Sports Coaching – Page 36 – The Sport Journal

High Intensity Strength Training For Better Body Composition

Submitted by: Wayne L. Westcott, Ph.D.

During the past several years we have learned a lot about the effects
of strength training and body composition. For example, a carefully controlled
study at Tufts University showed significant changes in body composition
from a basic program of strength exercise (Campbell et al. 1994).

The subjects added three pounds of lean weight, lost four pounds
of fat weight, increased their resting metabolic rate by seven percent and
increased their daily energy requirements by 15 percent after 12 weeks of
strength training.

Research with over 1100 previously sedentary adults revealed similar
body composition improvements from eight weeks of standard strength training
(Westcott and Guy 1996). The program participants increased their lean weight
by 2.4 pounds and decreased their fat weight by 4.6 pounds.

Of course, unfit individuals tend to improve their body composition
at faster rates than people who are presently doing strength exercise. Many
people want to know if strength training can further enhance body composition
in well-conditioned exercisers.

Previous studies have demonstrated that various high-intensity training
techniques are more effective than standard training protocols for increasing
muscle strength in both beginning and advanced participants (Westcott 1996,
1997a, 1997b; Westcott and La Rosa Loud 1997). As shown in Figures 1 and
2, slow training produced greater strength gains than standard training for
both beginning and advanced trainees. As illustrated in Figures 3 and 4,
breakdown training resulted in greater strength gains than standard training
for both beginning and advanced exercisers. Likewise, assisted training generated
greater strength gains than standard training for both beginning and advanced
subjects (see Figures 5 and 6).

We have recently examined the effects of combined high-intensity
training techniques on body composition changes in well-conditioned participants.
The six-week advanced exercise program included slow training, breakdown
training, assisted training, and pre-exhaustion training. The 48 subjects
added 2.5 pounds of lean weight and lost 3.3 pounds of fat weight as a result
of their training efforts, which represented more improvement than we expected
from regular strength exercisers.

We have been pleased with our participants’ positive response to
the combined approach of high-intensity strength training techniques. Our
standard exercise protocol is outlined in Table I.

We observed that many program participants selected the pre-exhaustion
technique for their sixth week of high intensity training. Although we do
not have data that show this training method to be better than the others,
there may be some benefit in performing more pre-exhaustion sessions.
Psychologically, changing exercises at the point of muscle fatigue may be
more appealing than performing more repetitions of the same movement pattern
with less weight or with manual resistance. Physiologically, performing two
different exercises for the target muscle group recruits more muscle fibers
which may enhance the training stimulus. In addition to more exercises,
pre-exhaustion programs require more training time and may therefore be the
best high-intensity technique for burning calories.

Table I: Standard Exercise Protocol

Week Days	Training Technique	Total Exercises	Total Time
1. M & F	Breakdown (10 reps to fatigue plus 3 reps with 10-20% less weight)	12	20 Minutes
2. M & F	Assisted (10 reps to fatigue plus 3 reps with manual assistance)	12	20 Minutes
3. M & F	Slow Positive (5 reps to fatigue with 10 seconds lifting and 4 seconds lowering)	12	20 Minutes
4. M & F	Slow Negative (5 reps to fatigue with 4 seconds lifting and 10 seconds lowering)	12	20 Minutes
5. M & F	Pre-Exhaustion (10 reps to fatigue with first exercise plus 5 reps with second exercise)	16	25 Minutes
6. M & F	Personal Preference (Trainee chooses the technique that seemed most productive)	12-16	20-25 Minutes

As many of our intermediate level strength trainees want to improve
their body composition, we presently provide high-intensity training programs
with more emphasis on pre-exhaustion techniques (Table II). The results are
encouraging, but we try to be cautious about overtraining. Our members seem
to respond well to six weeks of high-intensity training followed by six weeks
of standard training to maintain their new level of strength and
fitness.

Although we have not previously provided nutritional counseling to
our high-intensity training participants, this would undoubtedly be beneficial
for clients who want to lose fat as well as build muscle. A combination of
individualized high-intensity strength exercise and sound dietary guidelines
should produce significant improvements in body composition.

Table II: High Intensity Training Techniques

BASIC DESCRIPTIONS
Name	Procedure	Example	Comments
Breakdown Training	Perform about 10 reps to fatigue with standard weightload. Immediately reduce resistance 10-20% and perform about 3 more reps to second level of fatigue.	Complete 10 leg extensions with 150 lbs., then 3 more reps with 120 lbs.	Change resistance as quickly as possible to maximize the training effect.
Assisted Training	Perform about 10 reps to fatigue with standard weightload. Trainer assists with 3 post fatigue reps on lifting phase only.	Complete 10 leg extensions with 150 lbs., then 3 more reps – with manual assistance from trainer.	Assistance is given only on the positive muscle action where it is necessary, but not on the stronger nega- tive muscle action when it’s unnecessary.
Slow Positive Training	Perform about 5 reps to fatigue with 10% less than standard weight-load, taking 10 seconds for each positive muscle action and 4 seconds for each negative muscle action.	Complete 5 leg extensions with 135 lbs., counting 10 secs up and 4 secs down for each rep.	Be sure to breathe continuously throughout every repetition.
Slow Negative Training	Perform about 5 reps to fatigue with 5% less than standard weightload, taking 4 seconds for each positive muscle action 10 seconds for each negative muscle action.	Complete 5 leg extensions with 142.5 lbs., counting 4 secs up and 10 secs and down for each rep.	Use smooth and continuous move- ments, rather than choppy stop and go movements.
Pre-Exhaustion Training	Perform two successive exercises for target muscle groups, typically a rotary exercise followed immed- iately by a linear exercise. Use 10 reps to fatigue in the first exercise and 5 reps to fatigue in the second.	Complete 10 leg extensions with 150 lbs., then 5 leg presses with 300 lbs.	Take as little time as possible between the two successive exercises to maximize the

Table III: Examples of Pre-Exhaustion Exercise Combinations

1. Leg extension followed by leg press.
2. Leg curl followed by leg press.
3. Dumbbell lunge followed by barbell squat.
4. Dumbbell fly followed by barbell bench press.
5. Dumbbell pullover followed by lat pulldown.
6. Dumbbell lateral raise followed by dumbbell press.
7. Dumbbell curl followed by chin up.
8. Dumbbell overhead extension followed by bar dip.

Wayne L. Westcott, Ph.D., is fitness research director at the South
Shore YMCA in Quincy, MA. Dr. Westcott has written the Muscular Strength
And Endurance chapter for the ACE Personal Trainer Manual and has authored
several textbooks on strength training.

References

Campbell, W., M. Crim, V. Young & W. Evans. (1994). Increased
energy requirements and changes in body composition with resistance training
in older adults. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 60:
167-175.

Westcott, W. (1996). Strength training for life: Make your method
count. Nautilus Magazine, Spring 5: 2, 3-5.

Westcott, W. and Guy, J. (1996) A physical evolution: Sedentary adults
see marked improvements in as little as two days a week. IDEA Today 14:
9, 58-65.

Westcott, W. (1997a). Research: Research on advanced strength training.
American Fitness Quarterly, 15: 4, 15-18.

Westcott, W. (1997b). Strength training 201. Fitness Management,
13:7, 33-35.

Westcott, W. and La Rosa Loud, R. (1997). A better way to beef up
strength workouts. Perspective, 23: 5, 32-34.

U.S. Sports Academy2013-11-27T19:16:37-06:00February 11th, 2008|Sports Coaching, Sports Exercise Science, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|Comments Off

Sports Medicine for Youth Soccer

Submitted by: William L. Carroll, Ed.D., ATC, and Augustin Mendoza, M.D.

Training for Optimal Performance

Soccer is a major sport for young athletes in the United States, and is also rapidly becoming a major sport for males and females for all ages. Because young athletes go through puberty at different times, they vary a great deal among each other in size and maturity. These differences pose a challenge to the athletes and their coaches. The primary characteristics of a young athlete are: motivation; physical fitness (i.e. muscle strength, power, endurance, flexibility, proper body composition, and cardiac respiratory endurance); discipline, coachability; skills; ability to be a part of a team; ability to think under stress; and good spatial orientation.

The practice sessions for soccer should seek to achieve: physical conditioning, repetitive training, proper intensity of training, flexibility, and awareness that the achievement of proper endurance for the soccer athlete requires 4-6 months of training. Also, the coach should be aware that extreme and severe high intensity and high frequency training causes damage to muscle tissues and is counterproductive to the goals of the athlete. The pre-game meals should primarily be composed of carbohydrates, and balanced meals should be eaten prior to game days. Water consumption (hydration and rehydration) should be strongly encouraged with water breaks built into the training schedule and water available upon demand.(2)

Physiological and Chronological Age

Any middle school teacher can tell you that adolescent teenagers are difficult to handle and that they vary a great deal in size, height and maturity. This is because teenagers, in addition to possessing the normal genetic inheritance of size from their parents, are also in a very fast growth period (puberty). The growth spurt on the average is around 12 years of age for girls and 14 years of age for boys. Young athletes are experiencing a turmoil period which affects them both physiologically and hormonally. Therefore, young athletes come to soccer with these inherent and at times large differences in size, shape, height, and skill level. Because of these differences, it is very difficult to mold a team at this age group into a skilled unit.

Characteristics of a Soccer Player

All of the following player characteristics need not be present before the individual plays soccer. However, the individual should either show aptitude or at least a willingness to acquire these characteristics.

1. Motivation

The soccer player should be interested and motivated to play the game of soccer (i.e. kicking a ball, running, passing a ball, etc.). In other words, the player is receiving an enjoyment out of performing these tasks especially when it is performed spontaneously and without adults forcing them to do so.

2. Physical Fitness

The term physical fitness connotes different meaning for different activities. In the

context of soccer, it is the ability to play soccer for 60-90 minutes without fatigue, exhaustion, or other malsymptoms of a sedentary person. The player should have the following physical fitness characteristics to play soccer:

a. muscle strength and power
b. endurance
c. flexibility
d. proper body composition
e. cardiac respiratory endurance

3. Discipline

The ability to practice and play the game in a repeated fashion several times a week.

4. Coachability

The ability to take instructions and to try to comply with these instructions.

5. Skills or ability to learn skills

The ability to conduct or learn individual soccer skills with the ball such as kicking, receiving, passing, shooting, control, etc.

6. Ability to play in a team sport

The ability to cooperate with other team members to achieve a difficult task. Also, the player should have the ability to accept less personal recognition for the sake of the team. The player also should be able to associate with others for a long time and sometimes under stressful conditions. Finally, the player should have the ability to enjoy himself with others.

7. Ability to think under stress

Most people are not as logical under stressful conditions as they are normally. However, the well trained soccer player learns what to do under the various game conditions, and also learns to think quickly under stressful conditions.

8. Good Spatial Orientation

The ability to think and visualize in three dimensions and to be relevant to the soccer field is difficult for very young players. The player should be able to learn to adapt to the spatial orientation within the field and re-position himself/herself relevant to the ball, teammates and the opposing team members.

Practice Sessions

The purpose of this article is not to suggest specific exercises. There are other sources for the numerous soccer practice sessions. However, we will give a general outline that all soccer practice sessions should fall within. In this manner, each coach can use their creativity to make soccer practices more enjoyable and more beneficial to the different needs of the varied groups.

The practice sessions should be designed to make the individual a better soccer player. The best practice for any sport is to play that sport repeatedly in order to develop those muscles, skills, endurance, etc….., for that sport. It is a common occurrence for those who play one sport and then suddenly play another sport to have muscle aches after the first few times of the new sport. This is because they have used a different new set of muscles than they used before. This is called specificity of training. So, the more the soccer player plays soccer, the better he/she will become. This is not to say that the soccer game should not be broken down to small segments so that it can be taught and repeatedly reinforced.

In order to prepare the individual to play soccer, players and coaches should observe the following factors:

1. Physical conditioning

Increased ability to sustain both aerobic and anaerobic exercises.

2. Frequency of training

This should be 2-3 times a week for youngsters and 3-4 times a week for adults.

3. Warm-up

Static stretching should last 10-30 seconds and be repeated 3-5 times. Each stretching exercise should include a larger range of motion than the previous one. In addition, after each rigorous practice session, there should be 10 minutes of low to moderate cool-down exercises. Examples of cool-down exercises in soccer are individual skill exercises; jogging lightly, and best of all just walking or dribbling the ball lightly.

4. Time to peak endurance

Quick and severe training for 2-3 weeks prior to a season as is the case in some high schools after sedentary summer, cannot achieve endurance and may be detrimental to the athlete. This is because adaptation of the cardiorespiratory system and muscle enzymes require about six months of training to reach peak endurance capacity. Moreover, it takes 2-4 weeks without training (as may be the case during the summer for high schoolers) to lose most of endurance parameters (see section on endurance for details). Therefore, a well-planned long training period is an essential part of preparing players for the season.

5. Muscle Strength and Power

The use of moderate weight lifting for young athletes to increase strength and power in moderation is an acceptable form of exercise. Weight bearing exercises for children below 13 years of age is not recommended in the standing position where there is a great deal of compression force on the legs. In order to increase muscle strength, the muscle should be challenged by at least 60% of the maximal weight lifted the first time. Furthermore, in subsequent days and weeks, the muscle must be challenged by increasing weights, with high frequency repetition. Remember, an increase in muscle strength is not necessarily associated with a large increase in size of the muscle. Low frequency repetition increases the size of the muscle (body building) rather than increasing the muscle strength. While defenders may be able to use a greater muscle mass and strength, other soccer players need to increase strength more than muscle size in order to keep their agility and speed.

