

Equipment: Stopwatch, 2 wooden blocks (10 cm x 5 cm x 5 cm) per participant, flat course marked with 2 lines 10 m apart

Procedure: On the signal “Ready,” the participant places both feet behind the starting line with one foot slightly advanced. On the signal “Go,” the participant sprints to the opposite line, picks up a block of wood, runs back and places it on or beyond the starting line. Without pause, the participant runs to retrieve the second block and carries it back across the finish line. The participant correctly completes 2 trials, and the better of the 2 times is recorded. A trial is void if a block is dropped or thrown. Time in seconds and tenths of seconds is recorded.

4. BACK THROW

Equipment: 8-lb shot, tape measure

Procedure: The participant stands with his back to the throwing area, with an 8-lb shot cradled in both hands between the knees. The participant bends forward and downward and then throws the shot backward over the head, in a 2-handed throwing action. Measurement is made from the point of impact of the shot with the ground, to the inside edge of the foul line. The participant completes 2 trials, and the greater distance is recorded. Distance is recorded in meters and centimeters.

5. DISTANCE RUN

Equipment: Stopwatch, 200-m oval
Procedure: The distance run is 600 m for boys and girls 13 years old and under; 1,000 m for boys 14 to 19; and 800 m for girls 14 to 19. On the signal, “Ready,” the participants stand behind the starting line. When all participants are ready, they are given the command “Go” and are encouraged to run the distance in the fastest possible time. Walking is permitted.

Up to 30 runners may be tested at one time with accuracy and efficiency. Each runner will complete the required distance. For better control at the finish line, a chute may be made by tying ropes between high-jump standards. The timekeeper stands at the finish line. He has the only watch and calls out a time as each runner crosses the finish line. The fitness testing team records each runner’s time in minutes and seconds.

Author Note

Dr. Thomas J. Rosandich, president and chief executive officer, United States Sports Academy.

The author gratefully acknowledges the cooperation of the Bahrain Supreme Council for Youth and Sports is the preparation of the test battery and testing manual, from which the illustrations in this article were taken.

All correspondence concerning this article should be directed to the author at One Academy Dr., Daphne, AL 36526.

U.S. Sports Academy2016-10-12T12:12:41-05:00February 18th, 2008|Sports Exercise Science, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|Comments Off

Effects of Creatine Supplementation on Body Composition, Strength, and Power of Female Volleyball Players

Submitted by: Jon YeanSub Lim, Northern State University

Abstract

This study investigated the effect of creatine supplementation on the body composition, muscular strength, and power of 36 female collegiate volleyball players across 10 weeks of training . The 19- to 26-year-olds were randomly assigned, in a double-blind fashion, to either a creatine treatment group (CT) (n = 18) or placebo control group (PC) (n = 18). During an initial loading phase comprising 5 days, the CT group ingested 5 g of creatine 4 times each day; during the maintenance phase that followed, CT group members consumed 5 g of creatine once a day. The PC group followed the same administration schedule but consumed a glucose placebo. All 36 athletes participated in a conditioning program focusing on weight training and plyometric training. Measures were taken before administration of creatine began, and also at the conclusion of the study, of body weight, lean body mass, percentage of body fat, 1-repetition-maximum bench press capacity, and vertical jump (VJ) ability. For both groups, bench press and VJ results improved significantly during the study, though improvement among members of the CT group was significantly greater than among the PC group, p < 0.05. Further, the CT group had significantly greater gains in body weight and lean body mass, with no change in body fat. The findings suggest that creatine supplementation in conjunction with a good conditioning program can improve athletic performance in female collegiate volleyball players.

Effects of Creatine Supplementation on Body Composition, Strength, and Power of Female Volleyball Players

Athletes have continuously sought elixirs to enhance their performance. Their use of oral creatine supplementation for this purpose has become increasingly popular in recent years. Creatine is an amino acid compound. Of the human body’s supply of creatine, approximately 95% is in skeletal muscles and about 5% is stored in the heart, the brain, and, in males, the testes (Walker, 1979). Creatine is synthesized by the liver, kidneys, and pancreas, with additional supply obtained by consuming fish, meat, and other animal products. It is converted to phosphocreatine, which is necessary to resynthesize adenosine triphosphate (ATP). During short-term high-intensity exercise, phosphocreatine is a primary source of energy for APT resynthesis.

