Contemporary Sports Issues – Page 40

An Ethnographic Study of the Skateboarding Culture

Linda Moore; Senior Director, Business Administration; ESPN Productions Inc.

Abstract

Skateboarders are often seen as outsiders. However, understanding the culture of skateboarding can be insightful for politicians, adults, or scholars who seek to develop stronger relationships with young people who participate in skateboarding (Freeman & Riordan, 2002). In this ethnographic study, skateboarding culture is described through observations of professional skateboarders in a segment of the DVD, Planes, Trains and Skateboards. The findings suggested themes of acceptance, energy and drive, concern for safety, self-expression of style, and progression. Leaders who understand the culture of skateboarding may be able to communicate more effectively with the younger generation.

Introduction

Ethnography describes a culture and provides an understanding of that culture from an insider’s perspective (Neuman, 2003). Through observation, inferences can be made from how members of a culture act, speak, or think within specific cultural contexts to give meaning to actions and behaviors of the group. This study uses an ethnographic design to identify characteristics of the skateboarding culture by documenting characteristics, action, and behaviors of participants in the video compilation of Planes, Trains and Skateboards.

World Cup Skateboarding captured the essence of competitive skateboarding in the 2004 release of Planes, Trains and Skateboards from video recorded at X Games X in Los Angeles, CA. Through observation of communication styles and cultural artifacts manifested in the video, the culture of competitive skateboarding is described and generalizations to the overall culture that envelopes skateboarding are discussed. From the discussion of the video content, inferences are synthesized to provide a greater understanding of the skateboarding culture.

Population, Sampling, Data Collection Procedures, and Rationale

Planes, Trains and Skateboards is a video compilation of skateboarding events held around the world during 2004. Each of the 15 chapters highlights the social scene enveloping the competition and the athletes who participated. For purposes of this analysis, Chapter 13, X Games X, which includes skateboard street, vert best trick, and big air competitions, was selected because of the variety of genres included in the compilation and the competitive nature of the event.

The population for this study consists of professional skateboarders participating in skateboard competition at X Games X in Los Angeles, CA. While not all skateboarders become professional athletes, the sample for this study included street skaters, vert skaters, and big air skaters. Street skaters are those who predominantly skate on streets and other public domains where concrete and obstacles offer an interesting playground. Vert skaters are those who skate on a half-pipe, usually made of wood or concrete shaped like half of a pipe cut through the diameter. Big air skaters are the newest genre to the culture as these athletes are the most experienced group of skaters and choose a mega-ramp that rises as high as seven stories in the air from which they “drop-in” to gain enough speed to carry them across the bottom, up the opposite side, and above the ramp by as much as 15 or 20 feet above the rim. While each group of skaters is different, by identifying the similarities between them, a greater understanding of the skateboarding culture is gleaned.

Data was collected through an ethnographic analysis, noting unspoken language, behaviors, and cultural artifacts such as dress, hair, and body art. A description of what is observed in the video is detailed. As the competition begins, a standing room only crowd is observed. No whistles, balls, referees, or coaches can be found. Instead, the competition is on the sidewalk behind Staples Center in downtown Los Angeles. Just before the competition, one athlete is break dancing for the crowd. Another is signing autographs. One athlete hides his face from the camera as his family sports hats that look like wedges of cheese in the background. Another athlete dances to the music as he eyes the young, thin, attractive girls in the front row of the crowd. From these observations, inferences can be made to the general population of skateboarders that might suggest that skateboarders are more concerned about having fun and connecting with the audience than winning competitions.

Validity and Bias

Bias is inherent in qualitative research (Neuman, 2003). In particular, because the researcher is the instrument, personal background, interests, and point of view become part of the analysis. In this study, the researcher has an interest in understanding the culture of skateboarding and has participated in the action sports industry for 13 years. Yet these years have not provided an opportunity to discover how skateboarders think or why these athletes do what they do. While bias cannot be erased, bias is identified as a mediating factor that may influence the results of this study.

The single source of data for this study limits the validity. However, repeated observations of the same participants improved the internal validity, or interpretability of the data (Newman, 2003). Further research may be necessary to confirm the external validity, or generalizability of the findings (Newman).

Data Analysis

Data from this ethnographic study was collected by watching the DVD repeatedly to identify the demographic characteristics of the skateboarding participants, including athletes, judges and announcers who were presented in the footage, then observing behaviors and appearances from which meaningful inferences could be drawn.

Agar (2006) suggests that ethnography is about the study of human differences through the identification of similarities. By studying the similarities among the participants in the video, the researcher identified differences between these participants to draw meaning that connects these participants to outsiders such as the researcher.

To understand what was happening in the video, the researcher looked to identify “rich points” or patterns across certain kinds of people in certain situations (Agar, 2006, p. 5). After preliminary notes were taken and reviewed, the DVD was again reviewed repeatedly to confirm the original notes and to make additional observations. Special attention was given to communication and action that took through participant interaction and crowd responses. Through a careful analysis of participant characteristics, participant interaction, and crowd responses, explanations for the overall increase in participation in skateboarding and the rationale for increased acceptance of skateboarding by mainstream sports enthusiasts can be garnered.

Findings

The data from this study were recorded and analyzed for patterns within observed responses and actions. Demographic observations were made. Actions and behaviors were then analyzed. The analysis revealed several themes: acceptance, energy and drive, concern for safety, self-expression of style, and progression.

The demographic characteristics revealed limited diversity among the professional skateboarders who participated in the study competition. Of the 30 participants, 10% were female and 90% were male. 73% were observed to be of Caucasian ethnicity, while 16% were observed to be of Hispanic origins and 1% of African American ethnicity. Age ranged from early teens to late thirties and appeared to have some correlation to the discipline as younger skaters tended to be involved in street skating, while the older, more experienced skaters dominated the vert and big air disciplines. The demographic characteristics are presented in Table 1.

Table 1
Demographic Characteristics of Skateboarding Participants

Skater #	Discipline	Gender	Observed Ethnicity	Observed Age
1	Street	Female	Caucasian	Teens
2	Street	Female	Caucasian	Teens
3	Street	Female	Hispanic	Teens
4	Street	Male	Caucasian	Twenties
5	Street	Male	Caucasian	Early Teens
6	Street	Male	Hispanic	Twenties
7	Street	Male	Caucasian	Late 20s
8	Street	Male	Hispanic	Late 20s
9	Street	Male	Caucasian	Late teens
10	Street	Male	Caucasian	Twenties
11	Street	Male	Caucasian	Twenties
12	Street	Male	African American	Twenties
13	Street	Male	Caucasian	Twenties
14	Vert	Male	Caucasian	Twenties
15	Vert	Male	Caucasian	Twenties
16	Vert	Male	Hispanic	Twenties
17	Big Air	Male	Caucasian	Twenties
18	Big Air	Male	Caucasian	Thirties
19	Big Air	Male	African American	Thirties
20	Big Air	Male	Caucasian	Thirties
21	Big Air	Male	Caucasian	Thirties
22	Big Air	Male	Caucasian	Thirties
23	Big Air	Male	Caucasian	Thirties
24	Big Air	Male	Caucasian	Late Thirties
25	Big Air	Male	Caucasian	Thirties
26	Big Air	Male	Hispanic	Late Twenties
27	Big Air	Male	Caucasian	Late Twenties
28	Big Air	Male	Caucasian	Twenties
29	Big Air	Male	Caucasian	Late Twenties
30	Big Air	Male	Caucasian	Twenties

Regardless of gender, discipline, ethnicity, or age, the participants in this study routinely embraced each other, supported each other by showing encouragement and appreciation, and showed no signs of negative emotion toward other participants, despite the fact that prize money was on the line. This lack of negative emotions infers an inclusionary construct within the skateboarding culture.

Another central theme of this study was the energy and drive of the participants. While each participant was competing, facial expressions suggested the presence of passion and determination, fun, excitement, and desire to do their best at that moment. Participants did not appear tired or winded, even at the conclusion of their turn in the competition rotation. Although the exact time of each run was not apparent from the video, many athletes continued to show energy by dancing, jumping, or engaging in other celebratory acts. Observed behaviors included applauding each other, dancing, smiling, and other congratulatory behaviors. The unique behaviors of participants and spectators, which were captured in the video, are included in Table 2.

Table 2

Unique Behaviors of Participants

Skater #	Unique Behaviors
4	Break dancing before competition
5	Smiling
6	Fans enjoying the run
9	Family supported participant by wearing shirts spelling out last name
10	Moved around the course, spectators applauded, many spectators filming the run
14	High-five with fellow competitor
15	Smiled, happy
16	Received congratulatory slap and hugged competitors on deck, started dancing to the music, showed medal to group of reporters following competition, hugged female reporter
17	Described Big Air Mega Ramp, suggests he’s lost money by betting on these competitions, but laughs as if he’s joking,
18	Gave advice to “hang on, you’ve got 4 tries, that’s it,” joked with camera
19	Moving things forward
21	Describes this as “history in the making” “gladiator skateboarders”
22	Making of “super heroes” today
23	Indicated he was “gearing up for getting slammed”
24	“Awesome,” “sick” suggests athletes must have guts to try this
25	Held small child on the medal stand and waived to crowd after winning gold medal, appeared very happy
26	Nervous, anxious look on face prior to taking jump
29	Skate competitors shown watching, enjoying competition
30	Smiled, happy, camera pan of crowd revealed jammed parking lot full of people cheering and applauding

While danger is inherent in most sports, the potential for falls in skateboarding appears quite high. Helmets, kneepads, elbow pads, wrist guards and gloves were observed in both the vert and big air disciplines. The use of safety equipment appeared to be routine for all competitors, suggesting a concern for safety.

The participants did not wear uniforms or jerseys that identified their team or sponsors. Rather, each participant had an individual sense of style that provided for self-expression. However, similarities in style suggest certain appearance constructs of the skateboarding culture. Comfortable attire such as baggy jeans and loose-fitting t-shirts that allow for movement were common among participants. Style appears to be important to members of the skateboarding culture, but style is not what everyone else is doing or wearing. Rather, style appears to be an expression of individuality. The presence of tattoos, body piercing, or other expressions of individuality could not be gleaned from the video in this study.

Finally, with the variety of disciplines within skateboarding, the theme of progression appears to play a prominent role. While street skating was the original discipline of early skateboarders back in the 1950s, the vert competition was introduced in the mid-1970s as skaters found empty swimming pools provided an interesting playground for skateboarding activities (Hayes, 2005). Not until X Games X was the big air discipline introduced as a competitive event. The progression of the sport through these disciplines suggests skateboarding is an evolving culture that pushes members to try new things, take bigger risks, and progress the sport to new levels.

Conclusions

Critics argue that the skateboarding culture represents a youth activity that embraces anti-establishment values in opposition to middle class norms and values inherent in traditional team sports (Kusz, 2003). However, popular culture can be a means of projecting social resistance, and skateboarding is no exception, despite originating under the Boy Scouts of America umbrella (Beal, 1995).

To outsiders, skaters are thought of as rebels, social deviants, or simply different. Participants are banned from public areas and signs are routinely posted prohibiting the activity (Nolan, 2003; Woolley & Johns, 2001). However, understanding the culture of skateboarding can be insightful for politicians, adults, or scholars who seek to develop stronger relationships with young people (Freeman & Riordan, 2002).

