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Selected Characteristics of Division-I Boys! Junior High Basketball Coaches in Taiwan

U.S. Sports Academy2013-11-26T21:27:39-06:00February 15th, 2008|Sports Coaching, Sports Management|

Introduction

According to many studies, basketball is the most popular sport among Taiwanese Youth (Wu, 1998; Liang, 2000, & Yu, 2000). Despite this, there are not many junior high schools that were willing to organize teams. Of the 724 junior high schools in Taiwan, only 16 teams (2.2%) had participated in the Division-I Basketball Tournament. These select few also do not have to compete in the local or regional levels to earn their playoff bids. Like most high school programs in the United States (Unknown, 1984; & Norwood, 1987) without a sufficient budget, finding proper coaching staffs to guide interscholastic sports is a difficult task for most Taiwanese secondary schools. Although 16 schools had hired their coaches and enjoyed Division-I competition, the qualifications of these coaches were often overlooked.

Paulson (1980) stated that in order for children to develop a love for sport, coaches must be held to high standards of proficiency. As a result, some research has been focused on issues of coaches’ background, education, playing experience, training, and certification (Sisley & Capel, 1985; Schweitzer, 1989; Stewart & Sweet, 1992; & Palmer, 1997). Schweitzer (1989) collected survey data of 350,000 high school coaches and found one-third to one-half of coaches did not receive sport-related education. Sisley and Capel (1985) conducted a survey in of high school coaches in the State of Oregon. They found 69.5% of the coaches were teaching and coaching at the same schools, 82.7% of the coaches were male, 54.9% had played at the high school varsity or intercollegiate teams, and that 34.5% of the coaches had majored in Physical Education (PE). Stewart and Sweet (1992) surveyed 400 coaches in Montana, with a responding rate around 72%. Among the 288 respondents, 77% (223) were male, and 94 (270) held at least a baccalaureate degree. 89% of respondents were teaching and coaching at the same school, and about 54% of respondents had PE as their major or minor.

Who are the coaches guiding most elite junior-high basketball programs in Taiwan? How did these coaches get involved with their coaching jobs? What qualifications and education did they receive in order to perform their coaching duties? The purpose of this study was to examine the demographic characteristics and the qualification in coaching education of the Division-I boys’ junior high basketball coaches in Taiwan. Since the information concerning the background, occupational education, and certification of basketball coaches was well documented, this study could provide more depth in identifying the coaching qualities and the needs of coaching courses.

Methods

The purpose of this study was to identify characteristics and qualifications of the current Division-I head coaches of boys junior-high basketball in Taiwan. Among the 16 Division-I junior high schools that had participated in the National Tournament, 11 head coaches had agreed to fill out the survey questionnaire. Of the eleven coaches, only one was female. Their ages ranged from 24 to 57 years old, with the mean age, 32.7 years. The average coaching experience was 7.0 years.

The questionnaire used in this study was developed by Palmer (1997) with slight moderations in order to adapt to cultural specificity. Items were designed to elicit demographic characteristics regarding coaches’ general information and their attitudes toward coaching certification and education.

The colleague of the researcher, Wu Ming, personally attended the National Tournament in Taipei and distributed the questionnaire to the subject coaches to collect the survey data. Data was collected during the preliminary round of the National Tournament in November 2001, with 16 schools playing three games in an attempt to make the second round. Coaches who agreed to participate in the study answered the survey questionnaire between games at the gymnasium or the hotel. The survey did not take more than 10 minutes to answer.

Results

Coaches were asked to indicate their highest level of education attained, playing experience and their enrollment in PE courses. Nine of the eleven subject coaches had a baccalaureate degree, one coach had an associate’s degree, and one had only a high school diploma. Five of the nine graduated from the National Normal University. Overall, two coaches graduated with a degree in PE, with seven taking PE courses during their study or as a minor. Six of the eleven coaches had participated in intercollegiate athletics before having played for their college basketball team.

Six of the eleven coaches coach boys’ teams only, while the other five coached both the boys’ and girls’ teams. A majority of the teams (89%) that they had coached would have an even distribution in numbers according to the different grades. The enrollment of the school they had coached ranged from 130 to 2,100 students. The average enrollment was 1,380.9. Among the 16 schools in the tournament, 77.8% had enrollment of more than 1,200.

Five coaches had indicated that the Bureau of Education of their counties or cities would require coaches to be certified. However, among these five coaches, only one had the required coaching certification. Either the Chinese Taipei Basketball Association or the municipal Bureau of Education certified three of the coaches. Interestingly, five coaches indicated that their jobs would be formally evaluated. The evaluators were the principal/ superintendent or the dean of academics.

Seven of the coaches were teaching at the school where they also had coached with four coaches hired out of the campus. Of these four, only one was paid for his coaching duties. Only one faculty-coach received pay for coaching. As a result, overall only two out of the total eleven coaches were paid for their coaching duties. Despite this fact, coaches were willing to volunteer due to their personal interest in basketball.

Among the eleven coaches, seven had attended a one- or two-day coaching clinic last year. However, in terms of a comprehensive coaching course that includes instruction in sport psychology, injury prevention, and health education, only five of the coaches had taken part in this type of course. Among the six coaches who had not attended a comprehensive coaching course, four of them stated that they did not have any information or access regarding this type of course.

Conclusions and suggestions

There was only one female coach in the Division -I Junior High Basketball. With males dominating the coaching, it is strongly recommended to have more female coaches in basketball.

The studies of Stewart and Sweet (1992) and Siegel and Newhof (1992) yielded similar high percentages in terms of coaches who are college graduates. The percentage of Taiwanese coaches who held a PE degree and the percentage of faculty-coaches were also quite similar to the findings of Sisley and Capel (1985) and Palmer (1997). However, this study found the percentage of the coaches who are volunteers is much higher in Taiwan. There were also a higher percentage of coaches in this study who had attended a coaching clinic in comparison to the results of Palmer’s study (1997).

According to Palmer’s study (1997), only 22.4% complete a coaching course. In the United States, 65% of the state departments of education do not require any certification of their coaches (Conn & Razor, 1989). Despite this, the Bureau of Education of Taiwan is still far behind the US educational departments regarding the issue of certification. Therefore, it is recommended that the Bureau of Education propose an education program to ensure the quality of its sport coaches.

Due to the small number in the sample, this study can only be viewed as a case study on the selected characteristics of the current Division-I junior high school coaches. Any further generalization to all secondary-school basketball coaches of Taiwan must be carefully considered. According to the responses of the subject coaches, there are two suggestions that the researcher would like to address to the schools and the Municipal Bureau of Education of various counties. (1) Since nearly 82% of the subject coaches were working on a volunteer-basis and nearly half of them coaching both boys and girls teams at the same time, there should be a method to reward or reimburse them. Although 82% had shown strong personal interest toward their coaching jobs, the administration should not take this for granted. Simply stated, keeping these coaches to maintain their jobs should be a primary concern in term of students’ interests. (2) More coaching courses should be offered and publicized to current coaches so they can obtain updated information and professional knowledge to perform their coaching duties. If certifying all coaches is a future concern, then course planing and the implementation will be extremely important.

