Sports Coaching – Page 25 – The Sport Journal

Important Parameters of the Football Industry in Cyprus: Challenges and Opportunities

Nicos L. Kartakoullis and Andreas Theophanous,
University of Nicosia

Abstract

An in-depth study of the current football industry in Cyprus was undertaken to evaluate the financial situation of the first division football clubs, the competitive balance of the national league, the management practices of the football clubs and national league, and the negative effects of football hooliganism on the industry. Research involved both an extensive literature review of secondary sources from the Cyprus Sport Organization, the Cyprus Football Association, and the football clubs, as well as a qualitative data collection tool which included personal interviews and focus groups. Challenges and opportunities facing the football industry in Cyprus were identified.

Introduction

There is no doubt that football is the most popular sport worldwide. It is the king of sports. Because of the popularity of football all over the world on all continents, it is no surprise that on many occasions people address football as the “universal language.” According to Murphy, Williams, and Dunning (1992) “Soccer is, without any shadow of doubt, the world’s most popular sport.”

The hero of Liverpool FC, the late Bill Shankly, who managed to turn Liverpool Football Club into a big European football power, emphasized that football is a “more important matter than life or death.” It is true that “there appears to be something about the structure of soccer that gives it a very wide appeal in the modern world, an appeal that appears to be relatively independent to the level of development of countries, the socio-political character of the regimes by which they are ruled, their allegiances and the alliances that they are involved in” (Murphy, Williams, Dunning, 1992).

The Federation Internationale de Football Association (FIFA), the world governing body of football, commissioned the social research company in Zurich, Lamprecht and Stamm SE BAG, to conduct the FIFA Big Count 2006. A survey that was conducted through the 207 national football associations worldwide, in which data was gathered on the numbers of participating players in football at all levels. The results of the survey are impressive indicating how big football is worldwide. The president of FIFA, Joseph S. Blatter, in view of the published results of the survey stated, “Football’s popularity remains undiminished and is actually increasing.”

Some of the impressive findings of the 2006 survey as presented in a press release by FIFA on June 12, 2007, indicated the following:

· The overall number of 265 million male and female players is almost 10 percent higher than the number recorded six years ago (242 million). Of the 265 million, 26 million, or around 10 percent, are women.

· Since 2000, the number of registered male and female footballers has increased by around 23 percent to over 38 million.

· The growth in women’s football is particularly striking, with the number of registered players up 54 percent to 4.1 million, while the number of registered players in the men’s game has likewise seen an increase of 21 percent to 34.2 million.

· The number of unregistered occasional players, which was first recorded in the previous Big Count study, is up seven percent to 226 million.

· There are now a combined total of over one million futsal and beach soccer players (both male and female).

· The number of clubs (301,000) is similar to the figure recorded in 2000. That said, the total number of teams (1.7 million) has increased by approximately 200,000.

The FIFA president further noted, “If you count the relatives and close friends of active participants in football, who share in their passion for the game as fans and support them in other ways, the total number is even more impressive: Well over a billion people worldwide are involved in football at all levels of society and across all borders.” Based on the figures provided, FIFA stated that a grand total of 270 million people, male and female players, which represents four percent of the world’s population, are involved in one way or another in football. According to the FIFA press release, it is not only the television audiences and match attendances that are increasing but the number of people playing football on all continents. It is not only popular as a spectator sport but as a participant sport as well. It is worth noting that based on FIFA records, out of these 270 million people, 99.8% are amateur football players with 80% being youth players.

With all those figures available, the FIFA president is happy to state, “Football is truly the world’s game. It is played in every conceivable place, on every corner of the world by men, women, boys, and girls of all ages. It is played in narrow streets, in muddy fields, and in packed stadiums on grass, concrete, earth, and sand. Any differences between people fade away in its unifying light.”

The figures and all this related information display a picture of football’s development worldwide. However, besides this success in football’s development, which is proven by the increasing numbers, there are critics of the work of FIFA. Sugden and Tomlinson (2005) noted that FIFA has transformed itself from an international nongovernment organization into a business international nongovernment organization. FIFA has been increasingly profit driven and presents one of the leading examples of the professionalization and commercialization of modern sports. They define this as “sport’s emergence at the heart of the worldwide cultural industries” (Sugden and Tomlinson, 2005). Thus, Sugden and Tomlinson were willing to “… show what happens in an international nongovernmental organization when the pursuit of profit overwhelms an ethic of service” and in view of this they presented an analysis of the crisis in world football (Sugden & Tomlinson, 2005).

Along the same lines as this critical approach and perspective, Allison set a series of questions trying to set sports in the right perspective in this era of globalization; he emphasized, “… how worried should we be about the nature of power in international organizations?” (Allison, 2005).

There is no doubt that “football has been transformed over the years to a gigantic commercial operation” (Boyopoulos & Milakas, 2005). However, besides this truth, nobody can underestimate the cultural significance of football as elaborated by Norbert Elias in his civilizing process theory.

On the one hand, nobody can argue the fact that football has become commercialized and is big business now, as noted above; on the other, nobody should overemphasize the problems and challenges of the game by ignoring its power and what it can offer to different societies.

Sports generally, and football precisely, presents unique situations whereby we have the coexistence of profit making on the one hand, and nonprofit making and voluntary organizations on the other. In the football world, there is this uniqueness where profit making is an activity that is conducted in many instances by nonprofit or voluntary organizations where they all have common goals and objectives (Capling, 2004; Murphy et. al. 2001; Rachman, 2002).

In many instances, the financial dimensions of football are increasing without actually leading to profitability for the football clubs. In fact, all over the world, and in Cyprus too, many football clubs are facing severe financial problems. Although, there are occasions where the big football clubs in different nations are profitable (Capling, 2004; Deloitte, 2005; Booth, 2004; Rachman, 2002).

The finances of football clubs for many years and in many instances where not made public for many various reasons. In many situations, proper financial records were not kept, and in many countries, this presented a chaotic situation where records and information were not readily available (Kartakoullis, 2005). The introduction of the UEFA club licensing system by the Union des Associations Europeenes de football (UEFA), the European governing football body, assisted in many instances and actually contributed to the sorting of the finances of football clubs in Europe as clubs were forced to prepare financial statements, accounts, and budgets to be submitted to their national football associations; otherwise, they would not be granted permission to compete in national and European competitions.

Purpose of the Study

Football is an international cultural phenomenon which is currently characterized by two major challenges: professionalization and commercialization.

The purpose of this study was to examine specific parameters of the football industry in a small country, Cyprus, where there are certain unique characteristics. The specific parameters addressed were the financial situation of the first division football clubs, the competitive balance of the national league, and management practices in the football industry. What major challenges exist in the football industry of a small country such as Cyprus, away from this globalized form football is taking with the two major characteristics of professionalization and commercialization? What are the challenges facing such an industry away from huge contracts, profitable television rights, sponsorships, and so many vested interests, as one can see them in the international football arena?

The Republic of Cyprus became an independent state in 1960. It became a member of the United Nations in 1960, of the Council of Europe in 1961, and of the European Union in 2004. It has an area of 9,521 square kilometers and a population of approximately 800,000. Since 1974, it has been de facto divided. Efforts to solve this problem in Cyprus and reunify the island have not been successful yet. Nicosia (Lefkosia in Greek; Lefkosa in Turkish) is the capital city.

Three geographic characteristics of Cyprus have determined much of its fate: location, size, and the fact that it is an island. It is located at a strategic position in the eastern Mediterranean, at the crossroads of three continents. Its strategic location, long exposed coastline, and small size always made it an attractive and easy target for outsiders. Its history and demography reflect the ebb and flow of peoples and powers in the region. In the course of its long history, Cyprus has been controlled by most of the major powers that had interest in, or sought control of, the Middle East. The list of its successive rulers include the Egyptians, Greeks, Phoenicians, Asssy6rians, Persians, Ptolemies, Romans, Byzantines, Franks, Venetians, Ottoman Turks, and British. It gained its independence from Britain in 1960 (Joseph, 2000).

Cyprus has been considered a football-loving nation, arising from the fact that football competitions draw good attendance in Cyprus as well as from the fact that it is extensively covered in the media. It is not surprising for example that when the two big football teams of the country play against each other, they attract crowds of more than 25,000 people, which is indeed large, bearing in mind the small size of the country. This fact is further reinforced by the results of the football survey (2005-2006), conducted on behalf of the Cyprus Football Association by the Centre for Leisure, Tourism, and Sports Research and Development. The results of the research clearly indicated that Cyprus is a football-loving nation. For example, the fact that 77% of men aged between 21-70 years old support a football club, and another 20% who do not support a club, still follow football in Cyprus and are well informed about the results of the national league, clearly displays there is great interest. Additionally, the fact that 16,000 kids are registered and play football in football academies all over the island displays this love for the game.

Method

A combination of methods has been used to gather the material required to analyze the football industry in the country. Thus, as a first step, all related information was collected from the Cyprus Sport Organization, the Cyprus Football Association, and the first division football clubs in Cyprus. The task of collecting information for the football clubs was not as hard and difficult as initially predicted, as this was already done by the National Football Association, who collected all related material for the UEFA club licensing scheme. However, a review of available material was definitely not enough for such a purpose. That was only one aspect of this research.

Participants

In view of this, personal interviews and focus groups were conducted in the attempt to collect as complete and as accurate information as possible. Interviews were conducted with the presidents or secretaries general of all 14 footballs clubs in the first division of the national league, the professional clubs in Cyprus. This was done in order to collect qualitative data which was going to complement the material already collected in the first phase of the research. Qualitative data was useful in this respect in gaining additional information in relation to the issue under investigation. Qualitative data according to Straus and Corbin (1990) is “any kind of research that produces findings not arrived at by means of statistical procedures or other means of quantification.” Qualitative interview studies are usually conducted with small samples (14 in this case) and the “aim is usually to gather an authentic” understanding of people’s experiences (attitudes, knowledge, beliefs about football in Cyprus in this case) and it is believed that open ended questions are the most effective route towards this end” (Silverman, 1993). Thus, this method involved an open ended interview study which encouraged the top decision makers of the football clubs in Cyprus to offer their own attitudes, knowledge, definitions and understanding of the football industry.

Design and Procedure

Two focus groups were utilized as the means to collect data for the analysis of the football industry. For Morgan (1988), focus groups are basically group-oriented discussions that rely on interaction within the group based on the topic that the moderator supplies. The advantage is that through focus groups, the moderator assists, especially at the first stages of the interaction, by providing information that could be helpful to participants in placing the focus group in context.