In a study of female skaters, participants described skateboarding as fun, adventurous, confidence building, and nonconformist with a casual, comfortable style (Kelly, Pomerantz & Currie, 2005). These same themes can be inferred from the current study. Even with the status of professional athlete, the subjects in this study were observed as happy, comfortable, and inclusive.

Skateboarding allows for individuality as rules are minimal and self-expression is encouraged. This freedom to be creative and express oneself through skateboarding activity can be a means of empowerment. Through the cultural values of inclusion, having fun, self-expression, and progression, participants can build confidence to become leaders. By understanding the culture of skateboarding, today’s leaders are in a better position to understand tomorrow’s leaders and develop communication styles to improve interaction between generations.

References

Agar, M. (2006, June). Culture: Can you take it anywhere? International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 5(2).

Beal, B. (1995). Disqualifying the official: An exploration of social resistance through the subculture of skateboarding. Sociology of Sport Journal, 12. Retrieved September 22, 2006, from EBSCOhost database.

Bostick, D. & Bostick, D. (Executive Producers) & Kanights, B. (Producer). (2004). Planes, trains and skateboards (DVD). United States: Come Together Productions.

Freeman, C. & Riordan, T. (2002). Locating skateparks: The planner’s dilemma. Planning, Practice & Research, 17(3).

Hayes, A. (2005). Dogtown and Z-Boys: Teaching the documentary. Screen Education, 40. Retrieved September 22, 2006, from EBSCOhost database.

Kelly, D. M., Pomerantz, S., & Currie, D. (2005, August). Skater girlhood and emphasized femininity: ‘you can’t land an ollie properly in heels’. Gender and Education,17 (3).

Kusz, K. (2003). BMX, extreme sports, and the White male backlash. In Brayton, S. (2005). “Black-Lash”: Revisiting the “White Negro” through skateboarding. Sociology of Sport Journal, 22. Retrieved September 22, 2006, from EBSCOhost database.

Neuman, W. L. (2003). Social research methods (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall.

Nolan, N. (2003, November). The ins and outs of skateboarding and transgression in public space in Newcastle, Australia. Australian Geographer, 34(3).

Woolley, H. & Johns, R. (2001). Skateboarding: The city as a playground. Journal ofUrban Design, 6(2).

U.S. Sports Academy2013-11-25T19:36:13-06:00October 5th, 2009|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|Comments Off

Important Parameters of the Football Industry in Cyprus: Challenges and Opportunities

Nicos L. Kartakoullis and Andreas Theophanous,
University of Nicosia

Abstract

An in-depth study of the current football industry in Cyprus was undertaken to evaluate the financial situation of the first division football clubs, the competitive balance of the national league, the management practices of the football clubs and national league, and the negative effects of football hooliganism on the industry. Research involved both an extensive literature review of secondary sources from the Cyprus Sport Organization, the Cyprus Football Association, and the football clubs, as well as a qualitative data collection tool which included personal interviews and focus groups. Challenges and opportunities facing the football industry in Cyprus were identified.

Introduction

There is no doubt that football is the most popular sport worldwide. It is the king of sports. Because of the popularity of football all over the world on all continents, it is no surprise that on many occasions people address football as the “universal language.” According to Murphy, Williams, and Dunning (1992) “Soccer is, without any shadow of doubt, the world’s most popular sport.”

The hero of Liverpool FC, the late Bill Shankly, who managed to turn Liverpool Football Club into a big European football power, emphasized that football is a “more important matter than life or death.” It is true that “there appears to be something about the structure of soccer that gives it a very wide appeal in the modern world, an appeal that appears to be relatively independent to the level of development of countries, the socio-political character of the regimes by which they are ruled, their allegiances and the alliances that they are involved in” (Murphy, Williams, Dunning, 1992).

The Federation Internationale de Football Association (FIFA), the world governing body of football, commissioned the social research company in Zurich, Lamprecht and Stamm SE BAG, to conduct the FIFA Big Count 2006. A survey that was conducted through the 207 national football associations worldwide, in which data was gathered on the numbers of participating players in football at all levels. The results of the survey are impressive indicating how big football is worldwide. The president of FIFA, Joseph S. Blatter, in view of the published results of the survey stated, “Football’s popularity remains undiminished and is actually increasing.”

Some of the impressive findings of the 2006 survey as presented in a press release by FIFA on June 12, 2007, indicated the following:

· The overall number of 265 million male and female players is almost 10 percent higher than the number recorded six years ago (242 million). Of the 265 million, 26 million, or around 10 percent, are women.

· Since 2000, the number of registered male and female footballers has increased by around 23 percent to over 38 million.

· The growth in women’s football is particularly striking, with the number of registered players up 54 percent to 4.1 million, while the number of registered players in the men’s game has likewise seen an increase of 21 percent to 34.2 million.

· The number of unregistered occasional players, which was first recorded in the previous Big Count study, is up seven percent to 226 million.

· There are now a combined total of over one million futsal and beach soccer players (both male and female).

· The number of clubs (301,000) is similar to the figure recorded in 2000. That said, the total number of teams (1.7 million) has increased by approximately 200,000.

The FIFA president further noted, “If you count the relatives and close friends of active participants in football, who share in their passion for the game as fans and support them in other ways, the total number is even more impressive: Well over a billion people worldwide are involved in football at all levels of society and across all borders.” Based on the figures provided, FIFA stated that a grand total of 270 million people, male and female players, which represents four percent of the world’s population, are involved in one way or another in football. According to the FIFA press release, it is not only the television audiences and match attendances that are increasing but the number of people playing football on all continents. It is not only popular as a spectator sport but as a participant sport as well. It is worth noting that based on FIFA records, out of these 270 million people, 99.8% are amateur football players with 80% being youth players.

With all those figures available, the FIFA president is happy to state, “Football is truly the world’s game. It is played in every conceivable place, on every corner of the world by men, women, boys, and girls of all ages. It is played in narrow streets, in muddy fields, and in packed stadiums on grass, concrete, earth, and sand. Any differences between people fade away in its unifying light.”

The figures and all this related information display a picture of football’s development worldwide. However, besides this success in football’s development, which is proven by the increasing numbers, there are critics of the work of FIFA. Sugden and Tomlinson (2005) noted that FIFA has transformed itself from an international nongovernment organization into a business international nongovernment organization. FIFA has been increasingly profit driven and presents one of the leading examples of the professionalization and commercialization of modern sports. They define this as “sport’s emergence at the heart of the worldwide cultural industries” (Sugden and Tomlinson, 2005). Thus, Sugden and Tomlinson were willing to “… show what happens in an international nongovernmental organization when the pursuit of profit overwhelms an ethic of service” and in view of this they presented an analysis of the crisis in world football (Sugden & Tomlinson, 2005).

Along the same lines as this critical approach and perspective, Allison set a series of questions trying to set sports in the right perspective in this era of globalization; he emphasized, “… how worried should we be about the nature of power in international organizations?” (Allison, 2005).

There is no doubt that “football has been transformed over the years to a gigantic commercial operation” (Boyopoulos & Milakas, 2005). However, besides this truth, nobody can underestimate the cultural significance of football as elaborated by Norbert Elias in his civilizing process theory.

On the one hand, nobody can argue the fact that football has become commercialized and is big business now, as noted above; on the other, nobody should overemphasize the problems and challenges of the game by ignoring its power and what it can offer to different societies.

Sports generally, and football precisely, presents unique situations whereby we have the coexistence of profit making on the one hand, and nonprofit making and voluntary organizations on the other. In the football world, there is this uniqueness where profit making is an activity that is conducted in many instances by nonprofit or voluntary organizations where they all have common goals and objectives (Capling, 2004; Murphy et. al. 2001; Rachman, 2002).

In many instances, the financial dimensions of football are increasing without actually leading to profitability for the football clubs. In fact, all over the world, and in Cyprus too, many football clubs are facing severe financial problems. Although, there are occasions where the big football clubs in different nations are profitable (Capling, 2004; Deloitte, 2005; Booth, 2004; Rachman, 2002).

The finances of football clubs for many years and in many instances where not made public for many various reasons. In many situations, proper financial records were not kept, and in many countries, this presented a chaotic situation where records and information were not readily available (Kartakoullis, 2005). The introduction of the UEFA club licensing system by the Union des Associations Europeenes de football (UEFA), the European governing football body, assisted in many instances and actually contributed to the sorting of the finances of football clubs in Europe as clubs were forced to prepare financial statements, accounts, and budgets to be submitted to their national football associations; otherwise, they would not be granted permission to compete in national and European competitions.

Purpose of the Study

Football is an international cultural phenomenon which is currently characterized by two major challenges: professionalization and commercialization.

The purpose of this study was to examine specific parameters of the football industry in a small country, Cyprus, where there are certain unique characteristics. The specific parameters addressed were the financial situation of the first division football clubs, the competitive balance of the national league, and management practices in the football industry. What major challenges exist in the football industry of a small country such as Cyprus, away from this globalized form football is taking with the two major characteristics of professionalization and commercialization? What are the challenges facing such an industry away from huge contracts, profitable television rights, sponsorships, and so many vested interests, as one can see them in the international football arena?

The Republic of Cyprus became an independent state in 1960. It became a member of the United Nations in 1960, of the Council of Europe in 1961, and of the European Union in 2004. It has an area of 9,521 square kilometers and a population of approximately 800,000. Since 1974, it has been de facto divided. Efforts to solve this problem in Cyprus and reunify the island have not been successful yet. Nicosia (Lefkosia in Greek; Lefkosa in Turkish) is the capital city.

Three geographic characteristics of Cyprus have determined much of its fate: location, size, and the fact that it is an island. It is located at a strategic position in the eastern Mediterranean, at the crossroads of three continents. Its strategic location, long exposed coastline, and small size always made it an attractive and easy target for outsiders. Its history and demography reflect the ebb and flow of peoples and powers in the region. In the course of its long history, Cyprus has been controlled by most of the major powers that had interest in, or sought control of, the Middle East. The list of its successive rulers include the Egyptians, Greeks, Phoenicians, Asssy6rians, Persians, Ptolemies, Romans, Byzantines, Franks, Venetians, Ottoman Turks, and British. It gained its independence from Britain in 1960 (Joseph, 2000).

Cyprus has been considered a football-loving nation, arising from the fact that football competitions draw good attendance in Cyprus as well as from the fact that it is extensively covered in the media. It is not surprising for example that when the two big football teams of the country play against each other, they attract crowds of more than 25,000 people, which is indeed large, bearing in mind the small size of the country. This fact is further reinforced by the results of the football survey (2005-2006), conducted on behalf of the Cyprus Football Association by the Centre for Leisure, Tourism, and Sports Research and Development. The results of the research clearly indicated that Cyprus is a football-loving nation. For example, the fact that 77% of men aged between 21-70 years old support a football club, and another 20% who do not support a club, still follow football in Cyprus and are well informed about the results of the national league, clearly displays there is great interest. Additionally, the fact that 16,000 kids are registered and play football in football academies all over the island displays this love for the game.