References

Conn, J. & Razor, J. (1989). Certification of coaches-A legal and moral responsibility. The Physical Educator, 46(3), 161-165.

Liang, I.C. (2000). A study of consumer behavior on recreational sports participation of the undergraduates in Taipei City. Unpublished master’s thesis, National Normal University, Taiwan.

Palmer (1997). Selected characteristics of basketball coaches in Lutheran Elementary Schools. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation. Daphne, Alabama.

Schweitzer, C. (1989). Coaching certification. Washington, D.C.: ERIC Clearinghouse on Teacher Education. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 310 112).

Siegel, D. & Newhof, C. (1992). What should it take to be a coach? The Journal of Health, Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance. 63(6), 75-79.

Sisley, B. L. & Capel, S. A. (1985). Oregon coaches background survey-Background of coaches in Oregon high schools, 1984-85. Department of Physical Education and Human Movement Studies: University of Oregon. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 280 832).

Stewart, C.F. & Sweet, L. (1992). Professional preparation of high school coaches: The problem continues. The Journal of Health Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance. 63(2), 75-79.

Wu, H.P. (2000). A study of implementry status and impedimentary factors of physical educational amusement camps of Taipei elementary /secondary schools. Unpublished master’s thesis, National Normal University, Taiwan.

Yu, C.F. (1998). The relationship between free time activities and health among students of a selected junior high school in Taipei City. Unpublished master’s thesis, National College of Physical Education, Taiwan.

Economic Values of Professional Sport Franchises in the United States

U.S. Sports Academy2015-11-08T07:41:03-06:00February 15th, 2008|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Facilities, Sports Management|

Abstract

In professional sport, the value of media rights, fees, and luxury suites is enormous. As a result of increasing revenues in professional sport, the economic value of teams has risen, and it will continue to rise to unpredictable levels. The purpose of this study was to examine the economic value of media rights, luxury suites, and club seats in North American professional football, baseball, basketball, and hockey franchises. Secondary data from league offices and networks were used to describe the significance to professional sport franchises of revenues deriving from media rights and luxury seat sales, and their symbiotic relationships.

Value of Professional Sport Franchises in the United States

Unlike industrial or financial business, which is generally valued on cash flow and assets, sport franchises are valued on their revenues. There are two reasons for this. First, in the long term, the operating expenses within each league are about the same for every team. Second, revenues most closely measure the quality of a team’s venue, and they also track athletic performance, ultimately the two most critical elements of team evaluation (Ozanian, 1994). The value of professional sport teams has risen over the past decade and is expected to rise to unpredictable levels during the next few years. The reason for the rise is revenues from the leagues, including gate receipts, broadcast rights fees, luxury boxes, club seats, concessions, advertising, and membership fees.

Professional sport leagues and network television have enjoyed significant growth for more than 30 years. Needless to say, many people participate in and enjoy the games of major professional sport. For example, 62% of Americans call themselves “Major League Baseball fans,” according to a 1997 ESPN/Chilton sports poll (John, 1998). Spectators consume sport indirectly, through television, to a far greater extent than they do directly, through personal attendance at events. More than 2,100 hours of televised sport are programmed per year by the four major networks, and cable televisionprovides an additional 6,000 hours. Professional sport and the media, especially television, are mutually dependent institutions, and extremely popular forms of entertainment. Although each has independent origins, their relationship now makes it hard to imagine one without the other. In total, 98% of all American homes have television sets, which are on for an average 7 hr 51 min a day (Sage, 1998). ESPN, which reaches 70% of American homes with televisions, broadcasts more than 8,000 hours of sport each year. Regional sport cable networks and direct satellite sport broadcasts are growing rapidly, and these generate countless thousands of hours of sport each year (Sage, 1998).

Revenue Streams

Broadcast Rights

To understand professional team sport, it is important to recognize that sport is not just games, it is business. The overall logic of professional sport is grounded in the principles of buying and selling goods, services, and labor. In the major professional sport leagues, revenues are divided among league members in varying percentages. National Football League (NFL) teams split ticket sales, or gate receipts; 60% goes to the home team, 40% to the visiting team. In Major League Baseball (MLB), the split is approximately 80–90% to the home team and 10–20% to the visiting team. The basketball and hockey leagues permit the home team to keep all gate receipts. Depending on the individual contract, a stadium or arena’s owner or an outside contractor may keep the revenues, or there may be a split with the franchise-tenant.

Revenue from national broadcast rights is shared equally among the teams that constitute the football, basketball, baseball, and hockey leagues (Shropshire, 1995). By the end of 1961, the U.S. Congress had passed the Sport Broadcasting Act permitting the professional sport franchises to negotiate the sale of national broadcast rights as a single economic unit. These antitrust exemptions applied to professional baseball, hockey, and basketball as well as to football. In 1962, CBS purchased the exclusive rights to broadcast the NFL, with a package worth $4.6 million a year. Two years later, assisted by 50% growth in ratings and therefore even fiercer bidding by all three networks, CBS agreed to a 300% increase and a package of $14 million for each of the following two years. This contract, incidentally, ensured the survival of the Green Bay Packers, who proceeded to dominate the league for years afterwards (Barnett, 1990). Thirty-six years later, the price tag for television rights for the NFL have increased dramatically. In 1998, the rights to televise NFL games, as well as the Super Bowl, for eight years were sold to several networks for $17.6 billion.

All NFL television money is split evenly among the teams, for an average $73.3 million per team per year. The rate is thus much higher than what MLB teams derive from that league’s network TV deal, which is not quite $11 million for each club. About 65% of all revenues of NFL teams comes from the sale of television rights (Sage, 1998).

Luxury Seating

Luxury suites and clubs seats are becoming one of the most lucrative of revenue sources for professional leagues. The revenue-generating potential of such luxury seats is tremendous, and luxury seating represents the leagues’ fastest growing revenue source (Hoffman & Greenberg, 1989). For most stadium construction projects, luxury seating has become a critical strategy to maximize cash flow per seat (Howard & Crompton, 1995). This potential revenue stream, for instance, has been instrumental in securing financing for Oakland-Alameda’s $121 million arena and Detroit’s $235 million Tiger Stadium. Realizing the tremendous potential revenue, many stadium and team owners are now trying to renovate and repair seats to make luxury boxes.

Pay-Per-View Networks

In addition, professional sport franchises are adding to their revenues through contracts with local pay-per-view television networks. Current trends show increasing revenues for pay-per-view over the next few years. The $435 million pay-per-view revenues of 1991 grew to total revenues of $1.1 billion in 1996 and of nearly $3 billion in 2000. The National Basketball Association’s Dallas Mavericks, Houston Rockets, Portland Trail Blazers, and San Antonio Spurs are involved in pay-per-view (Worsnop, 1991). It is possible that in the near future the World Series and Super Bowl may be televised in a pay-per-view format. Professional sport franchises see pay-per-view as a new source of revenue, beyond what they take in from the broadcast networks. It may help them to keep pace with escalating players’ salaries (see Table 1).