According to Morgan (1988) focus groups are basically group interviews; they rely on interaction within the group, based on the topic that the researcher supplies; with the researcher taking the role of a moderator. Furthermore, Morgan (1988) notes that focus groups can be used as a supplement for collecting data when using either qualitative or quantitative methods. Additionally, focus groups can be used as follow-up research to clarify findings in the other data collected, but more importantly, according to Morgan (1988) the goal in using focus groups is to get closer to participants’ understandings of the researcher’s topic. In view of this, the use of the focus groups in this case provided a valuable insight into the variables examined for the football industry. Focus groups are thus helpful in investigating what participants think, uncovering why participants think as they do, crucial in the attempt being made to investigate the perspectives analyzed above. There are both strengths and weaknesses of focus groups as a setting in which to collect qualitative data; in this particular case the use of focus groups was considered appropriate in supplementing the data already collected. Additionally, focus groups were useful to conduct as they produced valuable data from group interaction on the specific topic under examination; a focus group can delve deeper as participant’s contributions can trigger further comments of other participants. Two focus groups were conducted; each group consisted of six persons (members of executive committees of football clubs, football players, referees, coaches, sports journalists, sponsors, supporter’s clubs, and representatives of the Cyprus Football Association) under the moderation of Dr. Andreas Theophanous, who has experience of more than 20 years in qualitative research. The focus was on obtaining a good representative sample of persons associated with the football industry in Cyprus. The focus group sessions lasted for almost two hours each, and the data collected was then analyzed using the coding technique of content analysis. Thus, a series of categories or coding frames have been developed in relation to the finances of the clubs, the governance and management of the clubs, the competitive balance of the league, and the major problems that the industry is facing today.

Analysis or coding of qualitative data represents the operations by which data are broken down, conceptualized, and put back together in new ways; it is the central process by which theories are built from data (Straus and Corbin, 1990). This technique entails defining a series of categories of answers in which the researcher is interested (Breakwell, 1990). In addition, according, to Breakwell (1990), if the researcher does not wish to push responses into categories because this loses some of the individuality of the original statements, then content analysis can be used in a different way whereby in the report produced of the findings there are lots of quotations which will show the depth of the opinions expressed. More precisely, for analyzing the data gathered in this section, a classification system or coding was used where responses were classified in schemes using coding frames.

Results

Based on the data collected, it is evident that football clubs in Cyprus have four major sources of revenue (M. Gavrielides, A. Michaelides, D. Seraphim, personal communications, April 10, 2007). This include the income from tickets sold for the home matches, the television rights, membership fees and financial support from friends of the clubs, and commercial activities including sponsorship. The expenses of the football clubs are usually more than their income, and this was actually identified as the major cause of the financial problems that football clubs are currently facing in Cyprus during the focus groups (A. Michaelides, personal communication, March 20, 2007).

The major expenses of the football clubs involve salaries to the football players, coaches, and administrative staff, accommodation and board when the club is traveling for away games, transfer fees, and expenses for the organization of matches. (K. Koutsokoumnis, personal communication, April 6, 2007). This issue with the salaries of players and coaches is addressed extensively in the discussion section that follows.

For securing confidentially, the budgets of the different clubs discussed in the focus groups could not be presented separately, but Table 1 provides the total budgets of the 14 first division clubs for the 2004-2005 season in terms of their income and expenditures. For the purpose of analysis, the 14 teams are divided into two groups: the first group is comprised of the five largest teams in the country, and the second group includes the remaining nine teams. It became clear from diligent examination and discussion of the budgets submitted by all 14 first division clubs that most of the teams will have difficulty meeting the criteria of the UEFA club licensing scheme, which prescribes balanced income and expenditures of club members. From the study of the budgets submitted, as well as from the analysis of the data collected through the interviews and the focus groups, it appears that most of the budgets are over-ambitious. Additionally, the profit and loss accounts of the clubs were diligently studied. In most cases, it appeared that there was an over-estimation of expected income for the clubs.

Eight major points were identified by the research team in relation to the financial situation of the clubs in Cyprus.

· The 14 clubs of the first division submitted in their budgets their incomes for the period under examination, and total incomes for all clubs were calculated at Euro 17,530,250, which corresponds to Euro 1,252,404, for each club. The biggest income declared by any club was Euro 2,853,364, and the lowest income declared was Euro 744,319

· Total expenditure was calculated at Euro 17,629,349, which corresponds to Euro 1,259,239, for each club. The biggest expenditure declared by a club was Euro 2, 392,004 and the lowest was Euro 744,319.

· Six clubs declared that they were expecting losses in the period under investigation; while the other eight clubs expected to have a profit.

· The biggest profit to be made was estimated at Euro 640,725, and this was by a club which by the end of the season was relegated to the second division.

· Paying the salaries of players, foreign and domestic, and coaches consumed 75% of every club’s budget.

· From the data gathered, it was clear that foreign players were paid better salaries than the domestic players.

· Season tickets contributed an average of 10% of the total income for the clubs. The highest contribution from season tickets to total income was 20%, and the lowest was 1%.

· The television rights for the period under examination were calculated to Euro 934,177, which represented 5.3% of the total income of clubs.

The government of the Republic of Cyprus acknowledges the importance of football in Cypriot society. In view of this, the government has provided different forms of financial support to the sport. The Cyprus Sports Organization, which is the semi- governmental organization in charge of sports, has provided annual financial support to the Cyprus Football Association which comes to Euro 4,613,223 per year. However, in view of the financial problems of the football clubs in the country and in the attempt by the government to assist the clubs to get through this financial crisis, the government decided two years ago to provide a grant of Euro 10,251,608 over a four year period. Additionally, the Cyprus Sport Organization returns to the individual football clubs a total sum of Euro 717,612 per year, which represents taxes collected on gate income as well as community taxes (T. Christofides, personal communication, April 10, 2007). Furthermore, another amount of Euro 683,440 per year is given by the Sports Organization to pay the police forces in charge of security during the football matches (K. Papakosta, personal communication, March 15, 2007).

From the qualitative data gathered, it emerged that there was a consensus among the different parties involved in the football industry that there are three major challenges facing football in Cyprus. Football violence, bad governance and management of clubs, and prejudice against referees and officials are major challenges that the industry is facing, and although there is potential for further development, these problems do not allow the industry to grow to its full potential. (K. Zivanaris, personal communication, April 10, 2007). Peristianis, Kapardis, Loizou, Fakiolas, and Puloukas (2002) noted that the football industry in Cyprus is facing a major crisis in the face of football hooliganism, which can destroy the sport if this is not controlled. It is an ongoing problem that has not been controlled for years now and can lead to the financial collapse of the industry (Peristianis et al, 2002; Aristotelous & Pouloucas, 1996).

Another major issue that was addressed in the focus groups was the fact that there is no competitive balance in the national league, which poses a serious threat to the football industry. (T. Antoniou, K. Malekkos, C. Constantinou, C. Theodotou, personal communications, 12 April, 2007). The clubs are split into two groups: the five large ones in the first group and the other nine in the second group, which represent the weak teams struggling for survival. Out of the five clubs in the first group, three of those, namely APOEL, OMONIA and ANORTHOSIS, are the only ones that compete for the national championship each year. This has been the case for years now, and this competitive imbalance leads to a reduction of interest in the football industry (L. Kyriakou, personal communication, March 6, 2007). The results show, for example, that in the 2005-2006 season a total of 507,000 tickets were sold with 337,661, which represents 66% of the total, being utilized by the big five group. Table 2 shows the distribution of tickets during this season between the big and the weak teams of the league.

As Figure 1 identifies, the gap between the big and the weak teams in the sale of tickets is growing larger, which clearly presents the problematic situation existing because of this competitive imbalance in the national league.

Clubs are recruiting increasing numbers of foreign players, which increases their expenditures considerably, and this is causing Cypriot players to become a scarce commodity. (A. Michaelides, personal communication, April 10, 2007). Over a typical weekend with seven games on the national league calendar, approximately 190 players were used including substitutes during the 2005-06 seasons. Out of those 190 players, only 75 were Cypriots. This is a trend which is increasing every year; whereby last season, there was a point where there were teams starting without a single Cypriot player in the first eleven. Back in the 1992-1993 season, for example, the clubs in Cyprus used to have eight Cypriot players and only three foreigners in the starting eleven. (M. Gavrielides, personal communication, March 22, 2007). It is not surprising then that during that period, clubs were in a much better financial situation. In many countries, this is the trend, but in large developed countries, the football industry is big enough to cope with such expenses. In England, for example, the figures show that in the 1992-1993 season, only 10% of the players starting the games were not British. Conversely though, during this current season, only 37% of the players starting in the first eleven were British.

This is the issue actually. Clubs in small countries, like Cyprus, should not try to copy what is happening in other countries where the football industry is huge. The clubs’ officials need to be very realistic and down to earth when trying to build their teams. However, it is sad to identify that things are getting out of control according to the discussions held in the focus groups (L. Kyriakou, M. Gavrielides, T. Antreou, personal communications, April 10, 2007).

Discussion

Due to the popularity of football worldwide, the game has grown into a huge industry. Gratton and Henry (2001) estimated that in the big European countries, the football industry contributes 3% of the gross domestic product of those countries. According to Theophanous and Kartakoullis (2004), in Cyprus, the football industry contributes only 1.84% of the gross domestic product. This was actually expected as Cyprus is a small country. However, something which is alarming and risky as well is the fact that out of this 1.84%, which totals an amount of Euro 223,826,788, a great percentage of this, which comes to Euro 153,774,130, derives from the betting industry. Thus, the betting industry forms a substantial part of the football industry in the country, and this is something that for some years now is leading to various forms of problems and issues, the major of which is prejudice. In certain instances, rumors are spread concerning fixed matches and for referees that have been influenced by officials and players betting huge amounts of money on specific fixtures. This is a major issue for the football industry as the huge amounts of money spent in the betting industry have led to prejudice against the sport and, in turn, is destroying the image of the game in Cyprus. Similar sorts of problems with betting and fixed games have been identified in other countries all over the world.

In relation to the above issue, there are some additional complications and issues that are raised because of the betting situation. As noted in the results section, the clubs in the first division are split into two categories: the big five and the remaining small or weaker clubs. In view of the fact that 66% of the total income from games derives from the big five, a series of other questions are generated having to do with the influence that these clubs have in the decision-making processes, in the appointment of referees and in the allocation of television rights among the clubs. Television rights are handled by the Cyprus Football Association, which has developed a scheme for allocating income to the clubs. Again, in relation to this scheme of allocation, there are issues and concerns as it seems that the big five at some stage will start handling their own rights with television stations. The big five will secure good deals with the stations in the country, and the small ones will remain financially exposed, as they will lose a good portion of their incomes from the rights. The television rights totaled a sum of Euro 934,177, which represents almost 6% of the total income of the clubs. This is expected to rise to almost 12% of the total income of the clubs in the next two years, based on the new deals to be signed.

In relation to the distribution of income for football clubs, Back et al. (2004) estimated that the three major sources of income for football clubs should deliver roughly the same amounts. That comes to approximately 33% contribution to total income from each of the three categories of income: tickets, television rights, and commercial activities. For example, for Manchester United in the period of 1992-2002, this was calculated to 40% from tickets, 34% from television rights, and 26% from other commercial activities. When considering the distribution of income for the clubs in Cyprus, this is far from this equal distribution.

It should be noted that this issue of big and weak football clubs is not only a problem in Cyprus but a challenge for European football as well. In the Friedlander Report (2001) by the Centre for Research into Sport and Society of the University of Leicester, it is stated that the gap between the big clubs and the rest is ever growing bigger, so this is something that needs to be addressed.