Method

A combination of methods has been used to gather the material required to analyze the football industry in the country. Thus, as a first step, all related information was collected from the Cyprus Sport Organization, the Cyprus Football Association, and the first division football clubs in Cyprus. The task of collecting information for the football clubs was not as hard and difficult as initially predicted, as this was already done by the National Football Association, who collected all related material for the UEFA club licensing scheme. However, a review of available material was definitely not enough for such a purpose. That was only one aspect of this research.

Participants

In view of this, personal interviews and focus groups were conducted in the attempt to collect as complete and as accurate information as possible. Interviews were conducted with the presidents or secretaries general of all 14 footballs clubs in the first division of the national league, the professional clubs in Cyprus. This was done in order to collect qualitative data which was going to complement the material already collected in the first phase of the research. Qualitative data was useful in this respect in gaining additional information in relation to the issue under investigation. Qualitative data according to Straus and Corbin (1990) is “any kind of research that produces findings not arrived at by means of statistical procedures or other means of quantification.” Qualitative interview studies are usually conducted with small samples (14 in this case) and the “aim is usually to gather an authentic” understanding of people’s experiences (attitudes, knowledge, beliefs about football in Cyprus in this case) and it is believed that open ended questions are the most effective route towards this end” (Silverman, 1993). Thus, this method involved an open ended interview study which encouraged the top decision makers of the football clubs in Cyprus to offer their own attitudes, knowledge, definitions and understanding of the football industry.

Design and Procedure

Two focus groups were utilized as the means to collect data for the analysis of the football industry. For Morgan (1988), focus groups are basically group-oriented discussions that rely on interaction within the group based on the topic that the moderator supplies. The advantage is that through focus groups, the moderator assists, especially at the first stages of the interaction, by providing information that could be helpful to participants in placing the focus group in context.

According to Morgan (1988) focus groups are basically group interviews; they rely on interaction within the group, based on the topic that the researcher supplies; with the researcher taking the role of a moderator. Furthermore, Morgan (1988) notes that focus groups can be used as a supplement for collecting data when using either qualitative or quantitative methods. Additionally, focus groups can be used as follow-up research to clarify findings in the other data collected, but more importantly, according to Morgan (1988) the goal in using focus groups is to get closer to participants’ understandings of the researcher’s topic. In view of this, the use of the focus groups in this case provided a valuable insight into the variables examined for the football industry. Focus groups are thus helpful in investigating what participants think, uncovering why participants think as they do, crucial in the attempt being made to investigate the perspectives analyzed above. There are both strengths and weaknesses of focus groups as a setting in which to collect qualitative data; in this particular case the use of focus groups was considered appropriate in supplementing the data already collected. Additionally, focus groups were useful to conduct as they produced valuable data from group interaction on the specific topic under examination; a focus group can delve deeper as participant’s contributions can trigger further comments of other participants. Two focus groups were conducted; each group consisted of six persons (members of executive committees of football clubs, football players, referees, coaches, sports journalists, sponsors, supporter’s clubs, and representatives of the Cyprus Football Association) under the moderation of Dr. Andreas Theophanous, who has experience of more than 20 years in qualitative research. The focus was on obtaining a good representative sample of persons associated with the football industry in Cyprus. The focus group sessions lasted for almost two hours each, and the data collected was then analyzed using the coding technique of content analysis. Thus, a series of categories or coding frames have been developed in relation to the finances of the clubs, the governance and management of the clubs, the competitive balance of the league, and the major problems that the industry is facing today.

Analysis or coding of qualitative data represents the operations by which data are broken down, conceptualized, and put back together in new ways; it is the central process by which theories are built from data (Straus and Corbin, 1990). This technique entails defining a series of categories of answers in which the researcher is interested (Breakwell, 1990). In addition, according, to Breakwell (1990), if the researcher does not wish to push responses into categories because this loses some of the individuality of the original statements, then content analysis can be used in a different way whereby in the report produced of the findings there are lots of quotations which will show the depth of the opinions expressed. More precisely, for analyzing the data gathered in this section, a classification system or coding was used where responses were classified in schemes using coding frames.

Results

Based on the data collected, it is evident that football clubs in Cyprus have four major sources of revenue (M. Gavrielides, A. Michaelides, D. Seraphim, personal communications, April 10, 2007). This include the income from tickets sold for the home matches, the television rights, membership fees and financial support from friends of the clubs, and commercial activities including sponsorship. The expenses of the football clubs are usually more than their income, and this was actually identified as the major cause of the financial problems that football clubs are currently facing in Cyprus during the focus groups (A. Michaelides, personal communication, March 20, 2007).

The major expenses of the football clubs involve salaries to the football players, coaches, and administrative staff, accommodation and board when the club is traveling for away games, transfer fees, and expenses for the organization of matches. (K. Koutsokoumnis, personal communication, April 6, 2007). This issue with the salaries of players and coaches is addressed extensively in the discussion section that follows.

For securing confidentially, the budgets of the different clubs discussed in the focus groups could not be presented separately, but Table 1 provides the total budgets of the 14 first division clubs for the 2004-2005 season in terms of their income and expenditures. For the purpose of analysis, the 14 teams are divided into two groups: the first group is comprised of the five largest teams in the country, and the second group includes the remaining nine teams. It became clear from diligent examination and discussion of the budgets submitted by all 14 first division clubs that most of the teams will have difficulty meeting the criteria of the UEFA club licensing scheme, which prescribes balanced income and expenditures of club members. From the study of the budgets submitted, as well as from the analysis of the data collected through the interviews and the focus groups, it appears that most of the budgets are over-ambitious. Additionally, the profit and loss accounts of the clubs were diligently studied. In most cases, it appeared that there was an over-estimation of expected income for the clubs.

Eight major points were identified by the research team in relation to the financial situation of the clubs in Cyprus.

· The 14 clubs of the first division submitted in their budgets their incomes for the period under examination, and total incomes for all clubs were calculated at Euro 17,530,250, which corresponds to Euro 1,252,404, for each club. The biggest income declared by any club was Euro 2,853,364, and the lowest income declared was Euro 744,319

· Total expenditure was calculated at Euro 17,629,349, which corresponds to Euro 1,259,239, for each club. The biggest expenditure declared by a club was Euro 2, 392,004 and the lowest was Euro 744,319.

· Six clubs declared that they were expecting losses in the period under investigation; while the other eight clubs expected to have a profit.

· The biggest profit to be made was estimated at Euro 640,725, and this was by a club which by the end of the season was relegated to the second division.

· Paying the salaries of players, foreign and domestic, and coaches consumed 75% of every club’s budget.

· From the data gathered, it was clear that foreign players were paid better salaries than the domestic players.

· Season tickets contributed an average of 10% of the total income for the clubs. The highest contribution from season tickets to total income was 20%, and the lowest was 1%.

· The television rights for the period under examination were calculated to Euro 934,177, which represented 5.3% of the total income of clubs.

The government of the Republic of Cyprus acknowledges the importance of football in Cypriot society. In view of this, the government has provided different forms of financial support to the sport. The Cyprus Sports Organization, which is the semi- governmental organization in charge of sports, has provided annual financial support to the Cyprus Football Association which comes to Euro 4,613,223 per year. However, in view of the financial problems of the football clubs in the country and in the attempt by the government to assist the clubs to get through this financial crisis, the government decided two years ago to provide a grant of Euro 10,251,608 over a four year period. Additionally, the Cyprus Sport Organization returns to the individual football clubs a total sum of Euro 717,612 per year, which represents taxes collected on gate income as well as community taxes (T. Christofides, personal communication, April 10, 2007). Furthermore, another amount of Euro 683,440 per year is given by the Sports Organization to pay the police forces in charge of security during the football matches (K. Papakosta, personal communication, March 15, 2007).

From the qualitative data gathered, it emerged that there was a consensus among the different parties involved in the football industry that there are three major challenges facing football in Cyprus. Football violence, bad governance and management of clubs, and prejudice against referees and officials are major challenges that the industry is facing, and although there is potential for further development, these problems do not allow the industry to grow to its full potential. (K. Zivanaris, personal communication, April 10, 2007). Peristianis, Kapardis, Loizou, Fakiolas, and Puloukas (2002) noted that the football industry in Cyprus is facing a major crisis in the face of football hooliganism, which can destroy the sport if this is not controlled. It is an ongoing problem that has not been controlled for years now and can lead to the financial collapse of the industry (Peristianis et al, 2002; Aristotelous & Pouloucas, 1996).

Another major issue that was addressed in the focus groups was the fact that there is no competitive balance in the national league, which poses a serious threat to the football industry. (T. Antoniou, K. Malekkos, C. Constantinou, C. Theodotou, personal communications, 12 April, 2007). The clubs are split into two groups: the five large ones in the first group and the other nine in the second group, which represent the weak teams struggling for survival. Out of the five clubs in the first group, three of those, namely APOEL, OMONIA and ANORTHOSIS, are the only ones that compete for the national championship each year. This has been the case for years now, and this competitive imbalance leads to a reduction of interest in the football industry (L. Kyriakou, personal communication, March 6, 2007). The results show, for example, that in the 2005-2006 season a total of 507,000 tickets were sold with 337,661, which represents 66% of the total, being utilized by the big five group. Table 2 shows the distribution of tickets during this season between the big and the weak teams of the league.

As Figure 1 identifies, the gap between the big and the weak teams in the sale of tickets is growing larger, which clearly presents the problematic situation existing because of this competitive imbalance in the national league.

Clubs are recruiting increasing numbers of foreign players, which increases their expenditures considerably, and this is causing Cypriot players to become a scarce commodity. (A. Michaelides, personal communication, April 10, 2007). Over a typical weekend with seven games on the national league calendar, approximately 190 players were used including substitutes during the 2005-06 seasons. Out of those 190 players, only 75 were Cypriots. This is a trend which is increasing every year; whereby last season, there was a point where there were teams starting without a single Cypriot player in the first eleven. Back in the 1992-1993 season, for example, the clubs in Cyprus used to have eight Cypriot players and only three foreigners in the starting eleven. (M. Gavrielides, personal communication, March 22, 2007). It is not surprising then that during that period, clubs were in a much better financial situation. In many countries, this is the trend, but in large developed countries, the football industry is big enough to cope with such expenses. In England, for example, the figures show that in the 1992-1993 season, only 10% of the players starting the games were not British. Conversely though, during this current season, only 37% of the players starting in the first eleven were British.

This is the issue actually. Clubs in small countries, like Cyprus, should not try to copy what is happening in other countries where the football industry is huge. The clubs’ officials need to be very realistic and down to earth when trying to build their teams. However, it is sad to identify that things are getting out of control according to the discussions held in the focus groups (L. Kyriakou, M. Gavrielides, T. Antreou, personal communications, April 10, 2007).

Discussion

Due to the popularity of football worldwide, the game has grown into a huge industry. Gratton and Henry (2001) estimated that in the big European countries, the football industry contributes 3% of the gross domestic product of those countries. According to Theophanous and Kartakoullis (2004), in Cyprus, the football industry contributes only 1.84% of the gross domestic product. This was actually expected as Cyprus is a small country. However, something which is alarming and risky as well is the fact that out of this 1.84%, which totals an amount of Euro 223,826,788, a great percentage of this, which comes to Euro 153,774,130, derives from the betting industry. Thus, the betting industry forms a substantial part of the football industry in the country, and this is something that for some years now is leading to various forms of problems and issues, the major of which is prejudice. In certain instances, rumors are spread concerning fixed matches and for referees that have been influenced by officials and players betting huge amounts of money on specific fixtures. This is a major issue for the football industry as the huge amounts of money spent in the betting industry have led to prejudice against the sport and, in turn, is destroying the image of the game in Cyprus. Similar sorts of problems with betting and fixed games have been identified in other countries all over the world.

