Women and Sports – Page 8 – The Sport Journal

Incidents of Sexual Harassment in Turkey on Elite Sportswomen

Submitted by: Nevin Gündüz, Hakan Sunay & Mitat Koz

Abstract:

The purpose of this study was to examine incidents of sexual harassment by trainers, administrators, spectators, etc. directed at elite sportswomen from different branches. The 356 sportswomen participants voluntarily took part in this study. They completed a twenty-item questionnaire that had been tested for validity and reliability. The Alfa reliability coefficient was found to be 0.86. The data collected were analyzed through SPSS program and data relations were examined via a chi-square test. The significance level was p<0.05.

The findings of the study revealed that 200 out of 356 sportswomen stated that they had been sexually harassed. The most frequent time of harassment was found to be after games or training, and the most frequently occurring location of harassment was the sports center. The relationship between branch groups, age, educational background, and the sexual harassment was found to have p<0.05 significance. The relationship between years of experience in sports, marital status, the gender of the trainer, and sexual harassment were found to be insignificant (p>0.05). The overall findings of this study show that elite sportswomen from different branches are exposed to sexual harassment. This supports the related literature.

Introduction:

As a form of sex discrimination, sexual harassment has a variety of definitions in different domains. However, none is universally accepted (Brackendridge et al., 2000). In general terms, sexual harassment is defined as unwelcome sexual attempts (Fedai et al., 2001); in sports, it takes the form of slang words, teasing, covert jokes, negative comments on a sportsperson’s body or performance, and unwelcome physical contact. Whether physical or psychological, it is disturbing to the person, and is given without consent (Brackendridge et al., 2000, Charney et al., 1994; Ian, 2000, Kirby et al., 1997; Lackey, 1990). Research on sexual harassment in sports began in the mid-1980s (Brackendridge, 1997) and was commonly defined as rudeness to women by adult men (Brackendridge, 2000 & Seefelt, 1998).

Sexual harassment is a relatively new area of study in our country, but it has been on the agenda in Western countries for a long time. Though the problem has existed in our country, due to social perceptions, attitude differences, and the socialization process it has not been studied in detail. When considering the damage it causes to a person, to a club, and to the sports community, the significance of the situation becomes obvious. Moreover, sexual harassment has potentially negative influences on performance, economical and social position, self-confidence, mood, and physical health (Brackendridge et al., 2000).

The sub-objectives of the research were to determine whether sportspersons experienced sexual harassment or not. If so, the type of harassment, by whom they were exposed to harassment, the place(s) it happened, the psychological and physical damages, and the rate of reactions needed to be considered. In addition, the relationship between the sportsmen’s branch (team and individual), age, educational background, marital status, active years in sports, and conceptualization of sexual harassment were examined.

Methodology:

The Subjects

Three-hundred and fifty-six elite sportswomen from various branches of athletics: weightlifting (eight), football (thirty-six), taekwondo (fifty-two), basketball (twenty-six), swimming (eighteen), handball (seventy-eight), volleyball (forty-two), table tennis (eighteen) gymnastics (twenty-two), and miscellaneous (fifty-six) voluntarily participated in this study. Before the training, in the changing room, sportswomen from team and individual sports were given information about the study and the questionnaire. Completed questionnaires were returned to the researchers in sealed envelopes by the participants or the coaches.

Data Collection Tool

After a detailed study of the related research, a twenty-item questionnaire was prepared and piloted on fifty students from Ankara University, College of Sports to check validity and reliability. The Alfa reliability coefficient was 0.86. Before asking sportswomen of different branches to fill out the questionnaires, they were given the necessary information and the questionnaires were distributed in closed envelopes. These consisted of twenty questions, the first five of which involved personal information (age, sports branch, training age, educational background, marital status), and the rest of which were multiple choice questions about sexual harassment. The focus of these multiple choice questions concerned the frequency of sexual harassment incidents, the harasser, the affective dimension, actions against harassment, and the location of the incidents.

Statistical Analysis

The data were analyzed by use of SPSS (7, 5) program. The descriptive statistics was referred to in order to identify the relation between data via the chi-square test. For the analysis of personal information and other responses, frequency (f), percentage (%), arithmetical mean (x), and standard deviation (SD) were referred to. By use of the chi-square test, the relationship between the sportsperson’s branch (team and individual), age, educational background, marital status, active years in sports, and relation to sexual harassment were examined. Finally, the level of significance was found to be p<0.05.

Findings:

*Table 1: Personal Information about Participating Sportswomen*
Variables	Number	Percentage (%)	Total
Age	<19 >20	190 166	53.4 46.6	356
Educational Background	High School College	110 246	69.1 30.9	356
Marital Status	Married Single	18 338	5.1 94.9	356

Table 1 provides personal information about the elite sportswomen. For age, 53.4% of the participants were under the age of 20 whereas 46.6% were above 20. For education, 69.1% were college graduates while 30. 9% were high school graduates. Finally, the marital status rate was 94: 9% were single and 5.1% were married. The branches of participants are displayed in Table 2.

*Table 2: Branch Distribution of Sportswomen*
Sports Branch	Number	Percentage (%)
Athletics	56	15.7
Weightlifting	8	2.2
Football	36	10.1
Taekwondo	52	14.6
Basketball	26	7.3
Swimming	18	5.1
Handball	78	21.9
Volleyball	42	11.8
Table Tennis	18	5.1
Gymnastics	22	6.2
Total	356	100

In addition, it was found that the sportspersons had four to ten years of active sport experience.

4-6 Years11632.7

*Table 3: Experience*
Duration of Participation in Sport	Number	Percentage (%)
1-3 Years	26	7.3
7-9 Years	124	34.8
10+ Years	90	25.3
Total	356	100

The results revealed that out of 356 sportswomen, 56.2% declared that they had been exposed to sexual harassment, whereas 43.8% declared the opposite ( see Table 4). The most frequent sexual harassment type was ‘come-ons’ by 26.4%, ‘unwelcome jokes, questions and ‘sexual utterances’ by 25.3%, and ‘unwelcome letters and phone calls’ by 24.2%.

*Table 4: Frequency of Exposure to Harassment*
Frequency	Number	Percentage (%)
Yes	200	56.2
No	156	43.8
Total	356	100

In addition, the harassers were identified as ‘spectators’ by 40%, ‘teammates’ by 33.1%, and ‘the trainer’ by 24.8% (see Table 5). As to the frequency of exposure to these kinds of problems, once in a sportswomen’s life was 12.4%, once to three times was 30.9%, four to eight times was 7.3%, five to eight times was 5.1% and continuous was 3.9%. Sexual harassment occured during the following times: 21.3% after games, 19.7% after trainings, 9% before or during games, and 6.7% before games. As a reaction to harassment, 29.8% of the participants stated they ignored the harassment. In addition, 18.5% stated, “I told the harasser not to do it” and 16.9% stated, “I stopped the harasser.”

*Table 5: Type and Distribution of Harassment*
Types of Harassment	Trainer	Manager	Teammate	Spectator	Other	Total
No	%	No	%	No	%	No	%	No	%	No	%
Come-ons	16	4,5	16	4,5	24	6,7	34	9,6	4	1,1	94	26,4
Unwelcome Jokes, Questions or Sexual Utterances	18	5,1	18	5,1	30	8,4	22	6,2	2	0,6	90	25,3
Unwelcome Asking Out	14	3,9	14	3,9	28	7,9	26	7,3	4	1,1	86	24,2
Unwelcome Letters or Phone Calls	14	3,9	8	2,2	18	5,1	28	7,9	6	1,7	74	20,8
Sexual Exposure of the Body	2	0,6	8	2,2	8	2,2	20	5,6	4	1,1	42	11,8
Light Touching	22	6,2	–	–	6	1,7	10	2,8	4	1,1	42	11,8
Clearly Touching	2	0,6	2	0,6	4	1,1	2	0,6	2	0,6	12	3,4
Rape	–	–	–	–	2	0,6	–	–	2	0,6	4	1,1
Total	88	24,8	68	19,1	118	33,1	142	40	28	7,9

As to location, 45.5% of the sportswomen stated that the gym or game field is the place where sexual harassment primarily occurs (Table 6). A high percentage of sportswomen (69.1%) believed that sport apparel does not promote sexual harassment, while 29.2% accepted that there was a relationshp between the two.

*Table 6: Locations of Sexual Harassment*
Location	No.	Percentage (%)
Gyms or Game Field	162	45.5
Changing Room	14	3.9
Equipment Room	2	0.6
Other	62	17.6

Whether sexual harassment affects the performances of the sportswomen was a subject of varying opinions. The percentage that answered that it didn’t change performance was 36%, the percentage that felt it created a decrease in performance was 18.5%, and the percentage that felt that it increased performance was 2.2%. The duration of the decrease in the performance was felt by most to last “less than a week”. The most frequent reaction to sexual harassment is ‘anger’ by 20.8 % (see Table 7).

*Table 7: Psychological Reactions of Sportswomen after Being Harassed*
Reaction	No	Percentage (%)
Anger	74	20.8
Fear	40	11.2
Desperation	20	5.6
Inferiority and Worry	22	6.2
Depression	_	_
Guilt	4	1.1
No Feelings at All	6	1.7
Other	36	9.1

As for the physical/physiological reactions to these kinds of incidents, ‘headache’ was the largest reactant at 37.1 % (see Table 8). The subsequent actions taken by the sportswomen also varied: 53.9% said they “have done nothing”, 1.7% indicated “having seen psychological counselors,” and 1.7% indicated “having taken tranquilizers.’

*Table 8: Physical/ Physiological Reactions of Sportswomen after Being Harassed*
Physical Reaction	No	Percentage (%)
Headache	74	20.8
Insomnia	40	11.2
Heartburn	20	5.6
Tiredness	22	6.2
Nausea- Vomiting	–	–
Dizziness	4	1.1
Irregular Menstruation	6	1.7
Other	36	10.1

The harasser was identified as ‘a friend’ by 37.2%, as ‘family’ by 9.0%, and as “the trainer” by 5.1%. That sexual harassment is a problem was partially agreed to by 52.2% of the participants; 29.8% saw it as a real problem, and 18% did not see it at all as a problem.

On the other hand, the relationship between the sports branches (especially team sport) and sexual harassment was found to be significant (p 0.05). Likewise, for age (especially 20 or above), educational background (especially college graduates) and sexual harassment, the significance level was found to be p 0.05. Nevertheless, the relationship between the duration of experience, martial status, gender of the trainers, and sexual harassment was not significant (p 0.05).

Discussion:

To reach the optimum level of performance, training and game conditions for sportswomen should be secure (Brackendridge et al., 2000). More importantly, the low number of female trainers in our country makes this topic more critical. The research shows that the number of sportswomen and female trainers is much fewer than that of men (Anonymous, 1991). In our study, 84.3% of the women’s trainers were men, whereas 15.7% were women. The studies conducted in the U.S. also supported this rate (Lackey, 1990). The harassers generally turned out to be sportsmen and male trainers. In addition, as the perceptions of men and women differ, “unwelcome behaviors” may be taken to be less problematic by men. As a result, completely unwanted conduct may be considered acceptable by sportsmen (Brackendridge et al, 2000 & Seefelt, 1998). The studies so far states that the trainers are the ones abusing relationships (Brackendridge et al, 2000).

The fact that spectators are the most frequent harassers underscores the fact that the low education level of Turkey may be reflected by the conduct of spectators. In this study, 56.2% of sportswomen declared that they had been harassed, whereas the study conducted on 301 Israeli and American sportswomen by Fedjin et al. showed a harassment rate of 14% (Fedjin et al., 2001). This study defined harassers in the following manner: 40% were spectators, 33.1% were teammates and 24.8% were trainers. The most frequent type of harassment turned out to be ‘come-ons’ at 26.4% followed by ‘unwelcome jokes, questions, and sexual utterances at 25.3%, which are the highest, according to studies in the U.S. (Lackey, 1990).

Sexual harassment may occur once; on the other hand, unwelcome sexual conduct may take place repeatedly (Anonymous, 2000; Brackendridge, et al, 2000). The first study about sexual harassment on women in Turkey concluded that 56.2% of the sportswomen had been subjected to sexual harassment at least once. In many other countries, findings show that every three to four sportswomen experience sexual harassment before adolescence (Brackendridge, 1997; Brackendridge et al., 2000). More than 90% of the victims of harassment are negatively influenced emotionally (Brackendridge et al., 2000; Ian, 2000). This study acknowledged that having been psychologically affected, sportswomen have feelings of anger, fear, weariness, loss of self confidence, and loneliness.

