Contemporary Sports Issues – Page 57

Implementation of a Sport Management Major Within an Undergraduate Exercise and Sport Science Department

Submitted by: Michael D. Kerr

Abstract

The purpose of this investigation was to develop an orderly process of implementing and establishing a sport management major within an undergraduate exercise and sport science department. This research examined and evaluated established, university-based, accredited undergraduate sport management programs within the United States. It was an empirical study of developmental occupational competencies and areas of curriculum content, in terms of the relative importance of their inclusion in a sport management major.

A survey instrument developed by the researcher was employed to rank 30 competencies factors and 30 curriculum factors that might be included in a sport management major. The instrument was developed using the literature, a panel of experts, and a pilot study in which Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was employed to test the validity and internal consistency reliability of the instrument. The survey instrument was e-mailed to the coordinators of 71 university-based, accredited undergraduate sport management programs. Although 50 program coordinators returned the instrument, 2 surveys were incomplete and could not be used; 48 of the 71 instruments distributed thus were utilized in the research (67.6% response rate).

The statistical analysis for this research included descriptive statistics to analyze the rankings of each of the competencies and curriculum content selections, as well as factor analysis to determine curriculum development based on these selections. The method of factor extraction used was the principal component method, and the method of rotation employed was the varimax rotation. Frequencies, percentages, means, mean rankings, and standard deviation were the descriptive statistics utilized. The factor analysis investigated areas within the competency and curriculum selections that demonstrated a high degree of correlation and thus could be identified as clusters.

The ranked order of the competency and curriculum selections, the results of the factor analysis, a review of literature, the compared responses of the sport management department coordinators, and the use of NASPE/NASSM Sport Management Program Review Council standards have all served as guidelines for the investigator’s development of a sport management major. The major has been designed to provide students with the educational background necessary to function effectively as professionals in a dynamic and multifaceted sport management setting, while meeting the needs of a contemporary sport industry.

Implementation of a Sport Management Major Within an Undergraduate Exercise and Sport Science Department

In decades past, many college and university physical education programs concerning professional preparation and career development placed an emphasis on coaching and teacher training curricula. But the area of physical education has expanded rapidly in recent years, with a resulting proliferation of dynamic physical education career possibilities. Demand for teachers and coaches is ongoing, but there is also a growing need for qualified sport professionals in the area of sport management.

Professional positions in sport require knowledge, skill, and ability beyond even what is represented by a degree in physical education. Many colleges and universities have established undergraduate and/or graduate sport management programs in an effort to provide the requisite knowledge, training, and field experience to students planning careers in the managerial and administrative portions of the sport industry. Other colleges and universities are just now choosing to implement such programs to keep pace with student interest in the sport industry. This study grew out of one institution’s decision to launch a sport management program, seeking to identify a sound process and method to implement the undergraduate major field of study within its department of exercise and sport science.

Methods

Participants in the study included 48 out of 71 coordinators of established, university-based, accredited undergraduate sport management programs within the United States who were electronically sent a study questionnaire (return rate of 67.6%). The instrument completed and returned by the 48 sought to identify the competencies and curriculum content thought necessary for implementing and establishing a sport management major. The instrument, titled the Sport Management Questionnaire, was developed by the researcher through an identification of concepts and review of literature. A panel of experts assessed the development, reliability, and validity of this instrument, which asked respondents to rate how important each of a number of competencies and curriculum content areas was. The ratings were to reflect the participants’ expertise and experiences relating to their institutions’ undergraduate sport management programs. Ratings were assigned using a 5-point Likert scale (Leedy, 1997), with anchors ranging from 1 (not important) to 5 (critically important). The research involved 60 dependent variables, 30 reflecting competencies and 30 reflecting curriculum content. Statistical analysis performed during the research included (a) descriptive statistics concerning ranking of competencies and curriculum content; (b) factor analysis determining curriculum development based on competencies and curriculum content, and (c) reliability analysis testing the reliability of the instrument. Statistical significance was accepted at an alpha level.

Results

Mean Range, Competency Items

Table 1 indicates the pattern of total mean ranges of competency items indicated by the program coordinators; the mean values were obtained for each of the 30 competencies items, from 48 respondents. The mean values ranged from a high of 4.79 (Item 2, communication skills) to a low of 2.21 (Item 9, designing fitness programs).

Table 1

Mean Range, Frequency, and Competency Items

	Program Coordinators
Mean Range	Competency Items	Frequency
> 4.500	2, 11, 17, 23, 24	5
4.000 – 4.499	1, 10, 14, 16, 18, 20, 29, 30	8
3.500 – 3.999	3, 13, 15, 21, 22, 25, 27, 28	8
3.000 – 3.499	6, 12, 26	3
2.500 – 2.999	4, 5, 19	3
2.000 – 2.499	7, 8, 9	3
< 1.999	N/A	0
Total		30

According to the participating program coordinators, the top five competencies that should be included in a sport management major are, in order,

communication skills (Item 2) and making decisions (Item 23)
organizing or managing time (Item 24)
developing long- and short-range goals (Item 11)
computer skills (Item 17)
hiring and supervising staff or personnel (Item 18)

Mean Range, Curriculum Content Items

Table 2 presents the pattern of total mean ranges of curriculum content items indicated by the program coordinators; the mean values were obtained for each of the 30 curriculum content items, from the 48 respondents. The mean values ranged from a high of 4.71 (Item 17, sport and business management) to a low of 1.63 (Item 13, physical education curriculum).

Table 2

Mean Range, Frequency, and Curriculum Content Items

	Program Coordinators
Mean Range	Curriculum Content Items	Frequency
> 4.500	10, 11, 17, 18, 27	5
4.000 – 4.499	2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 12, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 26	12
3.500 – 3.999	9, 16, 24, 25	4
3.000 – 3.499	15, 28, 29, 30	4
2.500 – 2.999	6,	1
2.000 – 2.499	14,	1
< 1.999	1, 7, 13	3
Total		30

According to the participating program coordinators, the top five curriculum content areas that should be included in a sport management major are, in order,

sport and business management (Item 17)
sport finance (Item 18)
legal aspects of sport (Item 10)
organizational behavior and management (Item 11)
sport marketing and promotion (Item 27)

Factor Analysis, Competencies

Factor analysis performed with the data from the participating coordinators identified 5 clusters of competency items with 53.0% of the total variation. Titles were assigned to each of these 5 clusters of competency items, as follows (Table 3):

Table 3

Competencies Clusters and Variance Accounted for by Each

Cluster 1	Human Resource Management	12.60% of variance
Item 11	Developing Long- and Short-Range Goals
Item 14	Evaluating Job Performance of Personnel
Item 18	Hiring and Supervising Staff and Personnel
Item 22	Maintaining Personnel Records
Item 25	Organizing Students and Personnel
Item 29	Responding to Positive and Negative Feedback
Cluster 2	Leadership and Organization Management	11.35% of variance
Item 21	Knowledge of Sports
Item 23	Making Decisions
Item 24	Organizing and Managing Time
Item 28	Preparing Job Descriptions
Cluster 3	Marketing and Financial Management	10.55% of variance
Item 1	Budgeting
Item 2	Communication Skills
Item 6	Designing Advertisements
Item 16	Fund Raising
Cluster 4	Administrative Management	9.82% of variance
Item 3	Controlling Allocation of Resources
Item 19	Knowledge of First Aid and Safety Procedures
Item 30	Understanding Sport and Business Law
Cluster 5	Planning	8.47% of variance
Item 8	Designing Computer Programs
Item 9	Designing Fitness Programs
Item 12	Developing Personnel Training Programs

Factor Analysis, Curriculum Content

Factor analysis performed with the data from the participating coordinators identified 2 clusters of curriculum content items with 41.2% of the total variation. Titles were assigned to both clusters, as follows (Table 4):