Soccer is a mixture of aerobic and anaerobic sport. Therefore, the training session should combine both modes. Aerobic (like marathon running, jogging, etc…) sessions are usually composed of slow rhythmic exercises. These exercises allow the body to utilize oxygen to burn foodstuff to produce the energy needed. Therefore, the best soccer training sessions should resemble match-like conditions which involve both anaerobic and aerobic exercises. These conditions consist of the player performing, for example, the following tasks:

(a) Aerobic exercises such as continuous jogging to re-position to a new ball position lasting 1-5 minutes. Repetition of this action 10-50 times per game.

(b) Anaerobic exercises such as sprinting — lasting from a second to 1 min. Repetition of this action 10-50 times per game.

(c) Midfielders do most of the jogging and sprinting throughout the game since they must perform offensive and defensive tasks.

(d) Defenders tend to do mostly jogging and less sprinting.

(e) Offensive players do more sprinting than jogging.

The details of the sessions should be left to the creativity of the coach to combine multiple game-drills that benefit the most for a given player and team.

Usually young players play more than one position (i.e. offensive versus defensive position). However, as the young players pass puberty, they become more specialized in a given general position. Therefore, each position may require slightly different emphasis. For example:

(a) Offensive players do mostly sprinting than jogging and therefore would require more anaerobic process adaptation.

(b) Defensive players tend to do mostly jogging and less sprinting and therefore would require more aerobic process adaptation.

(c) Midfielders tend to do both sprinting and jogging throughout the game since they must perform both offensive and defensive tasks. Therefore, midfielders would require an intensive training to adapt to both aerobic and anaerobic processes.(1)

Interval Training

The soccer player can benefit from interval training. Interval training consist of work bouts with rest intervals of ratio varying from 1:3 to 1:1 (work/rest) depending on the need and the physical fitness of the individual. The work period can lasts a few seconds up to several minutes. The whole cycle can be repeated 5-20 times. A short high intensity (sprinting) work bout lasting greater than 15 seconds can improve the anaerobic system with rest period of 30 seconds. Interval training to improve the aerobic system could consist of ratio’s of 1:1 or 1:1:5. The exercise period could last 60-90 seconds in order to force oxygen consumption followed with a recovery period varying from 60 seconds up to 135 seconds.(2)

Circuit Training

Circuit training attempts to use economically time of exercise to improve strength, power and cardiorespiratory system. Work sessions should combine resistance, speed and rest. For example, working periods can vary from 30-60 seconds with similar rest periods. The number of different stations could be as high as 15 stations of differing exercises.(2)

Preparations for the Soccer Season

Physical Fitness Assessment

1. Physical Exams and Screening

2. Physical Fitness Tests

a. Cardiorespiratory endurance

1. Heart rate recovery test
2. Step test
3. Running
4. Walking

b. Body Composition

1. Anthropometric test
2. Skinfold test

c. Muscle Power and Strength

d. Flexibility

Prevention of Injuries

a. Proper Preparation of teens and players
b. Equal Competition
c. Proper rules and refereeing
d. Proper sequence of warm-ups, stretching, and exercises

Protective Gear in Soccer

1. Cleats
2. Shin Guards
3. Mouth protector (for persons with orthodontics)
4. Goalies outfit (elbows, knees, and hip cushion)
5. Taping (when necessary)

Water and Electrolyte Balance

Water is the most important and critical nutrient to the survival and well being of a person. One can survive without intake of other nutrients for days, weeks, and even months but one cannot survive without water for more than a few days. In a 70 Kg person, the water content is about 40 liters (i.e. 60% of body weight). Most of the water (25 liters) is inside cells of the body and about 15 liters lie outside the cells. The blood volume is about 5 liters and the maintenance of this volume is critical to the survival of the person. For example, daily fluid intake can vary from 1-7 liters, while the blood volume must remain constant. Excess fluid intake can easily be regulated; however, a problem. arises when fluid intake is below one liter per day and blood volume starts to become lower than 5 liters (for example about volume of 4 liters and below can cause death). Under sedentary conditions skin and kidney (i.e. urine output) are the most important regulators of body water. Under the conditions of hot weather and exercises (despite fluid intake in many cases, the skin (sweating) becomes the only important regulator of body water as well as the body temperature. The daily loss of water in a heavy, prolonged exercise (3 hours marathon) can increase from 0.1 to 5 liters.(6)

Sweating is absolutely necessary in order to maintain constant body temperature. The sweat rate usually corresponds to increases in energy expenditure by the athlete. Trained athletes have a more sensitive sweating system than non-athletes due to adaptation by the repetitive exercises. Of the 5 liters of H2O, a marathon runner’s losses (despite fluid intake in many cases) represent 12% of body water and 8% of body weight. Anything above 2% weight loss due to exercise induces severe demands on the thermoregulatory and cardiovascular systems.

All of the energy expenditure during exercise ends up as heat. Therefore, body temperature will rise rapidly during exercise if cooling due to sweating is not functioning. The prolonged increase in body temperature will eventually cause serious damage to the thermoregulatory system, which can result in serious damage to the brain — the most sensitive organ. Thirst, unfortunately, is not a reliable indicator during exercise (i.e. under any stressful conditions). Therefore, athletes should drink water not just to quench their thirst, but as part of their exercise regime. Figures 3 and 4 represent a hypothetical daily water output and water intake for persons who are: sedentary, a marathon running for 3 hours, or soccer players (90-100 minutes). The numbers are rough estimates, and for illustration purpose only. The most scientific way to determine how much water intake ought to be is to weigh the player before and during the game. The loss of weight due to water loss should be adjusted by drinking the same amount of water. Remember, it is better to drink more than less water.

Children utilize a greater metabolic energy and thus produce more heat than adults to perform the same task. Fortunately, children dissipate heat better than adults due to a larger surface area to mass ratio than adults. However, when ambient temperature is hot and humid, the dissipation of heat is inhibited and thus children maybe at a greater risk than adults during exercise.

Electrolytes such as Na+, K+, Cl-, Ca2 and Mg2+ are the most important ions and their amount in the cell and the blood is critical in maintaining normal body function. As we sweat more during exercise, the amount of these ions in the sweat is less than that of the blood. In other words, the body is losing more water than ions. Under heavy exercise conditions, the body loses about 5-7 grams sodium chloride. However, there is a minimal loss of K+ and Mg2+. Under conditions of continued exercise (up to 80-90 minutes) there is a need to replenish water continuously, but not salt. If there is heavy exercise beyond the 80-90 minutes, salt replenishment is appropriate. The use of salt tablets during the early phase of exercise (in most cases of soccer) is detrimental to the body. The body fluid has a higher salt concentration after exercise than before; therefore, the body needs pure water to bring the blood composition back to normal levels.(6)(2)

Heat Related Illnesses

Heat Cramps

They are similar to other muscle cramps, which may be due to: sudden blows; over exercise; lack of blood supply, etc.

Cause: Reduced blood flow to the muscle due to: loss of water, prolonged loss of minerals, etc.

Symptoms: Spasmodic tonic contraction of a given muscle.

Onset: Gradual or sudden.

Danger: None if treated. Heat cramps could lead to termination of that particular exercise for a few days.

Prevention: Proper physical fitness, proper warm-ups and stretching exercises prior to the activity and temporary termination of activity.

Treatment: Termination of activity. Stretching, rest and ice treatment necessary.

Heat Exhaustion

Cause: Loss of water.

Symptoms: Tiredness, weakness, malaise, and progressively weaker.

Onset: Gradual and over several days.

Danger: The player may go into shock because of reduced blood volume This rarely happens, however, as it is not an emergency condition.

Prevention: Proper physical fitness and proper hydration before and during the exercise and termination of activity.

Treatment: Cooling, drink water, and later drinking large amounts of mineral rich fluid such as fruit and vegetable juices.

Heat Stroke

Brain cells in the hypothalamus maintain body temperature close to 98.6oF. These cells respond to the blood temperature that passes through them. The cells regulate the skin by sending signals to release skin vasodilator in order to increase sweating. When rectal temperatures reach 41oC – 43oC, unconsciousness may develop; if that happens, the mortality rate ranges from 50-70%. Heat stroke is the second cause of death among athletes.

Cause: Loss of water and sudden uncontrolled rise in body temperature due to the failure of the thermoregulatory center in the brain.

Symptoms: It is a Medical Emergency. May lead to death or irreversible damage. Person shows behavioral or mental status changes during heat stress. These symptoms include: sense of impending doom, headache, dizziness, confusion and weakness. Symptoms that could lead to heat stroke are:

a. high temperature and high humidity
b. high rectal temperature
c. hot dry skin
d. cardiorespiratory and central nervous system disturbances
e. clouded consciousness and finally collapse

Onset: Sudden

Danger: Brain damage and death is imminent if not treated quickly.

Prevention: Proper physical fitness and proper hydration before and during the exercise and termination of activity.

Treatment

1. Call for an ambulance.
2. Remove clothes and cool with ice and cold water on the body.
3. Monitor vital signs. (i.e. breathing, heart beat, pupil size).
4. Massage extremities to promote cooling.
5. Once the body temperature cools and the person is quite alert, remove from cold environment to prevent hypothermia.(3)

In the hospital they may perform the following:

1. Administer I.V. fluid (1400 ml for first hour).
2. Monitor urinary output – Mannitol may be given to promote urination.
3. Digitalis may be considered for heart failure.
4. Isoproterenol administration to increase cardia output (if needed).
5. Oxygen may be given.
6. Other procedures as necessary may be used.
7. Continue to monitor kidney and brain functions.

Adaptation of Endurance Training

Endurance training connotes a process of adaptive changes to achieve the strength, power and cardiorespiratory capacity to complete the specific physical task. Endurance training requires several months of rhythmic and continued exercise that results in an increase in the body’s number of capillaries, maximal oxygen uptake, stroke volume, and enzymes. Moreover, endurance training increases the sectional size of slow type fibers and there is an actual conversion of fast type fibers (Type 11B.) to slow (Type 11A.). The Type 11B. fibers are the fast fibers, and are capable of lasting longer than the type 11A. fibers. Therefore, there are major underlying biochemical changes in the various organs and cells involved in the physical activity that provides the needed energy, strength and power to carry out the task. Soccer requires a combination of slow and fast fibers because soccer playing is a combination of quick actions lasting less than 1-2 minutes and a prolonged activities which can last 5-10 minutes.

Athletic physical conditioning has become a very serious and scientific endeavor. In the past 20 years, there has been an increase in our understanding of the physiology and biochemistry of exercise. There has also been an increase in interest in the mechanism of how exercise induces physiological and biochemical adaptation at the cellular and organismic level and how this accounts for the improved performance of athletes in a given sport.(1)

Endurance in sports means the ability of the person to perform a specific prolonged exercise or work to achieve a reasonable task without adverse reactions such as fatigue, exhaustion, and injury. Endurance can mean different things for different tasks (i.e. sport activity), as each task may involved unique muscle groups and skill levels. Therefore, there are several components of endurance that develop differentially during endurance repetitive training for the specific sport. The components of endurance are: muscle strength and power, the cardiovasculatory system, and the respiratory system. The cardio-respiratory endurance is needed with varying intensities in all sports. However, strength and power can vary in magnitude from muscle to muscle. Therefore, local endurance is quite important for a given sport. During endurance training of repetitive exercise for several months, the muscles adapt to generate force and to maintain a supply of energy. The key factor in endurance training is the exertion of physical stress with certain frequency and for lengths of time. This chronic muscular activity stimulates growth of the muscle as well as the development of endurance in terms of oxygen delivery, energy production, and permanent metabolic and structural changes. Therefore, endurance training in this context is a low-level, prolonged-intensity aerobic training exercise where the system can utilize oxygen as the initial trigger of energy source. The first general aspect of endurance adaptation is the adaptation of the cardiovascular/respiratory system to accommodate the increased frequent demand for oxygen uptake and delivery.