The findings for the physical/physiological effects of harassment were parallel to those of other studies (Brackendridge et al, 2000; Charney et al., 1994). The location of harassment occurs 45.5% of the time at the gym or sports field and 21.3% of the time after a game; Kirby and Graves (1997) argued that sexual harassment doubled during trips for trainings.

Of the participants, 69.1% did not agree on the relationship between sportswear and harassment; 29.2% did. Furthermore, no clear relation was identified in the related research; it was considered simply a risk factor (Brackendridge et al., 2000).

A significant relationship of p 0.05 between the branches (especially team sports), age groups (especially the group of 20 or above), educational background (especially the college group), and sexual harassment was found. Female athletes in team sports are at higher incidences of harassment than in individual sports in Turkey (GSGM 2006). Indeed, it is highly popular to participate in team sports such as volleyball, basketball, and handball among females in Turkey. Therefore, it can be proposed that sexual harassment in team sports in Turkey is increased due to the increased interest of spectators. The study on the health staff found that young nurses are the most frequently harassed group in Turkey (Kisa et al., 1996). Other studies conducted in Turkey displayed these findings: 14% of working women are harassed (Cumhuriyet Newspaper, 2004; Milliyet Newspaper, 2004). This is widely observed in hospitals (Cumhuriyet Newspaper, 2004). Sportswomen, at the beginning of their professional life, get discouraged if subjected to harassment. They tend to leave the sports club. On the contrary, some of the elite sportsmen declared that, independent of the trainers, they succeeded in becoming members of the groups that helped prevent harassment. However, due to their lack of self-confidence, they relate their successes to other people (trainers, managers, etc.). Therefore, we can conclude that instead of coping with harassment, they tend to leave the profession (Brackendridge et al., 2000). The relation between active sports years, marital status, and harassment was found to be insignificant (p 0.05).

Conclusion:

Out of 356 participant sportswomen, 56.2% declared that they had been exposed to sexual harassment while 43.8% did not. The most frequent sexual harassment was stated to be ‘come-ons’ at 26.4% followed by ‘unwelcome jokes, questions and sexual utterances at 25.3%, and ‘unwelcome letters and phone calls’ at 24.2%.

As regards sources of harassment, 40% claimed that spectators, 33.1% teammates, and 24.8% trainers were guilty of harassment. The rate of sexual harassment varied. Of the participants, 12.4%, declared it occurred only once, 30.9% said that it occurred one to three times, 7.3% said that it occurred four to eight times, 5.1% said that it occurred five to eight times, and 3.9% declared continuous harassment.

As to the timing of the harassment, 21.3% stated it happened after the game, 19.7% after the training, 9.0% before/during the training, and 6.7% before the game. Of the participants, 29.8% said, ‘I ignored the act’, 18.5% said, ‘I told that person not to,’ and 16.9% said, ‘I prevented the behavior.’

The most frequently occurring location for harassment, noted by 45.5%, was the gym or the field. Of the participants, 69.1% did not accept the existence of a relationship between the clothing and harassment, while 29.2% did.

When questioned, 36% stated no change in their performances, whereas 18.5% expressed a decrease in performance in the case of harassment. The duration of the decrease was stated by most as ‘less than a week’. The most common psychological reaction to harassment was found to be ‘anger,’ at 20.8%.

The most frequent physical reaction of sportswomen to harassment was headaches (37.1%). Of the participants, 53.9% declared that they did nothing to overcome the reactions, 1.7% acknowledged that they have seen counselors and 1.7% have taken tranquilizers. In addition, 37.2% have reported the incident to a friend, 9.0% to family, and 5.1% to a trainer. Finally, 52.2% accepted the harassment as a partial problem, 29.8% as a larger problem, and 18% as no problem at all.

Recommendations for Further Study:

Sportswomen are exposed to sexual harassment in Turkey. Therefore, the following recommendations should be considered. Information sessions on ‘sexual harassment’ for sportswomen from different branches should be inititated. Practical rules, security guidelines, and other materials should be prepared to increase the security of sportswomen. Sportswomen should enroll in self-defense training. Harassers should be punished with a preventative and appropriate punishment. Working conditions must improve to discourage harassment. Sports managers should take measures to prevent harassment towards sportswomen (eg. escorting sportswomen, making the gym and sport fields safer). Harassed women must be helped to recover and regain their status and self-confidence.

References:

Anonymous (1991). Official paper from the Prime Ministry General Directorate for Youth and
Sports. Ankara.

Anonymous (2000). Official paper from the National Association for Sports and Physical Education (NASPE), 1-5. Sexual Harassment in Athletic Settings. Retrieved April 4, 2005, from http://www.aahperd.org/naspe/naspe

Brackendridge, CH. (1997). Researching sexual abuse in sport. In Clarke G, Humberstone B.
(Eds.) Researching Women Sports. (pp. 126-141). London: Macmillan.

Brackendridge, CH & Cert Ed. (2000) Harassment, sexual abuse and safety of the female athletes. Clinics in Sports Medicine, 19(2), 187-199. April.

Charney, D. A. and Russell, R.C. (1994), An overview of sexual harassment. Am. J. Psychiatry. 151 (1). 10-17.

Cumhuriyet Newspaper (2004). The Nightmare of the working women. pp. 18 December. Fedai, T. & Teke, K. (2000). Sexual harassment: importance in hospital management. Journal of Health and Society. 10(2). 17-21, April.

Fedjin, N. and Hanegby, R. (2001). Gender and Cultural Bias in Perceptions of Sexual Harassment in Sport, International Review for the Sociology, 36 (4), 459-478.

GSGM (2006), Genclik ve Spor Genel Mudurlugu, http://www.gsgm.gov.tr/sayfalar/istatistik/istatistik_index.htm

Ian Holmes (2001). Policy on Harassment. Retrieved April 4, 2005, from http:/www.australiansoccer.com.au/pdfs/fairplay/800-6-Circular%2024-2001.pdf

Kirby, S. & Graves, L. (1997, July). Foul Play: Sexual Harassment in Sports. Paper Presented at the Pre- Olympic Scientific Congress, Dallas, TX.

Kisa, A. & Dziegielewski, F. S. (1996). Sexual harassment of female nurses in a hospital in
Turkey, Health Service Management Research, 9, 243-253.

Lackey, D. (1990), Sexual harassment in sports. Physical Educator, 47(2), 22-26.

Milliyet Newspaper (2004). They are not complaining about harassment. pp. 16 December.

Seefelt, V. (1998). Understanding Sexual Harassment and Abuse of Power in Athletic Settings, YSI home page, 1-4.

Appendix: The Questionnaire

Dear sportsman,

Sexual harassment, though not a new issue in our country, has been on the agenda of Western countries for a long time. In many of the sport branches, the number of female trainers is low, which makes this issue significant.

The purpose of this study is to examine sexual harassment incidents by trainers, administrators, spectators, etc. toward elite sportswomen from different branches. Your responses to this questionnaire will not be used anywhere else. The success of this study depends on your complete and correct answers. I thank you for your help and cooperation.

The Researchers

1. Age?
2. Sport branch?
3. For how many years have you been actively involved in sports?
a- 1-3    b- 4-6    c- 7-9    d- 10+
4. Educational level?
a- High school    b-University    d-Other:_____________
5. Marital status?
a- Married    b-Single    c- Separated/Divorced    d-Widow/er
6. The following is a definition of sexual harassment: intentional or repeatedly unwelcome words or physical contact. The following are considered to be actions of sexual harassment: come-ons, unwelcome jokes, questions and sexual utterances, sexually explicit hand movements and facial gestures, unwelcome invitations out, unwelcome letters and phone calls, sexual exposure of part of the body, a soft touch to the body, a clear touch to the body (eg. touching breasts), and rape.

7. Based on this definition, have you ever experienced sexual harassment?
a-Yes b-No
8. Please mark the following that apply to your experience.

‘

	Trainer	Administrator	Teammate	Spectator	Other
Come-ons
Unwelcome jokes, questions and sexual utterances
Unwelcome asking out
Unwelcome letters and phone calls
Sexually exposing any part of the body
A soft touch to the body
A clear touch to the body
Rape -tendency to rape

9. How many times you have experienced this kind of sexual harassment?
a- once b- 1-3 times c- 4-8 times d- 8-15 times e- continuously

10. When did you experience sexual harassment?
a-before/during training b-after training c-before game d-after game
11. How did you find solutions when you experienced sexual harassment? (may circle more than one choice).

a-I ignored the act.    b-I took it as teasing.    c-I prevented the behavior.
d- I told that person not to.    e-I reported it to my teammates, trainer and administrators.
f-Other, please write _____________________
12. Where did you experience sexual harassment? (may circle more than one choice)
a- Gym    b-Changing room    c-Equipment room    d-Other (please write) _________________
13. Do you believe that there is a relationship between the uniforms on the field and sexual harassment?
a- Yes    b- No
14. How has your performance changed since the incident?

a- My performance increased.    b- There was no change in my performance.
c- My performance decreased.
15. If your performance decreased, how long did that last? (based on the latest incident).
a-Less than a week    b-1 week- 1 month    c-1 month- 3 months    d-Less than 6 months
16. How did you react to this incident? (You may circle more than one choice.)
a- Anger    b- Fear    c- Desperation    d- Inferiority    e- Depression    f- Guilt    g- No feelings
h-Other reactions (please write)______________________________________.
17. Which of these physical complaints did you have after the incident of sexual harassment? (may circle more than one choice)

a- Headaches b- Insomnia c- Heartburn d- Fatigue e- Nausea-vomiting f- Dizziness
g- Irregular menstruation h-Other:________________________________________
18. To overcome the physical complaints, what have you done?

a-I have changed my eating habits. b-I have taken tranquilizers.
c-I have had psychological guidance or therapy. d- No actions taken

19. Whom did you talk to about this sexual harassment incident?

a-My spouse b-My family c-My sibling d-One club administrator e-My friend f-My trainer
g-Other:_____________________________________________
20. What is the gender of your trainer:
a- Male b-Female
21. Do you think sexual harassment is a problem in sports?

a- Yes b- No c-Partially

U.S. Sports Academy2016-10-12T14:47:06-05:00March 14th, 2008|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Coaching, Sports Management, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology, Women and Sports|Comments Off

The Demise of the WNBA in Florida: A Mixed Method Case Study of Newspaper Coverage about Women’s Professional Basketball

Submitted by: Frederick L. Battenfield, Bosmat M. Dzaloshinsky & Samuel Y. Todd

The Women’s National Basketball Association (WNBA) is a hot phenomenon on the American sports scene. With its recent popularity, the question has been raised as to whether newspaper coverage of the teams is pivotal to the survival of the fledgling franchises. This study sought to discover if the actual coverage of the Miami Sol and the Orlando Miracle, two now defunct WNBA teams, affected the demise of the franchises.

Our mixed method case study compared a qualitative inquiry (interviews) with an empirical examination of the newspaper coverage. It examined the development of coverage for the two franchises, story placement, the average number of column inches for each story, use of photographs, and story content. It attempted to discover the viewpoints of the beat writers for the two teams at the Miami Herald and the Orlando Sentinel. Additionally, a perspective was shown of how prevalent the Sol and Miracle public relations directors think their teams’ coverage is.

The study examined whether women were depicted as sex objects through commoditization or objectification, whether gender marking was present in the stories, and whether the coverage was written from a female or male perspective.

By examining the newspaper coverage of the most popular women’s sport in our country, conclusions were drawn as to whether the sports media has accepted the popularity of women’s sports, or whether masculine hegemonic practices of sports editors are still in place.

Introduction:

The conceptual genesis of the Women’s National Basketball Association (WNBA), and the “We Got Next” campaign, with the approval of the male dominated NBA Board of Governors, was formally approved on April 24, 1996 amidst great fanfare from women’s professional basketball enthusiasts. Shortly thereafter, the new women’s league began its trek toward a June 1997 date for its first official tip-off. Many “firsts” soon followed: the league’s first commissioner, Val Ackerman, was hired; Lisa Leslie became the first woman to sign a contract; broadcast partnerships with NBC, ESPN, and Lifetime Television were inked; and eight fledgling franchises were initiated throughout the United States.