Table 1. Average Salary Climbs of MLB Players

Table 2. 1999–2000 Season Values and Revenues of Top Five NBA and NHL Teams (in Millions), with League Averages

Media Revenues in Professional Sport

Television contributed to the nationalization of sport by making the prosperity of professional sport dependent on the creation of a broad-based national constituency. When NBC provided the first live network coverage of the World Series in 1949, fewer than 12% of U.S. households had television sets. By 1953, 15 of the 16 baseball clubs had local television contracts, and ABC introduced the first network game-of-the-week format. The share of U.S. households with televisions grew rapidly through the 1950s, reaching 67% of households (34.9 million homes) in 1955 and 87% of households (45.8 million homes) in 1960 (Zimbalist, 1992; Gorman, Calhoun, & Rozen, 1994). During the 1950s, none of the networks considered sport programming critical to their overall success. They put far more of their resources and effort into comedies, Westerns, and popular dramas.

But in the early 1960s, ABC broke with this pattern. ABC gambled that increased sport programming would give its network greater visibility, bring in new local television stations as affiliates, and improve the audience ratings for all shows. Sport telecasts contributed substantively to ABC’s rise from third place in prime-time audience ratings in the 1950s to the top in the 1970s (Rader, 1999). Today, up to 40 hours of professional team sport are beamed to home television sets each week by the major networks, and hundreds of additional hours are provided by cable networks spread across the country.

According to Zimbalist (1992), when the Yankees signed their first media contract, in 1946, radio and television together contributed only 3% of MLB’s revenues. That figure rose to 16.8% by 1956 and continued to increase through the years until, in the 1990s, television money represented more than half of baseball’s yearly earnings. In the case of football and basketball, broadcasting monies also amount to about one half of overall revenues; only hockey, whose history with national television can only be described as spotty, has thus far been left out of the formula. For example, MLB was in the middle of four-year pacts with ESPN and CBS that earned $400 million and $1.06 billion, respectively. Four-year NBA contracts with NBC and Turner, expiring in 1994, totaled $875 million. Hockey was not left out completely, however; the NHL’s five-year contract with ABC and ESPN, signed in 1992, was worth nearly $80 million (Gorman et al., 1994).

In addition to revenue from national broadcasting contracts, the leagues negotiated with over-the-air and cable networks to further increase their revenues. Deals cut between individual teams and local stations are crucial in sport and weigh heavily in a team’s financial success or failure. In the case of MLB, local television, radio, and cable generated more than $350 million for the 28 teams in 1993. For the NBA, revenues from local radio, cable, and over-the-air television come to over $100 million each year.

Table 3. Values and Revenues of MLB Teams (in Millions), 1998–2001

Sport and television coexist in a high-priced equation. The leagues in the major sports sell the rights to broadcast their games, making millions of dollars each season. The networks in turn sell advertising by the half-minute to sponsors on national, regional, and local levels. The sponsors, confident that sport reaches the right customers for their products, pay hundreds of thousands of dollars for their flashes of exposure.

The Baseball Network (TBN) is an example of creativity in advertising. TBN, in partnership with MLB, NBC, and ABC, was scheduled to run for six years beginning in 1994. As a media entity, TBN was charged with generating revenue for MLB by selling advertising time and promotional rights. Rather than take a projected 55% cut in rights fees and receive a typical rights fee from the networks, MLB agreed to accept 88% of the net revenue generated by TBN from sale of advertising and corporate sponsorship. Consequently, MLB shared the financial risk with the networks. It was thought that, if its advertising rates were reasonable, TBN would help the networks, MLB, corporate sponsors, and players market in sport. The networks stood to benefit because they reduced the risk associated with purchasing broadcast rights outright. (For example, in 1993, the year before the TBN deal, CBS had lost approximately $500 million on its four-year, $1.06 billion contract, due to its high bid and a shortfall in advertising revenue.) MLB and its players liked the new arrangement because the recently expanded play-off format would further line their already bulging pockets. Finally, the advertisers were excited about the arrangement with TBN because the new package included several changes intended to boost ratings, especially among younger viewers. Since this type of partnership appeared to please all parties involved, many thought other major sport leagues and their affiliated networks would eventually adopt it, thus furthering the growth of sport sponsorship and advertising (Carter, 1996).

Table 4. TV Sports: Broadcast Rights Fees

Sport Venues’ Golden Seats

Revenues from luxury suites—alternatively called sky boxes, luxury boxes, or executive suites—have become important to the professional franchises for maximizing cash flow per seat (Howard & Crompton, 1995; Funk, 1997). Luxury boxes are fancy rooms inside stadiums and arenas, in which corporations and some private individuals entertain clients and friends while also watching sport events. They are always up high, often near press-box level, and they are usually equipped with closed-circuit television for close-ups of the action. Every facility built within the last 20 years has luxury suites, and most of the older ones have been retooled to include them (Gorman & Calhoun, 1994). Wrigley Field in Chicago, for example, added 67 sky boxes for the 1989 season, each accommodating 12–15 people. Most of them rent for $45,000 to $65,000 a year. The revenue-generating potential of these luxury boxes would go untapped through the late 1980s. However, by the early 1990s, luxury suites had emerged as the most coveted and profitable of the venue-based revenue sources, contributing to unprecedented growth in sport venue construction. Club seats, sometimes called premium seats, are another source of increased revenue. Even when club seats lack a private entertainment or reception area adjoining the seats, they are usually more comfortable than seats found elsewhere in the stadium or arena (Rosentraub, 1997).

Luxury suites in stadiums hosting NFL franchises range in number from 47 in Seattle’s Kingdome to 370 in Irving’s Texas Stadium. MLB facilities have suites numbering from 19 in New York’s Yankee Stadium up to 161 in Toronto’s Sky Dome. The number of luxury suites in arenas used by the NBA range from 12 in Charlotte’s Coliseum to 360 in Detroit’s Palace at Auburn Hills. NHL teams play in facilities that have suites numbering from 16 in Florida’s Miami Arena to 135 in Montreal’s Molson Center. Table 5 shows the number of luxury suites and club seats in professional sport venues.

Table 5. Luxury Suites and Club Seats in Professional Sport Venues

The revenue-generating capability of luxury suites and premium seats is enormous. Luxury suites at Jack Murphy Stadium in San Diego rented for $29,000 to $49,000 a season; at Candlestick Park in San Francisco, for $24,000 to $60,000 for the baseball season and $40,000 to $80,000 for the football season; and at Houston’s Astrodome, for $25,000 per baseball season and $15,000 to $45,000 per football season (Gorman & Calhoun, 1994). Taking the Dallas Cowboys as a specific example, use of luxury suites is the primary reason stadium revenue is such a significant portion of a franchise’s total revenue. The Cowboys have approximately 360 luxury suites that represent more than $23 million annually in potential revenue. Table 6 indicates the economic value of the Cowboys’ luxury suites.