Table 4

Curriculum Content Clusters and Variance Accounted for by Each

Cluster 1	Sport and Business Management	25.38% of variance
Item 2	Business Communication
Item 5	Consumer Behavior
Item 8	Human Resource Management
Item 9	Labor-Management Relations
Item 11	Organizational Behavior and Management
Item 12	Personnel Management
Item 17	Sport and Business Management
Item 18	Sport Finance
Item 19	Sport Economics
Item 21	Sport Ethics
Item 22	Sport Facilities Management
Item 23	Sport Fund Raising
Item 24	Sport Governance
Item 26	Sport Leadership
Cluster 2	Administration of Physical Education and Recreation	15.83% of variance
Item 1	Applied Physiology of Exercise
Item 6	Fitness Management
Item 7	Health Education and Health Science
Item 13	Physical Education Curriculum
Item 14	Recreation and Leisure Education
Item 28	Sport Philosophy
Item 29	Sport Travel and Tourism

Conclusions

The results of this research allowed the investigator to develop an orderly process for designing, implementing, and establishing an undergraduate sport management major within a university exercise and sport science department. The procedures employed in designing the process included the following:

The 10 top-ranked curriculum content and competencies items were incorporated in the sport management major.
The results of factor analysis were employed to identify clusters of factors to serve as areas of emphasis within the sport management major.
Existing literature was evaluated and considered during the design process.
Curriculum standards set by NASPE/NASSM in 2000 were adopted as the foundation of the sport management major.

References

Alsop, W. L., & Fuller, G. F. (2001). Directory of academic programs in sport management. Morgantown, WV: Fitness Information Technology.

Banks, A. L., & Wright, O. (2001). The top five employment opportunities in physical education higher education. Physical Educator, 58(3), 150-158.

Boucher, R. L. (1998). Toward achieving a focal point for sport management: A binocular perspective. Journal of Sport Management, 12(1), 76-85.

Cuneen, J., & Sidwell, M. J. (1998). Evaluating and selecting sport management undergraduate programs. Journal of College Admissions, 158, 6-13.

Kelley, D. R., Beitel, P. A., DeSensi, J. T., & Blanton, M. D. (1994). Undergraduate and graduate sport management curricular models: A perspective. Journal of Sport Management, 8(2), 93-101.

Lambert, T. (1999). Thorstein Veblen and the higher learning of sport management education. Journal of Economic Issues, 33 (14), 973-983.

Leedy, P. D. (1997). Practical research: Planning and design (6th ed). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

National Association of Sport and Physical Education, North American Society for Sport Management. (2000). Sport management program standards and review protocol. Reston, VA: Author.

Parkhouse, B. L., & Pitts, B. G. (2001). Definition, evolution, and curriculum. In B. L. Parkhouse (Ed.), The management of sport (pp. 2-14). New York: McGraw-Hill.

Pitts, B. G. (2001). Sport management at the millennium: A defining moment. Journal of Sport Management, 15(1), 1-9.

Steir, W. F. (2001). Sport management: The development of sport management perspectives. In D. Kluka & G. Schilling (Eds.), The business of sport (pp. 39-56). Oxford, Oxfordshire, England: Meyer & Meyer Sport.

Weese, J. W. (2002). Opportunities and headaches: Dichotomous perspectives on the current and future hiring realities in the sport management academy. Journal of Sport Management, 16(1), 1-17.

Author Note

Michael D. Kerr, D.S.M.

U.S. Sports Academy2013-11-26T21:15:43-06:00February 18th, 2008|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Exercise Science, Sports Facilities, Sports Management, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|Comments Off

Websites as Help in the Recruiting Process: An Analysis of NCAA Women’s Cross Country Programs

Submitted by: Peter S. Finley and Laura L. Finley, Ph.D.

Abstract

Universities are beginning to explore the Internet as one avenue for recruiting student-athletes, an avenue of potential use in nearly every phase of the process (Hornbuckle, 2001). Given the difficulty of recruiting for nonrevenue sports, as well as the concerns of NCAA divisions that have little or no recruiting budget, use of the World Wide Web for recruiting may hold great importance (Hornbuckle, 2001; Walsh, 1997). The purpose of this research was (a) to determine what content is featured on websites maintained by NCAA women’s cross country programs, (b) to observe any differences between NCAA divisions as to the frequency of exhibiting content, and (c) to determine areas that could be strengthened to enhance recruiting potential. A content analysis was used to analyze randomly sampled NCAA women’s cross country websites (N = 108). In general, it was found that the sites provided basic information that might be of interest to recruits, such as information about the coach and a means to submit personal information to the coach. Few sites included coaching philosophy, highlighted individual athletes, or contained photo albums, all relevant information that might be of interest to potential recruits.

Websites as Help in the Recruiting Process: An Analysis of NCAA Women’s Cross Country Programs

Recruiting potential student-athletes represents an important component of collegiate athletics. For students, the would-be recruits, “selecting a college is a time-consuming and difficult process” (Kirk & Kirk, 1993, p. 55). This process, at least for student-athletes, involves the consideration of several factors, including but not limited to a school’s geographic location, whether it is urban or rural, size of student population, academic and athletic reputations, and graduation rates, both for all student-athletes and for student-athletes in the sport of interest only (Kirk & Kirk, 1993). Students who wish to be recruited must sift through a great deal of information, often presented with clear bias. As Caryer (1996) notes,

If the student just listens to the stories, recruiting can be overwhelming; if he [she] actively seeks specific information needed to decide how to reach his [her] goals, the coaches tell him what he needs to know rather than a lot of impressive, but irrelevant stuff. (p. 13)

This highlights the importance of athletic departments presenting information for potential recruits in an efficient yet pleasing manner.

From the perspective of a coach, the recruiting process takes on greater importance with each passing year. According to Klenosky, Templin, and Troutman (2001), “Universities allocate a large portion of their athletic department funds each year for recruiting top student-athletes” (p. 95). Bill Conley, a former recruiting coordinator for football at Ohio State University, states (Caryer, 1996) that

Recruiting is the most important job a college coach has. The X’s and O’s are pretty much the same around the country, but if your X’s and O’s are bigger, faster and stronger, you have a better chance of being successful. (p. 31)

Of course, the same concept applies to other sports, such as basketball, soccer, and cross country. Coaches spend a great deal of time and money identifying recruits, maintaining contact with them, and convincing them to commit to a particular university. Efficiency of this work can perhaps be improved via technology, since, according to Hornbuckle (2001), “Much of this process can be done on the Internet by having an exceptional presence on the World Wide Web” (p. 11).

The Internet provides colleges and universities with an incredible method for reaching fans and potential recruits. According to Delpy and Bosetti (1998), “This media presents an unparalleled opportunity to reach sports fans worldwide at a fraction of traditional advertising costs” (p. 21). Further, “High school athletes today want instant access to collegiate program information in everything from program history to whether the school fields a men’s team or not” (Hornbuckle, 2001, p. 10). For providing instant access to information at a low cost, there is no better means than an effective website.

Further, Hornbuckle (2001) states, “Many athletic departments already use the Internet to assess potential recruits and determine factors that are most likely to influence their choice of school” (p. 29-30). The Internet can be used for nearly every phase of the recruiting process. Recruits can be identified via e-mail to scouts or high school coaches, and correspondence with a prospective athlete can also occur via e-mail. Potential athletes can often access a virtual tour of a campus, perhaps including training and competition facilities. Of course, the coach’s actual visit to the athlete cannot be replaced; however, for Division II, Division III, and junior college coaches, “this option may not be affordable–even more reason for these coaches to provide a first-class, usable website” (Hornbuckle, 2001, p. 12).

]Method[

The present researchers were guided by three research goals, as follows:

1. Determine the specific features (content) included on websites promoting women’s cross country programs at NCAA schools.

2. Determine any differences among NCAA divisions (I, II, III) in terms of website content provided and frequency with which such content is exhibited.