What didn’t follow amidst the hoopla surrounding the new league was extensive media coverage. To examine this phenomenon, a mixed method case study of Florida’s two now defunct WNBA franchises, the Orlando Miracle and the Miami Sol, was conducted to show that not only was limited newspaper coverage by the two major newspapers in the teams’ coverage areas partially to blame for the two franchises’ demise, but there was also a marked deference by sports editors to existing stereotypes regarding media content decisions.

The Orlando Miracle joined the WNBA as an expansion franchise in 1999. The Miami Sol followed its sister Florida team into the league in 2000. The Miracle lasted four seasons, and compiled a 60-68 record with one playoff appearance before the franchise was transferred to the Connecticut Sun in 2003. The Sol was in existence three years and it amassed a record of 48-48 with one playoff appearance before it was disbanded in 2003.

This study will seek to discover if newspaper coverage by the two respective newspapers, the Miami Herald and the Orlando Sentinel, contributed to the short tenure of the two ill-fated WNBA teams in the state of Florida. Newspaper coverage of women’s professional basketball in the United States has been marginal in the markets where the WNBA competes. Boutilier and SanGiovanni (1983) referred to newspaper coverage of women’s sports as ghettoization because sports editors generally treat women’s sporting news as essentially not newsworthy. When coverage exists, it is assigned to non-prominent space (Boutilier & SanGiovanni, 1983). Some experts believe that sports editors act as gatekeepers and, through their purported biased decision-making, erect barriers to coverage, adversely affecting female participation (Matheson and Flatten, 1996). Others hypothesize that hegemonic theory (Gramsci, 1971; Sage, 1998), or the power to sanction the power and privilege over women in sport (Daddario, 1994), is the basis of the discriminatory coverage exerted by sports editors. The symbiotic relationship between mass media and sport reinforces the importance and power of sport that is embedded in our cultural landscape. However, the mass media is also a controlling the institution that creates, reinforces, and perpetuates our society’s existing hegemonic order. Graber (1997) stated that the biased process mass media utilizes to determine what will get into print is directly correlated to the reinforcement of existing cultural norms in American society. Stories chosen for prominent coverage are selected on the basis of enforcing and subsequently intensifying the power of the media to reinforce dominant cultural values determined by the elite.

The purpose of the study is to examine the newspaper coverage of the two WNBA teams in light of the previously mentioned hegemonic practices of the sports editors. We began with a qualitative study where the sports editors, beat writers, and team public relations directors were interviewed (questions are presented in Appendix 1). Based on the predominant themes and issues that were revealed by the interviews, we then conducted a content analysis to examine the findings empirically.

Background:

The significance of sports in the United States is illuminated by recent surveys indicating that 30% of the public says it purchases newspapers primarily for the sports section. In several major market newspapers, nearly 50% of the non-advertising space is devoted to sports, which has five times the readership of any other section (Sage, 1990). It can be presupposed that media coverage of women’s sporting endeavors is a critical issue related to the future development of women’s sport for variety of reasons; the media plays a central role in creating the public profile and image of women’s sport; the media has the power to provide role models for other sportswomen, or women who may take part in sport; and media coverage, particularly television exposure, is often a major factor in securing commercial sponsorship (The Sports Council, 1995).

Historical analysis implies that the relationship between sport and the mass media is one of mutual interdependence and of reciprocal influence. Therefore, if the media has become the lens through which sporting images are portrayed, and is the convex mirror through which everything is reflected, then it can be claimed that sport and the mass media are inextricably linked in a mutually beneficial relationship (Snyder & Spreitzer, 1983).

Lever and Wheeler’s (1984) content analysis of sports pages of the Chicago Tribune from 1900 to 1975 found that women’s sports coverage in 1900 was 1.2% of the total paper. The coverage expanded to 4% between 1925 and 1950, but grew to only 7.1% by 1975. In an analysis of five newspapers, Woolard (1983) found that only 15% of the sports sections contained coverage of women’s sports. A recent content analysis of USA Today, The (Nashville) Tennessean, and the New York Times from 11 March to 7 April 1996 revealed that female athletes received a meager 11% of sport coverage (Huggins, 1996).

A recent study of the New York Times’ coverage of the 1995 women’s and men’s National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) basketball tournaments confirmed that female athletes are receiving less coverage and are being framed as the “other” athletes (Silverstein, 1996). Silverstein conducted a quantitative and qualitative comparison of the newspaper’s coverage of the three-week event, including the number and length of articles, the size of photos and graphics, and the placement in the paper and sports section. The quantitative results indicated that there were three times as many articles, photos, and graphics on the men’s tournament as on the women’s, and there were eighteen features on male players and six on their coaches, compared to two on female players and four on their coaches. Further, the study found that men’s articles appeared on the front page of the sports section thirty-one times compared with four women’s articles. The qualitative findings revealed that the women’s tournament was framed as the “other” tournament, compared with the “real” tournament played by men.

The importance of newspaper photographs is underscored by the fact that photos are among the first news items to catch the reader’s eye. They often help to establish the context or frame of reference from which the reader interprets the accompanying story (Miller, 1975). Numerous content analyses of photographs in newspapers have found female athletes to be under-represented. For example, Miller (1975) conducted a content analysis of the photographs in the Los Angeles Times and the Washington Post and found that males dominated the sport sections of both papers. The ratios of photos of men to photos of women were 16:1 (Washington Post) and 9:1 (Los Angles Times). Lee (1992) also discovered disparity when examining the photographs of female/male athletes participating in the 1984 and 1988 Summer Olympic Games. The ratio of photos of Olympic male athletes to those of Olympic female athletes was 2.2:1 in The Global and Mail, compared to 2.6:1 in the New York Times. Newspaper coverage of female athletes is often found in less prominent pages and sections. Bryant (1980) found that the location of articles about women’s sports was either the fourth and fifth or last pages of the sports section.

In summary, despite increasing opportunities and growing social awareness and acceptance for women participating in sport, research on media representation of women in sport in the U.S. has generally found that female athletes are under-reported. Often, the coverage is clouded by traditional, outdated, sexist coverage in electronic and print media.

Methods:

This study utilized a mixed methodology. We developed a list of questions to utilize in interviews with the sports editors and the assigned beat writers from the Orlando Sentinel and the Miami Herald. Additionally, the public relations directors for the Miracle and Sol were queried to determine the attitudes, perceptions, and motivations on media coverage of women’s pro basketball in Florida. Next, we summarized our findings and conducted a comprehensive two-year content analysis of the Orlando Sentinel and the Miami Herald to search for differences in the volume of actual stories and photographs related to the Sunshine State’s two (now former) WNBA franchises.

Sample:

Three distinct sampling decisions were used to conduct a content analysis study (Berelson, 1952). The first decision involves selecting the titles (specific newspapers). For this study, the purposive sampling technique was used. This technique involves the researcher choosing the sample based on the newspapers (titles) having similar characteristics, such as circulation and readership profiles. The second sampling decision relates to the issues or dates of the titles. In this study, the dates of the newspapers to be studied coincide with the dates of the 2000 and 2001 WNBA seasons, including two weeks prior to the beginning of the games and a week after the season concluded (May 1 2000- September 2 2000, and April 30, 2001 – September 2, 2001). The final sampling decision is the content to be coded from the newspapers. For the purpose of this study, the content to be coded included the front page of the newspapers, the front page of the sports section, and the entire sports section in both newspapers.

A sample of the two WNBA franchises in Florida, the Orlando Miracle and the Miami Sol, were selected for the current study to scrutinize trends in media coverage of relatively new teams in well-established sports metropolises. These newspapers were chosen because they are the largest periodicals in the respective cities of the teams. The Miami Herald is the most popular daily newspaper in Miami, with a daily circulation of 326,410, and a Sunday circulation of 441,564. This study investigates its coverage of the Miami Sol in its first two seasons in the WNBA. The Orlando Sentinel is the only daily newspaper in Orlando, with a daily circulation of 256,278, and a Sunday circulation of 378,172. The study investigates its coverage of the Orlando Miracle in its second and third seasons in the WNBA.

Qualitative Analysis:

We first compiled an interview schedule (list of questions), used to format extensive personal interviews with the sports editors and beat writers who collaborate in the decision-making process on the volume of media coverage of the Miami Sol and the Orlando Miracle. The public relations directors of both teams, who by the nature of their job descriptions were responsible for attempting to coax additional column inches for their respective organizations out of the sports editors, were also interviewed.

Qualitative research has several key characteristics that make it a valuable asset in collecting rich personal data directly from subjects. McMillan (2000) notes several key characteristics of qualitative research: 1) data collected in a natural setting, 2) direct data collection, 3) rich narrative descriptions, 4) process orientation (a process through which the data is collected), 5) inductive data analysis (generalizations inducted from synthesizing gathered data), 6) participant perspectives, and 7) emergent research design (entering the study with no preconceived notions about the subjects’ attitudes).

The specific methodology employed in the study is ethnography, or a qualitative research project whose purpose is rich description from an ’emic,’ or insider’s perspective. Rooted in anthropology, ethnography is a process by which the researcher seeks to discover cultural meanings from the data. The ethnographer identifies themes and patterns beyond the mere reporting of events and details, and seeks to provide an explanation of the sporting world in which we live.

Three methods of collecting data are common to ethnographic studies – participant observation, interviews, and analysis of documents (McMillan, 2000). In the study, two of these techniques were used – personal interviews and content analysis. The interviews were conducted with the three primary actors in the professional media context: the newspapers’ sports editors, the beat writers assigned by the papers to cover the teams, and the PR directors employed by the WNBA teams. The content analysis provided empirical data directly from the newspaper stories written about the Miracle and the Sol for the 2000 and 2001 seasons.

To insure the validity of the interviews, a semi-structured format was selected. Using McMillan’s (2000) information on formulating interviews, the researchers established contact with the subjects prior to the interviews to give them a general idea of the basic topics to be covered. The interviewer then let the interview process with all three subjects flow from the responses of the subject. Follow-up questions were asked if the collected information warranted.

The ethnographic approach provided a detailed analysis of the attitudes, perceptions, and motivations related the selection of and attempts to influence media coverage of the two teams. The team’s PR directors (PR area), beat reporters (newspaper staff writers), and sport editors (newspaper management) were the interview sample.

McMillan (2000) states this type of interview is utilized with individuals possessing insight and understanding into the problem. For the study, the key informant interview was used because the six people interviewed were experts on the respective subject areas, as detailed by their positions of employment.

Results:

An initial e-mail was sent to each of the potential interviewees. It included suggested questions, but also requested that they consider their thoughts about media coverage of the team they either worked for or covered as a member of the media. After receiving a confirmatory response from each person with an agreement to participate in the interview, each of the subjects was telephoned.

Following the interviews, data transcription occurred, and a comprehensive examination was performed to determine if thematic patterns could be found. First, an analysis of the responses from the team public relations directors depicted consistent coverage of both the Sol and the Miracle in both markets. Both PR directors concurred that they believed their teams should receive more coverage than was allocated by the respective hometown paper. A “grain of salt” explanation must be referenced because PR people have an understandable bias toward their teams, and would like to see more coverage in the local newspaper. In trying to determine the value of the team in the sport landscape (Is it a legitimate sporting entity, or an alternative sport offering like the X Games?), the PR directors were queried as to the teams’ position in the market. Both firmly believed the WNBA is a legitimate entry into professional sports and has a long-term future.

Both the Sol and Miracle PR directors responded to a question about their relationships with the beat writers and sports editors in a positive manner. In their opinions, both beat writers were genuinely interested in covering the teams, and were not there because they had been assigned to the beat. They reported that their relationships with their respective sports editors were cordial and professional, but mentioned that the editors viewed the WNBA team as just another entry-level sport that should be placed in the second tier of sports coverage. The results from the content analysis of the Miami Herald and the Orlando Sentinel clearly showed that both WNBA teams received extensive coverage in June at the beginning of the season. However, the column inch count from both newspapers showed a significant drop once professional football training camps began in late July.

A highly entrenched tier system of media coverage is one phenomenon that emerged from the research. Interviews with the sports editors revealed that they placed coverage of the ‘Big 4’ pro teams (baseball, basketball, football, and hockey) first before making any other space allocations. The WNBA fell into the second tier, which puts it on a parallel with college sports, minor professional sports, and entities like major league soccer, pro tennis, golf, and other events that occur periodically through the year. Related to the tier system, both editors concurred that when the month of July started and professional football training camps opened, a manifest decline in WNBA coverage occurred. The primary reason the WNBA season is played in the summer is to avoid conflict with three of the four ‘Big 4’ sports. The content analysis results clearly showed that when football pre-season training camp began, the column inch count of the WNBA plummeted. One beat writer bluntly stated, “When the ‘Fins’ begin, the space goes.”