In relation to the above issue, there are some additional complications and issues that are raised because of the betting situation. As noted in the results section, the clubs in the first division are split into two categories: the big five and the remaining small or weaker clubs. In view of the fact that 66% of the total income from games derives from the big five, a series of other questions are generated having to do with the influence that these clubs have in the decision-making processes, in the appointment of referees and in the allocation of television rights among the clubs. Television rights are handled by the Cyprus Football Association, which has developed a scheme for allocating income to the clubs. Again, in relation to this scheme of allocation, there are issues and concerns as it seems that the big five at some stage will start handling their own rights with television stations. The big five will secure good deals with the stations in the country, and the small ones will remain financially exposed, as they will lose a good portion of their incomes from the rights. The television rights totaled a sum of Euro 934,177, which represents almost 6% of the total income of the clubs. This is expected to rise to almost 12% of the total income of the clubs in the next two years, based on the new deals to be signed.

In relation to the distribution of income for football clubs, Back et al. (2004) estimated that the three major sources of income for football clubs should deliver roughly the same amounts. That comes to approximately 33% contribution to total income from each of the three categories of income: tickets, television rights, and commercial activities. For example, for Manchester United in the period of 1992-2002, this was calculated to 40% from tickets, 34% from television rights, and 26% from other commercial activities. When considering the distribution of income for the clubs in Cyprus, this is far from this equal distribution.

It should be noted that this issue of big and weak football clubs is not only a problem in Cyprus but a challenge for European football as well. In the Friedlander Report (2001) by the Centre for Research into Sport and Society of the University of Leicester, it is stated that the gap between the big clubs and the rest is ever growing bigger, so this is something that needs to be addressed.

Another major concern that is leading to great controversy has to do with the contracts and salaries of players. As can be deduced from the expenditures of the clubs (Table 1), 75% of the total expenses of the clubs were on salaries for players, coaches, and the support staff. The football players’ salaries came to 65% of expenditures. Each club in the first division has 25 registered professional players plus another six to ten persons in the support team (fitness trainer, physiotherapist, medical doctor, or administrators). The salaries of foreign players playing in Cyprus are considerably higher to those paid to Cypriot players; however, there is a great concern as to whether the contribution of foreign players to the team is greater than that of the Cypriots, thus justifying their bigger salaries. There are cases of foreign players in Cyprus who signed yearly contracts of Euro 341,720, which is really surprising for such a small industry. Along the same lines, there are coaches in Cyprus coming from Europe with contracts of Euro 256,290 per year, which is again on the very high side bearing in mind the size of the football industry in the country.

In relation to the above, Deloite (2004, 2005), in the annual review of football finances, noted that there is a tendency for decreasing the percentage of salaries on total expenditures. In the premier league, for example, in England, salaries represented 62% of total expenditures in 2001-2002, 61% in 2002-2003, and a further reduction to 60% in the following season. The same tendency for reducing salaries could be observed in other European countries. On the contrary, in Cyprus, the exact opposite is happening; there is an increasing tendency in this respect which is very dangerous indeed, when realizing that most of the clubs, if not all, are in a very bad financial situation. Thus, on the one hand, the clubs, due to their difficult financial situation, are seeking government support, but on the other, they are spending on salaries and contracts amounts with which the size of the industry in Cyprus cannot cope. The financial dimensions of the football industry in Cyprus are getting too big for such a small country, which is an alarming and dangerous trend for the future of the industry.

When all the financial statements and budgets of the clubs were examined from the documents submitted for the UEFA club licensing system, it was again obvious that clubs were in a bad financial situation. The great majority of clubs had big debts, and in order for them to meet the club licensing criteria, they postponed payments for years to come. For example, if a club had agreed to pay a player Euro 200,000 for a salary, they signed an agreement with the player stating that he is going to receive this money in the years to come. However, this is not solving the problem, but the problem is just postponed to the next few years.

The data from the qualitative analysis was enlightening in discovering the beliefs and opinions of the officials involved, top decision makers of the football clubs. It was indeed very interesting on the one hand, and very contradictory on the other, to identify from this research the commonly felt concern of all officials involved in football in Cyprus, and especially of the clubs’ top decision makers. There was a consensus that the expenditures of the clubs are growing, and the football industry is not currently ready to afford such a burden. However, beside this issue, which was overwhelmingly accepted, the club officials are doing absolutely nothing to resolve the problem. They clearly know the facts, they understand that football is in crisis, and still each year there is an average increase of 10% in the expenditures of the teams. This is indeed contradictory and illogical. The officials of the clubs, when asked why this happens, could not provide an answer. “There is no logic in football,” said one of the representatives of the big clubs. It should be noted that there are certain things that clubs can do to reduce their budgets, but the managers are still doing nothing about it. Actually, they are moving in the exact opposite direction.

The issue of overspending is something that can be observed in football clubs all over the world. Williams and Neatrour (2002) noted that clubs engage in this overspending practice by taking excess risks in view of the tough competition in football, and then, when things do not go the way they expect, in terms of performance, they cannot meet their financial obligations.

Football clubs in Cyprus are in crisis. This is proven by the results of this research, and it is justified in every respect. Clubs are currently in a struggle for survival as they have big debts that they need to repay. However, the situation is even more alarming considering the fact that clubs, despite this financial crisis, annually increase their budgets, with the result that the football industry is becoming too big and too risky for the country as well. Although clubs are operating on considerably big budgets, the structure they have still relies mostly on voluntary work without good governance or responsible management. Bad management and bad governance are major characteristics of clubs, and this was made clear in the qualitative data gathered. The clubs’ governing boards are comprised of volunteers, who for many different reasons become involved in the game. They are not always involved for the good of the Game but for many other different reasons. In view of this, when people become involved in the running of a club, they want immediate results, and they are not willing to plan for the future, as they wish to get the credit when they are on board. Thus, there is no strategic direction in the clubs, and, in view of this, no future plans for development. It is more of a day-to-day struggle for survival than anything else. There is an urgent need for better management of the football clubs and, additionally, a need for professionals to become involved in the football industry. The football industry in the country is getting too big for volunteers to run it. There is urgency for professionalism at all levels. Professionalization of the game is only happening with increasing numbers of professional players arriving from abroad; apart from this, there is no professionalization in any other respect.

Competitive balance refers to the ability of any of the football clubs in the national league to win the championship at the end of the season. Where there is competitive balance, clubs have equal chances to winning the league, and this makes the league very interesting as the outcome is not known. However, this is not the case in Cyprus, where at the beginning of each season, for years now, only three clubs are competing for the championship title. Thus, there are three favorites for the title and inevitably this leads to reduced interest on behalf of the fans, both for attending the matches as well as for watching them on TV. Additionally, it leads to a series of related problems with the remaining clubs that can not compete with the three favorites on equal terms; thus, the clubs are facing both competition and financial challenges. This limited interest at some stage during the football season by the indifferent clubs leads to problems and concerns with fixed matches and other related controversies. In view of this competitive imbalance, it is no surprise that out of 66 leagues organized in Cyprus, 50 were won by the three favorites. Nobody can question this issue, which was again extensively addressed by participants in the focus groups.

The issue of competitive balance in the national leagues is a major issue of concern for the football industry, as this is a critical success factor for the industry. In view of this, extensive work on the competitive balance of national leagues has been conducted by Holt et al. (2004), Michie and Oughton (2004 and 2005), Michie et al. (2004) and Forrest et al. (2005).

Despite the problems and issues identified, the club officials and top decision makers were still quite optimistic in relation to certain issues or opportunities that they identified. For instance, they identified the fact that an increasing number of big organizations and companies are interested in becoming involved in the industry as sponsors. This is quite true as there is a kind of new sponsorship culture that is developing lately on the island. The club officials emphasized this fact as they considered that this is a golden opportunity for the clubs to capitalize on. However, again this is an opportunity and a challenge. Sponsors are willing to join the football industry as long as they are going to get a good return. Gone are the days when companies donated money to football clubs in the form of charity (Kartakoullis, 2007). Consequently, the message is clear. On the one hand, there is potential in this area, but in order for the football clubs and the industry to utilize this, there is the need for expertise in the area.

Conclusion

The aim of the study was to gather data and examine important parameters of the football industry in Cyprus. This was the very first time that such an attempt has been made in Cyprus, which is indeed a football-loving nation. The research team approached the analysis from a purely critical perspective for the good of the game in Cyprus and for no other reason.

The football industry in Cyprus is facing a series of challenges that need to be addressed urgently. Bad management and governance are major characteristics in the industry, and it is no surprise that the football clubs, the major stakeholders in the industry, are in severe financial crisis. They have huge debts that they cannot pay; they have very high payrolls, which the industry can not handle in such a small country, and no strategy for development. Football hooliganism and the lack of competitive balance in the national league complete this picture of football in crisis in the small country of Cyprus. The financial dimensions, as denoted by the different parameters studied of the football industry, are growing, and the country cannot cope with it for the time being, as all football clubs are experiencing losses based on their profit and loss accounts studied. It is obvious that sports authorities need to invest in developing football and, precisely, in the management and structure of football; otherwise, the future of the game will be very gloomy and without hope.

Government support is good as provided, but this will not do much in saving the game, unless good management, governance, professionalism, and accountability are introduced at all levels of the game. In view of this, all those involved in the football industry need to realize the new opportunities and challenges in the world of sports and should introduce innovations at all levels of the game (Westerbeek & Smith, 2003). There is no doubt that all stakeholders in the football industry of Cyprus wish to upgrade football in this country, bringing it up to European standards. On the other hand, they should definitely have in mind all related concepts and issues in relation to this “Europeanization” of elite football (Martin, 2005). Above all, they need to be very realistic and down to earth, always having in mind the size of the football industry and the country as well.

Acknowledgments

The authors gratefully acknowledge the support of the Cyprus Football Association, the Football Clubs, and their officials in conducting this research. Additionally, the financial support of the Cyprus Football Association was greatly appreciated in conducting this research.