3. Make recommendations for improving websites’ function as aids in the recruiting process.

The research comprises a quantitative, descriptive analysis of 108 women’s cross country websites. Using a random number generator, 36 schools in each of the three NCAA divisions were randomly selected. In selecting 36 schools, a sample was generated that represented at least 10% of all programs at each division level. Division III had the largest number of participating schools (357).

Analysis included obtaining frequency scores by each feature, overall, and by division. These scores are presented in Table 1 as the percentage of sites containing each website feature, both in each division and overall.

]Results[

As a whole, this examination revealed that colleges and universities create websites for women’s cross country that serve several primary functions. The sites contained, for the most part, headline stories (61.11%), schedules (92.59%), rosters (86.11%), results (71.30%), biographical information about the coach (70.37%), a photo of the coach (62.03%), and contact information for the coach (e-mail address, 75.92%; e-mail link, 73.15%; phone number, 62.96%). The presence of information forms for prospective athletes on over half of the sites (56.48%) supports the belief that many college and university administrators view their website as an important tool in the recruiting process. Further, the vast majority of sites that featured prospective-athlete information forms allowed them to be electronically transferred to the coach. Of 61 schools whose websites provided such prospective-athlete forms, 56 allowed them to be electronically transferred, while only 5 expected them to be mailed.

Beyond the components just described, however, the examination revealed many of the websites to be sorely lacking. The school websites were found not to promote the individuals on a team, as frequency scores were low for (a) content concerning individual athletes’ performance records (12.96%); (b) biographies of individual athletes (19.44%); and (c) photos of individual athletes (17.59%). Moreover, few schools went so far as to include even a simple team photo (23.15%).

Surprisingly, given the attention paid by websites maintained by institutions in all three divisions to promotion of their coaches, the philosophy of the program (10.19%) and the philosophy of the coach (1.85%) were almost completely absent.

]Recommendations[

It is clear from these results that many colleges and universities already see the Internet as an important point of interaction between the institution and recruits. This is evidenced by the fact that the women’s cross country program websites include letters to potential student-athletes, NCAA compliance information, and access to NCAA recruiting rules. Many sites also provide personal information forms that prospective student-athletes are invited to submit to coaches in hopes of beginning a recruiting process. Recognizing that use of the Internet for recruiting purposes is likely to continue to grow, there are a number of recommendations that can be made based on these results.

Since more than half of the schools allowed prospective athletes to electronically submit personal information, the few who still rely on “snail mail” to receive this information might be at a serious disadvantage, as prospects may not be inclined to take the time to print out the form, complete it, and put it in the mail. Furthermore, schools that neglect to provide any means for prospects to deliver personal information may be seriously hindering their recruiting process.

The literature reveals that information about the coach–especially as to the coach’s philosophy, goals, values, and style–is important to recruits (Cooper, 1996; Doyle & Gaeth, as cited in Klenosky, Templin, & Troutman, 2001). It is of interest, then, that so few of the total 108 sites viewed provided information about philosophy and that those that did offer it often limited it to the mission statement of the athletic department as a whole.

There is some potential for testimonials about a program and coach to be influential from a recruitment standpoint, yet testimonials appear to be underutilized to date, according to this research. Two Division III sites included athletes’ testimonials about their teams, while one team site included other coaches’ written endorsements of the team’s coach.

Prospective student-athletes are likely to be interested in who might be their teammates. Furthermore, recruits could conceivably have more interest in a program that clearly values and promotes its athletes as individuals. Schools in all three NCAA divisions studied could improve in this area, as their websites did not contain a great deal of information about individual athletes.

Division II and Division III institutions could furthermore do a better job of updating the headline stories on their websites. Regular updates give potential recruits a reason to revisit a site repeatedly, allowing them to assess the reputation of the team in an ongoing process.The connection represented in repeated visits to a website may help keep a school in the recruit’s mind over extended periods. Offering e-mailed updates of team progress through the season, as well as maintaining a “heritage” page and archived and current results and records, may be of further use in presenting a team’s reputation to site visitors.

Many of the university websites examined provided information about athletic facilities like the football stadium or basketball arena. Few, however, included information about the home cross country course. The information would not be difficult to include, and recruits would very likely be interested in the venues in which they would train and compete.

In an era of visual learners (Lester, 2000), pictures may go a long way toward impressing a recruit. Unfortunately, in all three NCAA divisions studied, most sites failed to provide a photo album or even a team picture. Digital cameras, typically available through athletic departments, could facilitate this process quite easily. Enlargeable thumbnail pictures would be helpful in decreasing downloading time.

To be sure, the Internet represents a powerful innovation that can play a major part in the recruiting process. This research is a first step in understanding, and thus in better utilizing, websites as aids in recruiting student-athletes. Future research could include analyses of websites for other sports, both revenue and nonrevenue. Further, it will be important to establish student-athletes as a source of data, inquiring of them which website features might most influence their college choices.

Table 1

Frequency of Website Features of NCAA Women’s Cross Country Programs, in Percentages

	Division I	Division II	Division III	Overall
Headline Stories	91.67	38.89	52.78	61.11
Team/Program
Schedule	94.44	86.11	97.22	92.59
Roster	86.11	83.33	88.89	86.11
Results (current)	80.56	58.33	75.00	71.30
Team Photo	8.33	27.78	33.33	23.15
Program Philosophy	19.44	5.56	5.56	10.19
Heritage Page	16.67	2.78	16.67	12.04
Individual Information
Performance Records	25.00	2.78	11.11	12.96
Biographical Sketch	44.44	5.56	8.33	19.44
Photo	33.33	13.89	5.56	17.59
Coach Information
Photo	69.44	47.22	69.44	62.03
Biographical Sketch	75.00	61.11	75.00	70.37
Coaching Philosophy	0.00	0.00	5.56	1.85
E-mail Address	86.11	61.11	80.56	75.93
E-mail Link	86.11	58.33	75.00	73.15
Phone Number	69.44	55.56	63.89	62.96
Photo Album	19.44	19.44	8.33	15.74
Archive
Headline Stories	58.33	16.67	13.89	29.63
Record Book	36.11	8.33	30.56	25.00
Rosters	25.00	13.99	5.56	14.81
Results	61.11	33.33	30.56	41.67
Prospective Athletes
Letter to Prospective Athletes	41.67	8.33	13.89	29.63
Personal Information Form	63.89	33.33	72.22	56.48
Electronically Transferred Personal Information Form	52.78	30.56	72.22	51.85
NCAA Clearinghouse
Recruiting Rules Information	30.56	8.33	0.00	12.96
Compliance Information	33.33	2.78	2.78	12.96
Additional
Course Description	16.67	0.00	11.11	9.26
Map to Course	5.56	0.00	2.78	2.78
Course Records List	5.56	2.78	0.00	2.78
Training Venues Information	8.33	0.00	5.56	4.63
Camps/Clinics Information	25.00	13.89	0.00	12.96
Offer E-mail Updates	36.11	2.78	8.33	15.74
Listing of Alumni Bios	2.78	0.00	0.00	0.93
Alumni Bio Questionnaire	2.78	0.00	0.00	0.93
Alumni E-mail List	5.56	0.00	0.00	1.85
Athletes’ Testimonials	0.00	0.00	5.56	1.85
Other Coaches’ Testimony About the Coach	0.00	0.00	2.78	0.93
University Quick Facts	11.11	11.11	25.00	15.74
Video Webcast of Meet	0.00	2.78	0.00	0.93
Coach Interviewed on Video	0.00	2.78	0.00	0.93

]References[

Caryer, L. (1996). The recruiting struggle: A handbook. Columbus, OH: Partners Book Distributing.

Cooper, K. (1996). What the basketball prospect wants to know about you! Coach and Athletic Director, 65(7), 24-26.

Delpy, L. A., & Bosetti, H. A. (1998). Sport management and marketing via the World Wide Web. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 7(1), 21-27.