Another major concern that is leading to great controversy has to do with the contracts and salaries of players. As can be deduced from the expenditures of the clubs (Table 1), 75% of the total expenses of the clubs were on salaries for players, coaches, and the support staff. The football players’ salaries came to 65% of expenditures. Each club in the first division has 25 registered professional players plus another six to ten persons in the support team (fitness trainer, physiotherapist, medical doctor, or administrators). The salaries of foreign players playing in Cyprus are considerably higher to those paid to Cypriot players; however, there is a great concern as to whether the contribution of foreign players to the team is greater than that of the Cypriots, thus justifying their bigger salaries. There are cases of foreign players in Cyprus who signed yearly contracts of Euro 341,720, which is really surprising for such a small industry. Along the same lines, there are coaches in Cyprus coming from Europe with contracts of Euro 256,290 per year, which is again on the very high side bearing in mind the size of the football industry in the country.

In relation to the above, Deloite (2004, 2005), in the annual review of football finances, noted that there is a tendency for decreasing the percentage of salaries on total expenditures. In the premier league, for example, in England, salaries represented 62% of total expenditures in 2001-2002, 61% in 2002-2003, and a further reduction to 60% in the following season. The same tendency for reducing salaries could be observed in other European countries. On the contrary, in Cyprus, the exact opposite is happening; there is an increasing tendency in this respect which is very dangerous indeed, when realizing that most of the clubs, if not all, are in a very bad financial situation. Thus, on the one hand, the clubs, due to their difficult financial situation, are seeking government support, but on the other, they are spending on salaries and contracts amounts with which the size of the industry in Cyprus cannot cope. The financial dimensions of the football industry in Cyprus are getting too big for such a small country, which is an alarming and dangerous trend for the future of the industry.

When all the financial statements and budgets of the clubs were examined from the documents submitted for the UEFA club licensing system, it was again obvious that clubs were in a bad financial situation. The great majority of clubs had big debts, and in order for them to meet the club licensing criteria, they postponed payments for years to come. For example, if a club had agreed to pay a player Euro 200,000 for a salary, they signed an agreement with the player stating that he is going to receive this money in the years to come. However, this is not solving the problem, but the problem is just postponed to the next few years.

The data from the qualitative analysis was enlightening in discovering the beliefs and opinions of the officials involved, top decision makers of the football clubs. It was indeed very interesting on the one hand, and very contradictory on the other, to identify from this research the commonly felt concern of all officials involved in football in Cyprus, and especially of the clubs’ top decision makers. There was a consensus that the expenditures of the clubs are growing, and the football industry is not currently ready to afford such a burden. However, beside this issue, which was overwhelmingly accepted, the club officials are doing absolutely nothing to resolve the problem. They clearly know the facts, they understand that football is in crisis, and still each year there is an average increase of 10% in the expenditures of the teams. This is indeed contradictory and illogical. The officials of the clubs, when asked why this happens, could not provide an answer. “There is no logic in football,” said one of the representatives of the big clubs. It should be noted that there are certain things that clubs can do to reduce their budgets, but the managers are still doing nothing about it. Actually, they are moving in the exact opposite direction.

The issue of overspending is something that can be observed in football clubs all over the world. Williams and Neatrour (2002) noted that clubs engage in this overspending practice by taking excess risks in view of the tough competition in football, and then, when things do not go the way they expect, in terms of performance, they cannot meet their financial obligations.

Football clubs in Cyprus are in crisis. This is proven by the results of this research, and it is justified in every respect. Clubs are currently in a struggle for survival as they have big debts that they need to repay. However, the situation is even more alarming considering the fact that clubs, despite this financial crisis, annually increase their budgets, with the result that the football industry is becoming too big and too risky for the country as well. Although clubs are operating on considerably big budgets, the structure they have still relies mostly on voluntary work without good governance or responsible management. Bad management and bad governance are major characteristics of clubs, and this was made clear in the qualitative data gathered. The clubs’ governing boards are comprised of volunteers, who for many different reasons become involved in the game. They are not always involved for the good of the Game but for many other different reasons. In view of this, when people become involved in the running of a club, they want immediate results, and they are not willing to plan for the future, as they wish to get the credit when they are on board. Thus, there is no strategic direction in the clubs, and, in view of this, no future plans for development. It is more of a day-to-day struggle for survival than anything else. There is an urgent need for better management of the football clubs and, additionally, a need for professionals to become involved in the football industry. The football industry in the country is getting too big for volunteers to run it. There is urgency for professionalism at all levels. Professionalization of the game is only happening with increasing numbers of professional players arriving from abroad; apart from this, there is no professionalization in any other respect.

Competitive balance refers to the ability of any of the football clubs in the national league to win the championship at the end of the season. Where there is competitive balance, clubs have equal chances to winning the league, and this makes the league very interesting as the outcome is not known. However, this is not the case in Cyprus, where at the beginning of each season, for years now, only three clubs are competing for the championship title. Thus, there are three favorites for the title and inevitably this leads to reduced interest on behalf of the fans, both for attending the matches as well as for watching them on TV. Additionally, it leads to a series of related problems with the remaining clubs that can not compete with the three favorites on equal terms; thus, the clubs are facing both competition and financial challenges. This limited interest at some stage during the football season by the indifferent clubs leads to problems and concerns with fixed matches and other related controversies. In view of this competitive imbalance, it is no surprise that out of 66 leagues organized in Cyprus, 50 were won by the three favorites. Nobody can question this issue, which was again extensively addressed by participants in the focus groups.

The issue of competitive balance in the national leagues is a major issue of concern for the football industry, as this is a critical success factor for the industry. In view of this, extensive work on the competitive balance of national leagues has been conducted by Holt et al. (2004), Michie and Oughton (2004 and 2005), Michie et al. (2004) and Forrest et al. (2005).

Despite the problems and issues identified, the club officials and top decision makers were still quite optimistic in relation to certain issues or opportunities that they identified. For instance, they identified the fact that an increasing number of big organizations and companies are interested in becoming involved in the industry as sponsors. This is quite true as there is a kind of new sponsorship culture that is developing lately on the island. The club officials emphasized this fact as they considered that this is a golden opportunity for the clubs to capitalize on. However, again this is an opportunity and a challenge. Sponsors are willing to join the football industry as long as they are going to get a good return. Gone are the days when companies donated money to football clubs in the form of charity (Kartakoullis, 2007). Consequently, the message is clear. On the one hand, there is potential in this area, but in order for the football clubs and the industry to utilize this, there is the need for expertise in the area.

Conclusion

The aim of the study was to gather data and examine important parameters of the football industry in Cyprus. This was the very first time that such an attempt has been made in Cyprus, which is indeed a football-loving nation. The research team approached the analysis from a purely critical perspective for the good of the game in Cyprus and for no other reason.

The football industry in Cyprus is facing a series of challenges that need to be addressed urgently. Bad management and governance are major characteristics in the industry, and it is no surprise that the football clubs, the major stakeholders in the industry, are in severe financial crisis. They have huge debts that they cannot pay; they have very high payrolls, which the industry can not handle in such a small country, and no strategy for development. Football hooliganism and the lack of competitive balance in the national league complete this picture of football in crisis in the small country of Cyprus. The financial dimensions, as denoted by the different parameters studied of the football industry, are growing, and the country cannot cope with it for the time being, as all football clubs are experiencing losses based on their profit and loss accounts studied. It is obvious that sports authorities need to invest in developing football and, precisely, in the management and structure of football; otherwise, the future of the game will be very gloomy and without hope.

Government support is good as provided, but this will not do much in saving the game, unless good management, governance, professionalism, and accountability are introduced at all levels of the game. In view of this, all those involved in the football industry need to realize the new opportunities and challenges in the world of sports and should introduce innovations at all levels of the game (Westerbeek & Smith, 2003). There is no doubt that all stakeholders in the football industry of Cyprus wish to upgrade football in this country, bringing it up to European standards. On the other hand, they should definitely have in mind all related concepts and issues in relation to this “Europeanization” of elite football (Martin, 2005). Above all, they need to be very realistic and down to earth, always having in mind the size of the football industry and the country as well.

Acknowledgments

The authors gratefully acknowledge the support of the Cyprus Football Association, the Football Clubs, and their officials in conducting this research. Additionally, the financial support of the Cyprus Football Association was greatly appreciated in conducting this research.

Table 1

Total Budgets for the Football Clubs 2005-2006

Income	€ 5 Big Clubs	€ 9 Weak Clubs	Total €	% of Budget
Tickets	4.421.957	2.184.865	6.606.823	37.69%
Commercial Activities	1.940.964	2.115.351	4.056.315	23.14%
Television Rights	452.779	481.398	934.177	5.33%
Funding	1.021.726	1.608.198	2.629.925	15.00%
Other	1.403.371	1.898.915	3.302.287	18.84%

Total	9.240.800	8.288.729	17.529.529	100.00%cmunisteri2009-03-13T14:37:00 Thousands & hundreds should be separated by commas not periods

Expenditure	€ 5 Big Clubs	€ 9 Weak Clubs	Total €	% of Budget
Foreign Players	2.843.174	2.709.558	5.552.732	31.50%
Cypriot Players	2.931.119	2.702.899	5.634.019	31.96%
Coaches	860.458	884.255	1.744.714	9.90%
Field Expenses	106.753	292.751	399.505	2.27%
Sports Equipment and Materials	29.046	230.046	259.092	1.47%
Transport	32.036	49.737	81.773	0.46%
Hotel Accommodation and Board	123.873	144.530	268.404	1.52%
Medical Expenses	90.555	160.523	251.078	1.42%
Field Security	12.643	59.288	71.932	0.41%
Transfer fees	3.417	321.217	324.634	1.84%
Expenses for European Competition	34.172	15.377	49.549	0.28%
Expenses for pre-season training abroad	129.853	203.569	333.423	1.89%
Complementary tickets	17.940	0	17.940	0.10%
Soccer Academies/Development Programmes	61.509	184.101	245.611	1.39%
Miscellaneous	1.475.777	919.724	2.395.501	13.59%

Total	8.752.331	8.877.582	17.629.913	100.00%

Table 2

Tickets Sold by the Big and the Weak Teams

Competition Season	Average no. of tickets	Average of the big teams	Average of the weak teams	Average of tickets sold without the big five
1996/97	1.387	5.065	882	541
1997/98	1.815	6.216	970	539
1998/99	1.911	6.581	955	414
1999/2000	1.813	6.130	941	454
2000/01	2.502	7.208	1.291	584
2001/02	2.553	7.720	1.258	491
2002/2003	3.091	8.458	1.624	707
2003/04	2.943	8.721	1.332	406
2004/05	2.790	7.655	1.563	652
Total	2.311	7.087	1.202cmunisteri2009-03-13T14:42:00 Thousands & hundreds separated by commas not periods	532

$Figure 1\$

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U.S. Sports Academy2016-10-20T14:21:32-05:00October 5th, 2009|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Coaching, Sports Management, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|Comments Off

Prevention of ACL Injuries in Female Athletes through Early Intervention

Submitted by: Rodney C. Whittle, Ph. D., Associate Professor, HPER, Alabama A&M University and Brett Crow, Physical Education Instructor, Whitesburg Middle School, Huntsville, Alabama

Abstract

With respect to physical education, increased participation in sport equals success. One of the main goals of physical educators is to enable individuals to become proficient in lifelong activities. Hopefully, this proficiency will lead to a healthier and more fulfilling life. Beginning with Title IX and continuing over the last two decades, there has been an explosion of youth sports opportunities. As children have begun to participate in sports programs at earlier ages, parents have started feeling pressure to enroll their children in similar programs in order for them to remain competitive. As a result, children become increasingly proficient at their respective sports at earlier ages. This proficiency, while benefiting the respective sport, is not without its consequences. One of the most notable consequences of increased participation in sports at an earlier age is in the area of sports injuries (Rentrom, 2008).