Table 6. Economic Values of the Cowboys’ Luxury Suites

The economic power of sales of luxury boxes and sales of club seats contributing to gross revenue has the potential to reach over $625.8 million and $329.9 million, respectively. As these dollar figures indicate, luxury seats and premium seats illustrate how a number of factors affect the amount of revenue a team realizes from sales of special seating. Currently, there are 8,090 luxury suites and 151,451 club seats for sale in professional sport venues, at a total amount of $955.7 million (as detailed in Table 5 and Table 7). The potential revenue from the sale of luxury suites and club seats by professional leagues is seen in Table 7.

Table 7. Potential Gross Revenue from Luxury Boxes and Premium Seats

Conclusion

The development of the professional sport industry during past decades has been phenomenal. Prior to 1960, there were only a few independent sport leagues whose members could legitimately claim “major” status. Today, however, the situation is dramatically different. As professional sports have grown in recent decades, they have gained recognition as a vital part of the burgeoning mass-entertainment industry (Worsnop, 1995). The teams in the NBA, NHL, MLB, and NFL are worth, combined, more than $12 billion. Furthermore, over the next decade, the value of professional sport teams is going to rise to unpredictable levels.

Traditionally, revenues earned by professional team sport were a combination of media revenues, game receipts, and especially luxury boxes and club seats. In the coming 10 years, media revenues, particularly, will increase, attaining what currently seems an unthinkable position. The main reason will be the consolidation of media and entertainment companies and the voracious appetite these companies will have for sport programming. Also, among the various private sources of revenue for sport franchises (stadiums’ and arenas’ proceeds from parking fees, concessions, advertising, corporate naming rights, and special seating), luxury boxes and club seats have become one of the most valuable. The revenue-generating potential that luxury boxes and club seats offer to professional sport franchises is second only to the potential for media revenue. In conclusion, professional sport franchises now see the importance of attracting fans to their stadiums and arenas in order to increase their private revenues. Sport, especially professional team sport, can earn money in more ways than one.

References

Badenhausen, K. (2000). Name games. Forbes, 166(15), 132-135.

Badenhausen, K., Fluke, C., Kump, L., & Ozanian, M. K. (2002). Double play. Forbes, 169(9), 92-94.

Badenhausen, K., & Sicheri, W. (1999). Baseball games: Revenue sharking has struck out. So why does Bud Selig want another inning? Forbes, 163(11), 112-117.

Barnett, S. (1990). Games and sets: The changing face of sport on television. London: BFI Publishing.

Bodley, H. (1998). Disparity in team payrolls is alarming: Fans know without high priced talent, hopes for title are slim. USA Today, Friday November 20, 1998.

Carter, D. M. (1996). Heeping score: An inside look at sports marketing. Grants Pass, OR: The Oasis Press.

Funk, D. C. (1997). Economics of professional sport franchises: Luxury seating’s impact on construction and renovation of sport venues in North America. Paper presented at the 12th Annual North American Society for Sport Management Conference, San Antonio, TX.

Gorman, J., Calhoun, K., & Rozin, S. (1994). The name of the game: The business of sports. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Hoffma, D., & Greenberg, M. (1989). Sportsbiz: An irreverent look at big business in pro sport. Champaign, IL: Leisure Press.

Howard, D., & Crompton, J. (1995). Financing sport. Morgantown, WV: Fitness
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Ozanian, M. K. (1994). The $11 billion pastime: Why sports franchise values are soaring even as team profits fall. Financial World May, 1994.

Rader, B. G. (1999). American sports: From the age of folk games to the age of televised sports (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, Inc.

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Anabolic Steroids and Pre-Adolescent Athletes: Prevalence, Knowledge, and Attitudes

U.S. Sports Academy2017-08-07T11:55:10-05:00February 15th, 2008|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Exercise Science, Sports Management|

Abstract

  The objective of this article is to determine the prevalence, knowledge, and attitudes regarding anabolic steroids among pre-adolescent athletes and to compare our findings with a similar survey done in 1989. To measure these attitudes, the researchers conducted a survey of 1,553 pre-adolescent (10 to 14 year-old) athletes from 34 states. Less than one percent (0.7%) of the study group reported current or previous anabolic steroid usage. Eighty-eight percent had heard of anabolic steroids, but only 64% had had their side effects explained to them. Only 47% stated that a parent, coach, teacher, or athletic trainer was their primary source of information. Results were compared to a 1989 baseline study completed before legislation lead to the scheduling of anabolic steroids. In 1989, 78% had heard of anabolic steroids, 50% had had the side effects explained to them, and 2% admitted to using steroids. These results suggest that anabolic steroids remain a problem among pre-adolescents. Educational programs should be instituted during junior high school to increase the knowledge of anabolic steroids in this group. Information should come from qualified individuals including coaches, teachers, trainers, and especially parents.

KEY WORDS: anabolic steroids, steroids, athletes, pre-adolescent

Introduction

Anabolic steroid usage has been recognized as a serious health and ethical problem in athletes for several decades. Numerous examples of steroid usage rules violations have been highly publicized and have lead to the suspension and stripping of medals from international athletes, as well as many American professional athletes. Elite athletes, however, are not the only population of individuals that use steroids. Recreational athletes also use steroids to enhance performance and to improve personal appearance. Furthermore, evidence indicates that steroid usage often starts during high school. (Anderson, Buckley, Friedl, Streit, Wright &Yesalis, 1988; Bahrke, Kennedy, Kpstein & Yesalis, 1993; Dumitru & WIndsor, 1989)

Several investigators have examined the prevalence of anabolic steroid usage among American adolescent students, ages 12-18 years old. To date, published reports show male prevalence ranging from 1.4% to 12% and female prevalence from 0.5% to 2.9%. (Andwerson, et al, 1988; Bahrke et al, 1993; DuMitru & Windsor, 1989; Komoroski & Rickert, 1992; Escobedo, Heath & DuRaunt, 1995; Chilag, Elliot & Whitehead, 1992; Alongi, Miller & Tanner, 1995; DuRaunt, Emans, Faulkner, MIddleman & Woods, 1995) Two-thirds of the users started by age 17 (Johnson, 1990; Broderick, Pickell &Radakovich, 1993). Sixty-five percent were involved in high school athletics. (Komoroski et al 1992)  reported that when users were questioned as to why they were using anabolic steroids, 64% stated to increase their strength; 48% to increase their size; 44% to improve their physical appearance; and 17% because their peers were users. Furthermore, anabolic steroid use has been associated with illicit drug use and high-risk behaviors. (DuRaunt, et al, 1995; Chillag, et al, 1992; DuRaunt, Emans et al, 1995;  DuRaunt et al, 1993).