Table 1

Total Budgets for the Football Clubs 2005-2006

Income	€ 5 Big Clubs	€ 9 Weak Clubs	Total €	% of Budget
Tickets	4.421.957	2.184.865	6.606.823	37.69%
Commercial Activities	1.940.964	2.115.351	4.056.315	23.14%
Television Rights	452.779	481.398	934.177	5.33%
Funding	1.021.726	1.608.198	2.629.925	15.00%
Other	1.403.371	1.898.915	3.302.287	18.84%

Total	9.240.800	8.288.729	17.529.529	100.00%cmunisteri2009-03-13T14:37:00 Thousands & hundreds should be separated by commas not periods

Expenditure	€ 5 Big Clubs	€ 9 Weak Clubs	Total €	% of Budget
Foreign Players	2.843.174	2.709.558	5.552.732	31.50%
Cypriot Players	2.931.119	2.702.899	5.634.019	31.96%
Coaches	860.458	884.255	1.744.714	9.90%
Field Expenses	106.753	292.751	399.505	2.27%
Sports Equipment and Materials	29.046	230.046	259.092	1.47%
Transport	32.036	49.737	81.773	0.46%
Hotel Accommodation and Board	123.873	144.530	268.404	1.52%
Medical Expenses	90.555	160.523	251.078	1.42%
Field Security	12.643	59.288	71.932	0.41%
Transfer fees	3.417	321.217	324.634	1.84%
Expenses for European Competition	34.172	15.377	49.549	0.28%
Expenses for pre-season training abroad	129.853	203.569	333.423	1.89%
Complementary tickets	17.940	0	17.940	0.10%
Soccer Academies/Development Programmes	61.509	184.101	245.611	1.39%
Miscellaneous	1.475.777	919.724	2.395.501	13.59%

Total	8.752.331	8.877.582	17.629.913	100.00%

Table 2

Tickets Sold by the Big and the Weak Teams

Competition Season	Average no. of tickets	Average of the big teams	Average of the weak teams	Average of tickets sold without the big five
1996/97	1.387	5.065	882	541
1997/98	1.815	6.216	970	539
1998/99	1.911	6.581	955	414
1999/2000	1.813	6.130	941	454
2000/01	2.502	7.208	1.291	584
2001/02	2.553	7.720	1.258	491
2002/2003	3.091	8.458	1.624	707
2003/04	2.943	8.721	1.332	406
2004/05	2.790	7.655	1.563	652
Total	2.311	7.087	1.202cmunisteri2009-03-13T14:42:00 Thousands & hundreds separated by commas not periods	532

$Figure 1\$

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A Study of Alcohol Responsibility Among College Athletes

Submitted by: Frank B. Butts – University of West Georgia

Abstract

This study examined alcohol related behaviors among college athletes and the impact of a one year, alcohol responsibility intervention program on reported behaviors. A sample of 150 athletes was selected to go through three specific alcohol responsibility intervention programs, funded by an NCAA Choices grant. The interventions involved the establishment of a peer mentoring and counseling program to encourage alcohol responsibility and address behavioral concerns; educational opportunities; and alcohol free socials associated with athletic events. Findings of this study indicated a decrease in problematic issues in two of the six indicator areas examined.

Introduction

Problematic drinking on college campuses remains a significant concern for students in general and a growing concern for athletes in particular (Hingson, Heeren, Winter & Wechsler, 2005). Obviously when drinking behaviors among athletes become problematic, there is the potential to impact competitive performance, academic success and social development. This concern prompted the NCAA to establish the Choices Grants, aimed at combating irresponsible and problematic drinking among athletes. I utilized the funding from this grant to implement a 12 month intervention program on a campus that had been plagued with alcohol related issues among both the athlete and general student population. The intervention program involved peer training and mentoring, educational seminars, and social activities to address irresponsible alcohol behaviors.

Doumas, Turrisi, and Wright (2006) studied 249 college freshmen and found a disturbing prevalence of binge drinking among students and an even greater prevalence among athletes. They found that college athletes consumed an average of 5.07 drinks per weekend, former high school athletes 4.19 and non-athlete students 3.5 drinks per weekend. Thompson and Sherman (2007) further reported that between 1989 and 2005 the number of collegiate student-athletes who reported drinking 10 or more drinks in one sitting during the past 12 months significantly increased. This definition fits the description of problem drinking; however, this definition has been a debatable issue. Hanson (2007) defined problematic drinking in the college as five drinks for males and four drinks for females during one drinking experience. Although some consider this to be the problematic drinking threshold, alcohol experts, Lederman, Stewart, and Travis (2007) pointed out that the size of the drink, the body weight of the drinker, gender, and the length of time during the drinking experience are major factors that should be taken into consideration when defining problem drinking.

Brenner and Swanik (2007) reported the elevated consumption pattern of athletes over non-athletes. They examined the consumption patterns based on NCAA. The NCAA classifies schools into one of 3 categories based on the number of intercollegiate sports that a university offers, with Division One supporting the largest number of athletic teams, followed by NCAA II and lastly, NCAA III. They found that Division One schools reported more high risk or problematic drinking athletes (78%) as contrasted to NCAA II athletes (76%) and NCAA III athletes (67.5%) in a 12 month period. Nativ, Pubber and Green (1997) found that NCAA I athletes involved in contact sports, such as ice hockey and football, consumed alcohol at a greater frequency and quantity than their non-contact sport counterparts. This pattern was consistent among both males and females.

Wechsler, Davenport, Dowdall, Grossman, and Zanakos (1997) noted that 29% of male college athletes and 24% of female college athletes reported binge drinking three or more times in the past two weeks. In a subsequent study, Wechler, Lee, Kueo, Seibring, Nelson, and Lee (2002) reported that student-athletes were more likely to be occasional and frequent binge drinkers than non-athletes and that college students in general were more likely to be problematic drinkers than non-college students. DeHass (2006) noted problematic drinking has been shown to increase among athletes while they are out of their respective competitive season. Martin (1998) earlier brought attention to this finding by reporting that 56% of college athletes reported binge drinking while they were not in season, while 35% reported binge drinking in season.

Reasons for Abuse

Martens, O’Connor, and Beck (2006) speculated that the environment a college athlete faces itself could lead to alcohol abuse. Stainbeck (1997) theorized that college athletes travel more and are exposed to social settings that promote alcohol abuse. Some have suggested that athletes, as a result of their success, may also gain status in certain social settings where alcohol is more visible. To support this perspective, Crompton (1993); Neal, Sugarman, Hustad, Caska, and Carey (2005); and Madden and Grube (1994) presented theories noting a historical cultural link between alcohol and sporting events. Martens et al. (2006) speculated that the excessive time demands for college athletes may also lead to problematic alcohol problems. He also noted the possibility of social isolationism, as athletes are often separated from their non-athlete peers. He noted possible psychological pressures athletes feel as they experience demands to excel and to live up to coaches, fans, and family expectations. Physically, they also speculated that when athletes are injured, they may feel stressed about recovery and thus turn to alcohol. Lastly, Martens et al. noted another possible problem as a college athlete’s career ends, he or she may find it hard to define an identity outside of athletics, which could also lead to alcohol abuse.

There is also research that indicates problematic drinking among athletes may be over estimated by the athletes themselves. Leeper (2006) for example, identified studies which showed that college athletes overestimate the normal drinking rates both on campus and among their teammates. Leeper suggested that this inaccurate social norm, in and of itself, may lead to an increase in personal alcohol use as the athlete tries to keep up with the perceived, yet false norm. Clark (2008) found that only 20% of students reported drinking the previous night, yet they believed 50% of their student peers drank the previous night. Martens et al. (2006) stated that the theory of inaccurate social norms suggests that the tendency to abuse alcohol may frequently be motivated by perception.

Existing Intervention Programs

The NCAA Committee on Competitive Safeguards and Medical Aspects of Sports (2006) found that 71% of universities had a drug and alcohol education program for their students. The NCAA noted that most of the programs in athletic departments were funded by the Health and Safety Speakers Grant Program, the NCAA Champs/Life Skills programs, or the NCAA CHOICES alcohol education grant. Green, Uryasz, Petr, and Bray (2001) noted alcohol education programs in college athletic departments in 76% of NCAA I schools, 50% of NCAA II, and 41% of NCAA III athletic departments.

Mantel (2006) reported that over 2,400 colleges are using online courses to help reduce binge drinking among students. Austin (1997) reported that Woodson College administrators experimented to see if certain intervention strategies would decrease the use of alcohol among students. The college implemented a social norms campaign, alcohol-free socials and a peer education program. Austin noted the success of the program as students’ perceptions of the binge drinking rate on campus decreased and the reported number of drinks consumed per week decreased. Similarly, a nationwide study of students at 4 year colleges, Welschler, Seibring, Chao Liu, & Ahl (2004) documented the success of social norm campaigns in addressing responsible drinking. They found that 64% of students reported behavioral change due to social norm campaigns at their respective schools.

The NCAA (2008) has implemented and funded alcohol education programs in the name of “Choices” grants, aimed at encouraging social responsibility, not merely abstinence. The NCAA encourages expansion beyond education into the areas of social norms and provision of responsible activities along with the use of peer mentoring and referral training.

Brown (2008) reported on another program titled, “My Playbook.. The effort was initiated by researchers at the University of North Carolina, Greensboro in 2007, and was aimed at correcting erroneous social norms and equipping athletes with the tools to make better choices regarding alcohol.

To summarize, there have been many approaches, including restrictions from alcohol, social norm campaigns, peer mentoring, and educational programs, all established with an attempted to alleviate alcohol related problems among college students and athletes. The National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (2002) summarized the research findings and programs and placed efforts into one of three tiers based on student’s perception of effectiveness and on empirical data related to prevalence of alcohol related problems among students. The first tier represented programs that had the best documented success rate when it came to reducing alcohol related problems and consumption on college campuses. These programs focused on cognitive-behavioral skills with norms clarification and motivational enhancement; brief motivational enhancement interventions; and programs that challenged alcohol expectancies. The NIAAA found that tier 2 programs, which focused on rules and sanctions and tier 3 programs, which focused on policy and education were both less effective. One common problem that surfaces in literature examining programs designed to reduce problematic drinking is that many of the success claims are reported in terms of either administrator’s or student’s perception of success as contrasted to empirical studies.

The purpose of this study, with the funding support of the NCAA, was to incorporate an NCAA Choices alcohol responsibility program at a public, regional NCAA II university. The intervention involved a combination of a social norm campaign; athlete peer mentoring and referral training, opportunities for non-alcohol parties associated with athletic contests and educational seminars regarding alcohol responsibility. The hypothesis of this study was that a 12 month, comprehensive alcohol responsibility initiative would have a significant impact on the reported behaviors and perceptions of collegiate athletes in an NCAA II institution.

Methods

This study was designed to incorporate a comprehensive alcohol responsibility initiative among college athletes with the intent of influencing alcohol consumption levels, attitudes, and problematic issues stemming from alcohol abuse. The specific focus was to incorporate and then subsequently examine the impact of a 12 month initative. The program was funded by an NCAA grant. It was directed toward the varsity athletes at a public, regional, NCAA II institution. The intervention consisted of four components. First, a social norm campaign was established which used athletes as poster models to depict social activities that were free of alcohol and to attempt to dispel false myths about the prevalence of alcohol consumption. This was to combat the student perception that alcohol was a requirement for fun and that everybody wanted alcohol at parties. Second, three alcohol and substance abuse educational sessions for athletes were presented to the athlete subject population. This consisted of a three part series of speakers, designed to bring attention to the perils of irresponsible drinking. Third, an athlete-peer mentoring and referral training program was created with two athletes from each team selected by their coaches to be participants. This group was trained in recognition of problems in the personal lives of athletes, particularly with alcohol abuse, and then in appropriate response and referral of their peers if necessary. There were also three campus-wide, alcohol-free parties hosted by participants in the initiative.

Subjects

The subjects consisted of a random sample of 150 athletes in the fall of 2007 who were not subject to any intervention and 150 randomly selected athletes in the fall of 2008 that went through a 12 month intervention program. The 2008 subjects served as the quasi treatment group of this study. The total population of athletes was 282 during the entire study period. All participants were assured of anonymity and agreed to provide informed consent prior to participating in the Core Survey.