Introduction

Over the last two decades, female participation in sport has risen dramatically. Moreover, the rate of females acquiring injuries to their anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) has risen at an alarmingly dramatic rate. According to recent studies by Arendt (1995), females are between two to eight times more likely to injure their ACL than their male counterpart in similar sporting events. Typically, these injuries are occurring in sports such as basketball, volleyball and soccer. Participants in these sports are usually involved in a lot of quick cutting motions, jumping motions and rapid slowing or decelerating movements. ACL injuries generally prevent a student from participation throughout the remainder of the season, and some injuries can permanently end a student’s ability to successfully participate (Rentrom, 2008).

The Cost

ACL injuries usually come at a very high cost to the participant and their family. The cost of the medical treatment alone can easily run thousands of dollars. Moreover, this type of injury can greatly reduce an athlete’s self esteem and confidence. Therapy must also be considered, which places a high burden on family members with respect to the time lost and money spent. These losses combined, often make ACL injures catastrophic losses to athletes and their families.

Causes

With approximately 70% of ACL injuries coming from non-contact incidents, many studies have been conducted in order to find causes or preventative measures to counteract the problem. These studies have attempted to narrow the causes and help reduce the occurrence of ACL injuries in female athletes. Presently, research has narrowed its focus to a handful of probable causes. In female athletes, the factors include, but are not limited to: Increased valgus movements during landing, pre-menstrual hormone levels, narrower intercondylar notch width and smaller AC ligaments (Griffin, L. Y., 2000). Research has also noted different firing sequences of leg muscles in male and female athletes. These firing differences help explain some of the different responses that females exhibit to athletic movements and thereby expose themselves to higher risk during those movements. As a result, females find themselves at a biomechanical disadvantage to males when it comes to ACL strength and stability (Ireland, 2002).

Prevention

The good news is that studies have concluded that the incidence of ACL injuries can be reduced through neuromuscular training (Roniger, L. R., 2007). With this type of training, females have been shown to reduce valgus moments when landing (Foster, J. B., 2007). Moreover, as a result of the training, female athletes can incorporate more muscular control and experience less ligament dependence during movements such as cutting, landing, jumping and rapid deceleration. With appropriate training, which can and should be done in the physical education classroom, female athletes can significantly reduce their risk of a catastrophic non-contact ACL injury (Mandelbaum, 2005).

Muscular training to reduce the risk of ACL injuries is not a difficult task. Furthermore, the training falls right into the Physical Education guidelines of helping individuals lead healthier and more satisfying lives. Certainly all of the muscles in the leg would benefit from strength training and stretching, however, this paper will focus on the larger muscles in the Hamstrings and Quadriceps. Most athletes have strong quads because of the amount of work that those muscles do during exercise. A study by Chappell, J., et.al. in 2007 concluded that females landed with less knee flexion, increased quadriceps activation and less hamstring activation. This resulted in increased ACL loading during the landing phase and therefore increased the risk of damage. With this in mind, greater hamstring strength should be a priority in most female athletes. The hamstrings, however, are often overlooked during training. There is much debate, but generally the hamstrings should optimally fall within 60 – 80% of the strength of the quads. The following hamstring strengthening exercises would work well for school Physical Education programs. The first exercise is the squat. A slight bend in the waist and a deep knee bend are necessary to lower your hands to the floor. After your hands have touched the floor and you have counted to three, then return to the starting position. Throughout the exercise, your back must be straight so that the legs and buttocks do the work. The second exercise is the leg curl. This exercise is done from the standing position, preferably facing a table or a stage. While keeping the right leg straight, bring the left foot up toward the buttocks. You should feel the strain in your hamstring as you touch your left heel to your buttocks. Repeat the exercise until the hamstring is fatigued. Repeat with the exercise with the right leg as you keep the left leg straight. The third exercise is the kickback. Stand close to and facing a wall. While keeping the right leg straight, kick the left backwards as far as possible. This will vary from one to three feet depending upon flexibility. Keep the left leg at the furthest position for a count of one. Move the left leg to the initial position. There should be very little bend at the waist and both the legs must be kept straight throughout the exercise. Repeat the procedure for the right leg while keeping the left leg straight. Toe raises will also help stabilize the knee. Simply stand with you feet about shoulder width apart and lift your heals, one at a time, as high as possible before lowering them back to the ground. Start off with sets of 10 and increase as possible.

The final area which can be easily addressed in physical education programs and will help reduce the risk of ACL injures is jump training. These jumping exercises should be conducted with proper form. Proper form includes keeping the legs together, not allowing the knees to come apart, landing softly with bent knees, and finally, forcing the individual to remain balanced at all times. Do not allow anyone to rush through the exercises. These jumps should be over a small cone and should incorporate both legs at the same time. The first set should be done by jumping forward over the cone and then jumping backwards to the initial starting position. The second exercise would be to have the individual jump from side to side over the cone and then jump back to the original position.

These exercises, if done correctly and in conjunction with a proper stretching regimen, could help reduce the incidence of ACL injuries in female athletes. Further tracking of female students participating in a structured physical education setting would substantiate the reduction of this type injury.

References

Arendt, E., Dick, R. (1995). Knee injury patterns among men and women in Collegiate basketball and soccer: NCAA data and review of literature. Am J Sports Med, 23, 694-701.

Griffin, L. Y., et al. (2000). Noncontact anterior cruciate ligament injuries: Risk factors and prevention strategies. J Am Acad Orthop Surg, 8, 141-150.

Roniger, L. R. (2007, October). ACL prevention programs show benefit for teen athletes. J Biomechanics.

Foster, J. B. (2007, November). Soft landing studies find effects beyond sagittal plane of knee. J Biomechanics.

Mandelbaum, B.R., Silvers, H. J., Wantanabee, D.S., et al. (2005). Effectiveness of a neuromuscular and proprioceptive training program in preventing anterior cruciate ligament injuries in female athletes: 2-year follow-up. Am J Sports Med, 33, 1003-10.

Rentrom, P., Ljungqvist, A., Arendt, E., et al. (2008). Non-contact ACL injuries in female athletes: An international Olympic committee current concepts statement. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 42, 394-412.

Ireland, M. L. (2002). The Female ACL: Why is it more prone to injury? Orthopedic Clinics of North America, 33, issue 4.

Chappell, J.D., Creighton, R.A., Giuliani, C., Bing Y., Garrett, W.E., (2007). Kinematics and elecgtromyoghrapy of landing preparation in vertical stopping. Am J Sports Med, 35, 235-241.

U.S. Sports Academy2013-11-25T19:41:46-06:00July 10th, 2009|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Coaching, Sports Exercise Science, Sports Management, Women and Sports|Comments Off

Incorporating the Criminal Law in Sport Studies

Submitted by: Adam Epstein – Central Michigan University

Abstract

The purpose of this article is to provide an outline for teaching the criminal law in a sport studies (or related) course. While the discussion of crimes in sport usually begins with illegitimate physical force or confrontation during the sports contest, criminal misconduct may also involve non-violent behavior. For example, the recent allegations of point-shaving at the University of Toledo demonstrate how non-violent (white-collar) crimes might occur in the legal environment of sport (Gilbert & Silka, 2009).

Crimes can be committed in all environments and at all levels: youth sport, recreational activities and leagues, amateur competition and in the professional ranks. Crimes can be committed by coaches, fans, parents, agents, referees, and others. The study of the criminal law and its relationship to sport is quite broad, so establishing a solid outline prior to teaching this section of any sport studies course is vital.

Introduction

It is very important that the instructor—at the outset—compare and contrast the similarities between the criminal law and the civil (i.e., tort) law. In tort law, a private party plaintiff may sue a defendant for an assault or battery while the same defendant might be charged by the government (i.e., the state) for criminal assault or criminal battery. For each alleged criminal misconduct, the state must prove that an act occurred (actus reus) which violated a federal or state statute and that the defendant had the intent to commit such act (mens rea). The district attorney’s office makes the determination as when to prosecute for criminal misconduct based upon the evidence in the case and the willingness of the victim to press charges (New York Times, 2007).

The student should be encouraged to ask why prosecutors pursue charges in some sport incidents and not others. For example, why do Canadian jurisdictions prosecute misconduct during a hockey game substantially more than the American counterparts? A lot depends upon the locale’s expectations regarding what degree participants impliedly consent to certain conduct and to what extent the conduct be characterized as illegitimate (unacceptable) violence (Clarke, 2000; Katz, 2000; Harary, 2002; Yates & Gillespie, 2002; Barry, Fox & Jones, 2005).

Table 1
Categories of Crimes

Crimes Against Persons	Crimes Against Property	Crimes Against Public Health, Safety, and Welfare	Crimes Against Government
Assault	Counterfeiting of tickets and merchandise	Conspiracy to commit a crime (solicitation)	Human trafficking (assisting in illegal immigration)
Battery	Embezzlement	Cruelty to animals	Illegal gambling (sports wagering)
Extortion (Blackmail)	Theft	Dangerous flying (parachuting)	Mail and wire fraud
Fraud	Trespassing	Disorderly conduct	Obstruction of justice
Hazing	Vandalism	Driving under the influence (DUI/DWI)	Perjury
Manslaughter		Point shaving (sports bribery)	Racketeering (RICO) and organized crime
Mobbing		Sports agent crimes	Use, sale or possession of performance-enhancing drugs
Reckless Homicide		Streaking/indecent exposure	Tax evasion
Reckless Endangerment			Ticket scalping
Stalking
Voyeurism (Peeping Tom)

Assault and Battery

Beginning the study of the criminal law in sport with assault and battery before moving on to the other subjects is quite effective. The crimes of assault and battery involve the unwelcome and excessive physical contact between two or more persons. Definitions of assault and battery differ among the states and the student should be advised to research their own state statutes. However, the instructor should mention that the Model Penal Code was drafted to assist state legislatures in defining what constitutes criminal misconduct and to standardize and create more uniformity throughout the country with regard to the criminal law. It divides criminal assault into two categories: simple or aggravated (Osborne, 2006). A person is guilty of simple assault if he attempts to cause or purposely, knowingly, or recklessly causes bodily injury to another; or negligently causes bodily injury to another with a deadly weapon; or attempts by physical menace to put another in fear of imminent serious bodily injury. Similarly, a person is guilty of aggravated assault if there was the attempt to cause serious bodily injury to another, or causes such injury purposely, knowingly, or recklessly under circumstances manifesting extreme indifference to the value of human life; or attempts to cause or purposely or knowingly causes bodily injury to another with a deadly weapon (Model Penal Code § 2.11.1; Osborne, 2006).

Implied Consent

In sports such as boxing, football, hockey, wrestling, and others, aggressive physical contact is an expected part of the contest. Some courts recognize this as the implied consent doctrine: that is, participants voluntarily assume certain risks of injury or violence during a sport activity. However, at what point does aggressive participation cross over into an excessively violent act in which a possible crime occurred? Is there a bright-line test in which participants, referees, coaches and spectators recognize that the type of violence which occurred is so far beyond the expected rules of the game that the participant could actually be charged with a crime such as assault or battery? The instructor carries the burden here of presenting such challenges for judges, and students must recognize that there is no clear-cut answer and each act of aggression or violence is different (Harary, 2002; State v. Guidugli, 2004).