Cardiovascular – Respiratory Adaptation

Rhythmic and continued exercise requires a greater use of oxygen at the muscle site. Therefore, the routes of uptake and transport of oxygen from the air to muscle tissues must adapt to the increased rate of delivery and extraction. A measurement of cardiorespiratory endurance is the VO₂ max. VO₂ max is the maximal oxygen uptake during the maximal exercise, and it differs from person to person. In order to compare exercise-related data from person to person, the data is expressed relative to a specific level of intensity of exercise and represented as expressed as a percent of VO₂ max. To illustrate its importance, endurance training can change the VO₂ max by as much as 20%. This is the first indication that true structural and biochemical changes must occur in order to metabolize the increased oxygen uptake. The first apparent result of an exercise is the immediate increase in heart rate. The resting rate is 80 beats per minute; however, during exercise the heart rate can go as high as 190 beats per minutes. After several months of endurance training, heart rates can go as low as 40 beats per min. This reflects several factors of adaptation to exercise among them being the autonomic nervous system. However, the one aspect related directly to the heart rate is the fact that despite the lowered heart rate, the heart provides a greater cardiac output because the stroke column increases by as much as 80%. In a highly trained athlete, the refilling is more complete. More importantly, the left ventricle strength and power is dramatically increased. The left ventricle undergoes hypertrophy with endurance training, which means the actual heart muscle mass and volume are increased. Heart size is greater in endurance trained athletes by as much as 25%, as compared to a sedentary person. Moreover, the contraction of contractile proteins are increased and the composition of the protein changed. Also, oxygen delivery of the blood supply to the heart is improved because the number and size of capillaries per cross-sensational areas of muscle increases by as much 50% due to endurance training. Endurance training also improves (by as much as 80%) the muscle content of myoglobin. Myoglobin carries oxygen within the muscle tissue. These dramatic biochemical adaptations in the oxygen delivery system parallels those of the heart and thus complements the entire scope of the biochemical adaptation for a better performance by the trained athlete.(2)

Blood Volume and Composition

There are three major changes in the blood due to endurance training: (1) increased blood volume; (2) increased hematocrit (i.e. increase in the total number of red blood cells (RBC); and (3) decrease in viscosity. The increased blood volume is as high as 20%. However, the increase in RBC is less pronounced and as a consequence the viscosity of the blood decreases. The increase in blood volume is the key important factor for an endurance trained athlete. The increased blood volume enhances O₂ delivery as well as enhancing microcirculation. The increase in microcirculation is even more pronounced due to the blood’s reduced viscosity. A trained athlete also has another advantage in greater capacity to clear lactate from the muscle and utilizing lactate as an energy substrate. Thus, the level of blood lactate in a trained athlete is lower than in a sedentary person. This phenomenon is referred to as a lactate shift. A trained athlete therefore has a greater endurance with less fatigue and cramps due to decreased levels of blood lactate.

Common Injuries Encountered in the Sport of Soccer

The physiological principles of tissue damage and tissue healing are essentially the same for all sports. What makes each sport somewhat unique in terms of the injuries encountered is the specific sport activities which lead to specific mechanisms of injury. The soccer skills involved with passing and dribbling, kicking, ball control, heading, tackling and goal keeping all, when combined with the principles of force, gravity, ground contact, and torque, can lead to injuries.

Unfortunately and wrongly, our youngest athletes (such as youth soccer players) receive the least sports medicine coverage. Therefore, injury recognition and evaluation becomes the premise of the coach or parent who may have little or no preparation for the task.

In an attempt to simplify the evaluation procedures, the most basic acronym, HOPS, should be employed. HOPS stands for history, observation, palpation and strength/sensation. This primitive evaluation system may be utilized with any type of injury.

A good preparticipation physical examination is mandatory. This provides the benchmark from which deviations from the norm may be measured. A good preparticipation physical should minimally include a medical history, height and weight check, visual acuity check or screen, orthopedic or joint evaluation and visceral examination. Physicians specializing in sports medicine are the best sources for these physical exams.

Observation begins the first time one sees the injured athlete. Is he/she conscious, does the athlete walk with an antalgic gait, does the athlete hold any body part as a protective manner, and is the athlete visibly exhibiting pain? These are all important observational factors. Also, if one is dealing with an extremity injury, the evaluator should visibly compare that limb to the contralateral or uninjured limb.

Palpation involves touching and moving the injured body part. If pain is diffuse, palpation may be of limited value. However, if the pain is specific or point tender, then active, passive and resitive motion will assist the evaluator in localizing the injury site or injured structure.

Strength/sensation is the final aspect of the field evaluation. Again, if dealing with an extremity injury, one has the luxury of being able to compare strength and sensation of the injured limb to that of the uninjured.

Common injuries encountered in the sport of soccer include:

Sprains: A sprain represents damage to a ligament. Common sprain sites include the ankle, knee and wrist.
Strains: A strain represents damage to a musculotendinous unit. Common strain sites encountered in soccer include the gastrocnemius, quadriceps, hamstring, low back and shoulder.
Fractures: Common fracture sites include the fingers, tibia, fibula, radius and ulna. These fractures are usually resultant from falls. The only method of positive fracture diagnosis is X-ray.
Dislocations: Dislocation sites commonly encountered may include fingers, should and elbow. The most common mechanism of injury resulting in a dislocation is the fall on the outstretched hand or arm.
Contusions: Contusions are resultant from contact with the ball, with other players, or with the ground.
Concussions

When does an injury need to be referred to a physician? Although this is a difficult question to answer, the following guidelines will assist the layman in making the decision:

1. Suspicions of a fracture
2. Suspicions of a concussion
3. An injury in which the pain cannot be controlled with conservative measures
4. A laceration that may require sutures
5. Any suspicion of internal injury

Additionally, any time the layman is unsure of his/her evaluation, the athlete should be referred to a physician.

Conservative Care of Acute Injuries

The acronym PRICE represents a form of conservation care for acute injuries.

“P” stands for protection. An ankle injury can be protected by placing the athlete on crutches non-weight bearing.

“R” stands for rest. Rest means not using the injury body part and allowing it to heal properly.

“I” stands for ice. Ice or cold is utilized in cryotherapy. The use of ice results in a greater chance of tissue survival, reduces degradation of healthy tissue, induces vasoconstriction which prevents further swelling and loss of range of motion and enhances early mobilization. Ice also acts as a topical anesthetic.

“C” stands for compression. Specific compression when applied to an extremity injury may prevent swelling and the accompanying loss of range of motion.

“E” stands for elevation. By elevating an extremity injury, once reduces effusion and dependent bleeding. Again, this reduces swelling and loss of range of motion, both of which tend to protract injury recovery time.

Remember, the whole idea behind the science of sports medicine is to provide the best possible environment for healing to occur.

Summary

Youth and age group soccer can be an extremely positive experiences for the young athlete. Skill development, coordination, socialization skills, and cooperation are all positive results of a healthy youth and age group soccer program.

In order to assure a healthy program, one must insist that sports medicine considerations such as preparticipation physical exams, proper conditioning, conservative injury care and warm- up and cool down periods are observed as well as adequate hydration and rehydration.

U.S. Sports Academy2013-11-27T19:18:19-06:00February 11th, 2008|Sports Coaching, Sports Exercise Science, Sports Management, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|Comments Off

The Effects of Video and Cognitive Imagery on Throwing Performance of Baseball Pitchers: A Single Subject Design

Submitted by: Jamie Nelson, Daniel R. Czech, A. Barry Joyner, Barry Munkasy & Tony Lachowetz

ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of a three-week imagery and video imagery intervention program on the throwing accuracy of individual baseball pitchers. A secondary purpose of this study was to investigate whether differences in accuracy response characterize both low- and high-ability imagers. A sample of pitchers (n=30) were asked to take the Movement Imagery Questionnaire–Revised; study participants were randomly selected from the highest and lowest 20% of the group. The participants were obtained from high school and college teams within southeastern Georgia (n= 6). Following the first week of baseline measurements, 2 high-ability and 2 low-ability imagers took part in a three-week video imagery and imagery intervention program. One participant from each group together constituted a control group, which was asked only to try their best when throwing for the study’s accuracy measurements. Results showed that 2 participants demonstrated an increase in performance, while all participants expressed a desire to continue to use imagery for its various effects. Suggestions for future research and further insight are discussed.

INTRODUCTION
Imagery has been shown to be very effective for improving accuracy in sport. Thomas and Fogarty (1997) found that imagery combined with positive self-talk improved not only putting performance, but psychological factors as well. Woolfork et al. (2005) found that positive imagery participants, in comparison to negative imagery training and control group participants, experienced significant increases in putting performance. Moreover, imagery has been shown to positively enhance free-throw shooting among collegiate basketball players. Kearns and Crossman (1992), Shambrook and Bull (1996), Templin and Vernacchia (1993, 1995),Stewart (1997), and Carboni, Burke, Joyner, Hardy, and Blom (2000) have determined imagery to be to some degree effective for most individuals at enhancing free-throw performance.

Much of the research cited above utilized a single subject design. This type of design has proved important in applied sport psychology, demonstrating improvement in individual cases that might be overlooked by traditional group analysis (Shambrook & Bull, 1996). For instance, when a multiple baseline design is used, a conclusion could be drawn that any effects were due to the specific intervention (Bryan, 1987, p. 286). The single subject design, in contrast, allows for individual analysis of the imagery implementation and a way to tailor the intervention to the individual (Stewart, 1997).

Visualization theories have not always been applied to sport performance; they began in the field of cognitive and spatial awareness research. Bess (1909) was among the first researchers of the topic and is credited with developing the measuring system for visualization. The Bess Scale addresses differences in individual imagery ability, drawing on cognitive theory of imagery and tied closely to the understanding of the term kinesthetic imagery(Schiffman, 1995).

A pitcher may be asked to imagine the ball in hand before a throw, to feel the laces and texture on the palm, maybe even to brush the dirt off, as if the ball was just grabbed from the ground. Bess notes that the image should be as clear and detailed as possible, and his Bess Scale measures the vividness of the visualizations practiced with seven classifications of vagueness and vividness. However, Wilson & Barber (1981) found that individuals can vary greatly in their ability to visualize, even when their Bess Scale scores are alike. Moreover, Stoksahl and Ascough (1998) also found that some athletes were very detailed in their imaging, while others were very vague; they concluded that the less vivid images may not be as effective for enhancing performance. Therefore, athletes with lower imagery ability may not reap full performance-enhancement benefits from imagery training. Such findings provide one more reason to investigate the effects of video imagery: Individuals who lack vivid imaging skills may find that a video re-enactment of the task allows them to see the desired performance very clearly, aiding mental preparation for an actual event or task demonstration.

Little research appears in the literature which has examined the effects on performance of internal video imagery, or video depicting an athlete’s internal perspective during performance. However, at least some research has integrated videotape modeling with imagery training. Hall and Erffmmeyer (1983) investigated female high school basketball players who were assigned to a video modeling/imagery group and a relaxation/imagery group. Results can only be attributed to a combination of psychological skills, as they were compounded within the study, but it was concluded that the video modeling/imagery group demonstrated better performance in foul shooting, compared to the relaxation/imagery group. Little research seems to exist exploring internal video imagery in other sports contexts, specifically baseball and, more specifically, pitching accuracy.

While general research on imagery is vast, this study seeks to investigate the effects of cognitive imagery and video imagery on one phenomenon: the throwing performance of baseball pitchers. A secondary purpose of this study is to see whether low-ability imagery and high-ability imagery are associated with distinct performance responses following video and cognitive imagery interventions.

METHOD
Participants
The study participants were 6 baseball pitchers from southeastern Georgia. They were selected from the region’s high schools and colleges. Four males, 2 current college athletes and 2 current high school athletes, took part in the study. The participants’ mean age was 19.8 years, with ages ranging from 16 to 22 years. Only athletes currently on pitching staffs of high school or college baseball teams were utilized. All participants had been baseball athletes for at least the previous 2 years, at either the high school or college level. All were asked to return a signed consent form before participating in the study; participants under 18 years of age were asked to return a parental consent form before participating. The consent form assured participants of confidentiality, briefed them on the study’s purpose, and listed the risks and benefits of participation. Contact was made with each institution, informing participants, parents, and coaches that athletes’ participation was completely voluntary.

Apparatus
A Samsung Sports Camcorder SC-X205L/X210L was used to record all accuracy-measurement sessions, in order to ensure that accurate points were recorded for each pitch. At no time, however, was the pitcher himself captured in these recordings. The Samsung Camcorder SC-X205L/X210L external helmet camera module, used to capture recordings of an accurate pitch from the internal perspective of the pitcher, was used in the video imagery interventions.

Instrumentation
Throwing performance was measured with an Easton© 9-square Strike Zone Target, which was placed on the plate in the visitors bullpen at Georgia Southern University, emulating an actual game. Each section of the target was assigned a point value, ranging from 1 to 10; 10 was the value for the center box, with lower values designated for squares nearer the edges of the target. Point values between the ranges of the surrounding boxes values were assigned to the dividing lines themselves. Each pitching accuracy measurement session was videotaped, allowing the researchers to review each pitch at leisure, ensuring the correct assignment of points; however, only the target and the end result of the pitch were captured on videotape during measurement sessions.

Prior to the study, an imagery ability test was given to a group of 30 high school and college baseball pitchers, to identify athletes with high- and low-ability imagery skills who might become part of the study sample. The Movement Imagery Questionnaire- Revised (MIQ-R) was used to measure the athletes’ imagery ability (see Appendix A). Hall and Martin (1997) developed the MIQ-R, a revision of Hall and Pongrac’s Movement Imagery Questionnaire, or MIQ (1983), in order to assess individuals’ capacity to generate visual imagery and also kinesthetic (or movement) imagery. The present researchers have determined the MIQ- R to be a valid and reliable revision of the original instrument: Earlier work has established significant correlations for the MIQ-R’s visual and kinesthetic scales. For the MIQ, Hall, Pongrac, and Buckholz (1985) obtained a test–retest co-efficiency score of .83; in terms of internal consistencies, a score of .89 was obtained for the visual scale and a score of .88 was obtained for the kinesthetic scale (Atienza et al., 1994).

A Post Study Imagery Questionnaire was distributed to the present study’s participants at the completion of the investigation. This questionnaire sought feedback from each pitcher as to prior experience with imagery, present attitude toward imagery, and likelihood of future imagery use. Moreover, it asked the athletes to think about effects of imagery occurring in dimensions other than performance. The questionnaire asked these questions, specifically: Did you at any time use imagery outside of this study? How do you feel about the use of imagery in general? Do you feel it helped you and how so? Do you feel there was a difference between the two types of imagery and if so what were they? Will you continue imagery use?