Instrumentation

To measure the impact of the programs, the short form of the CORE Drug and Alcohol Survey (Core Institute, 2006) was given to the 2007 subjects and then to the 2008 subjects 12 months later. The survey was designed for use by universities and colleges to determine the extent of substance use and abuse on their campuses, including problematic drinking. The instrument generated responses that were categorized in to one of six broad-based areas, which I analyzed. The areas examined were (a) any alcohol use in past 12 months, (b) more than one binge occasion within past two weeks, (c) serious personal problem related to alcohol, (d) public misconduct in past 12 months, (e) belief that peers drink weekly, and (f) prefer no alcohol at parties.

For this study, problematic drinking was defined the same as binge drinking or as five or more drinks or beers at one setting. Serious alcohol associated problems were defined as concerns such as suicidal tendency, being hurt or injured, unsuccessfully trying to stop sexual assault. Public misconduct was defined as some form of undesirable activity such as trouble with police, fighting, excessive argument, vandalism, or driving while intoxicated. The Core Institute (2006) has documented the reliability and validity of the instrument.

Data Analysis

The responses of the 2007 control group subjects were compared to the responses of the 2008 treatment intervention subjects in the six different assessment areas of the Core Survey. This analysis was used to measure the alcohol related behaviors and attitudes of the 2007 control group as contrasted to the 2008 treatment intervention group. For purposes of this study, a one-tailed t test was used to determine if a significant difference existed between the responses of the control and treatment groups on the responses in the 6 categorical areas of the short form of the Core Survey. The 0.05 level of confidence was used.

Results

The self-reported behaviors of athletes were significantly impacted during the 12 month period of this study in 2 of the 6 categorical areas examined. There were no significant changes in the remaining 4 categorical areas. The 2008 subjects, collegiate student-athletes enrolled in a state supported, regional NCAA II University, were exposed to a systematic 12 month alcohol responsibility intervention program that focused on education, peer mentoring, social norm campaigns, and alcohol free, social opportunities.

As seen in Table 1, the findings indicated a statistically significant improvement ( t = 2.093, p = .041) in the number of athletes reporting binge drinking occasions within the two weeks prior to the administration of the Core Survey. The number dropped from 65% to 42% of the subjects. Also, there was a significant decrease (t=1.72, p=.039) in the reported alcohol-related personal problems of the treatment group. These problems may have been issues such as suicidal tendency, being hurt or injured, sexual assault, or arrest. Reported problems dropped from 41% to 18% of subjects reporting such incidents.

Table 1

Athletes Reporting of Alcohol Responsibility Issues and Perceptions Before (2007) and After (2008) an Alcohol Responsibility Intervention Program (N=300)

some use in last 12 months≥1 binge occasion in recent 2 weeksserious personal problem related to alcohol≥1 public mis-conductbelieve peers drink weeklyprefer no alcohol at parties

2007	88%	65%	41%	56%	100%	22%
2008	73%	42%	18%	39%	82%	28%
t	1.27	2.09	1.72	1.68	1.49	0.81
Sig.	.214	.041*	.039*	.269	.272	.371

Note. *p< .05, one tailed test, df=∞

Discussion

There was a significant decline in the reported prevalence of alcohol binge activity and serious personal problems related to alcohol following the 12 months of the alcohol responsibility program intervention. The decline may be credited to a diverse intervention that included education, peer mentoring and referral training, social norm campaigns, and alcohol free socials. However, it was difficult to control outside variables which also could have had an impact. One example was the infusion of new coaches on to the athletic staff during the 12 month intervention period.

Nonetheless, there is something about athletes that generates a higher level of problematic drinking. Is it the innate, risk-taking personality that may be required to be a college athlete or the basic competitive nature that lends itself to drinking games as suggested by Martens, et al. (2006). It may be the pressure or as Doumas et. al. (2006) suggested, the attachment avoidance documented among college athletes, which may result in a feeling of isolation on campus. This isolation could be the stimulus that encourages athletes to turn to alcohol.

Doumas, et al. (2006) proposed that the problem may already be ingrained by the time the athlete graduates from high school and may not be the result of any collegiate influence, opportunities or pressures. He supported this theory by documenting that collegiate non-athletes who were former athletes in high school exhibited a greater prevalence of problematic drinking than the general student population. If this is the case, the research population needs to change to a much younger age and the emphasis of intervention programs needs to shift to the high school athlete population.

Regarding norms, the finding that 28% of subjects in this study indicated a preference to not have alcohol at parties while the subjects of this study believed that 82% of their peer athletes consumed alcohol weekly presents a dichotomy. In general, there appears to be an inaccuracy between what athletes assume is normal for a social life and what they prefer, related to alcohol.

There are some general implications from the findings of this study that may be applicable for coaches and administrators. First, an active alcohol responsibility initiative involving education, awareness, peer influence and opportunities for alcohol free activities are likely to have an influence on irresponsible drinking. Additionally, the value of correcting erroneous social norms among athletes cannot be underestimated and is deserving of more investigation.

To better understand and identify the sources of the problems related to alcohol abuse, it appears that studies aimed at the high school level, or younger, might reveal helpful information regarding athletes. Perhaps the culture of linking sports to alcohol, both form a spectator and competitor viewpoint, is learned at the high school level or earlier and should be a target for study. Regardless, attention to the high prevalence of problematic drinking among college athletes remains important as coaches try to assist in the total development of their protégés.

References

Austin, B. (1997). A college case study: A supplement to understanding evaluation, the way to better prevention programs (Report No. CG 029136). Newton, MA: The Higher Education Center for Alcohol and Other Drug Prevention. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 460309)

Brenner, J., Swanik, K. (2007). High-risk drinking characteristics in college athletes. Journal of American College Health. 56, 267-272.

Brown, G. (2008, Summer). An ounce of education. NCAA News, 1(3). Retrieved April 24, 2009 from http://www.ncaachampionmagazine.org/Championship%20Magazine/ChampionMagazineStory/ArticleListings/tabid/61/articleType/ArticleView/articleId/139/Default.aspx

Clark, N (2008). Alcohol, athletes and pressure to drink. Active.com. Retrieved September 22, 2008 from http://www.active.com/nutrition/Articles/Alcohol__Athletes_and_Pressure_to_Drink.htm

Core Institute. (2006, March 20). Alcohol and drug survey, short form. Retrieved September 22, 2008 from http://www.siu.edu/~coreinst/surveys_short_form.htm

Crompton, J. (1993). Sponsorship of sport by tobacco and alcohol companies: A review of the issues. Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 17, 18-167.

DeHass, D. (2006). NCAA Study of Substance Use of College Student-Athletes. Indianapolis, IN: The National Collegiate Athletic Association.

Doumas, D., Turrisi, R., & Wright, D. (2006). Risk factors for heavy drinking in college freshmen: Athletic status and adult attachment. The Sports Psychologist, 20, 419-434.

Mantel, B. (2006). Drinking on campus: have efforts to reduce alcohol abuse failed? CQ Researcher, 16 (28), 649-671.

Green, G., Uryasz, F., Petr, T., & Bray, C. (2001). NCAA study of substance use and abuse habits of college student-athletes. Clinical Journal Sport Medicine, 11, 51-56.

Hanson, D. (2007). What about alcohol abuse? Trivializing binge drinking. Retrieved March 1, 2008 from http://www.potsdam.edu/hansondj/YouthIssues/1046781657.html.

Hingson R., Heeren T, Winter M, & Wechsler H. (2005). Magnitude of alcoholic-related mortality and morbidity among US college students ages 18-24: changes from 1998 to 2001. Annual Review of Public Health, 26, 259-279.

Lederman, L., Stewart, L., & Russ, T. (2007). Addressing college drinking through curriculum infusion: A study of the use of experience-based learning in the communication classroom. Communication Education, 56 (4), 476-494.

Leeper, J. (2006). Use of social ecology model to address alcohol use among college athletes. American Journal of Health Studies, 22, 1-14.

Madden, P & Grube, J. (1994). The frequency and nature of alcohol and tobacco advertising in televised sports, 1990 through 1992. American Journal of Public Health, 84, 297-299.

Martens, M., O’Connor, K, & Beck, N. (2006). A systematic review of college student-athlete drinking: Prevalence rates, sport-related factors, and interventions. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 31(3), 307-309.

Martin, M. (1998). The use of alcohol among NCAA Division I female college basketball, softball, and volleyball athletes. Journal of Athletic Training, 33, 163-167.

National Collegiate Athletic Association (2008). CHOICES grant program homepage. Retrieved September 25, 2008 from http://www.ncaa.org/wps/ncaa?ContentID=7984

National Collegiate Athletic Association (2006). NCAA 2005 Survey: Member institution’s Drug Education and Drug-Testing Programs. Retrieved March 13, 2008 from http://www1.ncaa.org/membership/ed_outreach/health-safety/drug_ed_progs/DEDTSurveyreport2005.pdf

National Collegiate Athletic Association Committee on Competitive Safeguards and Medical Aspects of Sports (2006, June 8). NCAA 2005 survey: Member institutions drug education and testing programs. Retrieved September 20, 2008 from http://www1.ncaa.org/membership/ed_outreach/health-safety/drug_ed_progs/DEDTSurveyreport2005.pdf

Neal, D., Sugarman, D., Hustad, J., Caska, C., & Carey, K. (2005). It’s all fun and games, or is it? Collegiate sporting events and celebratory drinking. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 66 (2), 291-294.

Nelson T. & Wechsler H. (2001). Alcohol and college athletes. Medical Science Sports Exercise, 33, 43-47.

National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (2002). A call to action: Recommendations for addressing excessive college drinking (No. 02-5010). Washington, D.C.: National Institute of Health.

Rapaport R., Minelli M., Angera J., & Thayer, J. (1999). Using focus groups to quickly assess students’ opinions about alcohol issues and programs. Journal of College Student Development, 40, 311-314.

Stainback, R. D. (1997). Alcohol and Sport. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Publishers.

Thompson, R., & Sherman, R. (2007). Mental health, managing student-athlete’s mental health issues (NCAA 57313-6-07). Bloomington, IN: National Collegiate Athletic Association.

Wechsler H., Davenport A., Dowdall G., Grossman S., & Zanakos S. (1997). Binge drinking, tobacco use and involvement in college athletics. Journal of American College Health, 45,195-200.

Wechsler, H., Lee J., Kueo M., Seibring M., Nelson T., & Lee H. (2002). Trends in college binge drinking during a period of increased prevention efforts: Findings from 4 Harvard School of Public Health College alcohol study surveys: 1993-2001. Journal of American College of Health, 50 (5), 203-217.

Wechsler, H., Seibring, M., Chao Liu, I., & Ahl, M. (2004). Colleges respond to student Binge Drinking: Reducing Student Demand or Limiting Access. Journal of American College of Health, 52 (4), 159-167.