Numbers of prior scientific studies show creatine supplementation to significantly increase creatine concentrations in skeletal muscle, a condition that accelerates phosphocreatine resynthesis (Balsom et al., 1995; Casey et al., 1996; Greenhaff et al., 1993; Harris, Soderlund, & Hultman, 1992). As a result of creatine supplementation, increased muscle creatine enhances athletic performance during high-intensity, intermittent exercise (Haff et al., 2000; Stout et al., 1999). Creatine supplementation also delays the onset of fatigue and facilitates recovery during repeated bouts of high-intensity exercise (Greenhaff et al., 1993; Hultman et al., 1990). Supplementation with creatine also has ergogenic effects on muscular strength and power (Bosco et al., 1997). Finally, creatine supplementation significantly increases body mass, with increased fat-free mass (Earnest et al., 1995; Kreider, Ferreira, et al., 1998; Kreider, Klesges, et al., 1996; Vandenberghe et al., 1997).

Although in growing numbers of studies creatine supplementation has been found to enhance performance during high-intensity, intermittent exercise, most studies have involved short-term supplementation and have not investigated supplementation in sports-specific settings. There have been few studies, for example, of creatine supplementation among female collegiate volleyball players.

Method

Participants
The study sample was 36 female collegiate volleyball players who had not supplemented with creatine within the 6 months preceding the data collection. The players (age = 20.6 ± 1.73 years, weight = 58.0 ± 2.2 kg, height = 176 + 8 cm) volunteered to participate in the investigation. All were currently engaged in resistance training and had 1 or more years of resistance training experience; all continued to train 3 times per week during the experimental period. Each participant completed a medical history, a lifestyle inventory, a training inventory, and an informed consent form before participating in the study. All procedures complied with human subject guidelines established by the U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare and the American Physiological Society. Participants were required to maintain their normal training, physical activity patterns, and dietary regimens throughout the study.

Experimental Design
The 19- to 26-year-old athletes were randomly assigned, in a double-blind fashion, to either a creatine treatment group (CT) (n = 18) or placebo control group (PC) (n = 18) group. During an initial loading phase comprising 5 days, the CT group ingested 5 g of creatine 4 times each day; during the maintenance phase that followed, CT group members consumed 5 g of creatine once a day. The creatine supplements were measured in 5-g quantities and placed in generic capsules coded for identification. The PC group followed the same administration schedule but consumed a glucose placebo. All 36 subjects participated in a conditioning program focusing on weight training and plyometric training.

Pre- and post-experiment testing determined body weight, lean body mass, percentage of body fat, 1-repetition-maximum bench press capacity, and vertical jump (VJ) ability. The bench press test using free weight constituted a of measure muscular strength. The vertical jump test was administered to measure muscular power. Body density was determined using the hydrostatic weighing technique. Body fat percentage and fat-free mass were calculated based on the body density values.

Statistical analyses were completed using SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) (version 9.0). A one-way analysis of variance with repeated measures was conducted to make comparisons, both between groups and over time, of the measures for bench press, vertical jump, body weight, percentage of body fat, and lean body mass. Statistical significance was accepted at an alpha level of p < 0.05. Values presented in the results are means ± SD.

Results

Table 1 summarizes the results observed in terms of muscular strength and power measurements. Statistical analysis demonstrated that both the creatine treatment group and placebo group experienced statistically significant improvement in bench press and vertical jump after 10 weeks of training (see Figure 1). However, for both tests, the creatine treatment group improved to an extent that was, statistically speaking, more significant than the improvement shown by the control group (p < 0.05).