Numerous studies have documented adolescent steroid usage in the high school populationAndwerson, et al, 1988; Bahrke et al, 1993; DuMitru & Windsor, 1989; Komoroski & Rickert, 1992; Escobedo, Heath & DuRaunt, 1995; Chilag, Elliot & Whitehead, 1992; Alongi, Miller & Tanner, 1995; DuRaunt, Emans, Faulkner, MIddleman & Woods, 1995) , but little work has been published on the preadolescent or junior high age population. Yesalis et al did examine a population of adolescents 12 years old and older, and reported that males had higher levels of anabolic steroid use during their lifetime than females (0.9% and 0.1% respectively). (Bahrke et al, 1993) Radakovich et al studied anabolic-androgenic steroid use among students in 7th grade, ages ranging 12 to 15 years old, and reported that 4.7% of males and 3.2% of females used anabolic steroids.10 Minimal work has been done in a population younger than 12 years old.

In a report sponsored by the National Youth Sports Research and Development Center in 1989, a baseline was established for anabolic steroid knowledge, attitudes, and usage for a population of 10-14 year-old youth sports participants. (Gray, 1990) While actual usage of anabolic steroids was only 2%, overall attitudes and knowledge about anabolic steroids, and especially their side effects, was poor. For example, 43% of the athletes felt that steroids would probably not harm them if used carefully, and 55% felt that steroid usage alone would improve muscle size and strength. Furthermore, only 50% had ever had the side effects of steroids explained to them. This study also identified a population at risk. 12% of the athletes stated that they knew where to obtain steroids, and 15% indicated that they might use steroids to enhance performance.

In 1992, a second study was undertaken to examine the changes in attitudes and knowledge of anabolic steroids over time with the increased publicity and educational sources available to youth sports participants. The purpose of this paper is to report on the results of that study and compare responses to those obtained in 1989. This study is unique, as it is the first to present results in athletes this young using a national database.

Materials and Methods

The questionnaire was modified from the one designed and used by Gray (1990) in 1989(Appendix). The twenty-question survey included 15 questions used to determine the age, sex, race, sport, prevalence of anabolic steroid use, knowledge of side effects, attitudes towards steroids, and where to obtain anabolic steroids. Five additional questions focused on the number of years that the athletes were involved in sports, information sources about steroids, and perceptions of how steroids work.

Two research assistants in each of 34 states distributed questionnaires. The states were broken down into four geographical regions, and the results were examined nationally as well as regionally, Table 1.

Table 1. States involved in survey broken down by region.

Sixty questionnaires were distributed to each state in two separate groups of 30 each. A total of 2,040 questionnaires were given to youth sports participants, and 1,553 were returned, a response rate of 76%. Figure 1 displays the response rates according to geographical region. Where appropriate, Chi-squared tests were used to determine statistical significance.

Results

Demographics

The characteristics of the 1,553 youth sports participants who completed the survey are shown in Table 2.

Table 2. Characteristics of 1,553 youth sports participants completing survey

Males made up 70% of the respondents in this survey. In Gray’s 1989 survey, males accounted for 80% of respondents. Children ages 11 and 12 accounted for over half of the survey participants (56%), with few 15 year-old participants (2%). Table 3 describes the ethnicity of the students in the survey.

Table 3. Ethnicity of youth sports participants

For all participants, basketball was the most common sport (78% for boys and 65% for girls). Baseball (31%), football (20%), and soccer (18%) followed respectively for the boys. Softball (24%), “other sports” (16%), and swimming (14%) followed for the girls, Table 4.

Table 4. Sport that youth sport participants currently involved in at time of survey

The characteristics of the survey participants, including ethnic origin and sport participation did not vary significantly between the regions.
Prevalence of Anabolic Steroid Use

Less than one percent (0.7%) of youth sports participants reported current or previous usage of anabolic steroids. The rate of usage was higher in males (0.9%) than females (0.2%). The Midwest and Northeast regions had the lowest number of admitted users, while the South had the most (p<.05) (Figure 2). Forty-nine (3%) athletes had been offered steroids at some time. Of the 49 athletes that had been offered anabolic steroids, eleven (22%) admitted to using steroids

Of the reported 11 anabolic steroid users, 3 (27%) admitted they used anabolic steroids for athletic performance; 2 (18%) used to improve personal appearance; 2 (18%) used for bodybuilding; 2 (18%) took due to peer pressure; and two did not respond. Twelve percent of all athletes said that they personally know someone who was using or had used steroids.

Two percent of the youth sports participants agreed that they might use anabolic steroids to increase their size or improve their strength, with males three times as likely as females (3% to 1%) (p<.05). 11% admitted to knowing where to obtain steroids if they decided to use them.

Knowledge of Anabolic Steroids

Several questions in the survey were directed towards the youth sports participant’s knowledge of anabolic steroids and their side effects. Most of the survey’s participants (88%) had heard of anabolic steroids. Only 64% however, answered that they had had the side effects of steroids explained to them, with males (68%) significantly more frequently than females (57%) (p<.05). Less than half (47%) of the youth sports participants correctly answered that they did not believe that steroids alone, without proper nutrition and exercise, would improve muscle size and strength. Males were twice as likely as females (17% to 10%) (p<.05) to believe that steroids alone will improve muscle size and strength. Likewise, only 60% of the athletes disagreed with the statement that if used carefully, anabolic steroids would not harm the athlete.

Sixty-six percent of the athletes believed that steroids would not improve performance in their sport, and 90% stated that they did not need to take anabolic steroids to improve their chances for athletic success.

Males twice as commonly believed that anabolic steroids would improve performance in their sport, 17% to 10% for females (p<.05). Three percent of males also believed that they needed to take anabolic steroids to improve chances for athletic success. Only 0.4% of females held this belief (p<.05). When questioned if they believed that Olympic athletes used anabolic steroids to make the team, 30% answered yes, 35% no, and 28% not sure. Likewise, when asked if high school athletes used steroids to make their team, 25% said yes, 40% no, and 34% not sure. 65% of the youth sports participants surveyed stated that they believed that using anabolic steroids is the same as having a drug problem.

Sources of Information

The youth sports participants were given ten choices regarding their primary source of information about anabolic steroids, Table 5.

Table 5. Primary source of information about anabolic steroids.

The most common source listed was books and magazines (28%). Parents (21%), coaches (17%), trainers (6%), and teachers (3%) accounted for less than half of all primary sources of information.

Discussion

This study was undertaken to examine the knowledge and attitudes of 10 to 14 year-old youth sports participants toward anabolic steroids. Very little attention has been paid to the pre-adolescent population in comparison to the high school age and older populations. This is the first study to examine this young of a population and thus has initiated questions about the knowledge, or lack thereof, and the educational processes directed towards this age group. This survey is also one of the first to look exclusively at a population of athletes before they enter high school.

The study was conducted in 34 states, and involved 1,553 youth sports participants. Prevalence of anabolic steroid usage was 0.7% in this study, lower than the previous study in 1989 at 2% (NS), and lower than the reported prevalence of usage among the studies that examined high school age students. Consistent with other studies1-8, more males (0.9%) than females (0.2%) took anabolic steroids (NS).