Procedures
The pitchers’ completed MIQ-R instruments; later on, their scores were collected and recorded by number, both to protect confidentiality and to help ensure random selection of participants. Pitchers completing the MIQ-R were also given a brief explanation of what the instrument covered and directions for providing answers. A 7-point Likert scale was employed for each question, and the points assigned each question were totaled for each participant. Using the scores obtained, 3 participants were chosen at random from the top 20% of scores, and another 3 were selected randomly from the bottom 20%; the 6 were asked to participate in the study. By omitting participants with middle-ranking scores, the study sought to secure a sample that truly represented high- and low-ability imagery skills. Participants signed a consent form or obtained written parental consent prior to participating.

Participants were asked to meet with an “observer” 5 times during the first week of the study, the period during which a stable baseline was to be established for each pitcher; after a baseline existed (which ideally required 1 week but in fact might have required more time), participant and observer were to meet 4 times during each of the next 3 weeks. The 3 weeks constituted the invention portion of the study. Prior to the intervention, each pitcher’s throwing performance was measured 5 times a week, until he had demonstrated a stable baseline, defined as an average score displaying no more than a 2-point variance in at least 3 consecutive trials. The first-week, baseline portion of the study was followed by imagery interventions beginning in the second week; each imagery intervention required 6 visits, or one and one-half weeks. Measurements were taken 4 times a week, post imagery session, during the imagery and video imagery intervention programs, until the study’s completion. Throwing-performance measurements were determined by averaging a pitcher’s scores for 10 pitches in the visitors bullpen of an NCAA Division I university. The measurement apparatus was placed in front of the bullpen home plate. During the baseline portion of the study, the Samsung Sports Camcorder SC-X205L/X210L was used to create video imagery segments for use during the intervention portion, with each pitcher wearing the “helmet-cam” module (placed aside his head, at eye level) and capturing his own internal perspective on the throwing of an accurate pitch. (At no time was any pitcher himself captured in a recording.) The module is worn comfortably on a headband, and no participate indicated discomfort during its use. The study design incorporated counterbalancing to eliminate sequence effects.

Participant 1 and Participant 4 experienced the cognitive imagery intervention during Week 1 of the intervention portion of the study, followed by video imagery intervention beginning in the middle of Week 2 (the two athletes’ seventh study session). Participant 2 and Participant 5 experienced video imagery sessions as the initial intervention during Week 1 of the study’s intervention portion. They participated in cognitive imagery intervention during Session 7 through Session 12. The throwing accuracy of Participant 3 and Participant 6 was measured 4 times a week, and they received no intervention, serving as a control group.

The university’s Mental Edge Training Facility was used for the video and cognitive imagery sessions, which were conducted individually (rather than in groups) during scheduled time slots. An imagery session was of a 10-minute (approximately) duration. During the video imagery interventions, participants were asked to watch the previously recorded 10-point pitch while imagining accompanying sensations, to include sounds, smells, tastes, and textures, in as much detail as possible. During the cognitive imagery interventions, in contrast, they were asked to imagine the 10-point pitch as vividly as they were able, again using the five senses as much as possible. At the study’s end, each participant completed the Post Study Imagery Questionnaire, providing insights into his attitudes towards imagery generally, as well as his unique responses to imagery practice, performance, or similarly related issue. The Post Study Imagery Questionnaire also attempted to determine whether and why players would continue to practice imagery techniques.

Data Analysis
Data were represented graphically to describe each participant, then reviewed for practical differences in throwing accuracy. Ocular statistics (Carboni et al., 2000) were reviewed by a group of trained researchers to determine actual changes in throwing accuracy and to provide control of the researcher’s bias. Qualitative results of the Post Study Imagery Questionnaire were collected and reported.

RESULTS
Data collected for this study were evaluated using mixed methodological procedures from ocular statistics (Carboni, et al, 200); additionally, they are explored in qualitative terms. Figures 1–6 will illustrate the participants’ throwing performance scores over the length of the study. Figures 7–12 will illustrate perfect pitch count scores over the length of the study.
Table 1 presents the participants’ throwing performance scores, with standard deviations. Table 2 presents a count of perfect pitches thrown by the participants.

Table 1
Participants’ throwing accuracy scores*

Session Number	High- Ability Participant 1 (C.I./ V.I.)	High- Ability Participant 2 (V.I./ C.I.)	High- Ability Participant 3 (Control)	Low- Ability Participant 4 (C.I./ V.I.)	Low- Ability Participant 5 (V. I./C.I.)	Low- Ability Participant 6 (Control)
1	2.7 (3.2)	3.6 (4.7)	3.3 (4.0)	4.3 (3.8)	3.5 (3.7)	2.0 (3.1)
2	2.5 (3.0)	1.9 (3.0)	3.2 (4.0)	2.3 (2.6)	.1 (3.2)	1.8 (2.4)
3	3.4 (4.5)	.9 (1.9)	4.4 (3.7)	4.6 (4.2)	.8 (1.3)	3.5 (3.2)
4	2.5 (3.6)	1.1 (3.1)	3.5 (4.5)	4.5 (3.5)	.6 (1.9)	3.3 (2.9)
5	3.2 (3.9)	1.0 (1.9)	3.7 (3.6)	4.0 (3.4)	1.0 (1.3)	3.4 (3.1)
6	3.2 (3.9)	1.4 (2.3)	3.4 (4.0)	3.4 (3.9)	1.3 (2.5)	3.2 (3.9)
7	3.0 (2.4)	1.6 (1.9)	3.4 (3.7)	1.8 (2.4)	1.9 (3.0)	2.6 (3.9)
8	1.4 (1.8)	1.5 (2.0)	2.5 (3.5)	2.1 (2.0)	3.3 (4.7)	2.6 (3.0)
9	3.6 (3.9)	1.9 (2.2)	3.3 (4.0)	3.1 (3.1)	4.8 (4.6)	4.4 (3.4)
10	3.9 (4.6)	1.9 (3.1)	1.0 (1.9)	3.3 (3.9)	2.5 (4.0)	1.0 (1.9)
11	3.8 (4.1)	4.1 (5.1)	4.1 (3.9)	4.5 (4.7)	1.2 (3.2)	1.5 (3.1)
12	3.5 (3.7)	5.1 (4.1)	2.3 (4.1)	4.2 (3.4)	2.5 (4.0)	1.8 (2.6)
13	3.9 (3.8)	3.6 (4.1)	1.8 (3.1)	3.8 (3.3)	2.6 (3.9)	2.2 (3.7)
14	5.3 (3.7)	3.8 (3.7)	1.0 (1.9)	4.1 (3.80	3.9 (3.3)	1.0 (1.9)
15	3.3 (3.5)	3.8 (4.0)	1.5 (1.8)	3.3 (2.4)	4.0 (4.1)	2.1 (2.8)
16	3.8 (3.8)	3.8 (3.9)	1.0 (1.1)	4.5 (4.1)	3.5 (4.6)	1.8 (3.4)
17	3.6 (3.7)	4.0 (3.7)	2.7 (4.3)	4.5 (3.5)	3.7 (3.5)	2.4 (3.6)

* Standard deviations in parentheses.

Table 2
Perfect pitches thrown

Session Number	High- Ability Participant 1	High- Ability Participant 2	High- Ability Participant 3	Low- Ability Participant 4	Low- Ability Participant 5	Low- Ability Participant 6
1	1	2	2	2	0	1
2	1	0	2	0	0	0
3	2	0	2	2	0	0
4	1	1	3	0	0	0
5	2	0	2	0	0	0
6	2	0	2	2	0	1
7	0	0	1	0	0	1
8	0	0	1	0	0	0
9	2	0	2	1	3	2
10	3	4	0	0	1	0
11	2	1	2	3	3	1
12	1	3	2	1	0	0
13	2	2	1	1	2	1
14	2	2	0	2	1	0
15	1	2	0	0	2	0
16	2	2	0	2	2	1
17	1	2	2	2	1	1

The participants provided qualitative reports concerning imagery effectiveness (with the exception of Participant 3 and Participant 6, the control group receiving no intervention).

Participant 1
Participant 1 initially received cognitive imagery intervention (Cognitive Imagery First). Participant 1 had demonstrated a 2.9 (SD= 4.5, 3.6, 3.9) throwing performance baseline during the first week of the study; with one exception, each of his throwing performance scores fell above that baseline, ranging from 3.2 (SD= 3.9) to 3.9 (SD= 4.6) (See Table 1). The exception occurred in Session 8, for which the participant’s accuracy score was 1.4 (SD= 1.8). While this score was below the participant’s baseline, it was not beyond the margins of implied change set, for this study, at .9 (See Figure 1).

Czech - Figure 1
Figure 1. Participant 1 (high-ability): Accuracy scores (imagery/ video Imagery)

As the participant completed subsequent video imagery interventions, the accuracy scores remained above the baseline, ranging between 3.5 (SD= 3.7) and 5.3 (SD=3.7); throwing performance scores in Session 14 reached 5.3 (SD= 3.7), exceeding the margins of implied change, set at 4.9. During the baseline portion of the study, Participant 1 recorded between 1 and 2 perfect pitches (See Table 2), a rate maintained throughout the study, except during the imagery intervention portion, Sessions 6 through 11. During the imagery intervention portion, this participant’s perfect pitch count ranged from 0 to 3 (see Figure 7).

Czech - Figure 7

Figure 7. Participant 1 (high-ability): Perfect pitches thrown
Post Study Imagery Questionnaire
Participant 1, who said he had never used imagery prior to entering this study, reported that he used imagery while playing in a game during the period of the study. He stated, “I would like to continue using imagery and practice it more before games. I feel like it really helps when I start rushing.” Participant 1 further reported that breathing techniques included in the relaxation portion of the imagery script helped him manage momentum and refocus his effort. Participant 1 expressed the opinion that video imagery was relatively more helpful in bringing about desired outcomes, although he found it difficult to mentally re-create accompanying sensations during the video imagery sessions.

Participant 2
Participant 2 initially received video imagery intervention (Video Imagery First). Participant 2 had established a baseline score of 1.0 (SD= 1.9) within the first week of the study; his throwing performance scores increased slowly during the first intervention, ranging from 1.4 (SD= 2.3) to 4.1(SD= 5.1) (see Table 1). Each of Participant 2’s throwing performance scores fell above the baseline; during Session 11, his score exceeded the established margins of implied change (see Figure 2).

Czech - Figure 2
Figure 2. Participant 2 (high-ability): Accuracy scores (video imagery/ imagery)
During Session 12 through Session 17 (the imagery intervention), all of Participant 2’s scores remained above the implied margin of change, which was set at 3.0; his scores ranged from 4.0 (SD= 3.7) to 5.1 (SD= 4.1). While establishing a baseline score during Session 2 through Session 5, Participant 2 recorded from 0 to 1 perfect pitch per session (See Table 2). During the video imagery intervention, his perfect pitch count remained at 0 until Session 10, when he threw 4 perfect pitches; in Session 11, he threw 1 perfect pitch. During the imagery intervention, which was his final intervention, Participant 2 threw either 2 or 3 perfect pitches per session (see Figure 8).

Czech - Figure 8

Figure 8. Participant 2 (high-ability): Perfect pitches thrown

Post Study Imagery Questionnaire
Participant 2 reported never having used imagery prior to the study, but said he is currently employing it during games because his pitching performance improved following the start of the study. He stated, “I haven’t walked anybody, it must be working. I started trying to see the ball go where I want it to before I throw the pitch, and it really seems to help.” Moreover, Participant 2 expressed a desire to continue using imagery, for its benefits both to his accuracy and his confidence.

Participant 3
Participant 3 did not participate in any intervention (No Interventions). He had established a baseline score of 3.8 (SD= 3.6) within the first week of the study. During Session 6 through Session 11, his throwing performance scores ranged from 1.0 (SD= 1.9) to 4.1 (SD= 3.9) (see Table 1). All of these scores fell below his baseline score, except the Session 11 score of 4.1 (SD= 3.9). During Session 10, the participant scored 1.0 (SD= 1.9), dropping below the margin of implied change, set at 1.8 (see Figure 3).
Czech - Figure 3
Figure 3. Participant 3 (high-ability): Accuracy scores (control; no intervention)

Participant 3’s throwing performance scores in Sessions 12–17 ranged from 1.0 (SD= 1.9) to 2.7 (SD= 4.3), falling below his established baseline. During Session 13 through Session 16, this participant’s scores descended to the level of the margin of implied change. During the baseline portion of the study, Participant 3 threw either 2 or 3 perfect pitches per session. Across the remainder of the study, however (Sessions 6–17), Participant 3 threw 0, 1, or 2 perfect pitches per session (see Figure 9).

Czech - Figure 9

Figure 9. Participant 3 (high-ability): Perfect pitches thrown

Participant 4
Participant 4 received cognitive imagery intervention first (Cognitive Imagery First). Participant 4 had established a baseline score of 4.3 (SD= 3.8) in the first week of the study, and during the first intervention, his throwing performance scores largely fell below that baseline, ranging from 1.8 (SD= 2.4) to 4.5 (SD= 4.7) (see Table 1). Session 11 comprised an exception.