Table 1

2 Groups’ Pre- and Post-Experiment Measurements, Bench Press/Strength and Vertical Jump/Power

	Placebo Group (n = 18)	Creatine Group (n = 18)
Bench Press Pre Post	47.4 ± 5.8 kg> 50.3 ± 5.8 kg*	47.6 ± 5.0 kg 55.2 ± 5.0 kg*
Vertical Jump Pre Post	49.4 ± 1.6 cm 50.9 ± 1.7 cm*…	49.4 ± 2.6 cm 52.3 ± 2.1 cm*…

Note. Values are means ± SD; n = number of subjects. Bench press used was 1-repetition-maximum.
*Significant improvement, p < 0.05
…Significant treatment effect compared with placebo, p < 0.05

Figure1. Results of bench press and vertical jump measurements

Pre- and post-experiment measures of the players’ body weight, percentage of body fat, and lean body mass are presented in Table 2. Statistical analysis demonstrated that the CT group’s gains in body weight and lean body mass were greater than the PC group’s, to a statistically significant degree, with no change in percentage of body fat (p < 0.05). In the PC group, no statistically significant differences were observed between the pre- and post-experiment measures of body weight, percentage of body fat, and lean body mass .

Table 2

2 Groups’ Pre- and Post-Experiment Measurements, Body Composition

	Placebo Group (n = 18)	Creatine Group (n =1 8)
Body Weight Pre Post	63.5 ± 3.1 kg 65.7 ± 3.0 kg*	64.6 ± 2.9 kg 66.3 ± 2.7 kg*…
Percentage Body Fat Pre Post	17.7 ± 1.2% 18.4 ± 1.1%	17.5 ± 1.2% 17.4 ± 1.2%
Lean Body Mass Pre Post	52.2 ± 2.6 kg 53.6 ± 2.4 kg*	53.3 ± 2.3 kg *56.1 ± 2.6 kg…**

Note. Values are means ± SD; n = number of subjects.
*Significant improvement, p < 0.05
…Significant treatment effect compared with placebo, p < 0.05

Discussion

The present results support the findings of previous studies suggesting that creatine supplementation, in conjunction with a good conditioning program, can significantly increase muscular strength and power, to an extent that conditioning programs alone do not match (Haff et al., 2000; Stout et al., 1999). A number of mechanisms have been offered in explanation. First, creatine supplementation increases creatine and phosphocreatine concentration in skeletal muscle, which appears to be directly related to enhancement of force development (Balsom et al., 1995; Casey et al., 1996; Greenhaff et al., 1993; Harris, Soderlund, & Hultman, 1992). Enhanced ability to meet high demand for ATP during maximal exercise may help explain the improvement in muscular strength and power.

The present study’s finding of an increase in lean body mass and body weight with creatine supplementation is consistent with other studies (Earnest et al., 1995; Haff et al., 2000; Kreider, Ferreira, et al., 1998; Kreider, Klesges, et al., 1996; Vandenberghe et al., 1997). Two potential mechanisms underlying such increase have been proposed: an increase in total body water and increased synthesis of myofibrillar protein (Bessman & Savabi, 1990).

The findings of the present study suggest that creatine supplementation in conjunction with a good conditioning program can be effective in improving athletic performance in female collegiate volleyball players. Further research, however, is needed concerning, specifically, long-term creatine supplementation and its effects.

References

Balsom, P., Ekblom, B., Sjodin, B., & Hultman, E. (1993). Creatine supplementation and dynamic high-intensity intermittent exercise. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports, 3, 143-149.

Bessman, S. P., & Savabi, F. (1990). The role of the phosphocreatine energy shuttle in exercise and muscle hypertrophy. In A. W. Taylor, P. Gollnick, & H. Green (Eds.), Biochemistry of Exercise VII (pp. 167-178). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Casey, A., Constantin-Teodosiu, D., Howell, D., Hultman, E., & Greenhaff, P. (1996). Creatine ingestion favorably affects performance and muscle metabolism during maximal exercise in humans. American Journal of Physiology, 271, E31-37.

Earnest, C., Snell, P., Rodriguez, R., Almada, A., & Mitchell, T. (1995). The effect of creatine monohydrate ingestion on anaerobic power indices, muscular strength and body composition. Acta Physiologica Scandinavica, 153, 207-209.