Hornbuckle, V. (2001). An analysis of usability of women’s collegiate basketball Websites based on measurements of effectiveness, efficiency and appeal. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Northern Colorado.

Kirk, W. D., & Kirk, S. V. (Eds.). (1993). Student athletes: Shattering the myths and sharing the realities. Alexandria, VA: American Counseling Association.

Klenosky, D. B., Templin, T. J., & Troutman, J. A. (2001). Recruiting student athletes: A means-end investigation of school-choice decision making. Journal of Sport Management, 15, 96-106.

Lester, P. M. (2000). Visual communication: Images with messages (2nd ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Walsh, J. (1997). Everything you need to know about college sports recruiting. Kansas City, MO: Andrews McMeel.

]Author Note[

Peter S. Finley; Laura L. Finley

U.S. Sports Academy2013-11-26T21:17:41-06:00February 18th, 2008|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Facilities, Sports Management, Women and Sports|Comments Off

Job Satisfaction Among Athletic Trainers in NCAA Division I-AA Institutions

Submitted by: Roberto Herrera, Weber State University
Jon YeanSub Lim, Northern State University

Abstract

This study analyzed the level of job satisfaction experienced by certified athletic trainers in selected National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I-AA institutions having football programs. It utilized the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire, which was sent along with a demographic questionnaire to 240 certified athletic trainers around the country. Analysis involved 138 questionnaires, representing a 57.5% rate of return. One-way analysis of variance and post hoc Scheffe multiple comparisons were conducted to determine if significant differences existed in the level of job satisfaction among athletic trainers relative to their demographics. Statistical significance was accepted at an alpha level of p < 0.05. The study found statistically significant differences (p < 0.05) in trainers’ job satisfaction, associated with their various employment positions: program director, faculty member, head athletic trainer, assistant athletic trainer, graduate assistant. Program directors and athletic training faculty members were most satisfied with their jobs, while graduate assistants were least satisfied. The findings of the study also showed that male athletic trainers experienced significantly higher job satisfaction than female athletic trainers, and older trainers experienced greater job satisfaction than younger trainers. Level of job satisfaction increased with the level of professional experience in athletic training.

Job Satisfaction Among Athletic Trainers in NCAA Division I-AA Institutions

Because of the needs of American football, athletic training originated as a health-care profession at the turn of the 20th century. In the beginning, the practice of athletic training was more a skill than a science. Moreover, the role of the athletic trainer was not defined, nor were his or her duties clearly affirmed by sports personnel outside the profession (Arnheim, 1993). Since the establishment in 1950 of a professional association in athletic training, the National Athletic Trainers’ Association (NATA), the establishment of undergraduate and graduate academic curricula in athletic training, along with establishment of standards for entry-level athletic trainer certification, has led to athletic training’s recognition as an allied health profession.

As the profession of athletic training has evolved, so have the athletic trainer’s responsibilities. Caring for athletes has always been an important responsibility; educating students of athletic training to secure professional continuity is becoming increasingly important. In 1994, NATA passed a mandate that, by the year 2004, any student seeking eligibility to test for the entry-level athletic training certification must attend a program approved by NATA. Athletic trainers around the country are in the process of meeting the new requirements set forth by NATA, which include new responsibilities within both the practical and academic realms. The new responsibilities may be especially noticed by smaller institutions whose budgets limit hiring of additional staff. The additional demands on athletic trainers may well induce additional stress, and the effects of that stress should be studied. An important related issue is the effects of athletic training personnel’s satisfaction with their academic and athletic responsibilities. Of primary concern to this study was the job satisfaction of the athletic training personnel in Division I-AA institutions having football programs sanctioned by the NCAA.

Methods

Participants
The participants were 138 certified athletic trainers (73 men, 65 women) from NCAA Division I-AA institutions that sponsor football. They included program directors (13.0%), faculty members (5.1%), head athletic trainers (16.7%), assistant athletic trainers (48.6%), and graduate assistants (16.7%). Of the respondents, 13.0% had bachelor’s degrees, 67.4% had master’s degrees, and 13.0% had doctoral degrees. Respondents’ professional experience most commonly numbered 1-5 years (34.8%); a further 31.2% of the respondents had 6-10 years’ experience, while 22.5% had more than 16 years’ experience in athletic training.

Instrument
Job satisfaction among athletic trainers was measured using the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ). It employs a 20-dimension Likert-type scale with 5 responses (1 very dissatisfied, 2 dissatisfied, 3 neutral, 4 satisfied, 5 very satisfied). Demographic data pertaining to gender, age, experience, and education were also collected. The purpose of the MSQ is to determine the degree of job satisfaction in terms of characteristics associated with the task itself (intrinsic satisfaction); of other, non-task characteristics of the job (extrinsic satisfaction); and of overall satisfaction with a job (total satisfaction). Evidence of the validity of the MSQ derives mainly from its ability to perform in line with theoretical expectation (known as construct validity) (Weiss, Dawis, England, & Lofquist, 1967). Coefficients ranged from .84 to .91 for intrinsic satisfaction, while external satisfaction coefficients ranged from .77 to .82. Total satisfaction coefficients ranged from .87 to .92. Reliability reported in Hoyt reliability coefficients suggests that the MSQ scales demonstrate adequate internal consistency reliabilities.

Statistical Analysis
The data collected were analyzed, using descriptive statistics, to obtain frequency distributions, percentages, means, and standard deviations. In addition, a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted to determine if significant differences in job-satisfaction levels existed relative to the athletic trainers’ demographics. When results of the ANOVA test were statistically significant, Scheffe post hoc multiple comparisons determined where differences between means existed. Statistical significance was accepted at an alpha level.

Results

Table 1 presents the ranking and mean values (in ascending order) for the total-job-satisfaction variables describing the athletic trainers. Primarily, the 3 intrinsic variables social status (M = 3.52), moral values (M = 3.50), and achievement (M = 3.41) ranked as top sources of job satisfaction among the athletic trainers. Participating trainers were least satisfied with their working conditions (M = 2.45), company policies and procedures (M = 2.22), advancement (M = 2.20), and compensation (M = 1.42).

Table 1

Mean Rank, Mean, and Standard Deviation of Variables in Athletic Trainers’ Total Job Satisfaction

MSQ Dimension	Mean Rank	M	SD
Social Service	1	3.52	0.81
Moral Values	2	3.50	0.86
Achievement	3	3.41	0.86
Creativity	4	3.38	0.91
Responsibility	5	3.34	0.90
Ability Utilization	6	3.33	0.83
Authority	7	3.22	0.90
Independence	8	3.19	0.89
Variety	9	3.16	1.12
Activity	10	3.15	1.05
Co-workers	11	3.02	0.99
Security	12	2.85	0.82
Supervision-Technical	13	2.82	0.83
Supervision-Human Relations	14	2.77	0.91
Recognition	15	2.74	0.88
Social Status	16	2.73	0.94
Working Conditions	17	2.45	0.82
Company Polices & Practices	18	2.22	0.94
Advancement	19	2.20	0.85
Compensation	20	1.42	1.10

Table 2 presents total satisfaction levels in terms of the participants’ demographic characteristics, along with results of one-way ANOVA tests. Athletic training program directors (3.58 mean rating) and athletic training faculty members (3.47 mean rating) appeared satisfied with their jobs. On the other hand, head athletic trainers (2.85 mean rating), assistant athletic trainers (2.47 mean rating), and graduate assistants (1.40 mean rating) appeared less satisfied. The results of the one-way ANOVA test indicated statistically significant differences in the sample’s job-satisfaction level based on employment (f = 152.875, p =.000). The results of the Scheffe post hoc testing indicate that the surveyed program directors and faculty members had job-satisfaction levels that were higher than those of head athletic trainers, assistant athletic trainers, and graduate assistants, to a statistically significant degree. Certified graduate assistants reported the lowest job-satisfaction levels.