The PR directors also surmised that media coverage was poor in half of the twelve WNBA cities, and that their spaces in the local Florida papers were better than the majority of the league. One PR director noted that the 2001 league champion Los Angeles Sparks received minimal exposure in the Los Angeles Times until they were deep into the league playoffs.

From the PR directors’ perspective, the primary obstacle to more team coverage is the sports editor. If the sports editor takes a personal interest in the team, the coverage increases. If an editor was only marginally interested, the teams would receive the same coverage as a second tier fringe sport. However, the PR people deduced that the mere existence of the league shows that “baby steps” have been taken in the drive to obtain more space in print media for women’s pro basketball.

Second, interviews with the beat writers of the two teams provided crystal clarity into the issue of media coverage of women’s pro basketball. A surprise to the researchers was that both beat writers were hired specifically to cover the WNBA teams. In the past, sports editors assigned the “unwanted” beat to a less-experienced writer. For the Sol and the Miracle, the beat writers had either covered women’s pro basketball in another city or had been major college women’s basketball writers. These factors indicate that the sports editors were taking a professional approach to WNBA coverage and were not relegating it to the third tier of coverage (for example, high schools, outdoors, bowling, or running).

The beat writers both noted that coverage of the team dropped off after the All-Star break (mid-July). This confirms the hypothesis mentioned by the PR directors that the beginning of pro football training camp signals a drop in space allotment for women’s basketball. One writer mentioned that the sports editor sent out an e-mail that said there would be fewer team notebooks (notes columns), less game advances, and shorter team stories. One writer said space would not improve for WNBA coverage under the current sports editor.

Obstacles to better coverage noted by the beat writers were the national economy (fewer ads mean fewer pages, and less available space), newspaper cutbacks for economical reasons, lots of competition for space in the sports world (there are hundreds of sports events going on all over the nation each day), an uphill battle for respectability for women’s professional basketball, and a fight inside the newspaper to make change happen. Solutions to those obstacles noted by the beat writers were: 1) winning – teams must win consistently to force coverage to happen; 2) teams proving themselves to the sports editors through increased attendance, emails/letters to the editor, general public interest; 3) convincing newspaper management that they can sell more papers by attracting new readers; and 4) convincing management that the WNBA is a solid professional sports commodity worthy of more coverage.

Third, the interviews with the sports editors were consistent with the supposition that newspaper readers prefer the ‘Big 4.’ Both sports editors responded that this alleged demand heavily influenced their editorial decisions. The editors of both the Miami Herald and the Orlando Sentinel stated that the start of football season is a defining factor in the coverage of the WNBA. When questioned about their space allocation policy for assigning space for second tier sports, both sports editors said that consistency in coverage was important. They tried to cover the team with a regular beat writer and allotted space for notebooks, advances, and feature stories. However, the content analysis study shows that coverage was consistent until July, but dropped systematically in both cities simultaneously. The sports editors pointed to smaller paper sections in the summer when there are fewer sports actually in season and space is limited. Both papers routinely rotated the Sol or the Miracle to page one of the sports section, but the content analysis showed that coverage in the Miami Herald was superior in its coverage of the WNBA.

Content Analysis:

A content analysis of the selected newspapers was employed to quantitatively examine the coverage of the 2000 and 2001 WNBA seasons. “Content analysis is fundamentally empirical in orientation, exploratory, concerned with real phenomena, and predictive in intent” (Krippendorff, 1980, p. 9). Berelson (1952) lists seventeen uses of content analysis, including three that frame this study: (1) to describe trends in communication content; (2) to construct and apply communication standards; and (3) to reflect attitudes, interests, and values (“cultural patterns”) of population groups.

Content analysis is “a method for examining the message or content of the media, such as newspapers, in order to draw inferences about encoding and decoding practices of the communication system (Rintala & Birrell, 1984, p. 232). Through content analysis, it should be possible to draw inferences about how a printed medium like a newspaper treats female athletes or how the media commits itself to coverage of female subjects (Vincent, 2000).

In content analysis studies, content, or as it is sometimes called, face validity, is normally relied upon. Content validity is usually established through the informed judgment of the researchers. It is often assumed that a measure self-evidently measures what it is supposed to if the categories are rigidly defined and the coding has a high degree of reliability (Vincent, 2000).

The units of analysis in this study for all print and photograph space were square inches and simple number counts. When either an article or a photograph began above the newspaper’s fold and then wrapped to the bottom, it was coded as if it began at the top of the page.

This study utilized one primary coder and one assistant who scanned the newspapers during each day of the two WNBA seasons for both teams. Therefore, there is a risk that the coders introduced bias because the task of imputing documents into the categories of analysis is largely a subjective process. An example of a subtle coder bias would be a coder’s understanding of the categories shifting over time, resulting in inconsistent coding. Another possible bias would occur if the coder prejudged the outcome of the research. To avoid introducing these kinds of bias and thus invalidating the study, a coder and assistant worked in close collaboration. Another method that was used in this study was re-coding of the data after a span of time (intra-observer agreement). This method will identify any problems deriving from inconsistency in coding, but will not identify researcher-induced bias.

Results:

Chi-square tests were used to compare the obtained distributions from the categorical data. Chi-square tests are appropriate when both variables are essentially categorical, making it impossible to carry out usual inferences in terms of means or variances (Hays, 1988). In addition to Chi-square tests, Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was used to describe the differences in the metric dependent variable means among the newspapers.

Frequencies, means, and standard deviations for all variables of the local team coverage in the Miami Herald and the Orlando Sentinel are summarized in Table 1 and Table 2.

The Herald newspaper coverage of the local team was greater than the Sentinel coverage in column inches of stories, column inches of photographs, presence of a story, front-page tease, front page of the sports section, general locations of stories in the sports section, and presence of stories above the fold.

**Table 1. Descriptive Statistics for the Local Team (Metric Variables)**
DV	Presence of a team story this day	Front page tease	Sports page 1 highlight	Page no. in sports section	A/B the fold
2000	Miami (125)	90(72%)	4(3.2%)	45(36%)	2-5: 1 (.8%) 6-10: 62 (49.6%) 11-20: 9 (7.2%)	A: 58 (46.4%) B: 32 (25.6%)
Orlando (125)	74(59.2%)	4(3.2%)	30(24%)	2-5: 43 (34.4%) 6-10: 29 (23.2%) 11-20: 1 (.8%)	A: 61 (48.8%) B: 11(8.8%)
X²	X² (df=1)=4.538 p= .033	X² (df=1)=.00 p=1.0	X² (df=1)=4.286 p= .038	X² (3)= 58.467 p<.001
Total Year (250)	164(65.6%)	8(3.2%)	75(30%)	2-5: 44 (17.6%) 6-10: 91 (36.4%) 11-20: 10 (4%)	A: 119 (47.6%) B: 43 (17.2%)
2001	Miami (125)	95(76%)	7 (5.6%)	57 (45.6%)	2-5: 48 (38.4%) 6-10: 36 (28.8%) 11-20: 11 (8.8%)	A: 66 (52.8%) B: 29 (23.2%)
Orlando (125)	74(59.2%)	1(.8%)	13(10.4%)	2-5: 0 (0%) 6-10: 91 (72.8%) 11-20: 0 (0%)	A: 61 (48.8%) B: 13 (10.4%)
X²	X² (df=1)=8.054 p= .005	X² (df=1)=4.469 p=.031	X² (df=1)=38.413 p<.001	X² (3)= 83.069 p<.001
Total Year (250)	169(67.6%)	8(3.2%)	70(28%)	2-5: 48 (19.2%) 6-10: 127 (50.8%) 11-20: 11 (4.4%)	A: 127 (50.8%) B: 42 (16.8%)

**Table 2. Frequencies of the Non-Metric Dependent Variables for the Local Team**
DV	Column inches of story	Column inches of photos
2000	Miami (125)	19.08	13.72
Orlando (125)	9.42	5.34
2001	Miami (125)	16.24	6.93
Orlando (125)	11.60	6.99
Average Years 00′ + 01′	Miami (250)	14.25	9.54
Orlando (250)	13.92	6.96
Average NP 00′ + 01′	Miami (250)	17.66	10.32
Orlando (250)	10.51	6.18
*Average NPYear**	Miami (250)	19.08	13.72
16.24	6.93
Orlando (250)	9.42	5.34
11.61	6.99

Discussion:

At the heart of the qualitative part of this analysis of the two Floridian newspapers, equal coverage of the local team, as well as the WNBA league, were expected. The data indicates that the Miami Herald coverage of the Miami Sol was significantly higher than that of the Orlando Sentinel of the Orlando Miracle. However, the coverage of the WNBA league as a whole was equal in both cities.

The results of the content analysis showed that there was a significant difference in coverage between the Miami Sol and the Orlando Miracle in the two newspapers. The explanation for this difference could be found in interviews with the beat writer and sports editor of the Miami Herald. Both interviewees indicated a firm commitment to covering the team on a wide basis. The beat writer was hired specifically from another newspaper to cover the team, and the space commitment allotted the team by the sports editor was shown to be much greater when compared to that of the Orlando Miracle by the Orlando Sentinel.

The analysis of the interviews with the PR directors, beat writers, and sports editors presented a poignant picture of the status of women’s professional basketball in relation to newspaper coverage in Florida. The stumbling block appears to be the sports editors, who have the difficult task of satisfying the voracious space appetite of the ‘Big 4’ while trying to balance the shifting public attitude toward the acceptance of women’s professional basketball.

Fink (1998) concluded that a sports establishment determined to preserve existing societal norms has long made newspaper coverage decisions. The image of female athletes is “in the hands of the media,” and the media has the power to influence societal thoughts and attitudes. With that in mind, Coakley (1998) stated that the primary dynamic in the filtering of news content is the sports editor. Within this process, preference is deferred to images and messages consistent with the dominant ideologies of society.

Studies have shown that 90% of sports editors in the United States are male (Duncan & Messner, 1998). Combining Fink’s (1998) thought that newspaper coverage preserves societal norms, or rather, the major male professional sports dominate the sports pages, with the fact that newsrooms are markedly male, it is easy ascertain a pattern explaining why coverage of a women’s professional league would fall into the second tier.

The study’s findings showed that only 5% of the sports sections were dedicated to the coverage of the respective WNBA teams during the 2000 and 2001 seasons. The qualitative section of the study showed women’s professional basketball has been relegated to “second tier” status by the sports editors of the papers. These findings are similar to that of Silverstein (1996), who revealed that women’s tournaments were purported to be the “other” tournament, while the men were playing the “real” tournament.

Conclusions:

The critical societal issues addressed in this study are directly related to the hegemonic and biased decision-making of sports editors in determining coverage of women’s professional basketball. Rintala and Birrell (1984) noted that people are strongly influenced by what they ‘hear, see, or read’ in the mass media. The content analysis study of the Miami Herald and the Orlando Sentinel revealed a discernable pattern of media coverage that was directly correlated with the purported tier system of sports assigned by the sports editors. Following the analysis of the actual content from two full seasons of newspaper coverage of the two WNBA teams, interview questions for the sports editors, beat writers, and public relations directors for the two respective teams were formulated. After transcription of the interviews, the data were analyzed and specific patterns of behavior by the sports editors emerged.

The sports editors at both the Herald and the Sentinel confirmed that the primary factor in the decision-making process for space allocation in the sports section is men’s professional sports. They cited “what the readers’ want” as their justification. However, neither editor could provide exact market research to confirm this process. Neither editor specifically stated that women’s pro basketball did not warrant more coverage. Quite the contrary, our content analysis of column inch count, placement of the stories, and the selection and size of photographs from both papers showed that early in the season (June and early July), the Sol and Miracle did receive a fair share of coverage. The percentage was higher during these months than any other entity (with the exception of professional baseball in Miami). However, a clear line of demarcation appeared the same day the Miami Dolphins opened pre-season training camp.

Ultimately, the primary reason for the departure of Florida’s two WNBA was money, or the lack thereof. Official attendance figures (Table 3) for the four seasons of the Miracle and three seasons of the Sol indicate different results. The Sol was consistently in the middle of the WNBA in attendance, with a three-year average of 8,556 (Women’s Basketball Online, 2005). The Miracle, however, was near the bottom of league figures with a four-year average of 7,873. By contrast, the Washington Mystics led the WNBA in attendance three of the four years that the two franchises played, with an average of 15,589. The WNBA does not release official financial results, but media estimates indicate a multi-million dollar loss per season for each franchise.