U.S. Sports Academy2013-11-25T19:40:20-06:00July 10th, 2009|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Management, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|Comments Off

Prevention of ACL Injuries in Female Athletes through Early Intervention

Submitted by: Rodney C. Whittle, Ph. D., Associate Professor, HPER, Alabama A&M University and Brett Crow, Physical Education Instructor, Whitesburg Middle School, Huntsville, Alabama

Abstract

With respect to physical education, increased participation in sport equals success. One of the main goals of physical educators is to enable individuals to become proficient in lifelong activities. Hopefully, this proficiency will lead to a healthier and more fulfilling life. Beginning with Title IX and continuing over the last two decades, there has been an explosion of youth sports opportunities. As children have begun to participate in sports programs at earlier ages, parents have started feeling pressure to enroll their children in similar programs in order for them to remain competitive. As a result, children become increasingly proficient at their respective sports at earlier ages. This proficiency, while benefiting the respective sport, is not without its consequences. One of the most notable consequences of increased participation in sports at an earlier age is in the area of sports injuries (Rentrom, 2008).

Introduction

Over the last two decades, female participation in sport has risen dramatically. Moreover, the rate of females acquiring injuries to their anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) has risen at an alarmingly dramatic rate. According to recent studies by Arendt (1995), females are between two to eight times more likely to injure their ACL than their male counterpart in similar sporting events. Typically, these injuries are occurring in sports such as basketball, volleyball and soccer. Participants in these sports are usually involved in a lot of quick cutting motions, jumping motions and rapid slowing or decelerating movements. ACL injuries generally prevent a student from participation throughout the remainder of the season, and some injuries can permanently end a student’s ability to successfully participate (Rentrom, 2008).

The Cost

ACL injuries usually come at a very high cost to the participant and their family. The cost of the medical treatment alone can easily run thousands of dollars. Moreover, this type of injury can greatly reduce an athlete’s self esteem and confidence. Therapy must also be considered, which places a high burden on family members with respect to the time lost and money spent. These losses combined, often make ACL injures catastrophic losses to athletes and their families.

Causes

With approximately 70% of ACL injuries coming from non-contact incidents, many studies have been conducted in order to find causes or preventative measures to counteract the problem. These studies have attempted to narrow the causes and help reduce the occurrence of ACL injuries in female athletes. Presently, research has narrowed its focus to a handful of probable causes. In female athletes, the factors include, but are not limited to: Increased valgus movements during landing, pre-menstrual hormone levels, narrower intercondylar notch width and smaller AC ligaments (Griffin, L. Y., 2000). Research has also noted different firing sequences of leg muscles in male and female athletes. These firing differences help explain some of the different responses that females exhibit to athletic movements and thereby expose themselves to higher risk during those movements. As a result, females find themselves at a biomechanical disadvantage to males when it comes to ACL strength and stability (Ireland, 2002).

Prevention

The good news is that studies have concluded that the incidence of ACL injuries can be reduced through neuromuscular training (Roniger, L. R., 2007). With this type of training, females have been shown to reduce valgus moments when landing (Foster, J. B., 2007). Moreover, as a result of the training, female athletes can incorporate more muscular control and experience less ligament dependence during movements such as cutting, landing, jumping and rapid deceleration. With appropriate training, which can and should be done in the physical education classroom, female athletes can significantly reduce their risk of a catastrophic non-contact ACL injury (Mandelbaum, 2005).

Muscular training to reduce the risk of ACL injuries is not a difficult task. Furthermore, the training falls right into the Physical Education guidelines of helping individuals lead healthier and more satisfying lives. Certainly all of the muscles in the leg would benefit from strength training and stretching, however, this paper will focus on the larger muscles in the Hamstrings and Quadriceps. Most athletes have strong quads because of the amount of work that those muscles do during exercise. A study by Chappell, J., et.al. in 2007 concluded that females landed with less knee flexion, increased quadriceps activation and less hamstring activation. This resulted in increased ACL loading during the landing phase and therefore increased the risk of damage. With this in mind, greater hamstring strength should be a priority in most female athletes. The hamstrings, however, are often overlooked during training. There is much debate, but generally the hamstrings should optimally fall within 60 – 80% of the strength of the quads. The following hamstring strengthening exercises would work well for school Physical Education programs. The first exercise is the squat. A slight bend in the waist and a deep knee bend are necessary to lower your hands to the floor. After your hands have touched the floor and you have counted to three, then return to the starting position. Throughout the exercise, your back must be straight so that the legs and buttocks do the work. The second exercise is the leg curl. This exercise is done from the standing position, preferably facing a table or a stage. While keeping the right leg straight, bring the left foot up toward the buttocks. You should feel the strain in your hamstring as you touch your left heel to your buttocks. Repeat the exercise until the hamstring is fatigued. Repeat with the exercise with the right leg as you keep the left leg straight. The third exercise is the kickback. Stand close to and facing a wall. While keeping the right leg straight, kick the left backwards as far as possible. This will vary from one to three feet depending upon flexibility. Keep the left leg at the furthest position for a count of one. Move the left leg to the initial position. There should be very little bend at the waist and both the legs must be kept straight throughout the exercise. Repeat the procedure for the right leg while keeping the left leg straight. Toe raises will also help stabilize the knee. Simply stand with you feet about shoulder width apart and lift your heals, one at a time, as high as possible before lowering them back to the ground. Start off with sets of 10 and increase as possible.

The final area which can be easily addressed in physical education programs and will help reduce the risk of ACL injures is jump training. These jumping exercises should be conducted with proper form. Proper form includes keeping the legs together, not allowing the knees to come apart, landing softly with bent knees, and finally, forcing the individual to remain balanced at all times. Do not allow anyone to rush through the exercises. These jumps should be over a small cone and should incorporate both legs at the same time. The first set should be done by jumping forward over the cone and then jumping backwards to the initial starting position. The second exercise would be to have the individual jump from side to side over the cone and then jump back to the original position.

These exercises, if done correctly and in conjunction with a proper stretching regimen, could help reduce the incidence of ACL injuries in female athletes. Further tracking of female students participating in a structured physical education setting would substantiate the reduction of this type injury.

References

Arendt, E., Dick, R. (1995). Knee injury patterns among men and women in Collegiate basketball and soccer: NCAA data and review of literature. Am J Sports Med, 23, 694-701.

Griffin, L. Y., et al. (2000). Noncontact anterior cruciate ligament injuries: Risk factors and prevention strategies. J Am Acad Orthop Surg, 8, 141-150.

Roniger, L. R. (2007, October). ACL prevention programs show benefit for teen athletes. J Biomechanics.

Foster, J. B. (2007, November). Soft landing studies find effects beyond sagittal plane of knee. J Biomechanics.

Mandelbaum, B.R., Silvers, H. J., Wantanabee, D.S., et al. (2005). Effectiveness of a neuromuscular and proprioceptive training program in preventing anterior cruciate ligament injuries in female athletes: 2-year follow-up. Am J Sports Med, 33, 1003-10.

Rentrom, P., Ljungqvist, A., Arendt, E., et al. (2008). Non-contact ACL injuries in female athletes: An international Olympic committee current concepts statement. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 42, 394-412.

Ireland, M. L. (2002). The Female ACL: Why is it more prone to injury? Orthopedic Clinics of North America, 33, issue 4.

Chappell, J.D., Creighton, R.A., Giuliani, C., Bing Y., Garrett, W.E., (2007). Kinematics and elecgtromyoghrapy of landing preparation in vertical stopping. Am J Sports Med, 35, 235-241.

U.S. Sports Academy2013-11-25T19:41:46-06:00July 10th, 2009|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Coaching, Sports Exercise Science, Sports Management, Women and Sports|Comments Off

Incorporating the Criminal Law in Sport Studies

Submitted by: Adam Epstein – Central Michigan University

Abstract

The purpose of this article is to provide an outline for teaching the criminal law in a sport studies (or related) course. While the discussion of crimes in sport usually begins with illegitimate physical force or confrontation during the sports contest, criminal misconduct may also involve non-violent behavior. For example, the recent allegations of point-shaving at the University of Toledo demonstrate how non-violent (white-collar) crimes might occur in the legal environment of sport (Gilbert & Silka, 2009).

Crimes can be committed in all environments and at all levels: youth sport, recreational activities and leagues, amateur competition and in the professional ranks. Crimes can be committed by coaches, fans, parents, agents, referees, and others. The study of the criminal law and its relationship to sport is quite broad, so establishing a solid outline prior to teaching this section of any sport studies course is vital.

Introduction

It is very important that the instructor—at the outset—compare and contrast the similarities between the criminal law and the civil (i.e., tort) law. In tort law, a private party plaintiff may sue a defendant for an assault or battery while the same defendant might be charged by the government (i.e., the state) for criminal assault or criminal battery. For each alleged criminal misconduct, the state must prove that an act occurred (actus reus) which violated a federal or state statute and that the defendant had the intent to commit such act (mens rea). The district attorney’s office makes the determination as when to prosecute for criminal misconduct based upon the evidence in the case and the willingness of the victim to press charges (New York Times, 2007).

The student should be encouraged to ask why prosecutors pursue charges in some sport incidents and not others. For example, why do Canadian jurisdictions prosecute misconduct during a hockey game substantially more than the American counterparts? A lot depends upon the locale’s expectations regarding what degree participants impliedly consent to certain conduct and to what extent the conduct be characterized as illegitimate (unacceptable) violence (Clarke, 2000; Katz, 2000; Harary, 2002; Yates & Gillespie, 2002; Barry, Fox & Jones, 2005).

Table 1
Categories of Crimes

Crimes Against Persons	Crimes Against Property	Crimes Against Public Health, Safety, and Welfare	Crimes Against Government
Assault	Counterfeiting of tickets and merchandise	Conspiracy to commit a crime (solicitation)	Human trafficking (assisting in illegal immigration)
Battery	Embezzlement	Cruelty to animals	Illegal gambling (sports wagering)
Extortion (Blackmail)	Theft	Dangerous flying (parachuting)	Mail and wire fraud
Fraud	Trespassing	Disorderly conduct	Obstruction of justice
Hazing	Vandalism	Driving under the influence (DUI/DWI)	Perjury
Manslaughter		Point shaving (sports bribery)	Racketeering (RICO) and organized crime
Mobbing		Sports agent crimes	Use, sale or possession of performance-enhancing drugs
Reckless Homicide		Streaking/indecent exposure	Tax evasion
Reckless Endangerment			Ticket scalping
Stalking
Voyeurism (Peeping Tom)

Assault and Battery

Beginning the study of the criminal law in sport with assault and battery before moving on to the other subjects is quite effective. The crimes of assault and battery involve the unwelcome and excessive physical contact between two or more persons. Definitions of assault and battery differ among the states and the student should be advised to research their own state statutes. However, the instructor should mention that the Model Penal Code was drafted to assist state legislatures in defining what constitutes criminal misconduct and to standardize and create more uniformity throughout the country with regard to the criminal law. It divides criminal assault into two categories: simple or aggravated (Osborne, 2006). A person is guilty of simple assault if he attempts to cause or purposely, knowingly, or recklessly causes bodily injury to another; or negligently causes bodily injury to another with a deadly weapon; or attempts by physical menace to put another in fear of imminent serious bodily injury. Similarly, a person is guilty of aggravated assault if there was the attempt to cause serious bodily injury to another, or causes such injury purposely, knowingly, or recklessly under circumstances manifesting extreme indifference to the value of human life; or attempts to cause or purposely or knowingly causes bodily injury to another with a deadly weapon (Model Penal Code § 2.11.1; Osborne, 2006).