Male athletic trainers had a mean of 2.79, while female athletic trainers had a mean of 2.27. The one-way ANOVA test indicated statistically significant differences between male and female athletic trainers for total job satisfaction (f =20.401, p = .000). Female athletic trainers were less satisfied with their employment than were their male counterparts, to a statistically significant extent.

Athletic trainers between 20 and 29 years of age had a mean of 2.11, while those 30 to 39 had a mean of 2.81 and those 50 or older had a still higher mean score, 2.96. One-way ANOVA testing indicated statistically significant differences in participants’ total job satisfaction based on age (f = 17.709, p = .000). Scheffe post hoc testing furthermore indicated that athletic trainers between 20 and 29 years of age reported job-satisfaction levels that were lower than those reported by trainers in other age groups, to a statistically significant degree.

Participants who had bachelor’s degrees had a mean of 2.30, while master’s-degree-holding participants had a mean of 2.56 and doctorate-holding participants had a still higher mean of 2.83. One-way ANOVA testing indicated statistically significant differences among the participating athletic trainers based on educational level (f = 3.149, p = 0.46). Scheffe post hoc testing indicated athletic trainers having the doctoral degree were significantly less satisfied in their employment than athletic trainers holding the bachelor’s degree.

Athletic trainers with 1-5 years of experience had a mean rating of 2.00, and those with 16 or more years had a mean value of 2.95. One-way ANOVA testing indicated there were statistically significant differences between participants based on years of experience as an athletic trainer (f = 19.826, p = .000). Scheffe post hoc testing indicated that the mean for total job satisfaction was significantly associated with the trainers’ years of professional experience; those having 1-5 years’ experience had mean scores that were higher than the mean scores for trainers with longer experience.

Table 2

Athletic Trainers’ Job Satisfaction as Related to Their Demographic Characteristics

Variable	General Satisfaction
M	SD	F	p
Employment			152.875	.000
	Program Director	3.58	0.27
	Faculty Member	3.47	0.26
	Head Athletic Trainer	2.85	0.28
	Assistant Athletic Trainer	2.47	0.25
	Graduate Assistant	1.40	0.50

Gender			20.401	.000
	Female	2.21	0.59
	Male	2.73	0.76

Age			17.709	.000
	20-29	2.11	0.73
	30-39	2.81	0.48
	40-49	2.94	0.57
	50-59	2.96	0.44

Education			3.149	.046
	Bachelor’s Degree	2.30	0.87
	Master’s Degree	2.56	0.65
	Doctoral Degree	2.83	0.44

Experience			19.826	.000
	1-5 Years	2.00	0.78
	6-10 Years	2.78	0.50
	11-15 Years	2.74	0.42
	16 Years or More	2.85	0.52

Conclusions

The athletic trainers participating in the study indicated that those variables producing greatest job satisfaction were the intrinsic satisfaction variables. In the measure of total job satisfaction, social service was the highest ranking variable; advancement and compensation were the lowest ranking. Greatest satisfaction with one’s job was indicated by program directors and athletic training faculty members. In general, the less rank characterizing the employment position, the less job satisfaction reported. Perhaps job satisfaction, then, may be attributed in some part to compensation for various positions.

In this study, younger members of the profession expressed most of the dissatisfaction with a job, especially the certified graduate assistants who were surveyed. Male participants had a higher level of job satisfaction than female participants, which may be related to low scores for satisfaction with one’s professional advancement . However, the advancement variable from the total job satisfaction score was in general indicative of dissatisfaction among athletic training personnel. As the education level of the athletic trainers increased, so did their satisfaction with the job. In addition, as years of experience increased, so did job satisfaction.

The amount of job dissatisfaction among athletic trainers observed from this study is disquieting. Whatever their demographic, dissatisfied participants in the study indicated that compensation was a major factor. The surveyed certified graduate assistants, who are usually underpaid and overworked, were among the most dissatisfied. Graduate assistants constitute an important asset in academic departments and programs, contributing to their effectiveness. The pattern of abusive employment of graduate assistants should be changed. At a minimum, prospective graduate assistants in athletic training should be well aware of the demands of a position, and its advantages and disadvantages, prior to employment. In fairness, graduate assistant athletic trainers should be fully compensated for their hard work. Changing the pattern, however, will be difficult, since no matter how much work is demanded (with no matter how little pay or benefits), there will always be ambitious students willing to complete the experience.

References

Arnheim, D., & Prentice, W. (1993). Principles of athletic training (8th ed.). St. Louis: Mosby.

Arnheim, D., & Prentice, W. (1993). Principles of athletic training (10th ed.). St. Louis: Mosby.

Bogg, J., & Cooper, C. (1995). Job satisfaction, mental health, and occupational stress among senior civil servants. Human relations, 48, 327-341.

Carson, K. D., Carson, P. C., Yallaprapragada, R., Langford, H., & Ro, C. W. (1998). Emergency medical technicians: Is career satisfaction within their control. Hospital Topics, 76(1),15-24.

Cassidy, M. L., & Warren, B. O. (1991). Status consistency and work satisfaction among professional and managerial women and men. Gender and Society, 5, 193-207.

Clark, A., Oswald, A., & Warr, P. (1996). Is job satisfaction U-shaped in age? Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 69, 57-83.

Daniels, K. (2000). Measures of five aspects of affective well-being at work. Human Relations, 53(2), 275-290.

Lu, L. (1999). Work motivation, job stress and employees’ well-being. Journal of Applied Management Studies, 8(1), 61-73.

Ma, X., & Macmillan, R. B. (1999). Influences of workplace conditions on teachers’ job satisfaction. Journal of Educational Research, 93(1), 39-54.

Mangus, B. (1998). The evolving roles of athletic training educators and clinicians. Journal of Athletic Training, 33(4), 308-309.

NCAA Official Web Provider. (2000). NCAA requirements of Division IAA Institutions. http://www.ncaa.org.

Orpen, C. (1994). Interactive effects of work motivation and personal control on employee job performance and satisfaction. Journal of Social Psychology, 134(6), 855-859.

Smits, P., & Hoy, F. (1998). Employee work attitudes: The subtle influence of gender. Human Relations, 51(5), 649-665.

Staurowsky, E., & Scriber, K. (1998). An analysis of selected factors that affect the work lives of athletic trainers employed in accredited educational programs. Journal of Athletic Training, 33(3), 244-248.

Vallen, G. K. (1993). Organizational climate and burnout. Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, 34(1), 54-67.

Weiss, D. J., Dawis, R. V., England, G. W., & Lofquist, L. H. (1967). Manual for the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota, Industrial Relations Center.

Author Note

Roberto Herrera, Department of Health Promotion and Human Performance, Weber State University; Jon YeanSub Lim, Department of Health and Physical Education, Northern State University.

U.S. Sports Academy2015-10-22T23:43:30-05:00February 15th, 2008|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Coaching, Sports Facilities, Sports Management, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|Comments Off

Do-It-Yourself Investing in Sport-Related Firms

Submitted by: Mark Mitchell, University of South Carolina Spartanburg, Robert Montgomery, University of Evansville, Sheila Mitchell University of South Carolina Spartanburg

Given the growth of the sports industry, many investors find sports-related stock issues to be attractive. The purpose of this manuscript is to examine the growing number of do-it-yourself investing options for shareholders and customers. In particular, do-it-yourself investing in direct stock purchase programs (DSPs), dividend reinvestment programs (DRIPs), and American depository receipts (ADRs) are presented. First, do-it-yourself investing in such programs is discussed. Second, familiar sports-related firms offering such programs are highlighted. Third, the benefits of such investment programs from a corporate viewpoint are advanced. Finally, the implications for sports marketers are discussed.