**Table 3. Official WNBA Attendance Figures – 1999-2002, WNBA Attendance, www.womensbasketballonline.com**
Year	Team	Games	Attendance	Average	League Rank	League Leader
2002	Miracle	16	113,837	7,115	13 (16)	Wash. Mystics 16,202
Sol	16	141,252	8,828	7 (16)
2001	Miracle	16	118,874	7,430	12 (16)	NY Liberty 15,660
Sol	16	141,717	8,857	6 (16)
2000	Miracle	16	117,810	7,363	11 (16)	Wash. Mystics 15,258
Sol	16	127,721	7,983	9 (16)
1999	Miracle	16	153,366	9,585	6 (16)	Wash. Mystics 15,306

It cannot be definitively concluded that newspaper coverage was the principal factor that led to the demise of Florida’s two WNBA teams. However, the results of the content analysis of the Miami Herald and the Orlando Sentinel, in combination with our qualitative inquiry (interviews), clearly show that the space allocation decisions by the sports editors was a major contributing factor. Can it be surmised that if WNBA coverage was allotted on a tier one basis for the Sol and Miracle, that attendance would have increased, revenues would increase exponentially, and the two squads could still be playing in Florida?

Future research needs to be conducted to substantiate and confirm the hypothesis that sports editors subjugate coverage of women’s professional basketball to a second tier assignment, which in turn directly affects the attendance at games. Other research should center on examining coverage of the WNBA in all league cities to establish if there is a direct connection between WNBA coverage and space allocation.

References:

ABL folds during third season. [online], Available: http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/sports/abl.htm[1998]

Barnes, M. (1991). Coaching and game reflections, 1940’s to 1980’s.

Bell, M.M. (1973). Women’s basketball. (2nd. ed.). Dubque, IW: Brown Company Publishers.

Berelson, B. (1952). Content analysis in communication research. Free Press: New York.

Boutilier, M.A., & SanGiovanni, L. (1983). The sporting women. Champaign: Human Kinetics Pub.

Cahn, S.K. (1990). Coming on strong: Gender and sexuality in twentieth-century women’s sport. New York: Free Press.

Chafe, W.H. (1982). The American women: Her changing social, economic, and political roles, 1920-1970. In Howell, R. (Ed.). Her Story in Sport. West Point: Leisure Press.

Cavalli, G., & Edwards, T. (1998, October 28). 1998-1999 American Basketball League tip-off media teleconference [online]. Available at: http://www.abl.com/newsarchive/909714553.html

Coakley, J. (1990). Sport in society: Issues and controversies. St. Louis: Time Mirror/ Mosby College Pub.

Cohen, B.C. (1963). The press and foreign policy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Comets win 4th title. [on line], Available: http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/sports/leaguesandsports/wnba [2000]

Downs, A. (1972). Up and sown with ecology: The issue-attention cycle. Public Interest, 28, 38-50.

Duncan, M.S., & Hasbrook, C.A. (1988). Denial of power in televised women’s sports. Sociology of Sport Journal, 5. 1-21.

Duncan, M.S., & Hasbrook, C.A. (1998). The media image of sport and gender. In L.A. Wenner (Ed.), mediasport (pp.170-185). New York: Routledge.

Eitzin, D.S., & Sage, G.H. (1982). Sociology of American sport. Dubuque: Wm. C. Brown Publishing Co.

Felshin, J. (1974). The social view. In Gerber, E.W., Felshin, J., Berlin, P., & Wyrick, W. The American Women in Sport. Reading: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co.

Festle, M.J. (1996). Playing nice. Politics and apologies in women’s sports. New York: Columbia University Press.

Fink, J.S. (1998). Female athletes and the media. JOPERD, 69(6), 37-41.

Frymir, A.W. (1928). Basket ball for women. NY: A.S. Barnes & Company.

Gerber, E.W. (1974). Chronicle of participation. In Gerber, E.W., Felshin, J., Berlin, P., & Wyrick, W. The American women in sport. Reading: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co.

Gormley. W.T., Jr. (1975). Newspaper agendas and political elites. Journalism Quarterly, 52, 304-308.

Gutman, B. (1998). Shooting stars: The women of pro basketball. New York: Random House.

Guttmann, A. (1991). Women’s sport: A history. New York: Columbia University Press.

Hays, W.L. (1988). Statistics. Orlando, FL: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc.

Heckman, D. (1992). Women & athletics: A twenty year retrospective on Title IX. University of Miami Entertainment & Sport Law Review, 9(1), 1-64.

Hult, J.S. (1991a). Introduction to part I. In Hult, J.S., & Trekell, M. (Eds.). A century of women’s basketball: From frailty to final four. (1991b). The governance of athletics for girls and women: Leadership by women physical educators 1899-1949. Reston: AAHPERD.

Hutchinson, J. (1991). Women’s intercollegiate basketball: AIAW/NCAA. In Hult, J.S., & Trekell, M. (Eds.). A century of women’s basketball: From frailty to final four. Reston: AAHPERD.

Jenkins, S. (1997). News: History of women’s hoops by Jenkins. [online], Available: http://www.wnba.com/news/jenkins_feature.html

Krippendorff, K. (1980). Content analysis: An introduction to its methodology. Sage, Beverly Hills: CA.

Kosicki, G.M. (1993). Problems and opportunities in agenda-setting research. Journal of Communication, 43 (2), 100-128.

Lannin, J. (2000). A history of basketball for girls and women: From bloomers to big leagues. Minneapolis: Lerner Publications.

Lawrence, H.B., & Fox, G.I. (1954). Basketball for girls and women. NY: McGraw-Hill Book Company.

Lichtenstein, G. (1980, March). Women pro basketball league: The new million-dollar baby. Ms., 8, 70-76.

McCombs, M. (1994). News influence of our pictures of the world. In J. Bryant, & D. Zillmann (Eds.), Media Effects: Advances in Theory and Research (pp. 1-16). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

McMillan, J.H. (2000). Educational research: Fundamentals for the consumer. New York: Addison Wesley Longman, Inc.

Miller, K.D., & Horky, R.J. (1970). Modern basketball for women. OH: A Bell & Howell Company.

Naismith, J. (1996). Basketball: Its origins and development. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.

Oertel, S.C. (1995). Professional women athletes: Successful careers on tennis but not in basketball. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Iowa, Iowa.

Oller, R. (1998, July 3). WNBA has the glitz, but not game to match. The Columbus Dispatch [online]. Available: http://www.dispatch.com/panarchive/1998-6-3/sports/robo03spt.html

Press, D.P. (1994). A multicultural portrait of professional sports. New York: Marshall Cavendish Corp.

Rintala, J., & Birrell, S. (1984). Fair treatment for the active female: A content analysis of Young Athlete magazine. Sociology of Sport Journal, 1, 231-250.

Rogers, E.M., & Dearing, J.W. (1987). Agenda setting research: Where has it been, where is it going? In S.A. Deetz (Ed.), Communication Yearbook, 11, 555-594.

Sage, G.H. (1990). Power and ideology in America sport. Champaign: Human Kinetics Books.

Schroeder, S.E. (1999). Hoop meanings: The media, professional U.S. women’s basketball, and the evolving discourse of femininity. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Indiana University, Indiana.

Shaw, D.L. (1977). The agenda-setting hypothesis reconsidered: Interpersonal factors. Gazette, 23, 230-240.

Snyder, E.E., & Spretzer, E. (1989). Social aspects of sport. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall.

Staffo, D. (1998). The history of women’s professional basketball in the United States with an emphasis on the old WBL and the new ABL and WNBA. The Physical Educator, 55(4), 187-198.

Trekell, M. (Eds.). A century of women’s basketball: From frailty to final four. Reston: AAHPERD.

Trekell, M., & Gershon, R.M. (1991). Title IX, AIAW, and beyond-a time for celebration. In Hult, J.S., & Trekell, M. (Eds.). A century of women’s basketball: From frailty to final four. Reston: AAHPERD.

Twin, S.L. (1979). Out of the bleachers: Writings on women and sport. New York: The McGraw-Hill Book Co.

Vincent, J. (2000). Cross national comparisons of print media coverage of female/male athletes in the Centennial Olympic Games in Atlanta 1996. unpublished doctoral dissertation, Florida State University, Tallahassee.

Women’s Basketball Online, WNBA attendance, retrieved from http://www.womensbasketballonline.com/wnba/wnbattendance.html

Appendix 1:
Interview Questions for Team PR Directors:

What is the sports editor’s philosophy of women’s professional basketball coverage?
What importance does the newspaper staff put on the WNBA team?
How are space allocation decisions done in relation to other sports entities (Big 4, tier two, and tier three sports)?
What is your relationship with the beat writer and the sports editor?
What is your interest level of the beat writer (high, medium, low, or just another beat)?
What is the level of freedom of beat writers to pitch story ideas?
What is your interaction with newspaper management?
What is your background in PR and experience with women’s basketball?
What are your perceptions of the WNBA, management, team, players, and the future for the league?
What is your attitude toward controversial issues facing the WNBA?
How are the majority of stories on the team generated (press releases, contact with beat writers/sports editors, other?
Do you believe a paradigm shift in the coverage of women’s basketball is occurring in this country?

Interview Questions for Beat Writers:

What is your philosophy on the coverage of women’s professional basketball?
What is your professional background in sports writing?
How are the space allocations established for women’s pro basketball at your paper?
Is this a coveted beat for you?
How/why did you get this beat?
Do you have the freedom to freelance on story ideas?
What is your interaction with the PR person from the team?
What is your interaction with team management, coaches, and players?
What is the emphasis of the WNBA within the sports staff at the paper?
Does the sports staff at the paper recognize the value of the WNBA as a sports entity worthy of coverage?
Do you enjoy covering the team?
What are your perceptions of the WNBA, the team, and management?
What is your attitude toward the controversial issues surrounding the WNBA?
What are your predictions/perceptions of what the future holds for media coverage of the WNBA?

Interview Questions for Sports Editors:

What is upper management’s philosophy of coverage of women’s professional basketball?
Is the WNBA considered a second tier sport in the paper’s coverage philosophy?
What is your personal philosophy in the coverage of women’s pro basketball?
Is there a difference in the coverage of other second tier sports and women’s pro basketball?
What is your professional background in journalism?
What factors must be considered when deciding space allocation for coverage of the local WNBA team?
How were the beat writers assigned to the teams?
Will the beat writers be able to submit story ideas and notebook content without the prior approval of the sports editor?
What is the interest level of the beat writer in the team?
What is your relationship with the team PR person, team management, coaches, and players?
How many WNBA games did you attend last season?
What is your overall perception of the WNBA as a whole? Was it professionally organized, is there a significant interest in continuing the league, and have you had contact with the league office in New York?
What is your attitude toward the controversial issues connected with the WNBA?
What are your perceptions of the future of the WNBA and women’s professional basketball?
Do you think there is a gradual shift in the coverage of women’s pro basketball in this country?

U.S. Sports Academy2020-06-02T11:24:35-05:00March 14th, 2008|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Management, Women and Sports|Comments Off

Gender Differential in the Goal Setting, Motivation, Perceived Ability, and Confidence Sources of Basketball Players

Submitted by: Dongfang Chie-der, Steve Chen, Chou Hung-yu, and Chi Li-Kang

]Abstract[

Gender differences in goal setting, perceived motivational climate, perceived athletic ability, and perceived sources of confidence in athletic ability were evaluated for a male group and female group of high school basketball players (N = 174). Significant findings included higher scores among males for (a) perceived ego climate and (b) perfection of skills and physical performance as sources of confidence. Significant findings from simple correlation analyses included a positive relationship of both sexes’ task orientation, perceived task climate, and perceived ability, to 8 confidence sources. Male players’ ego orientation was positively related to demonstration of ability, physical performance, and social support. Males’ perceived ego climate and females’ ego orientation were both positively related to 7 of the 8 sources of confidence. Females’ ego orientation, males’ perceived ego climate, and the 8 sources were positively related to confidence perceived prior to competition. Stepwise regression analyses showed males’ task orientation and perceived ability to predict confidence prior to competition; for females, perceived ability and perceived task climate were effective predictors. Respondents derived better confidence in a task-oriented environment, so the researchers advise coaches to create task-oriented practice environments to enhance confidence of male and female players.