Greenhaff, P., Casey, A., Short, A., Harris, R., Soderlund, K., & Hultman, E. (1993). Influence of oral creatine supplementation on muscle torque during repeated bouts of maximal voluntary exercise in man. Clinical Science, 84, 565-571.

Haff, G., Kirksey, B., Stone, M., Warren, B., Johnson, R., Stone, M., et al. (2000). The effect of 6 weeks of creatine monohydrate supplementation on dynamic rate of force development. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 14(4), 426-433.

Harris, R., Soderlund, K., & Hultman, E. (1992). Elevation of creatine in resting and exercised muscle of normal subjects by creatine supplementation. Clinical Science, 83, 367-374.

Hultman, E., Bergstrom, J., Spriet, L., & Soderlund, K. (1990). Energy metabolism and fatigue. In A. Taylor, P. Gollnick, & H. Green (Eds.), Biochemistry of Exercise VII (pp. 73-92). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Kreider, R., Ferreira, M., Wilson, M., Grindstaff, P., Plisk, S., Reinhardy, J., et al. (1998). Effects of creatine supplementation on body composition, strength and sprint performance. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 30, 73-82.

Kreider, R., Klesges, R., Harmon, K., Grindstaff, P., Ramsey, L., Bullen, D., et al. (1996). Effects of ingesting supplements designed to promote lean tissue accretion on body composition during resistance exercise. International Journal of Sport Nutrition, 6, 234-246.

Stout, J. R., Eckerson, J., Noonan, D., Moore, G., & Cullen, D. (1999). Effects of 8 weeks of creatine supplementation on exercise performance and fat-free weight in football players during training. Nutrition Research, 19, 217-225.

Vandenberghe, K., Goris, M., Van Hecke, P., Van Leemputte, M., Vangerven, L., & Hespel, P. (1997). Long-term creatine intake is beneficial to muscle performance during resistance training. Journal of Applied Physiology, 83, 2055-2063.

Author Note

Jon YeanSub Lim, Department of Health and Physical Education, Northern State University.

U.S. Sports Academy2016-10-14T11:27:22-05:00February 15th, 2008|Sports Exercise Science, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|Comments Off

Job Satisfaction Among Athletic Trainers in NCAA Division I-AA Institutions

Submitted by: Roberto Herrera, Weber State University
Jon YeanSub Lim, Northern State University

Abstract

This study analyzed the level of job satisfaction experienced by certified athletic trainers in selected National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I-AA institutions having football programs. It utilized the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire, which was sent along with a demographic questionnaire to 240 certified athletic trainers around the country. Analysis involved 138 questionnaires, representing a 57.5% rate of return. One-way analysis of variance and post hoc Scheffe multiple comparisons were conducted to determine if significant differences existed in the level of job satisfaction among athletic trainers relative to their demographics. Statistical significance was accepted at an alpha level of p < 0.05. The study found statistically significant differences (p < 0.05) in trainers’ job satisfaction, associated with their various employment positions: program director, faculty member, head athletic trainer, assistant athletic trainer, graduate assistant. Program directors and athletic training faculty members were most satisfied with their jobs, while graduate assistants were least satisfied. The findings of the study also showed that male athletic trainers experienced significantly higher job satisfaction than female athletic trainers, and older trainers experienced greater job satisfaction than younger trainers. Level of job satisfaction increased with the level of professional experience in athletic training.

Job Satisfaction Among Athletic Trainers in NCAA Division I-AA Institutions

Because of the needs of American football, athletic training originated as a health-care profession at the turn of the 20th century. In the beginning, the practice of athletic training was more a skill than a science. Moreover, the role of the athletic trainer was not defined, nor were his or her duties clearly affirmed by sports personnel outside the profession (Arnheim, 1993). Since the establishment in 1950 of a professional association in athletic training, the National Athletic Trainers’ Association (NATA), the establishment of undergraduate and graduate academic curricula in athletic training, along with establishment of standards for entry-level athletic trainer certification, has led to athletic training’s recognition as an allied health profession.