Do-It-Yourself Investing in Sport-Related Firms

The American culture is a sports-oriented culture. Sports metaphors are used to represent personal and professional lives. For example, “Take one for the team” or “Go for it” are common everyday phrases with origins in athletic competition. And, statistics are used to track favorite teams and players. Consider the following selected statistics regarding the sports industry:

1. Americans spent $213.5 billion on sports in 1999, a whopping $763 per capita (Street and Smith’s, 1999).

2. Americans spent approximately $22 billion on athletic equipment, $14 billion on athletic footwear, and $12 billion on athletic clothing in 2001 (National Sporting Goods, 2002).

3. Among youths aged 12-17 years, 61% participate in some organized sports program (National Sporting Goods, 2002).

4. In 2000, 86% of all U.S. residents age 7 or older participated in at least one athletic endeavor (National Sporting Goods, 2002).

5. Growth rates in the sports industry are attractive, with sales of equipment, footwear, clothing, and recreational transport expanding from $56.4 billion in 1994 to approximately $74.5 billion in 2001(National Sporting Goods, 2002).

Many sports-related firms–Nike (footwear, apparel, equipment), Disney (broadcasting), Calloway (equipment), Russell (apparel), Foot Locker (retailing)–maintain, like other firms, stock purchase and/or stock dividend reinvestment programs to serve the needs of small investors. These direct investment programs are particularly valuable to providers of consumer brands (such as sports equipment, footwear, and apparel), since every shareholder is a potential customer and every customer is a potential shareholder (McConville, 1996). In addition to raising capital, these investment programs may be viewed as an extension of a firm’s integrated marketing communications (IMC) effort appealing to consumers and investors alike.

Individual investors now enjoy access to information formerly available only to larger investors and brokerage firms. Spurred by confidence, knowledge, and an explosion of readily available information, many investors are turning to do-it-yourself investing to take greater control of their personal financial matters (Carlson, 1998). Do-it-yourself investors are attracted to this style of investing, or investing philosophy, for a variety of reasons, including ease of market entry, lower transaction costs, pay-as-you-go potential, discounts or premiums offered, and personal empowerment (Drip Investor, 1999). For those interested in investing specifically in the sports industry, the three most likely options are the DSP, DRIP, and ADR. Due to the pace of change in financial markets, details of the three types of programs (e.g., minimum investments, fees) are beyond the scope of the following discussion.

Direct Stock Purchase Programs

DSPs allow investors to buy shares of stock in a company directly from the firm, bypassing the need for an intermediary (such as a brokerage firm). While some DSPs may require a minimum initial investment (e.g., $50-$250), others do not. Investors may make optional periodic (for example, monthly) cash investments, purchasing additional shares of company stock.

Unlike larger investors who typically purchase in round lots of 100 shares, direct investors may invest as little as $10 per month to buy fractional shares of stock. While some DSPs charge a fee for the optional investments (e.g., a $3 surcharge), others do not. Currently, there are approximately 600 DSPs available to individual investors (see netstockdirect.com). Table 1 provides a list of familiar sports-related firms that offer DSP programs for shareholders.

Table 1
Sports-Related Firms Offering Direct Stock Purchase (DSP) Programs

Company Name	Stock Symbol	Product Categories	Brand Names
Daimler Chrysler	DCX	Automobile Racing, Truck Racing	Mercedes Benz, Dodge, and Others
FILA	FLH	Athletic Footwear, Athletic Clothing	Fila
Ford Motor Co.	F	Automobile Racing, Truck Racing	Ford, Mercury, and Others
Goodyear Tire and Rubber Co.	GT	Tires, Rubber Products	Goodyear
Kellwood Company	KWD	Recreational Camping and Sporting Products	Sierra Designs, Trek, Wenzel, Slumberjacks, and Others
Nike	NKE	Footwear, Apparel, Sports Equipment	Nike
Penney (J. C.) Co.	JCP	Retailing (Including Athletic Equipment)	J. C. Penney
Sears, Roebuck & Co.	S	Retailing (Including Athletic Equipment)	Sears
Target	TGT	Retailing (Including Athletic Equipment)	Target
Tribune Company	TRB	Owner, Major League Baseball	Chicago Cubs
Wal-Mart	WMT	Retailing (Including Athletic Equipment)	Wal-Mart, Sam’s Club

Note. This original table was compiled from Carlson (1997, 1998), Drip Investor (1998), and Netstockdirect.com.

Dividend Reinvestment Programs

DRIPs differ from DSPs in that the individual investor must typically own one or more shares of stock to enroll in the DRIP program. A certified financial planner, an electronic brokerage service, the National Association of Investors Corp. (see the Web site better-investing.org), Firstshare (see firstshare.com), Sharebuilder (see sharebuilder.com), or the publication The Moneypaper

geschmackvoll geschlechtliche paare onlineshop

(see moneypaper.com) can provide such an initial service, among others. Then, the individual investor may make optional periodic cash investments in the firm. Additionally, the investor may elect to have some or all dividends used to purchase additional shares of the company’s stock. Currently, there are over 1,100 DRIP programs available to individual investors (see Moneypaper.com). Table 2 provides a list of familiar sports-related firms that provide DRIP programs for shareholders.

Table 2

Dividend Reinvestment Programs of Sports-Related Firms

Company Name	Stock Symbol	Product Categories	Brand Names
Brunswick Corp.	BC	Pleasure Boats, Marine Engines	Brunswick
Calloway Golf	ELY	Golf Equipment	Calloway, Big Bertha
Daimler Chrysler	DCX	Automobile Racing, Truck Racing	Mercedes Benz, Dodge, and Others
Disney (Walt) Co.	DIS	Owner, Sports Teams and Broadcast Outlets	California Angels, Anaheim Mighty Ducks, ABC Sports, ESPN
Foot Locker	Z	Sports Equipment, Footwear, and Clothing Retailer	Champs Sport, Foot Locker, Lady Foot Locker, and Others
Ford Motor Co.	F	Automobile Racing	Ford, Mercury, Jaguar, Volvo, and Others
Fortune Brands	FO	Golf Equipment	Titleist, Footjoy, Cobra, Pinnacle
General Motors Corp.	GM	Automobile Racing, Truck Racing	Chevrolet, Pontiac, and Others
Goodyear Tire and Rubber Co.	GT	Tires, Rubber Products	Goodyear
Harley-Davidson, Inc.	HDI	Motorcycles	Harley-Davidson
Huffy Corp.	HWF	Bicycles	Huffy
Ingersoll-Rand	IR	Motorized Golf Carts	Club Car
Jefferson-Pilot	JPC	Insurance, Broadcasting (Regional Broadcasts of Sporting Events)	Jefferson-Pilot Broadcasting (ACC, SEC, Carolina Panthers, etc.)
Kellwood Company	KWD	Recreational Camping and Sporting Products	Sierra Designs, Trek, Wenzel, Slumberjacks, and Others
Kmart	KM	Retailer (Including Athletic Equipment)	Kmart
National Golf Properties	TEE	REIT (Specializing in Golf Course Properties)	Over 120 Golf Courses in Metropolitan Areas
Nike	NKE	Footwear, Apparel, Sports Equipment	Nike
Penney (JC) Co.	JCP	Retailing (Including Athletic Equipment)	J. C. Penney
Russell Corp.	RML	Sports Apparel, Uniforms	Russell Athletic
Sara Lee Corp.	SLE	Sports Apparel	Hanes, Champion
Sears, Roebuck & Co.	S	Retailer (including athletic equipment)	Sears
Target	TGT	Retailer (including athletic equipment)	Target
Tribune Company	TRB	Owner, Major League Baseball	Chicago Cubs
Wal-Mart Stores, Inc.	WMT	Retailer (including athletic equipment)	Wal-Mart, Sam’s Club

Note. This original table was compiled from Dripcentral.com, Dripinvestor.com, Drip Investor (1998), Fool.com, Moneypaper.com, and Netstockdirect.com.