]Gender Differential in the Goal Setting, Motivation, Perceived Ability, and Confidence Sources of Basketball Players[

Self-confidence and sport-related confidence have been viewed as crucial factors influencing athletic performance. A number of studies show athletes who are strongly confident in terms of sport concentrate better, have healthier emotions, and demonstrate better game strategies, control of tempos, and performance than less confident athletes (Chi, 1996; Gould, 1981; Mahoney, Gabriel, & Perkin, 1987). The relationship between sport-related confidence and athletic performance should thus be of vital interest to sport psychologists. But sport-related confidence can be an inconsistent and transitory variable. Its instability over time is based largely on where players find their confidence, the confidence source. Research may shed light on how a particular source influences level of confidence, cognition, emotion, and behavior (Vealey, 1986). A careful examination of confidence sources offers to help explain the interaction of social background, organizational culture, and athletes’ individual characteristics.

Competitive sport is an environment for the pursuit of excellence in athletic performance (Duda, 1987). Sport psychology researchers have explored how players develop confidence in their athletic performance. Out of the social-cognitive perspective, achievement goal theory has gradually become popular as a model for testing (Ames & Archer, 1988; Elliott & Dweck, 1988; Nicholls, 1984, 1989; Mills, 1997; Huang & Chi, 1994).

Prior research on achievement goal theory has shown that a task-oriented climate enhances motivation and confidence (Duda, 1992). There is a relationship between goal orientation and sport-related confidence. Athletes’ task orientation correlates positively to their sport confidence; athletes tending to emphasize acquisition of skill (in other words, perfection) along with the learning process and competitive process tend to have greater sport-related confidence. Shane’s study (2000) of 620 male and female high school or college athletes explored the relationship between goal orientation and sport-related confidence. Its findings showed significant gender differences in task orientation, ego orientation, and several confidence-source factors (skill perfection, demonstration of ability, and physiological/psychological preparation). The findings furthermore showed differences in the perceived sources of sport confidence for high school versus college athletes (both genders).

Studies like Shane’s might lead us to conclude that athletes’ emotions, levels of cognition, and behaviors affect their sport confidence. There is ample research indicating that task-oriented individuals and individuals operating in task-oriented climates have relatively positive emotions as well as a relatively high self-perception and self-perceived ability. Athletes perhaps more than nonathletes self-perceive their abilities, which would make strong impact on their sport confidence (Mills, 1997; Huang & Chi, 1994). Sport confidence research focusing on organizational culture (e.g., perceived motivational climate) and other environmental factors, however, is rare. In Taiwan, even within sport psychology sport confidence is little used as a research construct.

But what are the variables in athletes’ confidence prior to competing? Where does sport confidence felt by male and female basketball players come from? The present study sought those sources of sport confidence, working from motivational theories and their constructs. The primary focus was relationships among high school basketball players’ goal orientation, perceived motivational climate, perceived ability, sport confidence sources, and pre-competition sport confidence levels, as well as how those relationships differed with the gender of the players.

]Method[

Subjects

The study participants were 174 male (n = 87) and female (n = 87) basketball players who had played in the 2003 HBL [Taiwanese high school basketball league] Division I tournament. The average age of a player was 17.09 years (SD = .91).

Instruments

Four research questionnaires were used to measure four phenomena: (a) participants’ goal orientation, (b) the motivational climate they perceived, (c) perceived personal athletic ability, and (d) perceived personal sport-related confidence. First, the Sport Goal Orientation Questionnaire (Duda & Nicholls, 1989; modified by Chi, 1993) contains 13 questions and is primarily used to measure individuals’ goal orientation in sport settings. Second, the Perceived Sport Motivation Climate Questionnaire (Seifriz, Duda, & Chi, 1992; modified by Huang & Chi, 1994), which comprises two parts and 34 questions, is primarily used to measure, in team-sport settings, the motivational climate perceived by individual athletes. Third, a modified version of the Perceived Ability Questionnaire (Nicholls et al., 1985) presented 4 questions. Fourth, the Sport Confidence Questionnaire, Wu and Chi’s modification (2000) of the Vealey et al. Sources of Sports Confidence Questionnaire (1998), was employed to assess the participants’ sources of sport confidence. Wu and Chi’s Sport Confidence Questionnaire contains 35 questions and uses a 7-point Likert scale. Questions address eight proposed sources of confidence, as follows: perfection of skills, 5 questions; demonstration of ability, 6 questions; physiological/psychological preparation, 4 questions; physical performance, 3 questions; social support, 3 questions; vicarious experience, 4 questions; coach’s leadership style, 7 questions; and positive environment, 3 questions. Percentage of variance was 71.03%, and Cronbach’s alpha for the question sets ranged from .70 to .96, indicating strong validity and reliability for the instrument.

Procedures

In advance of the survey administration, coaches and trainers strived to develop good relations with the players and to acquaint themselves well with the practice and game schedules. The researchers informed players participating in the study of the anonymous and strictly confidential nature of their survey responses, and that completing the four instruments would take about 30 minutes. Players met together 2 hours prior to their scheduled practice to complete the instruments. Time was taken at the start of the session to allow the researchers to explain questionnaire content to the participating players.

]Results[

Gender differences were observed when t tests of the data were conducted (Table 1). The differences characterized goal orientation, perceived motivational climate, perceived ability, and sources of sport confidence. Male participants in the study recorded higher scores than female participants did for the sport-related confidence variables perceived ego climate, perfection of skills, and physical performance.

Table 1

Players’ Goal Orientation, Perceived Motivational Climate, Perceived Ability, and Sources of Sport Confidence, by Gender


Gender	Male	Female
Number	87	87	t
Variable	Mean	SD	Mean	SD

Task orientation	4.052	0.529	4.123	0.569	-0.84
Ego orientation	3.580	0.556	3.500	0.567	0.94
Perceived task climate	3.894	0.437	3.911	0.499	-.24
Perceived ego climate	3.483	0.479	3.264	0.530	2.86*
Perceived ability	4.452	1.171	4.168	1.025	1.69
Perfection of skills	5.365	0.971	5.181	1.056	1.19**
Demonstration	5.523	0.971	5.181	1.056	1.24**
Physiological/psychological preparation	5.508	1.016	5.416	1.046	0.55
Physical performance	4.869	0.897	4.521	1.204	2.16*
Social support	5.272	0.940	5.157	1.199	0.70
Leadership styles	5.492	0.924	5.527	1.145	-0.21
Vicarious experience	5.486	0.932	5.416	1.088	0.33
Positive environment	5.134	1.029	5.038	1.185	0.59

	*p < 0.05	**p < 0.01

When simple correlation analyses were performed, positive relationships were observed for the eight sources-of-sport-confidence variables and the task orientations, perceived task climates, and perceived abilities of players of either gender (Table 2, Table 3). (Again, the eight variables are perfection of skills, demonstration of ability, physical performance, physiological/psychological preparation, social support, vicarious experience, coach’s leadership style, and positive environment.) Among the male respondents, ego orientation was positively related to demonstration of ability, physical performance, and social support, while perceived ego climate was positively related to demonstration of ability, physical performance, physiological/psychological preparation, social support, vicarious experience, coach’s leadership style, and positive environment.

Among female respondents, ego orientation was positively related to demonstration of ability, physical performance, physiological/psychological preparation, social support, vicarious experience, coach’s leadership style, and positive environment, while ego climate was positively related to both vicarious experience and positive environment.

Table 2

Simple Correlations Between Variables–Male Respondents (n = 87)


Variable	Task orientation	Ego orientation	Perceived task climate	Perceived ego climate	Perceived ability

Perfection of skills	.596**	.179	.568**	.203	.265*
Demonstration of ability	.395**	.270*	.398**	.358**	.285
Physiological/psychological preparation	.430**	.093	.478**	.260*	.272**
Physical performance	.320**	.212*	.284**	.288**	.373**
Social support	.518**	.213*	.524**	.303**	.390**
Coach’s leadership style	.517**	.192	.568**	.284**	.401**
Vicarious experience	.412**	.188	.541**	.286**	.302**
Positive environment	.302**	.144	.410**	.365**	.237**

p < 0.05 *p < 0.01 (two-tailed)

Table 3

Simple Correlations Between Variables–Female Respondents (n = 87)


Variable	Task orientation	Ego orientation	Perceived task climate	Perceived ego climate	Perceived ability

Perfection of skills	.639**	.325**	.664**	.068	.415**
Demonstration of ability	.570**	.552**	.541**	.350**	.263**
Physiological/psychological preparation	.683**	.340**	.688**	.155	.365**
Physical performance	.465**	.397**	.429**	.091	.349**
Social support	.637**	.457**	.648**	.128	.426**
Coach’s leadership style	.659**	.479**	.647**	.203	.401**
Vicarious experience	.595**	.250*	.684**	.058	.536**
Positive environment	.511**	.309**	.494**	.227*	.500

p < 0.05 *p < 0.01 (two-tailed)

For the male respondents, perceived task climate effectively predicted demonstration of ability, physical performance, social support, vicarious experience, coach’s leadership style, and positive environment. In addition, their task orientation effectively predicted perfection of skills and physiological/psychological preparation. For the female respondents, perceived task climate was an effective predictor of perfection of skills, physical performance, social support, vicarious experience, and positive environment. In addition, their task orientation was an effective predictor of demonstration of ability, physiological/psychological preparation, coach’s leadership style, and positive environment.

For males, total equality of variance was 22.6%, and the variance for each variable was 17.6% and 5.0%. For females, perceived ability and perceived task climate were effective predictors of confidence perceived prior to competition; the total equality of variance was 43.9%, and the variance for each variable was 39.6% and 4.3%.

]Conclusions[

The study results include significant gender differences in perceived ego climate and three source-of-sport-confidence variables: perfection of skills, demonstration, and physical performance. Additionally, for both genders, sources of confidence were closely related to a player’s task orientation, perceived task climate, and perceived ability. During stepwise regression analyses, both genders’ sources of sport confidence were shown to be effectively predicted by a player’s task orientation, motivation task climate, and self-perceived ability. Such findings are in line with results of several previous studies (Shane, 2000; Vealey, 1998; Wu & Chi, 2000). The findings indicated further that players who were more task oriented, or preferred task-oriented climates, valued the participative process (comprising effort, perfection, and learning) over the win-lose outcome. This emphasis would have a positive effect on both sport-related confidence and the sources of that confidence. For this reason, the researchers suggest first that coaches work harder at creating task-oriented practice environments or climates, and second that they strive to understand the sources of their players’ sport-related confidence, in order to enhance the athletes’ confidence.

Future studies in the area of athletes’ sport-related confidence might investigate sequential effects of different types of motivational climates on sources of sport confidence (effort and performance) as well as on cognitive anxiety, state anxiety, and satisfaction.

]References[

Bandura , A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84, 191–215.

Chi, L. K. (1996). Stress management of athletes. National Physical Education Quarterly, 25(4), 51–57.

Chou, W. H. (1995). The establishment of sport confidence based on self-efficacy. National Physical Education Quarterly, 25(4), 62–69.

Corbin, C. B., Laurie, D. R., Gruger, C., & Simley, B. (1984). Vicarious success experience as a factor influencing self-confidence, attitudes, and physical activity of adult women. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 4, 17–23.

Duda, J. L. (1992). Motivation in sport settings: A goal perspective approach. In G. C. Roberts (Ed.), Motivation in sport and exercise (pp. 57–91). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Duda, J. L., Chi, L., & Newton, M. (1990). Psychometric characteristics of the TEOSQ. Paper presented at the meeting of the North American Society for the Psychology of Sport and Physical Activity, Houston, TX.

Duda, J. L., Fox, K., Biddle, S. J. H., & Armstrong, N. (1992). Children’s achievement goals and beliefs about success in sport. British Journal of Education Psychology, 26, 40–63.

Feltz, D. L. (1988). Self-confidence and sports performance. In K. B. Pandolf (Ed.), Exercise and sport sciences reviews (pp.423–457). New York: MacMillan.

Huang, C. R., & Kuo, H. Y. (1999). The sources of athletes’ sport confidence. Chinese Physical Education, 13(3), 60–66.

Kao, S. F. (1993). A discussion of sport confidence based on the viewpoint of self-efficacy. Chinese Physical Education, 7(1), 107–110.

Lirgg, C. C. (1991). Gender differences in self-confidence in physical activity: A meta-analysis of recent studies. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 13, 294–310.

Lu, P. C. (1991). Sport confidence and performance. Chinese Physical Education, 4(4), 21–25.