As the profession of athletic training has evolved, so have the athletic trainer’s responsibilities. Caring for athletes has always been an important responsibility; educating students of athletic training to secure professional continuity is becoming increasingly important. In 1994, NATA passed a mandate that, by the year 2004, any student seeking eligibility to test for the entry-level athletic training certification must attend a program approved by NATA. Athletic trainers around the country are in the process of meeting the new requirements set forth by NATA, which include new responsibilities within both the practical and academic realms. The new responsibilities may be especially noticed by smaller institutions whose budgets limit hiring of additional staff. The additional demands on athletic trainers may well induce additional stress, and the effects of that stress should be studied. An important related issue is the effects of athletic training personnel’s satisfaction with their academic and athletic responsibilities. Of primary concern to this study was the job satisfaction of the athletic training personnel in Division I-AA institutions having football programs sanctioned by the NCAA.

Methods

Participants
The participants were 138 certified athletic trainers (73 men, 65 women) from NCAA Division I-AA institutions that sponsor football. They included program directors (13.0%), faculty members (5.1%), head athletic trainers (16.7%), assistant athletic trainers (48.6%), and graduate assistants (16.7%). Of the respondents, 13.0% had bachelor’s degrees, 67.4% had master’s degrees, and 13.0% had doctoral degrees. Respondents’ professional experience most commonly numbered 1-5 years (34.8%); a further 31.2% of the respondents had 6-10 years’ experience, while 22.5% had more than 16 years’ experience in athletic training.

Instrument
Job satisfaction among athletic trainers was measured using the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ). It employs a 20-dimension Likert-type scale with 5 responses (1 very dissatisfied, 2 dissatisfied, 3 neutral, 4 satisfied, 5 very satisfied). Demographic data pertaining to gender, age, experience, and education were also collected. The purpose of the MSQ is to determine the degree of job satisfaction in terms of characteristics associated with the task itself (intrinsic satisfaction); of other, non-task characteristics of the job (extrinsic satisfaction); and of overall satisfaction with a job (total satisfaction). Evidence of the validity of the MSQ derives mainly from its ability to perform in line with theoretical expectation (known as construct validity) (Weiss, Dawis, England, & Lofquist, 1967). Coefficients ranged from .84 to .91 for intrinsic satisfaction, while external satisfaction coefficients ranged from .77 to .82. Total satisfaction coefficients ranged from .87 to .92. Reliability reported in Hoyt reliability coefficients suggests that the MSQ scales demonstrate adequate internal consistency reliabilities.

Statistical Analysis
The data collected were analyzed, using descriptive statistics, to obtain frequency distributions, percentages, means, and standard deviations. In addition, a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted to determine if significant differences in job-satisfaction levels existed relative to the athletic trainers’ demographics. When results of the ANOVA test were statistically significant, Scheffe post hoc multiple comparisons determined where differences between means existed. Statistical significance was accepted at an alpha level.

Results

Table 1 presents the ranking and mean values (in ascending order) for the total-job-satisfaction variables describing the athletic trainers. Primarily, the 3 intrinsic variables social status (M = 3.52), moral values (M = 3.50), and achievement (M = 3.41) ranked as top sources of job satisfaction among the athletic trainers. Participating trainers were least satisfied with their working conditions (M = 2.45), company policies and procedures (M = 2.22), advancement (M = 2.20), and compensation (M = 1.42).

Table 1

Mean Rank, Mean, and Standard Deviation of Variables in Athletic Trainers’ Total Job Satisfaction

MSQ Dimension	Mean Rank	M	SD
Social Service	1	3.52	0.81
Moral Values	2	3.50	0.86
Achievement	3	3.41	0.86
Creativity	4	3.38	0.91
Responsibility	5	3.34	0.90
Ability Utilization	6	3.33	0.83
Authority	7	3.22	0.90
Independence	8	3.19	0.89
Variety	9	3.16	1.12
Activity	10	3.15	1.05
Co-workers	11	3.02	0.99
Security	12	2.85	0.82
Supervision-Technical	13	2.82	0.83
Supervision-Human Relations	14	2.77	0.91
Recognition	15	2.74	0.88
Social Status	16	2.73	0.94
Working Conditions	17	2.45	0.82
Company Polices & Practices	18	2.22	0.94
Advancement	19	2.20	0.85
Compensation	20	1.42	1.10