American Depository Receipts

The creation of ADRs has made it dramatically easier for U.S. investors to invest in foreign firms. An ADR is a negotiable U.S. certificate representing ownership of shares in a non-U.S. corporation. Financial institutions such as the Bank of New York, Citibank, and J. P. Morgan are active depositories for ADRs in the United States (Sherwood, 1998). ADRs are quoted and traded in U.S. dollars in the U.S. securities market (Canadian Shareholder, 1998). Do-it-yourself investors can buy and sell these shares like ordinary shares, eliminating the need for currency exchange. Also, the dividends are paid to investors in U.S. dollars (Gangahar, 2000).

The popularity of ADRs among investors increased dramatically during the 1990s (Investor Business Relations, 1999). Most ADR programs act as dividend reinvestment programs for their investors by applying dividends to additional share purchases. Further, the buyer’s transaction costs tend to be much lower than the costs of purchasing the same shares in foreign markets (DRIP Investor, 1999). Finally, many investors have greater confidence in a firm that makes the commitment to offer ADRs, because the firm then comes under the scrutiny of the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (Gangahar, 2000). Currently, there are over 1,800 ADRs available in the United States (Sherwood, 1998). Table 3 provides a list of familiar sports-related firms that provide ADR programs for shareholders.

Table 3

American Depository Receipts Programs of Sports-Related Firms

Company Name	Stock Symbol	Product Categories	Brand Names
Adidas Group (Germany)	ASHUYP	Footwear, Apparel, Sports Equipment	Adidas
AMER Group (Finland)	AGPDY	Sport Equipment	Wilson Sporting Goods
Daimler Chrysler	DCX	Automobile Racing, Truck Racing	Mercedes Benz, Dodge, and Others
Dukati Motor Holdings (Italy)	DMH	Motorcycles	Dukati
Fiat (Italy)	FIA	Automobile Racing	Fiat, Lancia, Alfa Romeo, and Others
FILA (Italy)	FLH	Athletic Footwear, Athletic Clothing	Fila
Honda Motor Corp.	HMC	Automobile Racing, Motorcycle Racing	Honda, Acura
Nissan Motor Co.	NSANY	Automobile Racing	Nissan, Infinity
PUMA (Germany)	PMMAY	Footwear, Equipment, and Apparel	PUMA
TAG-Heuer (Germany)	THW	Timing Equipment and Services	TAG-Heuer
Toyota Motor Corp.	TOYOY	Automobile Racing	Toyota, Lexus
Volkswagen (Germany)	VLKAY	Automobile Racing	Volkswagen, Audi

Note. This original table was compiled from Carlson (1998), Drip Investor (1999), Netstockdirect.com, and Wallstreeter.com.

Benefits of Do-It-Yourself Investing Programs to Firms

Direct investing programs are particularly valuable to producers or providers of consumer brands (e.g., sports equipment, apparel, and footwear), since every shareholder is a potential customer and every customer is a potential shareholder. In addition to raising capital, these investment programs may be viewed as an extension of a firm’s integrated marketing communications (IMC) effort. When viewed this way, such programs provide a number of benefits to the corporation, including strengthening brand loyalty, attracting long-term investors, adding stability to the shareholder base, and retaining dividends.

Direct investors tend to become loyal customers. They seek to identify high-performing investments. Then, they seek to protect their investment by buying the brand (Carlson, 1998). For instance, the shareholder owning stock in Nike is more likely to select Nike product than a competing product. Further, these shareholders may influence the brand selections of family and friends by communicating their ownership and possibly by transferring stock in the form of a gift.

Shareholder participants in direct investing programs tend to be longer-term investors. As such, they have a long-term commitment to the brand. Stock price declines are often viewed as opportunities to buy additional shares (Carlson, 1998). Such a mindset provides stability in the ownership group, limits active trading, and may dilute the clout of institutional investors (such as mutual fund managers). In addition, given their long-term investment perspective, shareholder participants in direct investing programs are likely to make periodic investments in their ownership positions. Known as dollar-cost averaging, an investor’s regular, periodic investment of $50-100 (e.g., monthly, quarterly) adds to his or her total shares owned; the average cost of shares is determined over time, eliminating the challenge of “timing” the market effectively. This has proven to be a cost-reducing strategy for long-term investors (Drip Investor, 1999). Furthermore, long-term investors, by virtue of not selling their stock, add stability to the shareholder base (McConville, 1996).

Just as the name implies, DRIPs put distributed dividends back into the company, in the name of the shareholder. This decision by the individual investors allows a firm to retain dividends, putting capital back to work within the firm. Further, dividend reinvestment is a continual validation of the investor’s belief in the long-term performance of an organization.

Implications of Do-It-Yourself Investing Programs for Sports Marketers

As competition for brand and shareholder loyalty intensifies, direct investing programs represent one effort to improve corporate performance in these vitally important areas. Direct investors tend to become brand-loyal customers in keeping with stocks they own. Their relatively expansive investment horizon adds stability in times of market fluctuation. Firms with direct investing programs find their shareholder bases becoming more diversified as voting strength is distributed across a larger number of investors. And, dividends are put back to work within the firm to finance future growth.

For do-it-yourself investors interested in sports-related stock issues, DSPs, DRIPs, and ADRs represent the most common methods of market entry. These programs benefit the individual investor by improving market access, lowering transaction costs, eliminating need to “time” the market, providing discounts or other premiums, and empowering self-motivated investors, among other things.

It must be noted that the relationship between stock ownership and brand loyalty is an intuitive one that, to date, has received limited empirical review. Still, the position that investors select one product over another (Titleist or Top Flite, Nike or Reebok) based on stock ownership is a reasonable inference to make. The direct investing programs outlined here represent a two-way investment dynamic: Investors invest in firms they believe in, while corporations invest in brand and shareholder loyalty. Direct investing programs represent a win-win situation for investors and sports marketers. The availability and popularity of such programs are likely to increase in the future.

References

Carlson, C. B. (1997). No-load stocks: How to buy your first share and every share directly from the company with no broker’s fees (2nd Ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.

Carlson, C. B. (1998). The individual investor revolution: Seize your new powers of investing and make more money in the market. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Daragahi, B. (1999). Best sites for DRIP investors. Money, 28 (11), 174-176.

Directory of dividend reinvestment plans. (1999). Drip Investor. Hammond, IN: Horizon.

Gangahar, A. (2000, November). Foreign investment with the comforts of home. Global Investor, 54-56.

Inexpensive way to invest internationally. (1998, September/October). Canadian Shareholder, 38.

ADRs continue to provide growing competition to U.S. companies for investor dollars. (1999, October 18). Investor Business Relations, 8-9.

McConville, D. J. (1996). More firms sell their stock through direct purchase programs. Corporate Cash Flow, 17(7), 6-8.

National Sporting Goods Association. Retrieved 2002 from www.nsga.org.

Sherwood, R. J. (1998). 100 ways to invest abroad. Forbes, 162(2), 172-175.

Street and Smith’s Sports Business Journal. (December 20-26, 1999).

Author Note

Mark Mitchell, D.B.A., Associate Professor of Marketing at the Univ. of South Carolina Spartanburg; Robert Montgomery,D.B.A., Associate Professor of Marketing at the University of Evansville; Sheila Mitchell, CPA, MPAcc, Instructor of Accounting at the Univ. of South Carolina Spartanburg

U.S. Sports Academy2017-11-02T13:56:26-05:00February 15th, 2008|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Management|Comments Off

Threads of Psychoneuroimmunology in Sport

Submitted by:

Abstract

In view of the fact that a century of medical and drug warfare has not liberated us from disease, progressive practitioners have put a growing emphasis on wellness and prevention as a health strategy, recognizing that maintaining a state of physical, mental and emotional good health is the best way to avoid illness. At the same time, new discoveries in the science of psychoneuroimmunology (PNI) have provided evidence that a healthy mental state is a prime contributor of wellness, especially for the athlete. Many athletes today are surprised when they get sick. But athletes as well as the general population should be aware of the importance of the wholeness of the body when it comes to discussing health of the human organism.