McCormick, S. S. (2000). The relationship of sources of sport-confidence and goal orientation. Unpublished master’s thesis, Springfield College.

Nicholls, J. G. (1984). Achievement motivation: Conceptions of ability, subjective experience, task choice, and performance. Psychological Review, 91, 328–346.

Seifriz, J., Duda, J. L., & Chi, L. (1992). The relationship of perceived motivational climate to intrinsic motivation and beliefs about success in basketball. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 14, 375–391.

Vealey, R. S. (1986). Conceptualization of sport-confidence and competitive orientation: Preliminary investigation and instrument development. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 8, 221–346.

Vealey, R. S. (1988). Sport-confidence and competitive orientation: An addendum on scoring procedures and gender differences. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 10, 471–478.

Vealey, R. S., Hayashi, S. W., Garner-Holman, M., & Giacobbi, P. (1998). Sources of sport-confidence: Conceptualization and instrument development. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 20, 50–80.

Wu, S. C. (2000). A research in relationships of athletes’ goal orientation, perceived motivational climates and sport confidence. Unpublished master’s thesis, National College of Sport and Physical Education, Taoyuan, Taiwan, Republic of China.

U.S. Sports Academy2017-08-07T11:51:43-05:00February 18th, 2008|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Management, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology, Women and Sports|Comments Off

Websites as Help in the Recruiting Process: An Analysis of NCAA Women’s Cross Country Programs

Submitted by: Peter S. Finley and Laura L. Finley, Ph.D.

Abstract

Universities are beginning to explore the Internet as one avenue for recruiting student-athletes, an avenue of potential use in nearly every phase of the process (Hornbuckle, 2001). Given the difficulty of recruiting for nonrevenue sports, as well as the concerns of NCAA divisions that have little or no recruiting budget, use of the World Wide Web for recruiting may hold great importance (Hornbuckle, 2001; Walsh, 1997). The purpose of this research was (a) to determine what content is featured on websites maintained by NCAA women’s cross country programs, (b) to observe any differences between NCAA divisions as to the frequency of exhibiting content, and (c) to determine areas that could be strengthened to enhance recruiting potential. A content analysis was used to analyze randomly sampled NCAA women’s cross country websites (N = 108). In general, it was found that the sites provided basic information that might be of interest to recruits, such as information about the coach and a means to submit personal information to the coach. Few sites included coaching philosophy, highlighted individual athletes, or contained photo albums, all relevant information that might be of interest to potential recruits.

Websites as Help in the Recruiting Process: An Analysis of NCAA Women’s Cross Country Programs

Recruiting potential student-athletes represents an important component of collegiate athletics. For students, the would-be recruits, “selecting a college is a time-consuming and difficult process” (Kirk & Kirk, 1993, p. 55). This process, at least for student-athletes, involves the consideration of several factors, including but not limited to a school’s geographic location, whether it is urban or rural, size of student population, academic and athletic reputations, and graduation rates, both for all student-athletes and for student-athletes in the sport of interest only (Kirk & Kirk, 1993). Students who wish to be recruited must sift through a great deal of information, often presented with clear bias. As Caryer (1996) notes,

If the student just listens to the stories, recruiting can be overwhelming; if he [she] actively seeks specific information needed to decide how to reach his [her] goals, the coaches tell him what he needs to know rather than a lot of impressive, but irrelevant stuff. (p. 13)

This highlights the importance of athletic departments presenting information for potential recruits in an efficient yet pleasing manner.

From the perspective of a coach, the recruiting process takes on greater importance with each passing year. According to Klenosky, Templin, and Troutman (2001), “Universities allocate a large portion of their athletic department funds each year for recruiting top student-athletes” (p. 95). Bill Conley, a former recruiting coordinator for football at Ohio State University, states (Caryer, 1996) that

Recruiting is the most important job a college coach has. The X’s and O’s are pretty much the same around the country, but if your X’s and O’s are bigger, faster and stronger, you have a better chance of being successful. (p. 31)

Of course, the same concept applies to other sports, such as basketball, soccer, and cross country. Coaches spend a great deal of time and money identifying recruits, maintaining contact with them, and convincing them to commit to a particular university. Efficiency of this work can perhaps be improved via technology, since, according to Hornbuckle (2001), “Much of this process can be done on the Internet by having an exceptional presence on the World Wide Web” (p. 11).

The Internet provides colleges and universities with an incredible method for reaching fans and potential recruits. According to Delpy and Bosetti (1998), “This media presents an unparalleled opportunity to reach sports fans worldwide at a fraction of traditional advertising costs” (p. 21). Further, “High school athletes today want instant access to collegiate program information in everything from program history to whether the school fields a men’s team or not” (Hornbuckle, 2001, p. 10). For providing instant access to information at a low cost, there is no better means than an effective website.

Further, Hornbuckle (2001) states, “Many athletic departments already use the Internet to assess potential recruits and determine factors that are most likely to influence their choice of school” (p. 29-30). The Internet can be used for nearly every phase of the recruiting process. Recruits can be identified via e-mail to scouts or high school coaches, and correspondence with a prospective athlete can also occur via e-mail. Potential athletes can often access a virtual tour of a campus, perhaps including training and competition facilities. Of course, the coach’s actual visit to the athlete cannot be replaced; however, for Division II, Division III, and junior college coaches, “this option may not be affordable–even more reason for these coaches to provide a first-class, usable website” (Hornbuckle, 2001, p. 12).

]Method[

The present researchers were guided by three research goals, as follows:

1. Determine the specific features (content) included on websites promoting women’s cross country programs at NCAA schools.

2. Determine any differences among NCAA divisions (I, II, III) in terms of website content provided and frequency with which such content is exhibited.

3. Make recommendations for improving websites’ function as aids in the recruiting process.

The research comprises a quantitative, descriptive analysis of 108 women’s cross country websites. Using a random number generator, 36 schools in each of the three NCAA divisions were randomly selected. In selecting 36 schools, a sample was generated that represented at least 10% of all programs at each division level. Division III had the largest number of participating schools (357).

Analysis included obtaining frequency scores by each feature, overall, and by division. These scores are presented in Table 1 as the percentage of sites containing each website feature, both in each division and overall.

]Results[

As a whole, this examination revealed that colleges and universities create websites for women’s cross country that serve several primary functions. The sites contained, for the most part, headline stories (61.11%), schedules (92.59%), rosters (86.11%), results (71.30%), biographical information about the coach (70.37%), a photo of the coach (62.03%), and contact information for the coach (e-mail address, 75.92%; e-mail link, 73.15%; phone number, 62.96%). The presence of information forms for prospective athletes on over half of the sites (56.48%) supports the belief that many college and university administrators view their website as an important tool in the recruiting process. Further, the vast majority of sites that featured prospective-athlete information forms allowed them to be electronically transferred to the coach. Of 61 schools whose websites provided such prospective-athlete forms, 56 allowed them to be electronically transferred, while only 5 expected them to be mailed.

Beyond the components just described, however, the examination revealed many of the websites to be sorely lacking. The school websites were found not to promote the individuals on a team, as frequency scores were low for (a) content concerning individual athletes’ performance records (12.96%); (b) biographies of individual athletes (19.44%); and (c) photos of individual athletes (17.59%). Moreover, few schools went so far as to include even a simple team photo (23.15%).

Surprisingly, given the attention paid by websites maintained by institutions in all three divisions to promotion of their coaches, the philosophy of the program (10.19%) and the philosophy of the coach (1.85%) were almost completely absent.

]Recommendations[

It is clear from these results that many colleges and universities already see the Internet as an important point of interaction between the institution and recruits. This is evidenced by the fact that the women’s cross country program websites include letters to potential student-athletes, NCAA compliance information, and access to NCAA recruiting rules. Many sites also provide personal information forms that prospective student-athletes are invited to submit to coaches in hopes of beginning a recruiting process. Recognizing that use of the Internet for recruiting purposes is likely to continue to grow, there are a number of recommendations that can be made based on these results.

Since more than half of the schools allowed prospective athletes to electronically submit personal information, the few who still rely on “snail mail” to receive this information might be at a serious disadvantage, as prospects may not be inclined to take the time to print out the form, complete it, and put it in the mail. Furthermore, schools that neglect to provide any means for prospects to deliver personal information may be seriously hindering their recruiting process.

The literature reveals that information about the coach–especially as to the coach’s philosophy, goals, values, and style–is important to recruits (Cooper, 1996; Doyle & Gaeth, as cited in Klenosky, Templin, & Troutman, 2001). It is of interest, then, that so few of the total 108 sites viewed provided information about philosophy and that those that did offer it often limited it to the mission statement of the athletic department as a whole.

There is some potential for testimonials about a program and coach to be influential from a recruitment standpoint, yet testimonials appear to be underutilized to date, according to this research. Two Division III sites included athletes’ testimonials about their teams, while one team site included other coaches’ written endorsements of the team’s coach.

Prospective student-athletes are likely to be interested in who might be their teammates. Furthermore, recruits could conceivably have more interest in a program that clearly values and promotes its athletes as individuals. Schools in all three NCAA divisions studied could improve in this area, as their websites did not contain a great deal of information about individual athletes.

Division II and Division III institutions could furthermore do a better job of updating the headline stories on their websites. Regular updates give potential recruits a reason to revisit a site repeatedly, allowing them to assess the reputation of the team in an ongoing process.The connection represented in repeated visits to a website may help keep a school in the recruit’s mind over extended periods. Offering e-mailed updates of team progress through the season, as well as maintaining a “heritage” page and archived and current results and records, may be of further use in presenting a team’s reputation to site visitors.

Many of the university websites examined provided information about athletic facilities like the football stadium or basketball arena. Few, however, included information about the home cross country course. The information would not be difficult to include, and recruits would very likely be interested in the venues in which they would train and compete.

In an era of visual learners (Lester, 2000), pictures may go a long way toward impressing a recruit. Unfortunately, in all three NCAA divisions studied, most sites failed to provide a photo album or even a team picture. Digital cameras, typically available through athletic departments, could facilitate this process quite easily. Enlargeable thumbnail pictures would be helpful in decreasing downloading time.

To be sure, the Internet represents a powerful innovation that can play a major part in the recruiting process. This research is a first step in understanding, and thus in better utilizing, websites as aids in recruiting student-athletes. Future research could include analyses of websites for other sports, both revenue and nonrevenue. Further, it will be important to establish student-athletes as a source of data, inquiring of them which website features might most influence their college choices.

Table 1

Frequency of Website Features of NCAA Women’s Cross Country Programs, in Percentages

	Division I	Division II	Division III	Overall
Headline Stories	91.67	38.89	52.78	61.11
Team/Program
Schedule	94.44	86.11	97.22	92.59
Roster	86.11	83.33	88.89	86.11
Results (current)	80.56	58.33	75.00	71.30
Team Photo	8.33	27.78	33.33	23.15
Program Philosophy	19.44	5.56	5.56	10.19
Heritage Page	16.67	2.78	16.67	12.04
Individual Information
Performance Records	25.00	2.78	11.11	12.96
Biographical Sketch	44.44	5.56	8.33	19.44
Photo	33.33	13.89	5.56	17.59
Coach Information
Photo	69.44	47.22	69.44	62.03
Biographical Sketch	75.00	61.11	75.00	70.37
Coaching Philosophy	0.00	0.00	5.56	1.85
E-mail Address	86.11	61.11	80.56	75.93
E-mail Link	86.11	58.33	75.00	73.15
Phone Number	69.44	55.56	63.89	62.96
Photo Album	19.44	19.44	8.33	15.74
Archive
Headline Stories	58.33	16.67	13.89	29.63
Record Book	36.11	8.33	30.56	25.00
Rosters	25.00	13.99	5.56	14.81
Results	61.11	33.33	30.56	41.67
Prospective Athletes
Letter to Prospective Athletes	41.67	8.33	13.89	29.63
Personal Information Form	63.89	33.33	72.22	56.48
Electronically Transferred Personal Information Form	52.78	30.56	72.22	51.85
NCAA Clearinghouse
Recruiting Rules Information	30.56	8.33	0.00	12.96
Compliance Information	33.33	2.78	2.78	12.96
Additional
Course Description	16.67	0.00	11.11	9.26
Map to Course	5.56	0.00	2.78	2.78
Course Records List	5.56	2.78	0.00	2.78
Training Venues Information	8.33	0.00	5.56	4.63
Camps/Clinics Information	25.00	13.89	0.00	12.96
Offer E-mail Updates	36.11	2.78	8.33	15.74
Listing of Alumni Bios	2.78	0.00	0.00	0.93
Alumni Bio Questionnaire	2.78	0.00	0.00	0.93
Alumni E-mail List	5.56	0.00	0.00	1.85
Athletes’ Testimonials	0.00	0.00	5.56	1.85
Other Coaches’ Testimony About the Coach	0.00	0.00	2.78	0.93
University Quick Facts	11.11	11.11	25.00	15.74
Video Webcast of Meet	0.00	2.78	0.00	0.93
Coach Interviewed on Video	0.00	2.78	0.00	0.93

]References[

Caryer, L. (1996). The recruiting struggle: A handbook. Columbus, OH: Partners Book Distributing.