Although males had more commonly had steroid side effects explained to them than females (68% to 57%), they still had incorrect beliefs about steroids. Significantly more males (17%) than females (10%) believed that steroids would enhance performance, but also that steroids alone would improve performance (17% to 10%). Most importantly, however was that significantly more males (3%) than females (.4%) thought that they needed steroids to improve their chances of athletic success and would consider steroid usage (3% to 1%). This appears to show a tendency toward greater risk-taking behaviors in the males in this population.

The decrease in prevalence of anabolic steroid use among this age population may have several explanations. Since 1990, subsequent to the first survey, anabolic steroids have been classified as a Schedule III drug in the United States. This has resulted in decreased legal availability of anabolic steroids to potential users.

Increased educational resources are available to at least certain age groups and are now reaching larger numbers of children. The percentage of pre-adolescent athletes who have heard of steroids has increased significantly from 78% in 1989 to 88% in the current survey (p<.05). In 1989, only 50% of respondents had had steroid side effects explained to them. This significantly increased to 64% in the current study (p<.05). Currently, 60% of respondents felt that steroids, even if used carefully, would still harm the athlete compared to 56% in 1989 (p<.05). Furthermore, 65% currently consider steroid use a drug problem compared to 57% in 1989 (p<.05).

There is still pressure to take steroids and availability is still common. In the current survey, over 2% of athletes felt the need to take steroids to improve performance and would consider taking them. In 1989, 4% of athletes felt that way (p<.05). Furthermore, these athletes stated that they know where to obtain steroids (88% currently versus 87% in 1989). More importantly, athletes are still being offered steroids (3% currently compared to 4% in 1989). Most distressingly of all though is that those who are offered steroids often accept (11/49, 22%).

Unlike other studies where the sample population included athletes and non-athletes, this study involved only athletes. Prevalence of anabolic steroid use has historically been higher in athletes than non-athletes. For example, Tanner et al (1995) reported that 2.9% of athletes and 2.2% of non-athletes used anabolic steroids. Since athletes use steroids more often than non-athletes being exposed to anabolic steroids. A study including both higher risk (athletes) and lower risk (non-athletes) individuals may show prevalence rates lower than described here.

The most common primary source of information about anabolic steroids was printed material (28%). The sources that would seem most appropriate: parents, coaches, teachers, and athletic trainers totaled less than do those persons involved in sports appear to be at high risk for fifty percent of all primary information sources.

Parents, coaches, teachers, and health-care providers need to take a more active role in educating adolescents about the effects of anabolic steroids. Too often adolescents are left to compile information on anabolic steroids from inappropriate sources and so do not fully understand the effects associated with steroids. Children are more likely to experiment with something that they don’t understand as opposed to a subject about which they have sufficient knowledge.

According to published data (DuRaunt et al, 1995; DuRaunt, Emons et al, 1995; Ashworth et al, 1993) adolescents who use anabolic steroids are more likely to exhibit other high-risk behaviors such as multiple illicit drug use, unprotected sex, and illegal behaviors. Educational programs must not include just the direct negative effects of anabolic steroids to an individual, but they must also provide information about behavioral modification strategies, risk avoidance and reduction of peer pressure.

Conclusion

Approximately one percent of 10 to 14 year-old youth sports participants are using or have used anabolic steroids. Even though usage has decreased by over 50% since 1989, steroid use is still a serious problem. Insufficient knowledge and inappropriate attitudes regarding the benefits and risks of using anabolic steroids is also a major concern. Less than two-thirds of the athletes had the effects of anabolic steroids explained to them, and less than half of them have received their knowledge from an adult (parent, coach, teacher, athletic trainer, etc.). Over a quarter of youth sports participants have received their knowledge of anabolic steroids from magazines or books.

Educational programs have shown to be effective against other forms of drug use. New educational and intervention efforts against anabolic steroids likewise should be instituted. These programs should start before junior high and continue through high school. Informational sources about steroids should come from qualified individuals including teachers, coaches, and trainers. Parents should also be involved and educated to help inform their children about anabolic steroids.

Acknowledgement

This study was funded in part by the National Youth Sports Research and Development Center.

APPENDIX

Please answer every question on the appropriate line.

1. Age: _____
2. Sex: _____ Male _____ Female
3. Ethnic Origin:_____ Caucasian _____ Native American _____ Hispanic

   _____ Black _____ Asian/Pacific _____ Other

4. How many years have you played in organized youth league sports?_____
5. What youth league sport do you now play?_____ Basketball _____ Football _____ Baseball _____ Softball

   _____ Soccer _____ Tennis _____ Swimming _____ Ice Hockey

   _____ Wrestling _____ Other: ___________________

6. Have you ever heard of anabolic steroids (a drug taken to increase muscle
   size and/or strength)?_____ Yes _____ No
7. What is your primary source of information about anabolic steroids ?
   (one answer only)_____ Coach _____ Athletic Trainer _____Friend/Teammate

   _____ Parent _____ Sibling _____ Gym Personnel

   _____ Dealer _____Books/Magazines

   _____ Teacher _____ Television

8. Have the side effects of anabolic steroid use ever been explained to you?

   _____ Yes _____ No

9. Do you feel that anabolic steroids without proper nutrition and exercise
   will improve muscle size and strength?_____ Yes _____ No _____ Not Sure
10. Would you ever use anabolic steroids to increase your size or improve
    your strength?_____ Yes _____ No _____ Not Sure
11. Do you think using anabolic steroids will improve your performance in your sport?_____ Yes _____ No _____ Not Sure
12. Do you feel that you need to take anabolic steroids to improve your chances for athletic
    success (college scholarships, world championships, professional contracts, etc.)?_____ Yes _____ No _____ Not Sure
13. Do you feel that Olympic athletes use anabolic steroids to make the team?_____ Yes _____ No _____ Not Sure
14. Do you feel that High School athletes use anabolic steroids to make the team?_____ Yes _____ No _____ Not Sure
15. Do you feel that, if used carefully, anabolic steroids will not harm an athlete?_____ Yes _____ No _____ Not Sure
16. Do you personally know someone who is using or has used anabolic steroids?_____ Yes _____ No
17. Have you ever been offered anabolic steroids?_____ Yes _____ No
18. Have you ever used anabolic steroids?

    _____ Yes _____ No

    If yes, what was the main reason for use? (one answer only)

    _____ Personal Appearance _____ Athletic Performance

    _____ Body Building _____ Pressure From Others

19. Do you consider regular anabolic steroid usage the same as having a drug problem? (e.g. cocaine, marijuana, heroin, etc.)_____ Yes _____ No _____ Not Sure
20. If you decided to use anabolic steroids today, do you know where to obtain them?_____ Yes _____ No

References

Anderson, W.A.; W.E. Buckley K.E. Friedl,  A.L. Streit, J.E. Wright, and C.E. Yesalis (1988) Estimated prevalence of anabolic steroid use among high school seniors. Journal of the American Medical Association, 260, 3441-3445

Bahrke, M.S.; N.J. Kennedy, A.N. Kopstein and C.E. Yesalis (1993) Anabolic-androgenic steroid use in the United States. Journal of the American Medical Association, 270, 1217-1221.