Table 2 presents total satisfaction levels in terms of the participants’ demographic characteristics, along with results of one-way ANOVA tests. Athletic training program directors (3.58 mean rating) and athletic training faculty members (3.47 mean rating) appeared satisfied with their jobs. On the other hand, head athletic trainers (2.85 mean rating), assistant athletic trainers (2.47 mean rating), and graduate assistants (1.40 mean rating) appeared less satisfied. The results of the one-way ANOVA test indicated statistically significant differences in the sample’s job-satisfaction level based on employment (f = 152.875, p =.000). The results of the Scheffe post hoc testing indicate that the surveyed program directors and faculty members had job-satisfaction levels that were higher than those of head athletic trainers, assistant athletic trainers, and graduate assistants, to a statistically significant degree. Certified graduate assistants reported the lowest job-satisfaction levels.

Male athletic trainers had a mean of 2.79, while female athletic trainers had a mean of 2.27. The one-way ANOVA test indicated statistically significant differences between male and female athletic trainers for total job satisfaction (f =20.401, p = .000). Female athletic trainers were less satisfied with their employment than were their male counterparts, to a statistically significant extent.

Athletic trainers between 20 and 29 years of age had a mean of 2.11, while those 30 to 39 had a mean of 2.81 and those 50 or older had a still higher mean score, 2.96. One-way ANOVA testing indicated statistically significant differences in participants’ total job satisfaction based on age (f = 17.709, p = .000). Scheffe post hoc testing furthermore indicated that athletic trainers between 20 and 29 years of age reported job-satisfaction levels that were lower than those reported by trainers in other age groups, to a statistically significant degree.

Participants who had bachelor’s degrees had a mean of 2.30, while master’s-degree-holding participants had a mean of 2.56 and doctorate-holding participants had a still higher mean of 2.83. One-way ANOVA testing indicated statistically significant differences among the participating athletic trainers based on educational level (f = 3.149, p = 0.46). Scheffe post hoc testing indicated athletic trainers having the doctoral degree were significantly less satisfied in their employment than athletic trainers holding the bachelor’s degree.

Athletic trainers with 1-5 years of experience had a mean rating of 2.00, and those with 16 or more years had a mean value of 2.95. One-way ANOVA testing indicated there were statistically significant differences between participants based on years of experience as an athletic trainer (f = 19.826, p = .000). Scheffe post hoc testing indicated that the mean for total job satisfaction was significantly associated with the trainers’ years of professional experience; those having 1-5 years’ experience had mean scores that were higher than the mean scores for trainers with longer experience.

Table 2

Athletic Trainers’ Job Satisfaction as Related to Their Demographic Characteristics

Variable	General Satisfaction
M	SD	F	p
Employment			152.875	.000
	Program Director	3.58	0.27
	Faculty Member	3.47	0.26
	Head Athletic Trainer	2.85	0.28
	Assistant Athletic Trainer	2.47	0.25
	Graduate Assistant	1.40	0.50

Gender			20.401	.000
	Female	2.21	0.59
	Male	2.73	0.76

Age			17.709	.000
	20-29	2.11	0.73
	30-39	2.81	0.48
	40-49	2.94	0.57
	50-59	2.96	0.44

Education			3.149	.046
	Bachelor’s Degree	2.30	0.87
	Master’s Degree	2.56	0.65
	Doctoral Degree	2.83	0.44

Experience			19.826	.000
	1-5 Years	2.00	0.78
	6-10 Years	2.78	0.50
	11-15 Years	2.74	0.42
	16 Years or More	2.85	0.52

Conclusions

The athletic trainers participating in the study indicated that those variables producing greatest job satisfaction were the intrinsic satisfaction variables. In the measure of total job satisfaction, social service was the highest ranking variable; advancement and compensation were the lowest ranking. Greatest satisfaction with one’s job was indicated by program directors and athletic training faculty members. In general, the less rank characterizing the employment position, the less job satisfaction reported. Perhaps job satisfaction, then, may be attributed in some part to compensation for various positions.