Implied Consent

In sports such as boxing, football, hockey, wrestling, and others, aggressive physical contact is an expected part of the contest. Some courts recognize this as the implied consent doctrine: that is, participants voluntarily assume certain risks of injury or violence during a sport activity. However, at what point does aggressive participation cross over into an excessively violent act in which a possible crime occurred? Is there a bright-line test in which participants, referees, coaches and spectators recognize that the type of violence which occurred is so far beyond the expected rules of the game that the participant could actually be charged with a crime such as assault or battery? The instructor carries the burden here of presenting such challenges for judges, and students must recognize that there is no clear-cut answer and each act of aggression or violence is different (Harary, 2002; State v. Guidugli, 2004).

In the Washington state case of State v. Shelley, a pickup basketball game turned into a brawl in which one player punched another in the face, breaking his jaw. In addition to the criminal charges, the court in the civil case utilized the Model Penal Code’s § 2.11 for guidance in determining whether or not such contact was reasonably foreseeable. The court affirmed the lower court decision and held that a participant in such an activity did not impliedly consent to throwing or receiving punches during a pickup basketball game.

The following sections discuss some of the more specific ways in which the discussion of the criminal law can enter the classroom. A few of the more important criminal laws are discussed as well as some of the significant cases in recent years in a variety of sports.

Sport Participants

Illegitimate violence in sport can occur in all activities. The concern over violence in sport has become so important that some have referred to it as an “epidemic” (Harary, 2002). Incidents abound involving players and entire teams before, during and after football games including the infamous bench-clearing brawl between University of Miami (Florida) players and Florida International University players in 2006. No arrests were made in the incident (ESPN.com News Services, 2006). In baseball, bench-clearing brawls are common as is the act of a pitcher intentionally hitting a batter. However, is this type of violence legitimate? Should the police arrest the players for assault and battery? In 2007, former major-leaguer Jose Offerman was thrown out of the game, arrested by police and charged with two counts of second-degree assault after charging the pitcher’s mound and swinging his bat at the opposing team in an independent league minor league game after he was hit by a pitch. He pleaded not guilty and was given two years special probation (Associated Press, 2007).

Hockey players’ overly aggressive misconduct has resulted in numerous legal cases including several criminal convictions especially in Canadian courts. In the twin Canadian cases of Regina v. Maki and Regina v. Green, Wayne Maki of the St. Louis Blues and Ted Green of the Boston Bruins were charged with assault after each attempted to swing their sticks among the shoving in an exhibition game in Ottawa. Maki connected with Green’s head, which resulted in a fracture of Green’s skull. The courts held that the amounts of force were not excessive, that players assumed certain risks in the game and that self-defense justified the actions. The assault charges were dismissed against both Green and Maki in the separate cases, though the Green court noted that sports leagues should not have players immune from criminal prosecution.

In Regina v. Ciccarelli, Minnesota North Stars’ Dino Ciccarelli hit Luke Richardson (Toronto Maple Leafs) with his stick during a game in Toronto in 1988. Ciccarelli was sentenced to one day in jail for the assault and received a $1,000 fine. The court wanted to send a message to fans and participants that certain types of violence in hockey cross the line (Clarke, 2000; Harary, 2002).

Spectators

There are countless examples of spectators storming the field or court during a contest, not just among the post-game celebrations or skirmishes. Such actions have led to criminal prosecutions. In 2002, a father and son stormed the field and attacked Kansas City Royals first-base coach Tom Gamboa during a game against the Chicago White Sox in Chicago. The son pleaded guilty to aggravated battery and mob action and was sentenced to five years probation and community service. The father originally pleaded innocent, but he later changed his plea to guilty and was given 30 months probation, community service and to remain in a substance abuse program (Falkoff, 2003). In 2003, Pittsburgh Pirates member Randall Simon was cited for disorderly conduct, a misdemeanor, and was fined $432 after he—while standing on the edge of the dugout—knocked a stadium worker involved in the spectator-friendly “sausage race,” which features fans dressed in over-sized caricatures involving a bratwurst, hot dog Italian sausage and Polish sausage between the sixth and seventh innings running around the bases for entertainment. Simon was handcuffed and taken to the Milwaukee County Jail after the game. The incident has become known as “Sausage-gate” (Associated Press, 2003; Luna, 2007).

Parents and Youth Sport

Incidents across the country, including shootings of high school coaches, have given national attention to parents involved in criminal youth sport misconduct (Associated Press, 2006a). New Jersey passed a law in 2002 increasing the punishment for assaults committed during youth sporting events, especially by intense, overzealous and in some cases “raging” parents. Now, the possible punishment is up to 18 months in prison and more than $10,000 in fines. The state law changed in response to a criminal case in which a parent was found guilty of involuntary manslaughter (an unintentional killing as a result of a battery) during a fight after a youth hockey practice. A Massachusetts jury convicted Thomas Junta rejecting claims that he acted in self-defense when he beat another father to death at a youth scrimmage during 2000. He was sentenced 6 to 10 years in prison (Harary, 2002; Commonwealth v. Junta, 2004).

Gambling (Sports Wagering)

Sports gambling (sometimes referred to as sports wagering) and point-shaving (intentionally fixing a game) do not involve any physical force per se. Federal and state governments have attempted to legislate anti-gambling prohibitions as sports gambling under the government’s general ability to protect the health, safety and welfare of its citizens under its constitutionally authorized “police power.” Protecting the integrity of a sports contest is obviously vital for fans and to be fair to competing gamblers where sport gambling is legal (Weinberg, 2003; Osborne, 2006). Though federal laws, such as the Wire Communications Act of 1961, the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act of 1970 (RICO) (organized crime), and the Bribery in Sporting Contests Act of 1979, emerged in the last several decades and have been applied in sport law prosecutions, there are newer attempts to regulate sports gambling many of which have been met with success (McCarthy a, b, 2007). The advent of the internet has greatly shaped the landscape with regard to sports wagering in professional sport (Liddell, 2004).

Sports Bribery (Game Fixing/Point-Shaving)

Sports bribery has been brought to light in recent years in sport and recreation law. In 2007, NBA referee Tim Donaghy pleaded guilty to a gambling scandal involving wire fraud and transmitting gambling tips, and he was sentenced in 2008 to 15 months in prison (Timanus, 2007; Pugmire, 2008). In 2009, several University of Toledo athletes were indicted by federal authorities for alleged involvement in point-shaving schemes in conjunction with Detroit men (Gilbert & Silka, 2009). Too, there have been numerous gambling incidents related to amateur sport, particularly with regard to the NCAA (Udovicic, 1998; Jones & Handel, 2002).

The influential NCAA has a keen interest in protecting the integrity of its sports product and frowns upon any sort of sport-related gambling whatsoever (NCAA, 2004; Crowley, 2006; McCarthy a, b 2007). Therefore, the NCAA has enacted a rules manual (called Bylaws) which the Indianapolis-based organization enforces vigorously at all three divisions of competition (Copeland, 2004; Rogers and Ryan, 2007). Many of its Bylaws relate to sports wagering. Other NCAA incidents included the University of Kentucky basketball team, which played no schedule for the 1952-53 season due to a point-shaving scandal that rocked the nation in 1951. Historically, collegiate sports gambling incidents abound and have included and affected schools such as Boston College (1978, 1996), Northwestern University (1994), and numerous others including several colleges and universities in Florida (McCallum & Hersch, 1997; Drape, 2003; Goldstein a,b,c,d, 2003; Grady & Clement, 2005; Maske, 2005; Merron, 2006; Gillispie, 2007; NCAA, n.d.).

Professional and Amateur Sports Protection Act

A federal law, the Professional and Amateur Sports Protection Act of 1992, was enacted to stop the spread of state-authorized gambling and to protect the integrity of sporting events generally. Nevada, the only state at that time that had legalized sports gambling, was granted immunity from this federal law (also known as the Nevada or “Las Vegas loophole”) which makes it unlawful for a governmental entity, or a person acting pursuant to the law of such an entity, to operate, sponsor, advertise, promote, license, or authorize a lottery, sweepstakes, or other betting, gambling, or wagering scheme based, directly or indirectly, on one or more competitive game in which amateur, Olympic or professional athletes participate. The states of Delaware, Montana and Oregon are also exempt from the Act which exempts pari-mutuel betting and jai alai games as well (Barlett & Steele, 2000; Slavin, 2002; Rychlak, 2003/2004).

Ticket Scalping

Reselling an event ticket is usually referred to as ticket scalping, a classic example of a sport-related crime. This practice of resale is regulated at the state level. Ticket scalpers attempt to find buyers of their tickets around the venue for the event. Today, scalping is often done through various secondary ticket marketing brokers online in addition to in-person. State laws and city ordinances which regulate ticket scalping focus on where a sale of a ticket may (or may not) take place and to what degree the scalper may (or may not) sell a ticket above its face value. Scalping laws were also enacted to prevent spectators from being harassed as they entered the sports arena and for safety reasons related to the flow of fans into the arena.

While there are no federal laws directly governing ticket scalping, several states and a number of municipalities have given up on the attempts to enforce scalping laws altogether. Many states have recently repealed their ticket-scalping laws. This appears to be a trend especially with the ease and access of reselling over the internet by companies such as StubHub.com, for example. The ticket-resale business has been dramatically changed by the on-line world of cyber-scalping. To enforce anti-scalping laws from sales on the internet may be impracticable but it appears that the selling of counterfeit tickets may be more of a governmental concern than the resale of tickets (Criscuolo, 1995; Gibbs, 2000; Osborne and Pittman, 2006).

Wire and Mail Fraud

The Wire Communications Act of 1961 is at 18 U.S.C. §1084. The purpose of the act is to criminalize gambling behavior which uses a wire communication (such as a telephone) to transmit to place illegal bets across state lines (i.e., via “interstate commerce”). The federal mail fraud statute (18 U.S.C. §1341) defines fraud as a “scheme” or artifice which uses the “mails” to execute the scheme. This statute is often used by United States Attorneys in the prosecution of white-collar crimes. Similarly, wire fraud (18 U.S.C. §1343) provides for a penalty for any criminally fraudulent activity involving electronic communications. These crimes have appeared in scenarios involving sports agents who recruit student-athletes to become their professional clients.

In United States v. Walters, Walters, a sports agent, was charged with conspiracy, RICO violations, and mail fraud. The mail fraud charge arose from his actions in which student-athletes violated NCAA rules by signing post-dated contracts with him and his associate Bloom. The federal government argued that the mail fraud statutes were violated because each university required its athletes to verify their eligibility to play by mail sent to the appropriate athletic conference. Walters was initially convicted by a jury, but that conviction was reversed on appeal. Conspiracy and racketeering (RICO) charges were ultimately dismissed (Goodman, 1998).

Conclusion

Incorporating the criminal law in the sport studies course can be a challenge. Establishing a solid outline for this section of a course is vital to the instructor’s success. Recent suspensions involving the illegal use of performance-enhancing drugs, allegations of point-shaving schemes, and the continuing illegitimate violent physical misconduct by parents, players and spectators should provide the instructor and student alike considerable discussion with regard to the role of the criminal law in sport studies. The above outline and subject matter should provide a solid foundation for a successful section of criminal law in any sport studies course.

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