Windsor, R. and D. Dumitru (1989)  Prevalence of anabolic steroid use by male and female
adolescents. Med Sci Sports Exerc., 270, 494-497.

Dumitru, D.; E.M. Komoroski, V.I. Rickert and R. Windsor (1992). Adolescent body image and attitudes to anabolic steroid use. AJDC, 146, 823-828.

DuRaunt,  R.H.; L.G. Escobedo and G.W. Heath. Anabolic-steroid use, strength training, and multiple drug use among adolescents in the United States. Pediatrics, 96, 23-28.

Chillag, S.; D. Elliot and R. Whitehead (1992).  Anabolic steroid use among adolescents in a rural state. J Family Practice. 1992; 35, 401-405.

Alongi, C.; D.W. Miller and S.M. Tanner (1995). C. Anabolic steroid use by adolescents: prevalence, motives, and knowledge of risks. Cl J Sports Med., 5, 108-115

DuRaunt, R.H.; S.J. Emans, A.H. Faulkner, A.B. Middleman and E.R. Woods (1995). High-risk
behaviors among high school students in Massachusetts who use anabolic steroids. Pediatrics, 96, 268-272

Johnson, M.D. (1990). Anabolic steroid use in adolescent athletes. Ped Cl North Amer.
,37, 1111-1123.

Broderick, P; G. Pickell & J. Radakovich (1993). Rate of anabolic-androgenic steroid use among students in junior high school. JABFP. 6, 341-345.

Ashworth, C.S.; R.H. DuRaunt, C. Newman, V.Il. Rickert & G. Slavens (1993). Use of multiple
drugs among adolescents who use anabolic steroids. NE J Med. ,328, 922-926

Gray M. (May, 1990)  Anabolic Steroid Survey: Study Group – 10 to 14 year-old youth sports participants. Sponsored by NYSCA Nat R & D Center. Presented at American College of Sports Medicine in Salt Lake City, Utah.

The Exploration of the Effect of Taekwondo Training on Personality Traits

U.S. Sports Academy2013-11-26T21:30:54-06:00February 15th, 2008|Sports Exercise Science, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|

Abstract

In
this paper, the authors analyze the effects of Taekwondo training
on personality. The authors found that Taekwondo participants
realize, that in addition to the physical training, Taekwondo
emphasizes concentration, self-control and self-discipline.
Other researchers suggest that Taekwondo training has many
psychological benefits, such as enhanced self-esteem, self-concept,
reduced aggressiveness, decreased anxiety, increase in personal
independence, and ability to take a leadership role. Taekwondo
training might be used as a therapeutic program.

Introduction

Although
the relationship between certain aspects of self-concept and
performance in activities such as aerobic dance, soccer, volleyball,
and handball has been reported (Plummer & Koh, 1987; Harter,
1978; Olszewskal, 1982; Scanlan & Passer, 1979), little
evidence exists regarding the psychological value of the martial
arts. Miller (1989) states that self-concept may be enhanced
through the acquisition or mastery of a new skill. Novices
are most likely to gain self-concept through participation
in physical activities. Finkenberg (1990) studied the effect
of participation in Taekwondo on college women’s self-concept
and found significant differences on total self-concept and
on subscale scores in physical, personal, social identity,
and satisfaction. Therefore, the authors believe that the
Taekwondo training is of great psychological value to participants.

The
Background of Taekwondo

Taekwondo
has been under constant evolution for over several thousand
years. However, it was not until the 1950s that Taekwondo
was standardized and organized by Gen Choi Hong Hi and the
sport was brought outside the Korean borders, at first to
Vietnam and the US, and later to the rest of the world. Today,
Taekwondo is organized in three international federations:
the World Taekwondo Federation (WTF), with headquarters in
Seoul, Korea; the International Taekwondo Federation (ITF),
with headquarters in Austria; and the Global Taekwondo Federation
(GTF) with headquarters in Korea. Taekwondo has recently been
declared an official Olympic sport with the first competitions
held during the Olympic Games in Sydney, Australia, in 2000
(Lucas, 1992).

According
to Skelton (1991), one may benefit from the study of Taekwondo
regardless of age, size, or athletic ability. Taekwondo training
can increase strength and muscle tone, reduce body fat, improve
cardiovascular conditioning and endurance, improve balance
and coordination, reduce stress, improve concentration and
focus, improve performance in one’s job, school, or sports,
provide a structured program of advancement with achievable
goals, and improve self discipline and self confidence.

Effects
of Taekwondo Training on Personality

Finkenberg
(1990) studied the effects of participation in Taekwondo on
college women’s self-concept. The experimental group contained
51 women enrolled in Taekwondo classes, and the control group
contained 49 women enrolled in 4 sections of general health
courses. Pretests and posttests were administered in the first
week of a semester and the last week of the semester. The
Tennessee Self-Concept Scale (Roid and Fitts, 1989) measuring
self-concept was used as the instrument in this study. The
questionnaire was used to assess perceptions of physical self,
moral-ethical self, personal self, family self, social self,
identity, self-satisfaction, and behavior. Roid and Fitts
(1989) support the test’s reliability and validity. An analysis
of Covariance was used to control statistically for initial
differences in self-concept among subjects with the pretest
scores as the covariant. The results indicated that significant
differences were found on total self-concept and on sub-scale
scores in physical, personal, social, identity, and satisfaction.
Insignificant differences were found on moral-ethical, family,
behavior and self-criticism scales. The authors concluded
that the total self-concept and certain sub-scales were influenced
by participation in an 8-weeks course in Taekwondo. This study
supports the findings of Duthie, et al. (1978) who showed
that students of martial arts were more self-confident than
those without training. It also supports the conclusion that
“it could be assumed that one or two months of karate
training is sufficient to improve the typical student’s level
of general self-esteem” (Richman & Rehberg, 1986).

In
a study addressing aggressive behavior as a function of Taekwondo
ranking, Skelton, et al. (1991) investigated the relationship
between aggressive behavior and advancement through the belt
ranks among children in the American Taekwondo Association
(ATA). The sample consisted of 68 children, from the ages
6 to 11 years old, who were enrolled in 10 ATA schools located
in Indiana, Ohio, Kentucky, and Illinois. The parents of the
students answered the survey form. One-way Analysis of Variance
indicated a significant inverse relationship between the children’s
belt rank and their aggression. A trend analysis was performed
to help clarify the nature of the relationship between the
two variables (belt rank and aggressive score). Results suggested
that there was a significant trend towards reduced aggression
with advanced ATA group rank. The authors suggested that further
research should include longitudinal reassessments of aggression
of the children beginning at the lower ranks and continuing
as they progress through the higher Taekwondo ranks to confirm
the conclusion.