Threads of Psychoneuroimmunology in Sport

What Western science is now confirming, that mind and body are not separate and that thought and emotion influence physical health, is ancient history in Asian health care systems. Our minds possess the power to heal pain and create joy, wrote Tulku Thondup Ruspoche, a Buddhist scholar, in his book The Healing Mind (Shambhalu, 1996).

While it is true that a number of diseases seemed to have been all but eliminated in the 1950s and 1960s, widespread overuse of insecticides, fertilizers, antibiotics, and other drugs has resulted in new, mutant strains of insects, viruses, bacteria, and fungi, and many diseases are making a comeback. Increased mobility of the populace now guarantees the rapid spread of new viruses, exposing people to exotic pathogens from which they had formerly been isolated. Despite the progress that has been made, the human immune system is still subjected to a wide variety of infectious diseases, and it is unlikely the situation will change any time soon (Campbell, 1996).

Over the past decade, a number of integrated preventive diet and exercise plans have been created to promote general physical well-being, and they have proven quite effective (Bucci, 1995; MacKinnon, 1994). At the same time, new discoveries in the science of psychoneurimmunology have provided conclusive evidence that healthy mental states are also prime contributors to wellness (Ader, Cohen, & Felten, 1995; Lowe, 1979).

How Immunity Works

To fully appreciate the evolutionary twists and turns taken by the immune system over hundreds of millions of years, it is necessary to understand how immune response works. The most basic requirement for any immune system is the ability to distinguish the cells, tissues, and organs that belong to the host body from the foreign nonself that might also be present. The immune system’s role then is to eliminate nonself invaders, which are often dangerous bacteria or viruses. In addition, the immune system recognizes and usually eliminates nonself as well as altered-self cells or tissues, those changed by injury or disease such as cancer or hemolytic anemia. Immunologists agree that the immune systems of mammals including humans have the most sophisticated mechanisms both for recognizing and eliminating invaders (Levy, 1990).

Consider what happens when a track athlete running at full speed happens to trip and fall, lacerating the hands and knees. Within minutes, immediately after blood stops flowing normally through the injured area, the immune system begins to eliminate undesirable microbes introduced at the wound. Already on the scene (or quick to arrive) are phagocytic white blood cells known as macrophages. These cells not only engulf and destroy any invading microbes but also release proteins that activate other parts of the immune system and alert other phagocytes that may be needed.

This fast cellular response is sometimes called natural or innate immunity, because the cells that execute it are already active in the body. Innate immunity usually suffices to destroy invading microbes. If it does not, humans as well as other vertebrates rely on another response: acquired immunity. The soldiers of acquired immunity are specialized white blood cells called lymphocytes that function together as an army. Moving through the blood and lymph glands, lymphocytes are normally inactive; they become active, and begin to multiply, if they encounter specific molecules called antigens that are associated with foreign organisms. While it is highly effective, acquired immunity takes days to mobilize, because the response is very complex. An invading microbe must come into contact with the correct T or B lymphocytes; macrophages must be activated for assistance; the activated lymphocytes must divide; all the involved white blood cells must synthesize and release proteins that amplify the response; and B cells must manufacture and release antibodies (Booth, 1990).

But acquired immunity also has a hallmark trait, immunologic memory, arising from DNA-based mechanisms that allow lymphocytes collectively to recognize a great diversity of antigens, even though a single lymphocyte recognizes only one type of antigen. The second time a lymphocyte cell encounters a particular invader, it uses a sort of blueprint, enabling the response to occur more quickly and powerfully than it did the first time (Moye et al., 1995). The track athlete who fell in time will forget the resulting lacerations, but his or her immune system will not.

Mind and the Immune System

The mind’s impact on the immune system may not be as obvious as that of tranquillity and rest (sleep), but it is equally important. In recent studies (Bauer, 1994; Everson et al., 1996) cancer- and virus-fighting killer cells were taken from groups of depressed and non-depressed subjects. When the killer cells were placed in contact with cancer cells, those from the non-depressed subjects surrounded and destroyed the cancer cells, while those from the depressed subjects did nothing. Immune functions, one concludes, can be turned on and off by the emotions of the patient (Bauer, 1994). In a study by Medalie and Goldbourt (1976), a spouse’s love and support comprise an important balancing factor apparently reducing risk of angina pectoris, even in the presence of risk factors. The implications of such findings for pathophysiology and prevention of angina are stressed. A study by Everson (1996) found that bereaved spouses had 10 times less T cell (immune helper cell) function than did non-bereaved individuals. Another study by Ballieux (1994) found that natural killer cell activity was significantly decreased in “stressed-out” college students. Studies like these were featured in Bill Moyers’s recent investigative report, The Healing Mind (1994).

A number of hormones and neurotransmitters have been identified belonging to the process of immune system modulation, but each one of these is, to a significant extent, subservient to the emotions and beliefs of the mind (Harrington, 1995). Will the immune system respond in a diminished way if an athlete’s perception of his or her ability to react in a situation is threatened? The brain and the immune system continuously signal each other, often along the same pathways, which may explain how state of mind influences health (Mariano & Workman, 1991).

Conclusion

According to a study published in 1998 in the Journal of the American Medical Association (Eisenberg et al.), Americans made more visits to complementary and alternative practitioners than to conventional physicians that year. The trend appears to be persisting. Americans are ready for the theories and explanations of psychoneuroimmunology.

In the new millenium, scientists, teachers, coaches, and sports medicine specialists must catch up with consumer needs and demands. Athletes throughout the world should not continue to suffer because of a fundamental lack of reliable, readily available information on the subject of psychoneuroimmunology. There is a need to broaden the data in this important area, so everyone can learn which treatments are useful, which are not, and why. Consumer choice has made it clear in the last decade: Psychoneuroimmunology is here to stay. Now it is our responsibility to ensure that every athlete has access to the latest information on this promising new methodology.

References

Ader, R., Cohen, N., & Felten, D. (1995, January 14). Psychoneuroimmunology: Interactions between the nervous system and the immune system. The Lancet, 345, 99-100

Baker, B. (1997, July/August). The mind-body connection. AARP Bulletin, 38, 7-8

Ballieux, R. E. (1994). The mind and the immune system. Theoretical Medicine, 15, 387-395

Bauer, S. M. (1994). Psychoneuroimmunology and cancer: An integrated review. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 19, 1114-1120

Bergsma, J. (1994). Illness, the mind, and the body: Cancer and Immunology: An introduction. Theoretical Medicine, 15, 337-347

Booth, R. J. (1990, July). The psychoneuroimmune network: Expanding our understanding of immunity and disease. New Zealand Medical Journal, 314-316

Bucci, L. (1995). Pain Free. Ft. Worth, TX: The Summit Group.

Campbell, D. (1996, October). Energy, mood, stress and the healthy immune system. Total Health,18(5), 24-26

Eisenberg, D. M., Kessler, R. C., Foster, C., Norlock, F. E., Calkins, D. R., & Delbanco, T. L. (1993). Unconventional medicine in the United States. New England Journal of Medicine, 246.

Everson, S. A., Goldberg, D. E., Kaplan, G. A., Cohen, R. D., Pukkala, E., Tuomilehto, J., & Salonen, J. T. (1996). Hopelessness and risk of mortality and incidence of myocardial infarction and cancer. Psychosomatic Medicine, 58, 113-121

Harrington, A. (1995, September/October). Probing the secrets of placebos. Alternative and Complementary Therapies, 299-304.

LaPerriere, A., Ironson, G., Antoni, M. H., Schneiderman, N., Klimas, N., & Fletcher, M.A. (1994). Exercise and psychoneuroimmunology. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 26(2), 182-190

U.S. Sports Academy2013-11-26T21:22:04-06:00February 15th, 2008|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Exercise Science, Sports Management, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|Comments Off