In this study, younger members of the profession expressed most of the dissatisfaction with a job, especially the certified graduate assistants who were surveyed. Male participants had a higher level of job satisfaction than female participants, which may be related to low scores for satisfaction with one’s professional advancement . However, the advancement variable from the total job satisfaction score was in general indicative of dissatisfaction among athletic training personnel. As the education level of the athletic trainers increased, so did their satisfaction with the job. In addition, as years of experience increased, so did job satisfaction.

The amount of job dissatisfaction among athletic trainers observed from this study is disquieting. Whatever their demographic, dissatisfied participants in the study indicated that compensation was a major factor. The surveyed certified graduate assistants, who are usually underpaid and overworked, were among the most dissatisfied. Graduate assistants constitute an important asset in academic departments and programs, contributing to their effectiveness. The pattern of abusive employment of graduate assistants should be changed. At a minimum, prospective graduate assistants in athletic training should be well aware of the demands of a position, and its advantages and disadvantages, prior to employment. In fairness, graduate assistant athletic trainers should be fully compensated for their hard work. Changing the pattern, however, will be difficult, since no matter how much work is demanded (with no matter how little pay or benefits), there will always be ambitious students willing to complete the experience.

References

Arnheim, D., & Prentice, W. (1993). Principles of athletic training (8th ed.). St. Louis: Mosby.

Arnheim, D., & Prentice, W. (1993). Principles of athletic training (10th ed.). St. Louis: Mosby.

Bogg, J., & Cooper, C. (1995). Job satisfaction, mental health, and occupational stress among senior civil servants. Human relations, 48, 327-341.

Carson, K. D., Carson, P. C., Yallaprapragada, R., Langford, H., & Ro, C. W. (1998). Emergency medical technicians: Is career satisfaction within their control. Hospital Topics, 76(1),15-24.

Cassidy, M. L., & Warren, B. O. (1991). Status consistency and work satisfaction among professional and managerial women and men. Gender and Society, 5, 193-207.

Clark, A., Oswald, A., & Warr, P. (1996). Is job satisfaction U-shaped in age? Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 69, 57-83.

Daniels, K. (2000). Measures of five aspects of affective well-being at work. Human Relations, 53(2), 275-290.

Lu, L. (1999). Work motivation, job stress and employees’ well-being. Journal of Applied Management Studies, 8(1), 61-73.

Ma, X., & Macmillan, R. B. (1999). Influences of workplace conditions on teachers’ job satisfaction. Journal of Educational Research, 93(1), 39-54.

Mangus, B. (1998). The evolving roles of athletic training educators and clinicians. Journal of Athletic Training, 33(4), 308-309.

NCAA Official Web Provider. (2000). NCAA requirements of Division IAA Institutions. http://www.ncaa.org.

Orpen, C. (1994). Interactive effects of work motivation and personal control on employee job performance and satisfaction. Journal of Social Psychology, 134(6), 855-859.

Smits, P., & Hoy, F. (1998). Employee work attitudes: The subtle influence of gender. Human Relations, 51(5), 649-665.

Staurowsky, E., & Scriber, K. (1998). An analysis of selected factors that affect the work lives of athletic trainers employed in accredited educational programs. Journal of Athletic Training, 33(3), 244-248.

Vallen, G. K. (1993). Organizational climate and burnout. Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, 34(1), 54-67.

Weiss, D. J., Dawis, R. V., England, G. W., & Lofquist, L. H. (1967). Manual for the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota, Industrial Relations Center.

Author Note

Roberto Herrera, Department of Health Promotion and Human Performance, Weber State University; Jon YeanSub Lim, Department of Health and Physical Education, Northern State University.

U.S. Sports Academy2015-10-22T23:43:30-05:00February 15th, 2008|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Coaching, Sports Facilities, Sports Management, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|Comments Off