Participant 4’s Session 11 score was 4.5 (SD= 4.7). During Session 7 and Session 8, the participant’s scores were 1.8 (SD= 2.4) and 2.1 (SD= 2.0), respectively, falling below the implied margin of change, which was set at 2.3. During Sessions 12–17, Participant 4 received video imagery intervention. His throwing performance scores for those sessions ranged from 3.3 (SD= 2.4) to 4.5 (SD= 3.5), and most fell below his baseline score, although his scores for Session 16 and Session 17 was 4.5 (SD= 4.1, 3.5) (see Figure 4).

Czech - Figure 4
Figure 4. Participant 4 (low-ability): Accuracy scores (imagery/video imagery)

During the baseline portion of the study, Participant 4 threw between 0 and 2 perfect pitches per session, a range he would go on to maintain for the duration of the study, excepting only Session 11, during which he threw 3 perfect pitches (see Figure 10).

Czech - Figure 10
Figure 10. Participant 4 (low-ability): Perfect pitches thrown

Post Study Imagery Questionnaire
Participant 4 reported that he had used imagery prior to this study; he furthermore reported having difficulty sustaining the vividness of imagery. He went on to express a preference for having a detailed imagery script read to him, due to such reading’s capacity to generate vivid images. Participant 4 stated, “I usually do imagery before my games that I know I’m going to be pitching in. It helps me get focused, and I want to get better at it.” Participant 4 expressed a desire to continue imagery use, but made no note of any distinction between the cognitive and video approaches.

Participant 5
Participant 5 received video imagery intervention first (Video Imagery First). Participant 5 had established a baseline score of .8 (SD= 1.3) in the first week of the study. His throwing performance scores during the first intervention ranged from 1.2 (SD= 3.2) to 4.8 (SD= 4.6), above the baseline score he had produced (see Table 1). In Session 8 and Session 9, Participant 5 recorded scores of 3.3 (SD= 4.7) and 4.8 (SD= 4.6), respectively, exceeding the margin of implied change, which was set at 2.8 (see Figure 5).
Czech - Figure 5
Figure 5. Participant 5 (low-ability): Accuracy scores (video imagery/ imagery)

During Session 12 through Session 17 (the imagery intervention portion of the study), Participant 5’s throwing performance scores ranged from 2.5 (SD= 4.0) to 4.0 (SD= 4.1). All scores thus fell above his baseline score, and his scores in Sessions 14–17 exceeded the margin of implied change, coming in between 3.5 (SD= 4.6) and 4.0 (SD= 4.1). During the baseline portion of the study, Participant 5 threw 0 perfect pitches. During Session 9 in the video imagery portion of the study, he threw 3 perfect pitches; in Session 10 he threw 1 perfect pitch; in Session 11 he again threw 3. Over Sessions 12–17, the participant threw anywhere from 0 to 2 perfect pitches (the 0 was recorded during Session 12; for each of the next 5 sessions, a 1 or 2 score was recorded; see Figure 11).

Czech - Figure 11
Figure 11. Participant 5 (low-ability): Perfect pitches thrown

Post Study Imagery Questionnaire
Participant 5 reported never having used imagery prior to the study. He reported considering adherence to use of pre-game imagery following conclusion of the research project. Participant 5 reported noticing not only improved throwing accuracy, but increased self-confidence as well. He stated, “When I stop between each pitch, take a breath and see where I want the ball to go, it helps me to refocus. Also, when I do throw a bad pitch, it doesn’t carry over as much. I don’t get caught in a bad momentum. I am more able to release the last pitch and trust the next one, because I’ve seen myself throw it where I want to put the ball (in my head) many more times before. I know I can do it.”

Participant 6
Participant 6 belonged to the control group (No Intervention) and established a baseline score of 3.4 (SD= 3.1) during the study’s first week. His throwing performance scores ranged from 1.0 to 4.4 over Session 6 though Session 11 (see Table 1). With the exception of a 4.4 (SD= 3.4) throwing performance score in Session 9, Participant 6’s subsequent scores fell below his baseline score. During Session 10, Participant 6 recorded a throwing performance score of 1.0 (SD= 1.9), below the set 1.4 margin of implied change (see Figure 6).

Czech - Figure 6
Figure 6. Participant 6 (low-ability): Accuracy scores (control; no intervention)

Participant 6’s throwing performance scores for Sessions 12–17 were between 1.0 (SD=1.9) and 2.4 (SD= 3.6), all falling below the baseline. Moreover, in Session 14, the participant scored a 1.0 (SD= 1.9), which fell below the margin of implied change. While establishing his baseline score for this study, Participant 6 threw 0 perfect pitches. In Sessions 6–11, he threw from 0 to 2 (in Session 9) perfect pitches per session. For the remainder of the study (Sessions 12–17), he threw 0 to 1 perfect pitch per session (see Figure 12).
Czech - Figure 12
Figure 12. Participant 6 (low-ability): Perfect pitches thrown

DISCUSSION
The purpose of the present study was to see whether imagery would have an effect on the throwing performance of individual baseball pitchers. Further, the present study sought to determine if individual variation in ability to “image” is associated with distinct responses to cognitive imagery interventions and video imagery interventions. By the end of Session 9, study Participants 1, 2, and 5 demonstrated higher scores (as compared to their individually established baseline scores) for throwing accuracy. This result parallels similar single subject sport-and-imagery research (Kearns & Crossman, 1992; Munroe-Chandler, Hall, Fishurne, Shannon, 2005; Shambrook & Bull, 1996; Templin & Vernacchia, 1993, 1995; Stewart, 1997, Carboni et al., 2000;). There should be further investigation into the effectiveness of brief interventions, because no research to date answers the old question of how frequent and how long intervention must be to produce the desired result (Cumming, Hall, Shambrook, 2007; Thelwell, Greenless, & Weston, 2006). The suggestion has been made that, as in the realm of physical skills, psychological-skills practice effects positive change only after an extensive investment of time (Weinberg & Williams, 2001). Thelwell, Greenless , and Weston (2006) found that combining three types of intervention—imagery, self-talk, and relaxation—produced results within a 3-day period, when 1 day of imagery training was provided and when measures were taken once weekly over a 9-match period. Murphy (1990) recommends intervention sessions of no more than 10 minutes’ duration, and Weinberg and Gould (2007) suggest providing intervention 3 to 5 times a week. Bull (1995) found that positive results ensued from a 4-week training period featuring 8 training sessions. Some researchers have examined intervention frequency and length by leaving participation to the discretion of the participant and recording objective reports; sessions as brief as 1 minute were noted (Carboni et al., 2000). Cumming, Hall, and Shambrook (2007) concluded that overall use of imagery could be increased with interventions as brief as a “workshop.” Findings from the present study indicate that, to be effective for specific tasks such as accurate pitching, imagery interventions can be as brief as 10 minutes in length, conducted 4 times weekly for 3 weeks.

The present study did not find participants to be affected distinctly by the two types of intervention (cognitive and video). The higher throwing performance score recorded for the final 6 sessions of the study are believed to reflect the lengthening period of time during which participants had practiced imagery practice, rather than to the type of intervention, since all participants receiving intervention responded similarly, whether they were in the Cognitive Imagery First group or Video Imagery First group. Gordon, Weinberg, and Jackson (1994) found similar results, investigating “internal” as opposed to “external” imagery. Future research into the effects of multiple interventions should seek to determine the relationship between effectiveness and time invested in each intervention.

Research has shown that imagery ability is a large determinant of how an individual’s physical performance will respond to imagery interventions (Hall, 1998). In the present study, however, scores for Participant 2 and Participant 5 (on both throwing accuracy and perfect pitches) improved more than they did among the other participants. That Participant 2 and Participant 5 succeeded more markedly with imagery use cannot, however, be attributable to higher-ability imagery, because Participant 2 was a high-ability imager while Participant 5 was a low-ability imager. Any individual, regardless of imagery ability, can benefit from imagery practice, although those with lower ability may continue to experience greater difficulty creating and controlling vivid imagery (Magill, 2007). Each high school level participant from the present study had a baseline score for throwing accuracy that was lower than the lowest such score established by a college level participant. Isaac and Marks (1994) and Piaget and Inhelder (1971) concur that imagery ability is developed by age 7. Moreover, Payne and Isaacs (1995) report that the highest level of cognition and abstract thinking develops at age 11–12. Participants 2 and 5 had a mean age of 17, beyond the developmental period and ranking them developmentally equal to the college level participants. The distinct intervention responses of Participants 2 and 5, then, are not due to the basic development of ability to image. Research on imagery use has found differences associated with subjects’ athletic competitive levels (Barr & Hall,1992; Salmon, Hall, & Haslam, 1994; Vadocz et al., 1997). These differences seem to be shaped by factors like years of experience, degree of motivation to play, degree of motivation to use imagery, and ability to create and control images.

Thelwell, Greenless, and Weston (2006) discuss ways in which distinct levels of goal orientation affect players’ levels of investment in imagery use. Research also finds that athletes exhibiting moderate to high levels of task and ego orientation become more invested in imagery use, in turn increasing how often they practice imagery (Cumming, Hall, Gammage, & Harwook, 2002; Harwood, Cumming, & Hall, 2003). Bull (1995) examined the effects of a 4-week mental training program on varsity athletes, finding that better-motivated athletes were likelier to adhere to an imagery program, and that less-seasoned athletes were likelier to be the better motivated. It is possible that Participants 2 and 5 in our study, being at one of the earliest stages of an athletic career, were better motivated than Participants 1, 3, and 4, who were playing what they anticipated would be the final season of their careers.
Motivation can also be affected by fatigue and overtraining. The participants in the present study all were at mid-season, obligated to a vigorous training schedule as well as to the study sessions. At least one point during the study, every participant reported feeling fatigue or exhaustion, and this might have affected their concentration and performance. A perceived imbalance between demands on athletes and their response capabilities sometimes creates the negative physical and emotional state known as burnout (Creswell & Eklund, 2006). As Creswell and Eklund (2006) state, insufficient “rest and recovery periods” will also help generate negative experiences. Participants in the present study might possibly have found that study-related testing and intervention consumed the time they normally would use for recovery and rest, which could account, to some degree, for periodic “off” performance, including uncharacteristically low accuracy scores, trending down of accuracy scores, loss of interest in the study, or transfer of effort from the study to some other task. The performance of Participant 3 and Participant 6 support such an interpretation; these two athletes received no intervention and saw their performance fall off over time. “Burnout” may also help describe the expressed attitudes of Participants 1, 3, 4, and 6.

The study’s timing during the athletes’ season may help explain any shortages of focus or concentration on their part, but additional distractions should also be considered. During video imagery intervention sessions, for example, certain participants showed clear difficulty in focusing when they opened their eyes at the conclusion of the relaxation portion in order to view video. The discrepancy arose even though all of the imagery sessions took place in the university’s Mental Edge Training Facility, where each participant was assured of experiencing interventions of identical length. To better maintain focus and a relaxed state, future research might employ a different viewing method (e.g., use a dark room into which video is introduced from outside or use virtual-reality gear). Furthermore, researchers would be well advised to employ a vivid script that helps participants to incorporate as many types of sensation as possible (Thelwell, Greenless, & Weston, 2006). The script used in the present study instructed participants to “see” only the target’s center box, which perhaps explains in part why Participant 2 and Participant 5 were able to throw more perfect pitches (see Figure 8 and Figure 11).

For the present study, throwing performance was defined as a pitcher’s ability to throw a ball at a specified area deemed the target. In measuring throwing performance, the mean score for the 10 pitching efforts made each session was recorded and graphically represented. Perfect pitches were defined as those hitting the center target, and they too were recorded and graphically represented; a perfect pitch received a score of 10 points.
There are various definitions of what performance enhancement actually is. Some individuals may look for greater consistency, more pitches thrown closer to target, when seeking evidence of performance enhancement. Others may see enhanced performance in a combination of more pitches thrown at the actual target, and lower-scoring pitches. For the present study, the mean score and number of perfect pitches thrown for each session were used to measure performance response. During cognitive imagery interventions, participants were asked to envision throwing only to the center box, while during video imagery interventions, they watched tapings of pitches thrown to the center box. An increase in pitches to the center box was, for this reason, said to indicate imagery intervention’s positive effects on throwing performance.

Two limitations on the present study resulted from the data collection process. First, during the intervention sessions, participants were exposed to extraneous noise, although none directly identified this as a distraction. In future studies, areas free of extraneous noise should be employed. Second, when a participant was unable to join in throwing performance measurement or imagery intervention session during daylight hours, the researchers accommodated his schedules by conducting these activities after dark, an inconsistency which, by potentially affecting vision, perhaps also affected success. Furthermore, time of day bears on the level of concentration and fatigue.
Results obtained through the Post Study Imagery Questionnaire describe perceived positive effects imagery wields on athlete performance and confidence. This questionnaire also documents that participants’ appreciation for psychological skills training grew during the study. These findings parallel past research (Carboni et al., 2000; Kearns & Crossman, 1992; Shambrook & Bull, 1996; Templin & Vernacchia, 1993, 1995; Stewart, 1997; Thelwell et al., 2006). Participants 1, 2, and 5 expressed an outlook positive toward the imagery sessions, toward their own confidence concerning tasks, and toward anxiety-reducing effects of mentally re-creating a pitching sequence. This supports numerous findings about imagery’s possible benefits, for example improved self-confidence (Callow, Hardy, & Hall, 2001), better motivation (Callow & Hardy, 2001), improved regulation of arousal (Hecker & Kaczor, 1988), and stronger ability to modify such cognitions as self-efficacy (Feltz & Ressinger, 1990). Imagery, or mental practice, can, the research record demonstrates, be used to control anxiety and to enhance both the strategies and physical movements that will be employed in performing a skill (Magill, 2007).