In the Washington state case of State v. Shelley, a pickup basketball game turned into a brawl in which one player punched another in the face, breaking his jaw. In addition to the criminal charges, the court in the civil case utilized the Model Penal Code’s § 2.11 for guidance in determining whether or not such contact was reasonably foreseeable. The court affirmed the lower court decision and held that a participant in such an activity did not impliedly consent to throwing or receiving punches during a pickup basketball game.

The following sections discuss some of the more specific ways in which the discussion of the criminal law can enter the classroom. A few of the more important criminal laws are discussed as well as some of the significant cases in recent years in a variety of sports.

Sport Participants

Illegitimate violence in sport can occur in all activities. The concern over violence in sport has become so important that some have referred to it as an “epidemic” (Harary, 2002). Incidents abound involving players and entire teams before, during and after football games including the infamous bench-clearing brawl between University of Miami (Florida) players and Florida International University players in 2006. No arrests were made in the incident (ESPN.com News Services, 2006). In baseball, bench-clearing brawls are common as is the act of a pitcher intentionally hitting a batter. However, is this type of violence legitimate? Should the police arrest the players for assault and battery? In 2007, former major-leaguer Jose Offerman was thrown out of the game, arrested by police and charged with two counts of second-degree assault after charging the pitcher’s mound and swinging his bat at the opposing team in an independent league minor league game after he was hit by a pitch. He pleaded not guilty and was given two years special probation (Associated Press, 2007).

Hockey players’ overly aggressive misconduct has resulted in numerous legal cases including several criminal convictions especially in Canadian courts. In the twin Canadian cases of Regina v. Maki and Regina v. Green, Wayne Maki of the St. Louis Blues and Ted Green of the Boston Bruins were charged with assault after each attempted to swing their sticks among the shoving in an exhibition game in Ottawa. Maki connected with Green’s head, which resulted in a fracture of Green’s skull. The courts held that the amounts of force were not excessive, that players assumed certain risks in the game and that self-defense justified the actions. The assault charges were dismissed against both Green and Maki in the separate cases, though the Green court noted that sports leagues should not have players immune from criminal prosecution.

In Regina v. Ciccarelli, Minnesota North Stars’ Dino Ciccarelli hit Luke Richardson (Toronto Maple Leafs) with his stick during a game in Toronto in 1988. Ciccarelli was sentenced to one day in jail for the assault and received a $1,000 fine. The court wanted to send a message to fans and participants that certain types of violence in hockey cross the line (Clarke, 2000; Harary, 2002).

Spectators

There are countless examples of spectators storming the field or court during a contest, not just among the post-game celebrations or skirmishes. Such actions have led to criminal prosecutions. In 2002, a father and son stormed the field and attacked Kansas City Royals first-base coach Tom Gamboa during a game against the Chicago White Sox in Chicago. The son pleaded guilty to aggravated battery and mob action and was sentenced to five years probation and community service. The father originally pleaded innocent, but he later changed his plea to guilty and was given 30 months probation, community service and to remain in a substance abuse program (Falkoff, 2003). In 2003, Pittsburgh Pirates member Randall Simon was cited for disorderly conduct, a misdemeanor, and was fined $432 after he—while standing on the edge of the dugout—knocked a stadium worker involved in the spectator-friendly “sausage race,” which features fans dressed in over-sized caricatures involving a bratwurst, hot dog Italian sausage and Polish sausage between the sixth and seventh innings running around the bases for entertainment. Simon was handcuffed and taken to the Milwaukee County Jail after the game. The incident has become known as “Sausage-gate” (Associated Press, 2003; Luna, 2007).

Parents and Youth Sport

Incidents across the country, including shootings of high school coaches, have given national attention to parents involved in criminal youth sport misconduct (Associated Press, 2006a). New Jersey passed a law in 2002 increasing the punishment for assaults committed during youth sporting events, especially by intense, overzealous and in some cases “raging” parents. Now, the possible punishment is up to 18 months in prison and more than $10,000 in fines. The state law changed in response to a criminal case in which a parent was found guilty of involuntary manslaughter (an unintentional killing as a result of a battery) during a fight after a youth hockey practice. A Massachusetts jury convicted Thomas Junta rejecting claims that he acted in self-defense when he beat another father to death at a youth scrimmage during 2000. He was sentenced 6 to 10 years in prison (Harary, 2002; Commonwealth v. Junta, 2004).

Gambling (Sports Wagering)

Sports gambling (sometimes referred to as sports wagering) and point-shaving (intentionally fixing a game) do not involve any physical force per se. Federal and state governments have attempted to legislate anti-gambling prohibitions as sports gambling under the government’s general ability to protect the health, safety and welfare of its citizens under its constitutionally authorized “police power.” Protecting the integrity of a sports contest is obviously vital for fans and to be fair to competing gamblers where sport gambling is legal (Weinberg, 2003; Osborne, 2006). Though federal laws, such as the Wire Communications Act of 1961, the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act of 1970 (RICO) (organized crime), and the Bribery in Sporting Contests Act of 1979, emerged in the last several decades and have been applied in sport law prosecutions, there are newer attempts to regulate sports gambling many of which have been met with success (McCarthy a, b, 2007). The advent of the internet has greatly shaped the landscape with regard to sports wagering in professional sport (Liddell, 2004).

Sports Bribery (Game Fixing/Point-Shaving)

Sports bribery has been brought to light in recent years in sport and recreation law. In 2007, NBA referee Tim Donaghy pleaded guilty to a gambling scandal involving wire fraud and transmitting gambling tips, and he was sentenced in 2008 to 15 months in prison (Timanus, 2007; Pugmire, 2008). In 2009, several University of Toledo athletes were indicted by federal authorities for alleged involvement in point-shaving schemes in conjunction with Detroit men (Gilbert & Silka, 2009). Too, there have been numerous gambling incidents related to amateur sport, particularly with regard to the NCAA (Udovicic, 1998; Jones & Handel, 2002).

The influential NCAA has a keen interest in protecting the integrity of its sports product and frowns upon any sort of sport-related gambling whatsoever (NCAA, 2004; Crowley, 2006; McCarthy a, b 2007). Therefore, the NCAA has enacted a rules manual (called Bylaws) which the Indianapolis-based organization enforces vigorously at all three divisions of competition (Copeland, 2004; Rogers and Ryan, 2007). Many of its Bylaws relate to sports wagering. Other NCAA incidents included the University of Kentucky basketball team, which played no schedule for the 1952-53 season due to a point-shaving scandal that rocked the nation in 1951. Historically, collegiate sports gambling incidents abound and have included and affected schools such as Boston College (1978, 1996), Northwestern University (1994), and numerous others including several colleges and universities in Florida (McCallum & Hersch, 1997; Drape, 2003; Goldstein a,b,c,d, 2003; Grady & Clement, 2005; Maske, 2005; Merron, 2006; Gillispie, 2007; NCAA, n.d.).

Professional and Amateur Sports Protection Act

A federal law, the Professional and Amateur Sports Protection Act of 1992, was enacted to stop the spread of state-authorized gambling and to protect the integrity of sporting events generally. Nevada, the only state at that time that had legalized sports gambling, was granted immunity from this federal law (also known as the Nevada or “Las Vegas loophole”) which makes it unlawful for a governmental entity, or a person acting pursuant to the law of such an entity, to operate, sponsor, advertise, promote, license, or authorize a lottery, sweepstakes, or other betting, gambling, or wagering scheme based, directly or indirectly, on one or more competitive game in which amateur, Olympic or professional athletes participate. The states of Delaware, Montana and Oregon are also exempt from the Act which exempts pari-mutuel betting and jai alai games as well (Barlett & Steele, 2000; Slavin, 2002; Rychlak, 2003/2004).

Ticket Scalping

Reselling an event ticket is usually referred to as ticket scalping, a classic example of a sport-related crime. This practice of resale is regulated at the state level. Ticket scalpers attempt to find buyers of their tickets around the venue for the event. Today, scalping is often done through various secondary ticket marketing brokers online in addition to in-person. State laws and city ordinances which regulate ticket scalping focus on where a sale of a ticket may (or may not) take place and to what degree the scalper may (or may not) sell a ticket above its face value. Scalping laws were also enacted to prevent spectators from being harassed as they entered the sports arena and for safety reasons related to the flow of fans into the arena.

While there are no federal laws directly governing ticket scalping, several states and a number of municipalities have given up on the attempts to enforce scalping laws altogether. Many states have recently repealed their ticket-scalping laws. This appears to be a trend especially with the ease and access of reselling over the internet by companies such as StubHub.com, for example. The ticket-resale business has been dramatically changed by the on-line world of cyber-scalping. To enforce anti-scalping laws from sales on the internet may be impracticable but it appears that the selling of counterfeit tickets may be more of a governmental concern than the resale of tickets (Criscuolo, 1995; Gibbs, 2000; Osborne and Pittman, 2006).

Wire and Mail Fraud

The Wire Communications Act of 1961 is at 18 U.S.C. §1084. The purpose of the act is to criminalize gambling behavior which uses a wire communication (such as a telephone) to transmit to place illegal bets across state lines (i.e., via “interstate commerce”). The federal mail fraud statute (18 U.S.C. §1341) defines fraud as a “scheme” or artifice which uses the “mails” to execute the scheme. This statute is often used by United States Attorneys in the prosecution of white-collar crimes. Similarly, wire fraud (18 U.S.C. §1343) provides for a penalty for any criminally fraudulent activity involving electronic communications. These crimes have appeared in scenarios involving sports agents who recruit student-athletes to become their professional clients.

In United States v. Walters, Walters, a sports agent, was charged with conspiracy, RICO violations, and mail fraud. The mail fraud charge arose from his actions in which student-athletes violated NCAA rules by signing post-dated contracts with him and his associate Bloom. The federal government argued that the mail fraud statutes were violated because each university required its athletes to verify their eligibility to play by mail sent to the appropriate athletic conference. Walters was initially convicted by a jury, but that conviction was reversed on appeal. Conspiracy and racketeering (RICO) charges were ultimately dismissed (Goodman, 1998).

Conclusion

Incorporating the criminal law in the sport studies course can be a challenge. Establishing a solid outline for this section of a course is vital to the instructor’s success. Recent suspensions involving the illegal use of performance-enhancing drugs, allegations of point-shaving schemes, and the continuing illegitimate violent physical misconduct by parents, players and spectators should provide the instructor and student alike considerable discussion with regard to the role of the criminal law in sport studies. The above outline and subject matter should provide a solid foundation for a successful section of criminal law in any sport studies course.

References

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Goldstein, J. (2003c, November 19). Explosion II: The Molinas period. ESPN.com. Retrieved April 21, 2008, from http://espn.go.com/classic/s/basketball_scandals_molinas.html

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U.S. Sports Academy2013-11-25T19:43:07-06:00July 10th, 2009|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Coaching, Sports Management, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|Comments Off

Geographical Effects on College Bowl Games

Submitted by: Steve Yoost

Abstract

One of the most heated debates in all of college sports centers on the college football postseason. With the goal of creating the best structure for determining a national champion, some parties argue for playoffs, while others advocate that the current bowl system should remain in place. One part of the college football postseason that has been overlooked is the location of the games as a factor in potentially ameliorating the bowl system. Data were conducted to determine if geography gives certain teams advantages in bowl games. Statistical analysis showed that factors such as participant teams’ relative distances to the bowl sites and relative climates are significant in determining the outcomes of major college football bowl games.