Cooper, K. (1996). What the basketball prospect wants to know about you! Coach and Athletic Director, 65(7), 24-26.

Delpy, L. A., & Bosetti, H. A. (1998). Sport management and marketing via the World Wide Web. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 7(1), 21-27.

Hornbuckle, V. (2001). An analysis of usability of women’s collegiate basketball Websites based on measurements of effectiveness, efficiency and appeal. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Northern Colorado.

Kirk, W. D., & Kirk, S. V. (Eds.). (1993). Student athletes: Shattering the myths and sharing the realities. Alexandria, VA: American Counseling Association.

Klenosky, D. B., Templin, T. J., & Troutman, J. A. (2001). Recruiting student athletes: A means-end investigation of school-choice decision making. Journal of Sport Management, 15, 96-106.

Lester, P. M. (2000). Visual communication: Images with messages (2nd ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Walsh, J. (1997). Everything you need to know about college sports recruiting. Kansas City, MO: Andrews McMeel.

]Author Note[

Peter S. Finley; Laura L. Finley

U.S. Sports Academy2013-11-26T21:17:41-06:00February 18th, 2008|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Facilities, Sports Management, Women and Sports|Comments Off

A Strength Training Program of “Ya-Tung” Women’s Basketball Team of Taiwan

Submitted by: Dr. Richard C. Bell and Steven Chen

Rebounding, jumping, shooting, and playing defense require a decent level of strength and power. A basketball player in great condition should demonstrate the endurance to run tirelessly on the court and should possess the strength to engage in the physical battles beneath the basket. There is no doubt that strength training plays an important part in building up the power to meet demands on the court (Fulton, 1992). College basketball has emphasized strength training to a great degree because it increases overall strength, flexibility, and lean body mass (Fulton, 1992). The implementation of strength training in order to increase vertical jumping ability, thereby enhancing overall sport performance, appears well founded (Renfro, 1996). This explains why college coaches prefer their players to stay involved in strength training even under the restrictive practice schedule of the NCAA.

In Taiwan, however, coaches of women’s basketball teams did not traditionally support the idea of strength training. They distrusted it (as some American coaches do, too), viewing it as a threat to players’ flexibility, athleticism, and shooting touch (Mannie & Vorkapich, 2000). Taiwanese coaches want their players to be quick and strong, but without strength training. Can such an objective be achieved?

Working since last March with the coaches of Taipei’s national women’s basketball team, the researchers observed an interesting fact. Female players with team Cathay, the perennial Taiwanese champion, were generally stronger and more “physical” than other players. The Cathay team was the only Taiwanese women’s team with a strength-training routine, so the researchers decided to study strength training in basketball more closely, designing for a rival Taiwan team called Yatung a lifting program reflecting sound basic strength-training principles.

Strength Training and Basketball

Groves and Gayle (1989) surveyed the top 100 men’s college basketball teams using data from a USA Today poll, and found that 98% of these schools had a pre-season weight-training program. In-season weight training was employed by 75% of the programs; 88% used off-season weight training for team members, and 64% used summer weight training. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) showed that a school with in-season weight training was likely to rank higher than a school without it. While the correlation does not indicate that strength training leads to wins, but does help explain, perhaps, why 87% of coaches and athletic directors endorse strength training for their teams.

Grove and Gayle also studied physiological change in 8 college players who engaged in a year-round training program (1993). Several findings resulted from repeated ANOVA testing. First, the players experienced a decrease in the proportion of body fat. Second, lean body mass was significantly increased, although body weight did not vary much over the course of the year. Finally, players on average experienced improvement of some 27.5 lb in the bench press but did not improve significantly in terms of the height of their vertical jumps. Fulton (1992) conducted research on the combined effects of strength training and plyometrics training. In contrast to Grove and Gayle’s findings (1993), a player in Fulton’s study on average improved vertical jumps by 4.5 in following 18 weeks of training; an average player furthermore added 45 lb to his bench press performance and experienced improvement of 4% on the I-test (a test of speed and agility).

There is no data to support concerns that strength training is detrimental to shooting in basketball. Shoenfelt (1991) tested the effect of an 8-week strength-training program on the accuracy of free throws, studying 14 female collegiate players divided into two groups. Every other day, one group engaged in weight training and the other in aerobic exercise. Results showed that the immediate effect of weight training was no more detrimental (or beneficial) to free throw accuracy than the immediate effect of aerobic exercise. Kerbs (2000) studied an entire women’s basketball team, measuring free throw and speed spot shooting accuracy 8 hours after a morning weight-lifting routine. According to the study results, accuracy did not differ significantly between days when the weight-lifting routine was followed and days when it was not followed. The results, then, indicated that these players could continue with a regular lifting program on game-day mornings without losing shooting accuracy.

The results of these studies indicate that basketball players experience more advantages than disadvantages from strength training, even on game days. The conclusion reached is that strength training for basketball players is beneficial to their overall development as athletes.

A typical strength-training program for women collegiate basketball players resembles one for men’s team players (Owens, 1998). General exercises (such as the squat and the split-squat) are often used to strengthen the muscles involved in jumping and running (Renfro, 1996). Certain upper-body exercises focusing on strength, flexibility, and coordination have been examined for their effects on rebounding (Stilger & Meador, 1999). In general, a strength-training program’s goal is to increase players’ power, not just size. Sessions should be designed to prevent muscle accommodation—and boredom; they should also take into account the individual player’s particular weaknesses (Owens, 1998). Hitchcock (1988) proposed that four criteria of importance in devising a strength-training program for women basketball players: specified goals, work assigned based on performance, an equal workload, and communication with the players.

Wilmore and Costill (1994) offered a prescription for basic strength training for basketball players based on four factors: mode, frequency, duration, and intensity; the concept is illustrated in Table 1. The present researchers devised a strength-training prescription for Taiwan’s Yatung women’s basketball team that similarly incorporated the mode, frequency, duration, and intensity factors (see Table 2).

Table 1

General strength-training prescription for basketball players

Factors

Emphases

References

Mode

use of major muscle groups: leg, hip, back,

abdomen, chest, shoulder, upper arms*

____________________________________

major exercises: bench press, lat-pull, inclined/declined dumbbell press, squat, abdominal curl, leg curl/extension, good morning exercise, power cleans, hang cleans, upright and T-bar row*

____________________________________

*Olympic-style lifts preferred

Mannie & Vorkapich, 2000

________________________

Davies, 1993; Earles, 1989; Fulton, 1992; Johnson, 1989; Mannie & Vorkapich, 2000; Renfro, 1996; Zucker, 1989

_______________________

Owens, 1998

Fre-quency

3–4 times (sessions) per week, on alternate days*

____________________________________

*in season, 5 times weekly with shorter sessions

Earles, 1989; Fulton, 1992; Johnson, 1989; Mannie & Vorkapich, 2000; Zucker, 1989

________________________

Owens, 1998

Duration

training period divided into “seasons,” each lasting about 8–10 weeks; pre-season may be as brief as 6 weeks*

____________________________________

each session is 1.25 hr – 1.5 hr ; 3 sessions per week*

____________________________________

30–45 min per session; 4 or more sessions per week*

____________________________________

*no more than 4 hours per week

Fulton, 1992; Groves & Gayle, 1993; Johnson, 1989; Owens, 1998; Shoenfelt, 1991; Zucker, 1989

________________________

Fulton, 1992; Mannie & Vorkapich, 2000

________________________

Owens, 1998

________________________

Hitchcock, 1988; Zucker, 1989

Intensity

in general, 3 sets of each exercise including 3–12 repetitions per set*

____________________________________

off-season for hypertrophy and endurance—60–75% 1 RM; early season for strength—70-85% 1 RM; in season for maximum strength—3–5 RM, or >90% 1 RM*

____________________________________

*Variation within a week, e.g., Monday 8–12 RM, Wednesday 6–8 RM, & Friday 3–5 RM

Earles, 1989; Fulton, 1992; Owens, 1998; Mannie & Vorkapich, 2000

________________________

Davies, 1993; Earles, 1989; Fulton, 1992

________________________

Earles, 1989; Johnson, 1989; Owens, 1998; Zucker, 1989

Table 2

Experimental strength-training prescription for Yatung players

Period	Exercise	Intensity	Sets/Reps	Frequency
off-season, April—July	bench press, shoulder press, knee extension, knee curl, squats, front/ side lunge, power cleans, bicep curl, good morning exercise, situps	70–75%> 1 RM	3 x 8–12; 3 x 25–30 for situps	Monday Wednesday Friday Saturday
pre-season, August—September	bench press, shoulder press, knee extension, knee curl, squats, front/ side lunge, power cleans, bicep curl, good morning exercise, situps	80–90%> 1 RM	3 x 5–8; 3 x 30–40 for situps	Monday Wednesday Friday
in season, October—November	bench press, shoulder press, knee extension, knee curl, squats, front/ side lunge, power cleans, bicep curl, good morning exercise, situps	85–95%> 1 RM	3 x 2–3; 3 x 35–50 for situps	2–3 times/week; NOT on game days

Discussion

Since the late 1970s strength training has become popular among college basketball teams worldwide; however, strength training is just now emerging among Taiwan’s basketball players. The present researchers suggest to coaches and sport administrators that, in order to benefit the players, they

work to educate Taiwanese coaches about the uses of strength training, putting to rest any misconceptions
promote proper strength-training methods, for example introducing them in secondary schools and the high school basketball league
support additional research examining physiological and psychological effects of strength training on elite Taiwanese players

References

Davies. (1993). Strength training for basketball at Maclay High School. Journal of Strength and Conditioning. 15(2), 37.

Earles, J. (1989). Implementing an in-season JV strength program for female athletes. Journal of Strength and Conditioning. 11(3), 32–34.

Fulton, K. T. (1992). Off-season strength training for basketball. Journal of Strength and Conditioning. 14(1), 31–44.

Groves, B. R., & Gayle, R. C. (1993). Physiological changes in male basketball players in year-round strength training. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research. 7(1), 30–33.

Groves, B. R., & Gayle, R. C. (1989). Strength training and team success in NCAA men’s Division-I basketball. Journal of Strength and Conditioning. 11(6), 26–28.

Hitchcock, W. (1988). Individualized strength and conditioning program for women’s basketball. Journal of Strength and Conditioning. 10(5), 28–30.

Johnson, A. (1989). West Virginia University preseason basketball conditioning program. Journal of Strength and Conditioning. 11(1), 43–46.

Kerbs, B. (2000). Effects of same-day strength training on shooting skills of female collegiate basketball players. Microfilm Publication. Eugene, OR: University of Oregon.

Mannie, K., & Vorkapich, M. (2000). Off-season and preseason strength conditioning for basketball. Scholastic Coach and Athletic Director. 70(3), 6–11.

Owen, J. (1998). Strength training for basketball: Building post players. Journal of Strength and Conditioning. lang=FR>20 lang=FR>(1), 16–21.

Renfro, J. G. (1996). Basketball specific squats. Journal of Strength and Conditioning.18(6), 29–30.

Shoenfelt, E. L. (1991). Immediate effect of weight training as compared to aerobic exercise on free throw shooting in collegiate basketball players. Perceptual and Motor Skills. 73(2), 367–370.

Stilger, V., & Meador, R. (1999). Strength exercises: An upper body proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation rebounding exercise. Journal of Strength and Conditioning. 21(6), 29–31.

Zucker, A. (1989). Men’s basketball off-season Phase I strength program. Journal of Strength and Conditioning. 10(6), 39–40.

Author Note

Dr. Richard C. Bell is the chair of sport management at the United States Sports Academy. Steven Chen is a doctoral candidate at the United States Sports Academy.

U.S. Sports Academy2015-10-22T23:42:41-05:00February 14th, 2008|Sports Exercise Science, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology, Women and Sports|Comments Off