Suggestions for future research include, again, the deployment of alternative methods of presenting video imagery intervention, to ensure participants’ focus is maintained. In addition, future research should examine how often and for how long interventions are best administered, in terms of performance enhancement.

The baselines established by this study’s participants did not vary more than 1 point, although the criterion we employed for defining baseline and actual change was 2 points (on a 10-point scale). Perhaps future research would benefit from more strict criteria, which would tend to identify more pronounced effects.

Psychological skills training, coaches and athletes often fear, entails a long-term commitment and many field practice hours lost. The present findings, however, imply that imagery training’s effects on at least the one position-specific task studied are observable in as little as twelve 10-minute sessions (4 per week for 3 weeks). Moreover, the study demonstrates that effective intervention may take place during the competetive season and in conjunction with rigorous physical training.

Bull (1991) identified three barriers between athletes and ongoing psychological skills training: time constraints, a disruptive home environment, and an unmet need for individually tailored training. The position-specific intervention employed in this study, together with use of a brief script, alleviate all three problems. Later, in a discussion of how best to implement psychological skills training, Shambrook and Bull (1999) emphasized the importance of time management, of structure, and of integration of psychological skills within existing training. The present study’s findings, past research focusing on workshops (Cummings, Hall, & Shambrook, 2007), and future research will complete the path around the barriers, driving home that intervention programs may be both brief and integrated within established physical training in order to reap positive returns.

Please address all correspondence to:

Dr. Daniel R. Czech, CC-AAASP

Department of Health and Kinesiology
Box 8076

Georgia Southern University

Statesboro, GA 30460-8076

Telephone (912) 681-5267

E-mail drczech@georgiasouthern.edu

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U.S. Sports Academy2016-10-12T11:39:39-05:00January 7th, 2008|Sports Coaching, Sports Exercise Science, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|Comments Off

The Physical and Physiological Properties of Football Players from a Turkish Professional First-Division Football League

Submitted by: S. Muniroglu & M. Koz

Abstract

This research aims to determine the effects of a six weeks pre-season
preparation training period on the physical and physiological characteristics
of a football team in the Turkish Professional First Division League.
Twenty football players participated in this study. Their ages were 22.2
± 3.41 years old, and they had 12.4 ± 4.2 years of training.
Their height was 178.9 ± 5.13 cm. (Table 1). The body weight, body
fat percentage, flexibility, systolic/diastolic blood pressure, aerobic
capacity, anaerobic power, vertical jump, and speed of these players were
tested twice; once at the beginning of the six-week pre-season preparation
training period and again at the end of the training period (Table 2).
Research data was evaluated statistically with pair-t test at a significance
level of (p‹ 0.05). There were some significant changes in weight,
body fat percent, systolic/diastolic blood pressure, aerobic capacity,
anaerobic power, and vertical jump. There were no any statistically significant
changes in elasticity and speed.

Introduction

Recently, there have been significant changes related to the physiological
and medical aspects of football. Studies on the ideal physical and physiological
properties of a successful football player show that due to the improvements
in the speed and skills of the football players, football has become more
dynamic (Mangine, et al., 1990).

The increase in productivity of sportsmen results directly from the quality
and quantity of the hard work achieved within training. From the beginning
level higher levels, tasks during training should be increased gradually
depending on the psychological and physical skills of each sportsman (Bompa,
1998). Players of higher level function and structural power may overcome
the challenging conditions of a professional football season with intensive
pre-season training. If gradual increases are applied consciously and
regularly within training sessions, higher levels of adjustments may continue
(Renklikurt, 1991).

A pre-season preparation period covers the period from the beginning
of team-training till the first official match. The length of these training
periods may differ from one country to another. During this training period,
physical conditioning should be composed mainly of games and exercises
with a ball. The number of training sessions from the beginning of football
season should be increased gradually (Bangsbo, 1994).

The most important thing that the technical committee should consider
before the season begins is the physical condition of football players
after the holiday season. Because of this, some teams include physical
and physiological tests in their programs to see how the players are doing
and to evaluate their preparation plans. These tests give information
on the properties of endurance, speed, muscular endurance, strength, coordination,
technical, and tactical elements during the preparation period.

Body composition is an important physical component for football. Excess
body fat makes the body move constantly against gravity and it is an unnecessary
load for footballers (Reilly, 1996). Although there have been several
studies that examined the seasonal changes in the body composition of
elite sportsmen’s (Siders, et al. 1994 & Morris and Payne, 1996);
there are not enough studies on the effects of a pre-season preparation
training period on the physical and physiological properties of high level
professional footballers’ performance, particularly in regards to
body composition. This study aims to determine and examine the physical
and physiological changes that occur during a six week pre-season preparation
training period to a football team of the Turkish Professional First Level
Division League.

Methodology

In this study, the professional football team is in Ankara. Pre-testing
was performed on the team after the holiday season and the follow up post-testing
was done after a pre-season preparation training period. The pre-season
preparation training period lasted six weeks with sixty training sessions
and six preparation games played. The properties of the footballers who
participated in this study are clearly tested pre and post the six-week
pre-season participation training period (Table 2).

Body fat percent (BFP) was calculated utilizing a skin fold method and
identified as percent mass (Adams, 1990). Systolic and diastolic blood
pressure was recorded as mmHg utilizing a stethoscope and sphygomanometer
in a stable sitted position. In order to determine the aerobic capacity,
a twenty meter shuttle run test was done on a grass field. The shuttle
run test was utilized to measure maximum oxygen consumption VO 2max and
defined in ml/kg/min (Tamer, 1995). Anaerobic strength measurements were
done utilizing the Bosco test protocol (Bosco Contact Mat; New Test 1000)
and the results indicated as watts. The vertical jump test was measured
utilizing jump meter equipment and the sit and reach equipment was utilized
to measure flexibility. The ten-meter and thirty-meter speed values were
calculated on the grass field starting 1m behind the starting point with
the help of sensory photocell. Research data was evaluated by t-test utilizing
a SPSS 10.0 statistical package program with significance level of (p
‹ 0.05).

Findings

Several physical and physiological properties of footballers’
were measured in a pre and post testing protocol and the measurements
were recorded and evaluated. (Table 2).

Values prior to the six-week pre-season preparation training period were
as followings: body weight 74.65 ± 5.90 kgs, body fat percent 6.43
± 1.67 %, vertical jump 58.70 ± 6. 94 cms, anaerobic power
27.59 ± 4.01 watts/ kg, ten meter speed 1.64 ± 0.41 seconds,
thirty meter speed 4.06 ± 0.91 seconds, flexibility 31.57 ±
5.78, VO2max 56.95 ± 4.07 ml/kg/min, systolic blood pressure 114.5
± 6.04 mmHg, and diastolic blood pressure 74.0 ± 6.40 mmHg.

Values after the six-week pre-season preparation training period were
as followings: body weight 73.85 ± 5.34 kgs, body fat percent 5.84
± 1.36 %, vertical jump 60.80 ± 7. 01 cms, anaerobic power
30.29 ± 7.76 watts/kg, ten meter speed 1.62 ± 0.32 seconds,
thirty meter speed 4.02 ± 0.13 seconds, elasticity 33.32 ±
4.32 cms, VO2max 59.48 ± 3.28 ml/ kg/ min, systolic blood pressure
71.0 ± 5.52 mmHg, and diastolic blood pressure 110.7 ± 6.93
mmHg.

These findings show that after the six-week pre-season preparation training
period there were some statistically significant differences between the
pre and post measurements in the values concerning body weight, body fat
percent, systolic and diastolic blood pressure, anaerobic power, aerobic
power, and vertical jump at a level of (p‹ 0.05). The values of
ten-meter speed, thirty-meter speed, and elasticity improved, but they
were not statistically significant at a level of (p‹ 0.05).

Discussion

In this study, the results of the tests done to determine the physical
and physiological properties of a football team in the Turkish Professional
First Division League pre and post a six-week pre-season preparation training
period were evaluated. The average age of the twenty players was 22.2
± 3.41; they had 12.4 ± 5.34 years of training; they had
a height of 178.9 ± 5.13cms. There was a significant increase in
body weight with a post-measurement of 73.85 ± 5.34 kgs.

In a previous study on a first division league team in England, having
a twenty-eight pre-season preparation training sessions lasting thirty-five
days, showed an increase in the body weight of the players, with a pre-training
period body weight measurement from 74.05 ± 9.2 kgs. to a post-training
period body weight measurement of 77.6 ± 8.7 (Mercer et al.,1992).
The body weight values of another study on a football team in Turkish
first division league also had six-week pre-season preparation training
period and their pre-training period body weight of 74.05 ± 6.60
went to a post-training period body weight of 73.68 ± 6.04 (Acikada
et al., 1996).

In the pre-training period the body fat percent measurement was 7.43
± 1.67 percent and in the post-training period body fat percent
measurement decreased to 6.84 ± 1.36. This decrease was also statistically
significant at a level of (p ‹ 0.05). In terms of past research
on body fat percent, only the beginning of race season and the changes
afterwards were ever studied (Burke, et al. 1986). Ostojic and Zivanic
(2001) found that body fat percent of Serbian professional football players
decreased significantly during the race season and increased out of season.
Burke et al., (1986) and Reilly (1996) pointed out that fat in the body
of football players may accumulate out of season and players may lose
more weight during pre-season training than other periods.

On the other hand, Ostojic and Zivanic (2001) stated that the effects
of training sessions and matches on body weight may have a decreasing
effect at different periods. Some footballers may lose more weight during
race season than in a pre-season preparation training period; they may
also reach the minimum level of body mass index at the end of the season.
Hoshikawa, et al. (2003) studied that body mass may increase and muscle
mass may decrease even without any training after the season ends for
a short period such as four weeks. On the other hand, with a well organized
pre-season program, body mass can be decreased and lost muscle mass can
be regained. In this present study, the decreases occurring in the body
mass index as well as in the body weight after the six-week pre-season
preparation training period are significant and are compatible with the
above mentioned literature except the study by Acikada, and et al. (1996).

The pre-training vertical jump measurement was 58.70 ± 6.54cms
and increased to 60.80 ± 7.01cms after the training period. This
increase was also statistically significant at a level of (p‹ 0.05).
This increase in the vertical jump was also observed after a preparation
training period of third league professional team players (Kocyigid, et
al., 1996). Mercer, et al. (1992), Gunay (1994) and Acikada, et al. (1996)
found similar results.

The pre-training period anaerobic power measurement was 27.59 ±
4.01 and increased to 30.29 ± 7.76 watts/kg after the pre-season
preparation training period. In this study, the increase in the anaerobic
power can be interpreted as the interaction of intensive continuity exercises
and type II muscle fiber (Bosco, et al., 1998). Kartal, Gunay, and Acikada,
et al. (1996) found similar results.

Aerobic capacity is one of the basic targets in developing a pre-season
preparation training program. In football, there is a complex order based
on an aerobic structure. The pre-training period measurement for aerobic
capacity (VO 2max value) was 56.95 ± 4.07 ml/ kg/ min and increased
to a VO 2max value of 59.48 ± 3.28 ml/kg/min. This can be interpreted
as the effect of the aerobic exercises and conditioning experienced in
the pre-season preparation training period. German national team players
have a high aerobic capacity of 62 ml/kg/min (Islegen, 1987). Pre-season
training programs have been evaluated and all past research findings have
shown positive effects on aerobic capacity.

When comparing flexibility measurements to other teams on all levels,
the Turkish league is quiet low. For example, in a study done on an English
first division league team utilizing the same testing procedures, the
post-flexibility measurements were quite better at 43.1 ± 4. 5
(Mercer, et al., 1992). The cause of this problem may be identified as
a lack of a sufficient stretching program at all levels.

The reason for the lowered blood pressure and lowered heart rate experienced
by the sportsmen is due to sport specific adaptation the occurs after
a long periods of regular training (Kandeydi, et al., 1984).

Speed is a motor characteristic that directly affects the success in
football. The pre-training ten-meter speed measurement was 1.64 ±
0.32 seconds and the pre-training thirty-meter speed measurement was 4.06
± 0.91 seconds. After the pre-season preparation training period
the speed values were 1.62 ± 0.32 seconds for the ten-meter speed
test and 4.02 ± 0.13 seconds for the thirty-meter speed test. This
increase in speed was not statistically significant. In similar studies,
Kartal and Gunay (1994) also showed increases in speed with no statistical
significance.

Acikada, et al (1996) interpreted the decrease of the ten-meter speed
value of 1.667 ± 0.156 seconds to 1.713 ± 0.046 seconds
after a period of training was due to the increase of overall gain in
power and strength. Enisler, et al. (1996) determined some values for
the ten-meter speed test and the thirty meter-speed test of footballers
according to their league level as followings: Level I League ten-meter
speed as 1.60 ± 0.07 seconds and thirty-meter speed as 4.07 ±
0.12 seconds; Level II League ten-meter speed as 1.62 ± 0.05 seconds
and thirty-meter speed as 4.10 ± 0.11 seconds; Level III League
ten-meter speed as 1.67 ± 0.04 seconds and thirty-meter speed as
4.13 ± 0.10 seconds; Amateur Level ten-meter speed as 1.66 ±
0.06 seconds and thirty-meter speed as 4.16 ± 0.12 seconds.