Introduction

One of the many traditions of major college football is the unique conclusion to its season. Since 1902, when the forerunner to the Rose Bowl was played for the first time, a series of bowl games has marked the end of the college football season (Bauman, 2009). Unlike most of their other collegiate and professional sports counterparts, college football teams in the NCAA’s Division One Football Bowl Subdivision (formerly Division I-A) conclude each year with the chance to participate, not in a multi-round tournament, but in a bowl game (NCAA Championships, 2008).

In the past fifteen years, the college football bowl system has evolved into an imperfect compromise, balancing tradition with a growing desire to crown an undisputable national champion. The Bowl Championship Series, the most recent manifestation of the struggle between tradition and progress, emerged in the late 1990s. (BCS Background, 2008). At first, the Bowl Championship Series (BCS) consisted of four major bowl games – the Fiesta, Orange, Sugar, and Rose Bowls – with the two most highly ranked teams placed in one of those four games. A fifth BCS game, which was dubbed the BCS Championship Game, was added starting with the end of the 2006 season (Flanagan, 2008).

The BCS, while representing significant progress compared with its predecessors, has been unable to produce a true national champion on a consistent basis. This shortcoming is partially due to the fact that each team can play in a maximum of just one bowl game, as opposed to a multi-round tournament. If, for example, three schools have perfect records following the regular season, the BCS is capable of pairing only two of those three institutions in its “National Championship Game,” while the third school must compete in a different bowl game.

BCS controversy, while never completely dormant between 2005 and the present, returned with a vengeance in 2008 (Lopresti, 2008). Instead of having three undefeated teams vying for the chance to play for a national championship, the end of the 2008 regular season resulted in a top ten with no undefeated major conference teams, seven one-loss major conference teams, and two undefeated non-major conference teams. Three of these one-loss teams were from one particular conference, and only one received a chance to play in the national championship game, while another played in the Fiesta Bowl, and the third did not get an opportunity to play in a BCS game at all (Knight, 2009).

This debate has even become a political issue, as various politicians have spoken out in favor of a college football playoff system (Limon, 2009). As a result of this continued controversy, the increasingly popular solution to the championship problem is a playoff system, which could pit anywhere from four to sixteen teams in a single-elimination tournament. (Withers, 2008). Other collegiate and professional sports, including other collegiate football divisions and the National Football League, already employ such a format. While many agree that this would be a logical change, few have addressed the issue of where these playoff games would be played. That the proponents of maintaining the BCS system believe the bowl games should be played at their traditional locations is a given.

With few exceptions from year to year, bowl games are played on a neutral field and at the same stadium each year (Official Records Book, 2008). While the focus of reforming the bowl system has been on moving from a one-game postseason to more of a tournament system, other elements of the system – such as where the bowl games (or playoff games) are (or will be) played – have been largely overlooked, even though the locations of games could be important in creating a comprehensively fair postseason that crowns a true national champion.

Question Presented

Do geographical factors play a role in determining the results of bowl games? Specifically, do significantly diverse distances between the participating teams’ campuses and the bowl games’ sites affect the outcome of those games? Also, do climates of representative institutions that are significantly disparate between each other and the location of bowl games affect the outcome of those games?

Geographical factors provide some of the many reasons why playing a game at one’s home field is an advantage. Playing in front of a supportive crowd, having a familiarity with the surroundings, and not having to travel to play the game are some other components of what gives the home team an advantage. Unlike regular season games, bowl games are intended to be played on neutral fields; however, many major bowl games are played in locations that are much closer to one of the participant schools than the other. As a result, there is the potential that the game location could unintentionally favor one team over the other. Data were compiled to determine if such a significant, albeit unintentional, advantage exists.

Method

Since the first Bowl Championship Series game at the end of the 1998-99 season, there have been a total of 47 BCS bowl games. Teams from 41 institutions have filled the 94 spots in those games. The following data from these games and schools were collected:

The distances between each school and the host bowl site;
The average temperatures of the homes of the participant schools and the host bowl sites;
The point spread for each game; and
The outcome of each game.

The distances between the locations of each participant institution and the particular bowl games were determined using mapquest.com. The average temperatures of each of the schools and each of the bowl sites were obtained from weatherbase.com. The sites of the bowl games and their outcomes from 1999 to 2008 were obtained from the Official 2008 Division I Football Records Book, which is published by the NCAA. The historical point spread for each game was obtained from goldsheet.com.

Data were grouped into three sections: distances, climate, and favorites. The distances section presents the results of the bowl games by taking into account the distances between the representative institutions and the sites of the games. The climate section shows the results of the bowl games when considering the differences in weather between the teams and the locations of the games. The favorites section reveals how well the favored teams fared against the point spread.

The point spread for each game was collected to help determine the significance of the results of the data. The point spread, which is commonly called the spread or the line, is a method used to weigh each team’s likelihood of winning a game. An oddsmaker, most often Las Vegas Sports Consultants Inc., predicts the outcome of a match-up and publishes the point spread to indicate how the teams will do. The point spread is a prediction of the difference between the final scores. The favorite team is identified by a negative number, and the absolute value of that number identifies the underdog.

In other words, the favorite team is favored to win by the point spread. So, for instance, if a team is favored at -4, the oddsmakers believe that the favorite team will win the game by 4 points. If the favorite team “beats the spread” or “covers the spread,” then it has won the game and has won it by more than the point spread. If the favorite team does not beat the spread or fails to cover the spread, then it has either lost or it has won by tying the point spread or scoring less than the point spread. Therefore, an underdog beats the spread if it wins the game, loses by the amount of the point spread, or loses by less than the point spread.

When determining the spread, the oddsmakers take into account almost every conceivable factor, including records, strengths of schedules, weather, injuries, home field, tradition, motivations, time of day of kick-off, revenge, rivalries, time off between games, starters, playing surface, number of fans in attendance, and historical trends. Comparing the outcomes of games to the spread helps to reveal the significance of the data, since the spread takes into account the geographical factors of weather and location.

Results

The teams from institutions that are closer to the bowl site than their opponents have won 25 of the 47 BCS games, giving them a winning percentage of over 53%. However, the distances between participant schools and the bowl sites are not always significant. For instance, in the 1999 Fiesta Bowl, Tennessee played Florida State, and Knoxville, Tennessee is roughly 1800 miles from Tempe, Arizona, while Tallahassee, Florida is about 1880 miles from Tempe. Tennessee cannot be said to have had a proximity advantage in this game, since both teams had to travel similar distances to Tempe. This game was one of six instances in which the relative distances between the participant schools and the bowl sites were negligible. When disregarding the outcomes of these six games, the closer team has won a slightly greater percentage of the BCS games – just over 56%.

Table 1 – Distance (Straight)

Teams Closer to the Bowl Site
Straight Record

Wins	Losses	Winning %
25	22	0.5319

Teams Closer to the Bowl Site
Straight Record (without negligible distance differences)

Wins	Losses	Winning %
23	18	0.5610

The teams from climates more similar to that of the bowl site have won over 60% of the BCS games, winning 28 of those 46 games. (The participants in the 2009 Orange Bowl, Cincinnati and Virginia Tech, are from locations with the same average temperature, so the results do not reflect this game.) In some instances, the relative weather of the participant schools was negligible. For example, when Ohio State and Notre Dame played each other in the 2006 Fiesta Bowl, neither school had a climate advantage. Columbus, Ohio and South Bend, Indiana have average temperatures within four degrees of one another, and neither average temperature is similar to that of Tempe, Arizona. There have been six such match-ups with teams from very similar climates. When disregarding these negligible differences, teams from locations with climates significantly more similar to that of the bowl site than their opponents have won over 62% of the BCS games.

Table 2 – Climate (Straight)

Teams from a Climate More Similar to the Bowl Site
Straight Record

Wins	Losses	Winning %
28	18	0.6087

Teams from a Climate More Similar to the Bowl Site
Straight Record (without negligible climate differences)

Wins	Losses	Winning %
25	15	0.6250

The success of teams from locations closer to the bowl site than their opponents is slightly greater when taking the point spread into account. In the BCS era, the closer team has defeated the spread over 55% of the time. When disregarding negligible distance differences, the closer team has defeated the spread in 24 of 41 games for a winning percentage of greater than 58%.

Table 3 – Distance (Spread)

Teams Closer to the Bowl Site
Record Against the Spread

Wins	Losses	Winning %
26	21	0.5532

Teams Closer to the Bowl Site
Record Against the Spread (without negligible distance differences)

Wins	Losses	Winning %
24	17	0.5854

The teams from climates more similar to that of the bowl site have had comparable success. Teams from such similar climates have defeated the spread in 60% of BCS games. When negligible climate differences are ignored, the teams from climates more similar to the bowl site have defeated the spread over 62% of the time.

Table 4 – Climate (Spread)

Teams from a Climate More Similar to the Bowl Site
Record Against the Spread

Wins	Losses	Winning %
28	18	0.6087

Teams from a Climate More Similar to the Bowl Site
Record Against the Spread (without negligible climate differences)

Wins	Losses	Winning %
25	15	0.6250

The success of teams that are closer to the bowl site or that are familiar with the climate of the bowl site is remarkable when compared to the success of the favored teams. The favored team has won 28 of the 46 – or some 60% – of the BCS games. (One game, the 2007 Rose Bowl, did not have a favored team.) Irrespective of the point spread, this is almost exactly the same as the record of teams from climates more similar to the bowl sites, while it is slightly better than closer teams’ record. However, the favored teams have fared much worse when considering the point spread. In fact, the favored team has a losing record against the spread in BCS games. The favored team has won just 22 games and has lost 24 games against the spread.

Table 5 – Favorites

Favorite Teams
Straight Record

Wins	Losses	Winning %
28	18	0.6087

Favorite Teams
Record Against the Spread

Wins	Losses	Winning %
22	24	0.4783

Considering that the point spread already takes into account geographical factors such as climate and location, these results are significant. The teams from locations significantly closer to the bowl site have won over 58% of their games against the spread, while the favored teams have won less than 48% of their games against the spread. Even more dramatic is the difference between the record against the spread of the favored teams and the record against the spread of teams from climates significantly more similar to the bowl site. The teams from climates significantly more similar to the bowl site have won over 62% of their games against the spread, which is almost 15% higher than the favored teams’ record.

Table 6 – Spread Compared

Favored Teams
Record Against the Spread

Wins	Losses	Winning %
22	24	0.4783

Teams Closer to the Bowl Site
Record Against the Spread (without negligible distance differences)

Wins	Losses	Winning %
24	17	0.5854

Teams from a Climate More Similar to the Bowl Site
Record Against the Spread (without negligible climate differences)

Wins	Losses	Winning %
25	15	0.6250

Discussion

Although unintended, the locations of bowl games have impacted the results of these games. A team from an institution with a climate significantly more similar to that of the bowl site than that of the team’s opponent is much more likely to win its bowl game than its opponent. Similar to this, though not quite as strong, is the likelihood that a team from a campus that is significantly closer to the bowl site than that of its opponent will win its bowl game. Understanding these results may be important in determining how to improve the bowl system by considering geographical characteristics of host sites and participant institutions.

With few exceptions from year to year, bowl games are played on a neutral field and at the same stadium. However, the bowl site most often is much closer to the campus and fan concentration of one of the participant schools than it is to the other. Even when the stadium hosting the bowl game is not the home field of one of the participant teams, one team’s campus is frequently much closer to the bowl site than the other team’s home.

Underlying the playoff system movement is the commonly held tenet that college football’s season, like most every other collegiate sport, should result in the crowning of a true national champion. If this is the case, then perhaps more aspects of the postseason should be examined and amended, if necessary – not just the process of selecting teams to play for the title. Geographical factors, such as location and climate, play a role in determining the outcome of bowl games and, ultimately, crowning the national champion.

Future Studies

Future studies may include an examination of the times that games start and the differences between the time zones of participating teams to determine if a more neutral kick-off time should be employed. Additionally, the playoffs for the National Football League have an intended element of home field advantage for all rounds of the playoffs, except for the Super Bowl, which is played at a neutral site. A study of this system’s strengths and weaknesses could help to determine the best arrangement for the college football postseason.

References

BCS Background. Retrieved December 23, 2008, from http://www.bcsfootball.org/bcsfb/about.

Flanagan, K. E. (2008). Factors Affecting Attendance at Bowl Games During the BCS Era. The Sport Journal, 11 (3). Retrieved October 15, 2008, from http://www.thesportjournal.org/ article/factors-affecting-attendance-bowl-games-during-bcs-era.

Goldsheet.com. Retrieved December 12, 2008, from http://goldsheet.com.

Knight, B. (2009, January 8). BCS produces confusion, not a national champion. El Paso Times.

Limon, I. (2009, January 20). Obama: ‘Yes, we can’; BCS: No, we can’t. Orlando Sentinel, D1.

Lopresti, M. (2008, December 11). Bowl backer defends the system. USA Today, 8C.

Mapquest.com. Retrieved November 3, 2008, from http://www.mapquest.com.

NCAA Championships. Retrieved December 23, 2008, from http://www.ncaa.com/champ/index. html.

NCAA. Official 2008 Division I Football Records Book (2008, August). Retrieved October 15, 2008, from http://www.ncaa.org.

Weatherbase.com. Retrieved November 3, 2008, from http://www.weatherbase.com.

Withers, B. (2008, November 7). A BCS crisis may start serious talk about a playoff. The Seattle Times, C1.

U.S. Sports Academy2013-11-25T19:47:06-06:00July 10th, 2009|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Coaching, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|Comments Off

Impact of Cold Water Immersion on 5km Racing Performance

Submitted by: A. Bosak – Dept. of Physical Education & Kinesiology, Brock University, P. Bishop – Dept. of Kinesiology, University of Alabama, J. Green – Dept. of Health, PE, and Recreation, University of North Alabama and G. Hawver – Dept of Health and Human Performance, Georgia Southwestern State University

Abstract

Much effort over the past 50 years has been devoted to research on training, but little is known about recovery after intense running efforts. Insufficient recovery impedes training and performance. Anecdotal evidence suggests that cold water immersion immediately following intense distance running efforts aids in next day performance perhaps by decreasing injury or increasing recovery. The purpose of this study was to compare 5 km racing performance after 24 hrs with and without cold water immersion. Twelve well-trained runners (9 males, 3 females) completed successive (within 24 hours) 5 km performance trials on two separate occasions. Immediately following the first baseline 5 km trial, runners were treated with ice water immersion for 12 minutes followed by 24 hrs of passive recovery (ICE). Another session involved two 5 km time trials: a baseline trial and another trial after 24 hrs of passive recovery (CON). Treatments occurred in a counterbalanced order and were separated by 6-7 days of normal training. ICE (20:08 ± 2.0 min) was not significantly different (p = 0.09) from baseline (19:59 ± 2.0 min). CON (19:59 ± 1.9 min) was significantly (p = 0.03) slower than baseline (19:49 ± 1.9 min). ICE heart rate (175.3 ± 7.6 b/min) was significantly (p = 0.02) less than baseline (178.3 ± 9.8 b/min), yet CON heart rate (177.3 ± 6.3 b/min) was the same as baseline (177.3 ± 7.3 b/min). ICE rate of perceived exertion (19.2 + 1.0) was significantly less (p = 0.03) than baseline (19.8 ± 0.5) while CON rate of perceived exertion (19.5 ± 0.8) was not significantly different (p = 0.39) from baseline (19.6 ± 0.8). Seven individuals responded negatively to ICE running a mean 24.0 ± 13.9 seconds slower than baseline. Nine individuals responded negatively to CON by running a mean 17.4 ± 12.1 seconds slower than baseline. Three individuals responded positively to ICE running a mean 20.33 ± 6.7 seconds faster during second day performance. Three individuals responded positively to CON by running a mean 13.3 ± 6.8 seconds faster than baseline. In general, cold water immersion minutely reduced the decline of next day performance, yet individual variability existed. Efficacy of longer durations of cold water immersion impact after 48 hrs and on distances greater than 5 km appear to be individual and need to be further explored.

Key words: cryotherapy, ice water immersion, passive recovery, running

Introduction

Recovery from hard running efforts plays a vital role in determining when a runner can run at an intense level again (Fitzgerald, 2007). Hard training, followed by adequate recovery, allows the body to adapt to the unusual stress and become better accustomed and more prepared for the same stress, should it occur again (Fitzgerald, 2007; Sinclair, Olgesby, & Piepenberg, 2003). Balancing hard efforts with periods of rest is essential in improving performance during endurance efforts.

The recovery process from endurance efforts tends to revolve around repairing damaged muscle fibers and replenishing glycogen stores (Gomez et al., 2002; Nicholas et al., 1997). Methods proposed to enhance recovery, such as cold water immersion, potentially decrease swelling and the severity of delayed onset of muscle soreness (DOMS), which possibly benefits endurance (i.e. running) and anaerobic performance (Higdon, 1998; Vaile, Gill, & Blazevich, 2007).

Cold water immersion is a common practice among collegiate and professional athletes following intense physical efforts. Anecdotal evidence from several National Athletic Trainers’ Association (NATA) collegiate head athletic trainers suggests that cooling the legs after a hard training effort may benefit the next day’s performance. Popular running and athletic magazines (e.g., Runner’s World, Running Times, etc.) have continually suggested that applying cold water to the legs of a runner facilitates a better perceived feeling for the next run on the following day. Yet, despite its widespread use there is no scientific data supporting the notion that cooling the legs after a hard distance running effort will improve performance 24 hrs later.

The use of cold as a treatment is as ancient as the practice of medicine, dating back to Hippocrates (Stamford, 1996). The therapeutic use of cold is the most commonly used modality in the acute management of musculoskeletal injuries. Running is a catabolic process, with eccentric muscle contractions leading to muscle damage. Applying cold to an injured site decreases pain sensation, improves the metabolic rate of tissue, and allows uninjured tissue to survive a post-injury period of ischemia, or perhaps allows the tissue to be protected from the damaging enzymatic reactions that may accompany injury (Arnheim and Prentice, 1999; Merrick, Jutte, & Smith, 2003). The use of cryotherapy, between sets of “pulley exercises” (similar to a seated pulley row), decreased the feelings of fatigue of the arm and shoulder muscles of 10 male weight lifters (Verducci, 2000), while other cryotherapy research involving recovery from intense anaerobic efforts has yielded equivocal results (Barnett, 2006; Cheung, Hume, & Maxwell, 2003; Crowe, O’Connor, & Rudd, 2007; Howatson, Gaze, & Van Someren, 2005; Howatson and Van Someren, 2003; Isabell et al., 1992; Paddon-Jones and Quigley, 1997; Sellwood et al., 2007; Vaile, Gill, & Blazevich, 2007; Vaile et al., 2008; Yackzan, Adams, and Francis, 1984). However, methods of cryotherapy effective for enhancing recovery from distance running efforts have not been examined.

Long duration or high intensity running contributes to muscle cell damage (Fitzgerald, 2007; Noakes, 2003). Edema, a by-product of muscle damage can cause reduced range of joint motion. Because cryotherapy has been shown to decrease inflammation (Dolan et al., 1997; O’Conner and Wilder, 2001), it is logical to assume that this treatment may reduce the severity of DOMS. Less pain may permit an athlete to push themselves harder potentially improving performance. Despite the fact that previous research has shown that 24 hrs alone is not sufficient recovery from 5 km running performance (Bosak, Bishop, & Green, 2008), it might be possible that combining cold water immersion with 24 hrs of recovery could potentially hasten the recovery process. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to compare 5 km racing performance after 24 hrs of passive recovery with and without cold water immersion.

Methods

Participants:

Participants for the study were 12 well trained male (n = 9) and female (n = 3) runners currently engaged in rigorous training. Runners from the local road running and track club, local triathlon competitors, as well as former competitive high school and college runners, were recruited by word of mouth. Participant inclusion criteria included the following: 1) Subjects must have been currently involved in a distance running training program; 2) Their 5 km times previously run had to be at least 16-22 min for male runners or 18-24 min for female runners; 3) They had to be currently averaging at least 20-30 miles (running) per week; 4) They had to have previously completed at least five 5 km road or track races; 5) They had to have a VO2max of at least 45 ml/kg/min (females) or 55 ml/kg/min (males); and 6) They had to provide sufficient data (from running history questionnaires, physical activity readiness questionnaires, and health readiness questionnaires) that reflected good health.

Participants completed a short questionnaire regarding their running background, racing history, and current training mileage. All participants were volunteers and signed a written informed consent outlining requirements as well as potential risks and benefits resulting from participating.

Procedures:

Participants were assessed for age, height, body weight, and body fat percentage using a 3-site skinfold technique (Brozek and Hanschel, 1961; Pollock, Schmidt, & Jackson, 1980). Participants were fitted with a Polar heart rate monitor, and then completed a graded exercise test (GXT) to exhaustion lasting approximately 12-18 min. VO2max, heart rate (HR), and ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) were collected every minute.

All GXTs were completed on a Quinton 640 motorized treadmill. The test began with a 2 min warm-up at 2.5 mph. Speed was increased to 5 mph for 2 min, followed by 2 min at 6 mph, 2 min at 7 mph, and 2 min at 7.5 mph. At this point, incline was increased two percent every 2 min thereafter until the participant reached volitional exhaustion (i.e. they felt like they could no longer continue running at the required speed and grade). Once the participant reached volitional exhaustion, they were instructed to cool down until they felt recovered.

Approximately five days later, participants performed their first 5 km race (performance trial) between the hours of 6:30 am to 7:30 am. The time of day for each performance trial was consistent throughout the entire study. All performance trials were completed on a flat hard-surfaced 0.73 mile loop. Prior to each trial, participants completed visual analog scales, before and after a 1.5 mile warm-up run, regarding their feelings of fatigue and soreness within local muscle groups (quadriceps, hamstrings, gastrocnemius), and for lower and total body muscle groups. Visual analog scales were 15 cm lines, where participants placed an “X” on the line indicating their feelings (with 0 = no fatigue or soreness and 15 = extreme fatigue or soreness). The focus of the visual analog scales was to determine if participants felt the same before the start of every time trial. Participants were also required to rate their perceived exertion (RPE) after the warm-up and prior to the start of each 5 km, during each trial, and at the end of each performance trial to determine if feelings of effort remained consistent between each trial, as well as during each lap and at the end of each trial.