The differences between the levels are not statistically significant.
The decrease in speed times may be due to the decrease in body weight
and body mass index. As Ostojic and Zivaniz (2001) stated, the decrease
in the body mass index is related to the increase in the sprint time of
football players.

Some of the significant test results that occurred after the pre-season
preparation training period can be explained as being successful in achieving
the desired physical profile needed to compete in the challenging league
marathon. This kind of testing and training can help in the building of
tactics and techniques for training footballers.

References

Acikada, C. O., Hazir, A. & Asci, T. (1996). The effect of pre-season preparation training on some strength and endurance characteristics of a football team. Journal of Football Science and Technology.1.3. (4). Ankara.
Adams, G. M. (1990). Exercise Physiology Laboratory Manual. Dubuque: Wmc Brown Publishers.
Bangsbo (1994). Football Physical Condition Coordination Training. (H. Gunduz, Trans.) Istanbul: TFG Publishers.
Bompa, T.O. (1998). Theory and Methodology of Training. ( I, Keskin. & A.B.Tunur, Trans.) Ankara: Bagirgan Publishers.
Bosco, C. , Tihanyi, J. & Latteri, F.et al. (1986). The Effect of Fatigue on Stirred and Re-use of Elastic Energy in Slow and Fast Types of Human Skeletal Muscles. Acta Physiol Scand.
Burke, L. M., Gollan, R.A. & Read, R.S. (1986). Seasonal changes in body composition in Australian rules footballers. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 20.
Hoshikawa, Y. , Kano, A. , Ikoma, T., Muramutso, M. , Iida, T. , Uchiyama, A. & Nakajima, Y. (2003). Off Season and Preseason Changes in Total and Regional Body Composition in Japanese Professional Soccer League Players. Book Abstract, Science and Football 5th World Congress, 11-15 April 2003,
Portugal.
Islegen, C. (1987). Physical and physiological profiles of professional football teams of different leagues. Journal of Sports Physicians, 22. Izmir.
Kandeydi, H. & Ergen, E. (1984). A comparison of physical and functional characteristics of students from departments of physical training and sports vs. medicine . Journal of Sports Physicians, 19 (1). Izmir.
Kartal, R. & Gunay, M. (1994).The effect of preseason preparation trainings on some physical parameters of footballers. Journal of Sports Sciences , 5(3). Ankara.
Kocyigit, F. , Auluk, I. , Sevimli, D. & Sev, N. (1996).The Effect of Preparation Season Training on Some Motor Characteristics and Body Composition Concerning the Age of the Footballers. IV. Sports Sciences Congress 1-3 November, Ankara.
Mangine, R.E. , Noyes, F.R. , Mullen, M.P. & Barber, S.D. (1990). A physiological profile of the elite soccer athlete. Journal of Orthopedic and Sports Physical Therapy, 12.
Mercer, T.H. & Payne, W.R. (1992). Fitness Profiles of Professional Soccer Players Before and After Preseason Conditioning. Division of Sports, Health and Exercise, UK.
Morris, F.L. & Payne, W.R. (1996). Seasonal variations in the body composition of lightweight rowers. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 30.
Ostojic, S. M. & Zivanic, S. (2001). Effects of training on anthropometric and physiological characteristics of elite Serbian soccer players. Acta Biologie et Medicinae Experimentalis. 27(48).
Reilly, T. (1996). Fitness assessment. In Reilly, T. (Ed.) Science and Soccer. London: E& FN Spon.
Renklikurt, T. (1991).Transition and preparation period basics and its application in Turkey. Journal of Trainers’ Voice, Tufad (1). Ankara.
Siders, W.A., Bolonchuk, W.W. & Lukaski, H.C. (1991). Effects of participation in a collegiate sport season on body composition. Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 31.
Tamer K. (1995). Sports Measurement and Evaluation of Physical and Physiological Performance. Ankara: TurkerlerBookstore.

Appendices

Table 1. Characteristics of footballers:

Variables	N	X ± SD
Age (year)	20	22.2 ± 3.41
Age of exercise (year)	20	12.4 ± 4.2
Height (cm)	20	178.9 ± 5.13

Table 2. Values of footballers’ physical and physiological condition
pre and post six-week pre-season preparation training periods:

Variables	N	Pre	Post	t	p
Body weight	20	74.65 ± 5.93	73.85 ± 5.34	2.19	*
Body fat percent (%)	20	7.43 ± 1.67	6.84 ± 1.36	2.61	*
Vertical jump (cm)	20	58.70 ± 6.94	60.80 ± 7.01	2.60	*
Anaerobic power (W/kg)	20	27.59 ± 4.01	30.29 ± 7.76	2.12	*
10-meter (sc)	20	1.64 ± 0.41	1.62 ± 0.32	1.45	–
30-meter (sc)	20	4.06 ± 0.91	4.02 ± 0.13	1.65	–
Flexibility (cm)	20	31.57 ± 5.78	33.32 ± 4.32	1.37	–
VO2 max (ml/kg/min)	20	56.95 ± 4.07	59.48 ± 3.28	3.10	*
Diastolic blood pressure (mmHg)	20	74.0 ± 5.52	71.0 ± 5.52	2.85	*
Systolic blood pressure (mmHg)	20	114.5 ± 6.04	110.7 ± 6.93	2.88	*

U.S. Sports Academy2015-03-27T13:47:30-05:00September 5th, 2006|Sports Coaching, Sports Exercise Science, Sports Management, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|Comments Off

An Exploration of Female Athletes’ Experiences and Perceptions of Male and Female Coaches

Submitted by: Melinda Frey, Daniel R. Czech, Rebecca G. Kent & Matthew Johnson

Abstract

Gender may be a mediating factor for relationship effectiveness between
athletes and coaches (Lirgg, Dibrezzo, & Smith, 1994; Medwechuk &
Crossman, 1994). Ironically, with the increase in participation of female
athletes and sports that has occurred since Title IX, there has been a
decrease in the number of female coaches over the past 30 years (Felder
& Wishnietsky, 1990; Freeman, 2001; Pastore, 1992). The purpose of
this study was to explore twelve female athletes’ perceptions and
experiences of being coached by women and men. Semi-structured interviews
revealed four major themes: discipline and structure, personal relationships,
passivity and aggressiveness, and coach preference. Specifically, eight
of the participants stated a preference for male coaches, yet differences
were found when comparing various coaching qualities. Results are discussed
in regards to overall sport experiences.

Introduction

The coach-athlete relationship has been shown to have a profound effect
on an athlete’s satisfaction, performance, and quality of life (Greenleaf,
Gould, & Dieffenbach, 2001; Kenow & Williams, 1999; Vernacchia,
McGuire, Reardon, & Templin, 2000; Wrisberg, 1996) and several factors
may influence this relationship (Burke, Peterson, & Nix, 1995; Grisaffe,
Blom, & Burke, in press). Olympic athletes from the 1996 Summer Games
who did not perform as well as expected felt that conflict with the coach,
receiving inaccurate technical information, the coach’s inability to handle
selection controversy, and lack of focus on team climate played significant
roles in lower-level performances (Greenleaf, Gould, & Dieffenbach,
2001). Trust, friendship, and feedback from the coach had a positive impact
on the performances of athletes who met or exceeded expectations. Athletes
experiencing burnout have cited the coach as a negative influence due
to the coaches’ lack of belief in the athlete, extreme pressure,
and/or unrealistic expectations (Udry, Gould, Bridges, & Tuffey, 1997).
Stewart and Taylor (2000) found that athletes’ perceptions of coaching
competence and coaching behaviors were contributing factors to performance.

Numerous studies have examined the impact of gender on the coach-athlete
relationship. Athlete preferences for same-sex or opposite-sex coaches
have been examined, and factors taken into consideration have included
level of knowledge and ability to motivate, (Medwechuk & Crossman,
1994; Parkhouse & Williams, 1986), level of athlete’s comfort in disclosure
(Molstad & Whitaker, 1987; Sabock & Kleinfelter, 1987; Simmons,
1997), and capability of being a role model (Lirgg, Dibrezzo, & Smith,
1994). Molstad and Whitaker (1987) found that female basketball players
ranked female coaches as superior in the coaching qualities of relating
well to others and understanding athletes’ feelings (two of the three
most important rated qualities), while no difference was found among other
characteristics. Conversely, a strong sex bias favoring male coaches was
found in male and female high school basketball athletes who rated males
as more knowledgeable, more likely to achieve future success, more desirable
to play for, and having a greater ability to motivate (Parkhouse &
Williams, 1986). Overall, 89% of male athletes and 71% of female athletes
preferred a male coach. Previous research investigations have not shown
a clear consensus for coach gender for female athletes (Lirgg, Dibrezzo,
& Smith, 1994).

Although female athletic participation has increased since the passage
of Title IX, there has been a decrease in the number of female coaches
over the past thirty years (Carpenter & Acosta, 1991; Freeman, 2001;
Pastore, 1992). According to Felder and Wishnietsky (1990), the percentage
of females coaching high school teams has dropped as much as 50% between
the mid-1970’s and early 1980’s. Similarly, females coached
90% of collegiate teams in 1972 while only 47.3% of teams were coached
by women in 1990 (Carpenter & Acosta, 1991).

Osborne (2002) suggested that although male and female athletes share
many attributes such as the desire to win, willingness to sacrifice time
and energy, and enjoyment of competition, athletes need to be coached
differently. Factors to consider include training methods, coaching philosophy,
motivation tactics, communication style, and ability to relate on a personal
level. The majority of research that has examined the impact of coach
gender on the female athlete has been conducted quantitatively and has
used hypothetical coaches (Frankl & Babbitt, 1998; Medwechuk &
Crossman, 1994; Molstad & Whitaker, 1987; Williams & Parkhouse,
1988). The present study utilized a qualitative approach to explore female
athletes’ experiences with actual male and female coaches. Further,
Carron and Bennett (1977) noted the importance of gaining the athlete’s
perspective of coach-athlete compatibility, while Osborne (2002) pointed
out that very little is known about the extent to which female athletes
prefer a same-sex or opposite-sex coach. Thus, the purpose of this study
was to obtain a first-person perspective of the female athlete’s
experiences of playing for a male and female coach.

Method

Participants

The participants in this investigation were twelve NCAA Division I female
athletes. All athletes were Caucasian and had participated in basketball,
golf, cross country, track and field softball, or soccer. The sample was
derived from two different southeastern NCAA Division I universities.
Four athletes had junior academic classification, four athletes had senior
academic classification, and four athletes had graduate academic classification.
These athletes were chosen for this study as a purposeful sample (Glesne,
1999) because they had the potential to provide a rich description of
the experience of being coached by both a male and female and had a recent
memory of this experience.

Procedure

The process of bracketing one’s own presuppositions was developed
from Husserl’s concept of reduction in the method of phenomenology
(Glesne, 1999). Before initiating the present study, a bracketing interview
was conducted to clarify the interviewer’s personal experiences
of having a male coach and to explore potential biases. Themes from this
interview included preference for organization, winning attitude, and
enjoyment of the game.

Semi-structured interviews were then employed to collect information
about the athletes’ experiences and perceptions of having both male
and female coaches. All participants were invited to participate in the
study by personal or telephone contact, and those expressing interest
were interviewed. Participants were informed that involvement was voluntary,
and were advised of the ability to terminate participation at any time.
To ensure confidentiality, the participants were informed that pseudonyms
would be used for actual names and any team affiliations. The interviews
were conducted in person and lasted approximately forty minutes in length.
After the interview, participants were given an opportunity to review
the transcript and suggest changes. No changes were suggested by the participants.

Interview Protocol

Questions posed to the participants were designed to achieve a comprehensive
understanding of the experiences of being coached by men and women. The
interviewer initially gathered information about coach history, as well
as the sport and level of competition. Participants were then asked questions
related to differences or similarities experienced with each coach in
training methods, encouragement and motivation, personal relationships,
level of sport knowledge, and the coach preferred. The interview guide
is provided in the Appendix.

Analysis

Interviews were transcribed verbatim and a research team of five individuals
derived themes using a combination of phenomenological approaches. The
procedures for analyzing were adapted more directly from those developed
by Barrell (1988), Goodrich (1988), Hawthorne (1989), Ross (1987), and
Henderson (1992). More specifically, the following steps of: Approaching
the interview (Transcribing the interview, Obtaining a grasp of the interview
through an interpretive group), Focusing the data (Clearing the text,
Grouping the text), Summarizing the interviews (Preparing a summary, Verifying
the summary), and Releasing meanings (Forming categories, Determining
themes, and Describing themes) were utilized to analyze the information.

Results

Table 1 gives a description of each participant and her history of having
both male and female coaches. All participants played at the college level
for at least two years and have played competitively for at least four
years. It is important to note that three of the participants’ experiences
of the female coach were from high school experiences. Four major themes
emerged from the interviews.

Discipline and Structure

The participants indicated that male coaches were more structured and
organized. Carmen stated, “[the male coach] was much more together,
he knew structure. He knew exactly where we needed to be, what time and
what time we needed to start.” Differences were notably significant
in the practice setting. The male coaches would develop practice plans
and execute every detail needed to make them work. Kelli M. confirmed
this by stating, “I know [the male coach] would sit down before
a game and write down every possible thing the other team could do to
beat us; and then write down next to it exactly what we could do to defend
them.” Drills that were done at practice had a purpose, whether
it was fundamentals, offense, defense, or conditioning. The male coaches
were seen as being harder on the athletes and “expected more”
from the players than the female coaches. The males tended to coach from
an authoritarian perspective and enforced the concept of “no excuses,
this is the rule and we’re going to stick with this rule,”
according to Kelli M. Many of the athletes felt there would be more consequences
to face in practices under the male coach if they did not pay attention
or were not serious. Some of the athletes in this study responded favorably
to the male coaches’ disciplinary tactics, as it aided in keeping
them focused; however the male coach was also considered to be “too
strict” by others in the study.

Four of the participants felt that the female coaches were unorganized and
non-authoritative. The female coaches tended to run late at times and
would not get the players prepared for the game. Practices were not structured,
nor on a time schedule. These athletes perceived that the female coaches
had a harder time trying to accomplish tasks in practice, and did not
have similar discipline compared to experiences with the male coaches.

With the female coach, she had different stuff everyday. It would take
her five minutes to explain what we’re supposed to do and then it
wouldn’t really work very well. So, we would just look at each other.
When we did the drill, we didn’t do it full out because we knew
she wasn’t keeping score or we weren’t on a time limit. We
knew we weren’t going to really be disciplined. (Kelli M.)

Female coaches were more likely to forget details in practice, such as
not keeping score of games, which led to lack of motivation during practice.
Participants indicated that female coaches would consider individual situations
instead of sticking to certain rules and consequences. For example, if
an athlete was late to practice, a male coach would have a set rule regarding
this behavior and if any player broke the rule, regardless of the reason,
she would have to face the consequences. However, a female coach would
listen to the athlete’s reason and then decide what type of consequence
the player should face.

Personal Relationships

All of the participants felt that female coaches had a greater ability
to relate to them. Jennifer C. stated, “[the female coaches] know
sometimes what [female athletes] going through, different life cycles
and stages of their life. They can relate to how girls change differently
than boys.” The participants indicated that the female coach understood
how to “deal with” the athletes and could sympathize with
them when it came to “girl stuff.” The female coaches had
a greater tendency toward being friends with the players and getting to
know them more than the male coaches did. Kelli C. stated, “[the
female coach] was more on our level. She wanted to “chit-chat”
with us. Like get to know us rather than having to be stern.” This
sometimes caused problems though, because the female coach would develop
emotional ties with the players and would construct feelings of whom she
liked and did not like. This made a difference in some of the participants’
experiences because the coach would “characterize a couple of players
as being similar to the way [the female coach] played and/or worked in
high school or college. So people with different work ethics were considered
different” (Sam). The players began to see differences in coaching
as favoritism. Mistakes made by some players would be overlooked, but
similar mistakes would be made into ‘an issue’ with other
players.

So, in practice a lot of the people knew that if they made a mistake
then the female coach tended to focus on that one mistake. But if another
person made a mistake, she would focus on something else, like just ignore
it. Like if somebody in a game continuously threw the ball out of bounds
or in the bleachers she wouldn’t really look at that. She would
look at it as a negative that somebody else who’s not getting the
rebounds or not playing good defense or something like that. She would
pick and choose which mistakes mattered and which ones didn’t, with
a lot of different kinds of players, depending on what she thought of
you already. (Kelli M.)

The athletes did experience a lot of positive feedback and encouragement
from the female coaches. Many of the participants believed this came naturally
from the female coaches. Emily stated, “in general, you are going
to have a female that’s better at [encouraging and motivating] just
because females are more encouraging in general.” Others, such as
Carmen, felt the bond shared with the female coach is what helped motivate
and encourage performance. “She was a girl and girls can relate
to girls. And when they encourage you and you’re friends with them
you feel better.” The female coaches were more inclined than the
male coaches to say positive statements to encourage players. Female coaches
tended to first point out the positive tasks the athletes did before saying
what could be improved.

The personal relationships between the female athletes and male coaches
were very different from the relationships with female coaches. Many of
the female athletes were intimidated by the male coaches. The female players
knew that they could discuss ‘most anything’ about the sport,
certain plays or tactics with the male coaches, but nothing outside of
practice or the game was “allowed to be discussed.” Whereas
the athletes felt a variety of issues could be discussed with the female
coaches. Carmen stated, “If I had a [personal] problem with my male
coach, I wouldn’t say anything about it.” There was no bond,
per se, like the one she had with the female coach. If something was bothering
a player, the male coach would simply punish the player for not paying
attention. In similar situations with a female coach, Carmen thought that,
“she would have asked ‘hey are you okay.’ She would
have known something was bothering me and said “hey let’s
play or practice.”

Four of the athletes indicated the biggest difference between the relationships
with the male and female coaches came from a lack of encouragement and
positive reinforcement. The males tended to correct and point out the
mistakes more often and hesitated to use compliments as motivation. Sam
stated, “My male coach always told us what we were doing wrong.
After a while in practice, he could tell it was getting to us so he would
throw in a compliment. But, everyone knew he had to think about it before
he said it.”

Passivity and Aggressiveness

The mentality of the male coach compared to the female coach was a major
theme throughout the interviews. The males seemed to be more aggressive
and demanding. The males’ mentality was “you gotta go out
and get it” and they wanted to “win, win, win,” which
made practices hard and strict. A typical mindset was that if the female
athletes would make a mistake or, as Kelli M. stated, “If we took
too long, or if we were loafing around and it took us more than ten to
fifteen seconds to get in a drill, we had to get on the line and run.
It was like clockwork. It made us a better team and I am thankful for
that.”

With female coaches, a more laid back approach was utilized. The tone
was much lighter and practice proceeded in a more calm and non-aggressive
fashion. Carmen stated, “The female coach I had, we always got things
done but it was in a lighter tone. Like we’d do what she said and
we’d follow what she wanted us to do but we could be playful at
the same time.” The pressure of doing something wrong or making
a mistake and having to face consequences was not as prevalent with a
female coach. Only one of the participants had a positive outlook towards
this mentality, as Emily explained, “we may not had to have done
[a drill] four hundred times like we did with the males, but the end result
was the same.”

Coach Preference

When asked which coach they preferred the most, eight participants responded
favorably toward the male coach for various reasons. The athletes believed
that to be a good coach, the coach must have respect from the players.
According to Kelli C., “demonstrating their (coaches) soccer knowledge,
ability to control the team, and to enforce discipline,” were all
key elements in gaining the respect of players. Jennifer C. thought, “some
coaches you just respect because they know how to make you respect them.”
Along with respect, the female athletes viewed a good coach as one who
was able to perform the skill and have more than adequate knowledge about
the sport. Carmen stated that “[the male coach] was the one that
knew the most about soccer. He knew the most and challenged me the most.
I grew as a player when I was with him.” Further, Kelli M. stated,
“the males assumed to know more about the basics and the fundamentals.
Everything that’s required for a successful team.” The female
athletes considered an ideal coach to be a good leader, teacher, friend,
and motivator. Specifically, Sam thought a coach should “challenge
players to become better physically, mentally, tactically, and technically,”
while Emily felt that coaches should “teach [athletes], prepare
them for any kind of obstacles that they’re going to have to come
into contact with. Teaching them basics like discipline, punctuality,
getting to practice on time, dealing with other people, teamwork, and
good sportsmanship.” Four of the female participants believed that
a coach should be a good example and help in the teaching of life lessons.
Sam felt that a coach should be “a little bit of everything.”

Discussion

The purpose of the present investigation was to explore a group of female
athletes’ experiences of having female and male coaches. This comparison
demonstrated that four of the six female athletes preferred a male coach,
including various differences of opinions of each coach.

Discipline and Structure

While men were reported to be more detailed in instruction and structured,
the women were more lenient disciplinarians. This finding coincides with
Masin’s (1998) results, which found that 75% of female athletes
preferred male coaches because of more perceived organization. The desire
for this quality might exist because many female athletes want to be pushed
physically, challenged in skill development, and feel the need for competition,
and they believe this can be achieved through a structured environment
(Osborne, 2002). Five of the female athletes in this study expressed a
positive perception of the discipline enforced by the male coaches.

Personal Relationships

A female athlete may benefit from a personal connection with the coach.
When coaching females, there is the need for warmth, empathy, and a sense
of humor (Burke, Peterson, & Nix, 1995; Grisaffe, Blom, & Burke,
in press) with the players (Osborne, 2002). Female high school and college
basketball players ranked the coaching qualities of “relating well
to athletes” and understanding athletes’ feelings” as
two of the top three desirable characteristics, and female coaches rated
significantly higher than male coaches in demonstrating these qualities
(Molstad & Whitaker, 1987). Sabock and Kleinfelter (1987) and Simmons
(1997) found that female athletes were more inclined to disclose personal
information to a female coach. Many of the athletes in the present study
experienced these traits from female coaches. Female coaches in this study
were better at relating and more likely to establish a friendship. Although
the athletes expressed a desire to bond with the coach, they indicated
did not want favoritism to be shown toward any players. Further, many
female athletes thrive on self-satisfaction and the belief they are capable
of doing a certain task or drill, and can best achieve this through encouragement
from the coach (Osborne, 2002). The present findings indicated that female
coaches were viewed as more encouraging and motivating through a greater
use of positive feedback.

Passivity and Aggressiveness

Female athletes tended to be more acceptable of the male coaches’
mentality than that of the female coaches’ mentality. Nine participants
in this study approved the authoritarian style of coaching utilized by
the male coaches. Women may prefer this style of coaching due to cultural
expectations of men in authority positions, male dominance in women’s
sports, or the lack of female coaches as role models (Osborne, 2002).
As with male athletes, female athletes want to be trained hard and challenged.
However, if coaches use an extreme “in your face” mentality,
such as constant yelling, the female athlete may be less receptive to
this style (Osborne, 2002).

Coach Preference

Nine of the female athletes in the present study expressed a preference
for male coaches, citing factors such as a greater level of knowledge,
knowing what it takes to be successful, and having more respect for him.
Previous research (Parkhouse & Williams, 1986) has not shown a clear
consensus as to whether female athletes prefer a male or a female coach
(Lirgg, Dibrezzo, & Smith, 1994; Osborne, 2002). Some of the literature
has claimed that athletes may be more comfortable with male authority
figures who could explain their perceptions (Frankl & Babbitt, 1998;
Osbourne, 2002; Whitaker & Molstad, 1985). Similarly, since men have
held coaching positions for a longer period of time, athletes may have
more confidence in their knowledge levels and coaching abilities (Sabock
& Kleinfelter, 1987). In the late 1980’s and early 1990’s,
much of the literature stated that female athletes preferred a male coach
because there was simply a lack of women in the profession (Osborne, 2002).
Further, coach preference may depend on the gender of the athletes’
present coaches (Medwechuk & Crossman, 1994; Sabock & Kleinfelter,
1987). Since the majority of coaches have been male, this could help to
explain the female athletes’ preference toward male coaches.

Caution must be taken in assuming that coach preference is due only
to gender.
Additional factors exist that may influence athletes’ perceptions
of coaches such as the success of the team (Williams & Parkhouse,
1988) or influence of current coach (Parkhouse & Williams, 1986).
Female athletes who exhibited higher trait anxiety, higher state cognitive
and somatic anxiety, and lower state self-confidence have been shown to
have more negative perceptions of coaches (Kenow & Williams, 1992;
1999). Lirgg, Dibrezzo, & Smith (1994) found that female athletes
coached by females reported a greater desire to become head coaches than
those coached by male coaches. Other personal attributes such as athlete
age (Burke, Peterson, & Nix, 1995; Whitaker & Molstad, 1988),
socioeconomic status, ethnicity, and the athletes’ level of skills
and abilities (Williams & Parkhouse,1988) may also impact athletes’
experiences with coaches. Longitudinal studies should be employed to more
thoroughly examine the influences that male and female coaches have on
athletes.

References

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Table 1
Mean Demographic Data of Female Athletes

Participant (Pseudonym)	Sport(s)	Years of Experience	Years coached by a male	Years coached by a female
Kelli C.	Basketball Soccer and Softball	10	7	3
Kelli M.	Basketball	11	7	4
Carmen	Soccer	13	10	3
Emily	Soccer	12	9	3
Jennifer C.	Golf and Basketball	13	6 ½	6 ½
Sam	Soccer and Basketball	12	8	4
Lekeisha	Basketball	10	7	3
Tyler	Cross Country	11	8	3
Misha	Soccer	9	4	5
Kylie	Softball	10	5	5
Alexis	Basketball	8	3	5
Natalie	Track and Field	9	7	2
Carmen	Soccer	13	10	3

Appendix

Interview Guide
The initial question posed to participants: “What do you think the role of a coach should be?”

Following questions:

What sport do you play?
When were you coached by a male and a female?
How many years were you coached by a male and a female?
In what setting did you have the male and female coach?
Which coach did you prefer the most?
Who do you think knew more about the sport? Why?
If you had daughters, whom would you want them to be coached by?
Why? Were there any differences/ similarities between the male and female
coaches in regards to:
Training practices and evaluation performance?
Encouragement and motivation?
Punishments and commands?
Helping with personal problems and enjoyment?
Encouraging after mistakes and correcting behavior?
Coaching methods?
In an ideal world, what would you like to see in the world of female
sports in regards to coaching?
In general, what are your thoughts about males and females coaching
female athletes?

U.S. Sports Academy2015-03-27T13:38:02-05:00September 3rd, 2006|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Coaching, Sports Management, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology, Women and Sports|Comments Off