Runners underwent a 1.5 mile warm-up prior to every 5 km performance trial (Kaufmann and Ware, 1977). Participants completed four 5 km performance trials within nine days. Two 5 km performance trials (baseline and CON) were separated by 24 hrs of passive recovery. Passive recovery was deemed as no exercise or extensive physical activity during the allotted recovery hours. Two 5 km performance trials (baseline and ICE) were also separated by 24 hrs of passive recovery, but with 12 minutes of 15.5ºC water immersion immediately following the baseline trial. The two sessions of 5 km performance trials were counterbalanced and were separated by 6-7 days of normal training. Each trial session therefore, had a separate baseline preceded by 24 hrs of passive recovery.

Ideal cryotherapeutic water temperature has not been determined, yet various head collegiate athletic trainers prefer that the water temperature does not dip below 13ºC (55.5ºF) since many people find water temperatures below 13ºC uncomfortable (O’Connor and Wilder, 2001). Also, the duration of ice baths generally lasts 10-15 minutes and is usually applied immediately after a hard training session (Crowe, O’Connor, & Rudd, 2007; Schniepp et al., 2002; Vaile et al., 2008). Hence, in this study, 15.5ºC (60ºF) was the temperature for the cold water and the athletes were immersed for 12 min.

During each time trial, average heart rate and ending RPE were recorded in order to determine if effort for each 5 km was consistent. All participants competed with runners of similar ability to simulate race day and hard training conditions, while verbal encouragement was provided often and equally to each participant. At the end of every performance trial, each runner was instructed to complete a low intensity 1.5 mile cool-down. Each total testing trial required approximately 60 min.

Statistical Analysis:

Basic descriptive statistics were computed. Repeated measures of analysis of variance (ANOVA) were employed for making comparisons between CON and baseline and PAS and baseline performance trials for the following variables: finishing times, HR, RPE, and fatigue or soreness responses. All statistical comparisons were made at an a priori p < .05 level of significance. Data were expressed as group mean + standard deviation and individual results.

In order to evaluate individual responses, data from each participant’s first run was compared to the second run using a paired T-test. The least significance group mean difference (p < 0.05) was determined and group mean finishing time was adjusted to determine the amount of change in seconds needed for significance to occur. The time change between the first trial run and the adjusted trial run baseline was divided by the first trial run and expressed as mean number of seconds or percent for both the ICE (9.3 seconds or 0.8%) and CON (9.5 seconds or 0.8%) trials. The percent values were applied to each individual baseline time in order to determine how many seconds (positive or negative) the second performance trial time had to be over or under the first performance trial, in both CON and ICE conditions, to quantify as a response. Participants were then labeled as non-responders, positive-responders (faster after treatment), and negative-responders (slower after treatment).

Results

Descriptive characteristics are found in Table 1. The participants were between the ages of 18 and 35 (the majority of subjects were between ages 20-28) years. All participants were trained runners or triathletes (where running was their specialty event).

Mean finishing times, HR, and RPE for CON and ICE trials are found in Table 2. CON was significantly (p = 0.03) slower (10 seconds) than baseline, where as ICE was not significantly different (p = 0.09) from baseline. No significant differences were found between CON HR vs. baseline, but ICE HR was significantly (p = 0.01) less than baseline. No significant differences (p = 0.39) were found between CON RPE and baseline, yet ICE RPE was significantly (p = 0.03) less than baseline.

Figure 1 shows individual changes in finishing times for all CON and ICE performance trials. To be considered a non-responder, the individual time change had to fall within 0.8% of baseline performance for ICE and CON. Positive and negative responders (Table 3) were identified when individual time change was greater than 0.8% for CON and ICE trials, with a positive responder being one whose second performance trial time improved (expressed as a negative value) and a negative responder being one whose second performance trial time slowed (expressed as a positive value).

Seven individuals responded negatively to ICE by running a mean 24.0 ± 13.9 seconds slower during the second trial (Table 3). Three individuals responded positively to ICE by running a mean 20.3 ± 6.7 seconds faster than baseline. Two individuals were considered non-responders to ICE with a mean time change of 2.5 ± 0.7secs.

Seven individuals responded negatively to CON by running a mean 20.6 ± 9.0 seconds slower than baseline (Table 3). Three individuals responded positively to CON by running a mean 13.3 ± 6.8 seconds faster than baseline. Two individuals were non-responders to the CON trials with a mean time change of 6.5 ± 0.7 seconds. It is important to note that the seven individuals who were negative responders to ICE were not the same seven participants who responded negatively to CON. Also, the three participants who responded positively to ICE were not the same three individuals who responded positively to CON. Finally, the non-responders to ICE were not the same non-responders to CON.

Soreness and fatigue scores (Table 4) on the pre-and post-warm-up fatigue or soreness visual analog scales were not significantly different between CON and baseline versus ICE and baseline.

Discussion

The effects of cold-water immersion on recovery and next day performance in 5 km racing have not been previously evaluated. Therefore, the primary purpose of this study was to compare 5 km running performance after 24 hrs of passive recovery with and without cold water immersion. This study appeared to indicate that cold water immersion does not dramatically help performance (regarding the group of runners as a whole) during second day 5 km trials.

Twenty-four hours of passive recovery may allow for normalization of muscle and liver glycogen, yet muscle function and performance measures may not be fully recovered (Foss and Keteyian, 1998). Hence, 24 hrs of recovery, by itself, may not be sufficient to allow for a return to optimal performance (Bosak, Bishop, & Green, 2008). When racing (e.g., a 5 km distance) on consecutive days, race times may be slower on the second day due to magnified perception of pain and impaired muscle function associated with DOMS (Brown and Henderson, 2002; Fitzgerald, 2007; Galloway, 1984). Since cold water immersion may speed up the recovery process (Arnheim and Prentice, 1999; Vaile et al., 2008) it is logical to assume that cold water immersion immediately after a 5 km race or workout could attenuate soreness potentially minimizing performance decrements on successive days.

There were no significant (p = 0.09) differences in 5 km performance between ICE and baseline, indicating that mean performance during ICE was not significantly slower (9 seconds) than baseline (refer to Table 2). However, CON performance was significantly (p = 0.03) slower (10 seconds) than baseline. Hence, due to significant differences occurring between ICE and baseline, it appears that cold water immersion slightly attenuated the rate of decline on successive 5 km time trial performance. However, the time difference between CON and baseline versus ICE and baseline was a mere second. Therefore, from a practical standpoint, cold water immersion was no more beneficial than CON on successive 5 km performance.

Despite the minimal differences between CON (10 seconds) and ICE (9 seconds) trials regarding mean time change, it is important to focus on the effects of cold water immersion on individual runners (Figure 1). Because some runners ran slower during successive performance trials while other runners ran faster, the mean finishing times do not necessarily give a true impression of the benefits or liabilities of the specific treatments involved in this study. As it is with most ergogenic aids, individual variability suggests what works (e.g., ice) for one person may not work the same for another person. It is possible that the treatment may often not have an effect at all, as similar to what occurred with several prior anaerobic performance studies (Barnett, 2006; Cheung, Hume, & Maxwell, 2003; Crowe, O’Connor, & Rudd, 2007; Howatson, Gaze, & Van Someren, 2005; Howatson and Van Someren, 2003; Isabell et al., 1992; Paddon-Jones and Quigley, 1997; Sellwood et al., 2007; Vaile et al., 2008), which was also the case in this study as two individuals were considered non-responders to ICE with a mean time change of 2.5 ± 0.7 seconds between ICE and baseline, while two other participants were non-responders to CON with a mean time change of 6.5 ± 0.7 seconds between CON and baseline.

Three individuals responded positively (Table 3) to ICE, running a mean 20.33 ± 6.7 seconds faster, indicating that cold water immersion may have actually allowed these individuals to run faster on the second day. However, 3 different individuals responded positively to CON, running a mean 13.3 ± 6.8 seconds faster than baseline. The mechanism by which cold water immersion aids in recovery, from endurance performance, remains somewhat unclear and equivocal (Schniepp et al., 2002; Vaile et al., 2008). Yet, several runners who did run faster during ICE trial, verbally indicated that prior to the second trial, their legs felt better (regarding fatigue and soreness) than they had prior to CON. Thus, the notion of feeling better may have allowed the runners to perform faster.

Seven individuals responded negatively (Table 3) to ICE, running a mean 24.0 ± 13.9 seconds slower. However, they were not the same seven individuals who responded negatively to CON, who ran an average of 20.6 ± 9.0 seconds slower than baseline. As was the case with Schniepp et al. (2002) endurance cycling recovery study and various anaerobic performance studies (Crowe, O’Connor, & Rudd, 2007; Sellwood et al., 2002; Vaile et al., 2008; Yackzan, Adams, & Francis, 1984), it appears ICE may have had a more negative effect, for these individuals, on second day performance compared to CON.

Three individuals responded positively to CON running a mean 13.3 ± 6.8 seconds faster during the second day performance trial. It is unclear why some participants ran faster during CON. There were no consistent patterns of HR and increased or decreased performance with all participants during all CON and ICE trials. As a group, no significant differences were found between CON vs. baseline, regarding HR (p = 1.00) and RPE (p = 0.39), despite significant differences (p = 0.04) occurring in mean finishing time. However, mean finishing times for ICE were similar, yet significant differences were found between ICE vs. baseline for both HR (p = 0.01) and RPE (p = 0.03). Hence, there does not appear to be a consistent pattern between performance times and HR and/or RPE.

It can be assumed that a lower HR may be associated with slower times, since HR and intensity levels tend to be linearly related. However, only participants 1, 5, and 6 consistently ran slower during both CON and ICE second day performances with lower HR during both trials. During the ICE trials, only participants 1, 5, 6, and 9 ran slower and had a lower HR. During the CON trials, only 1, 3, 5, 6, ran slower and had a lower HR. Also, soreness and fatigue scores (Table 4) on the pre and post warm-up fatigue or soreness visual analog scales were not significantly different between CON and baseline versus ICE and baseline. These results indicate that all runners tended to feel the same prior to each second day 5 km trial. Therefore, since inconsistencies exist between HR and performance trials and no significant differences were found regarding RPE and fatigue or soreness visual analog scales, it is assumed that each participant completed each trial with similar effort.

Conclusion

The current findings of this study suggest that cold water immersion does not sufficiently enhance recovery (specifically regarding the group of runners as a whole). However, three runners benefited from cold water immersion. Hence, what works for one person may not work for another person. Thus, it may be beneficial for runners to undergo this protocol in order to see which type of recovery method improves their recovery process. Secondly, the results of the study may give credence to some runners’ perception of feeling better due to cold water immersion after a hard running effort. However, one should remember that individual variability existed in response to treatment (ice immersion) within the current study. Future research is needed to see if a greater length of time or slightly lower water temperature in cold water immersion will decrease the rate of decline more or if the effects of cold water immersion are even more predominant on second day performance of distances greater than 5 km.

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