Kurian
et al. (1994) studied the relationship between personality
factors and ATA Taekwondo training in a sample of younger
students. The subjects were 72 boys attending two ATA schools
in the southwestern United States. Subjects completed the
1973 Form A of the Children’s Personality Questionnaire following
a regular training session. The questionnaire contains 14
bipolar primary factors. Correlation analysis for the test
factors with age, training time, and belt rank of the sample
was conducted. Factor A (reserved versus outgoing) correlated
significantly with age. Training time was significantly related
to Factor N (naive versus socially perceptive), suggesting
that longer times in Taekwondo training are associated with
more socially perceptive behavior. Belt rank was significantly
correlated with Factors D (+), F (+), I (-), and N (+). These
correlations indicate that attainment of higher belt rank
is associated with scores indicating more demanding, enthusiastic
and optimistic, self-reliant, and socially perceptive personality
traits. The author concluded, ” These results suggest
that ATA belt rank is associated with a pattern of enthusiastic
optimism and self-reliance. This personality pattern is socially
positive and suggests that Taekwondo training may be beneficial
for younger male students”.

In
a study on personality characteristics and duration of ATA
Taekwondo training, Kurian et al. (1993) compared personality
characteristics of two groups having participated in Taekwondo
for different lengths of time. The subjects were 30 adults
attending two American Taekwondo Association schools in the
southwestern United States. They averaged 2.6 years of Taekwondo
training (range of 17 to 44 years old). Form C of the 16 Personality
Factor Questionnaire (Cattell, 1980) containing 105 items
distributed across 16 bipolar primary factor scales was used
as the instrument. The groups with shorter time (less than
1.4 years) and longer time (more than 1.5 years) in Taekwondo
training were compared using a t-Test for the mean scores
of Anxiety, Independence and Leadership. The results indicated
that the length of Taekwondo participation was associated
with lower scores on Anxiety and with higher scores on Independence.
The authors suggested that lower scores on Anxiety and higher
scores on Independence often accompany improved mental health,
suggesting that participation in Taekwondo training may be
useful as part of therapeutic programs.

Summary

This
study was expected to contribute to an understanding of the
psychological value of Taekwondo. The study was also expected
to provide more insight into the beneficial effects of Taekwondo
training for both physical educators and Taekwondo trainees.
Research suggests that Taekwondo training may have many psychological
benefits, such as enhanced self-esteem, self-concept (Columbus
& Rice, 1991, cited from Kurian et al., 1993 ; Finkenberg,
1990), and reducing aggressiveness (Skelton, 1991). In the
study of Kurian et al. (1993), it was indicated that Taekwondo
training could decrease scores on anxiety and increase scores
on personal independence and ability to take a leadership
role. Furthermore, Kurian et al. (1993) concluded that participation
of Taekwondo training might be used as a therapeutic program.
Finkenberg (1990) found that Taekwondo training was helpful
for college women to build self-concept.

REFERENCES

Cattell, R. B., Eber, H. W., & Tatsuoka, M. M. (1980).
Handbook for the 16 PF. Champaign, IL: Institute for
Personality and Ability Testing.

Duthie,
R. B., Hope, L. & Berker D. G. (1978). Selected personality
traits of martial artists as measured by the adjective checklist.
Perceptual and Motor Skills, 47, 71-76.

Finkenberg,
M. E. (1990). Effect of participation in Taekwondo on college
women? self-concept. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 71,
891-894.

Kurian
M., Caterino L., C., & Kulhavy R. W. (1993). Personality
characteristics and duration of ATA Taekwondo training. Perceptual
and Motor Skills, 76, 363-366.

Kurian,
M., Verdi, M. P., Caterino, L. C., & Kulhavy R. W. (1994).
Relating scales on the children personality questionnaire
to training time and belt rank in ATA Taekwondo. Perceptual
and Motor Skills, 79, 904-906.

Lucas
J. (1992). Taekwondo, Pelote Basque/jai-alai, and roller hockey-three
unusual Olympic demonstration sports, The Journal of Physical
Education, Recreation & Dance, 63, 80-83.

Miller,
R. (1989). Effects of sports instruction in children self-concept.
Perceptual and Motor Skills, 68, 239-242.

Olszewskal,
G. (1982). The relation of self-image, self-estimation and
a tendency to dominate or submit to the effectiveness of team
players. International Journal of Sport Psychology,
13, 107-113.

Plummer,
V. K., & Koh, Y. O. (1987). Effect of erobics” on
self-concepts of college women. Perceptual and Motor Skills,
65, 271-275.

Richman,
C. L., & Rehberg, H. (1986). The development of self-esteem
through the martial arts. International Journal of Sport
Psychology, 17, 234-239.

Roid
, G. H., & Fitts, W. H. (1989). Tennessee Self-concept
Scale, revised manual. Los Angeles, CA: Western Psychological
Services.

Scanlan,
T. K., & Passer, M. W. (1979). Factors influencing the
competitive performance expectancies of young female athletes.
Journal of Sport Psychology, 1, 212-220.

Skelton,
D. L., Glynn, M., & Berta, S. M. (1991). Aggressive behavior
as a function of Taekwondo ranking. Perceptual and Motor
Skills, 72, 179-182.

Transformational Leadership and Organizational Effectiveness in Recreational Sports/Fitness Programs

U.S. Sports Academy2017-08-07T11:56:46-05:00February 15th, 2008|Sports Coaching, Sports Management|

Abstract

The concept of leadership has gained a large amount of attention in recent years. This paper explores the relationships between transformational leadership and organizational effectiveness in the field of recreational sport and leisure. First, it reviews a discussion on the problem of organizational leadership from the perspective of the transactional- transformational model, particularly the arguments of researchers such as Burns and Bass. It examines the components of transformational leadership, and then investigates several approaches to the conceptualization and measurement of organizational effectiveness. Finally, the controversy concerning the impact of transformational leadership upon organizational effectiveness is discussed, and an argument is made that greater transformational leadership seems to be at least indirectly related to a higher degree of organizational effectiveness.

Transformational Leadership and Organizational Effectiveness in Recreational Sports/Fitness Programs

Leadership has drawn great attention from scholars in various fields in recent years. Yukl (1989) wrote that “the study of leadership has been an important and central part of the literature of management and organization behavior for several decades” (p. 251). Paton (1987), too, realized that leadership has become the most popular subject within the field of sports management. Weese (1994) furthermore advised that some 7,500 citations on leadership appear in Bass and Stogdill’s Handbook of Leadership (1990). In an article on sports management and leadership, Sourcie (1994) noted that quite a few doctoral dissertations focus on “managerial leadership in sport organizations”. Earlier, Sourcie (1982) had estimated that nearly 25 studies on leadership were completed between 1969 and 1979, as reported in Dissertation Abstracts International, while the same source shows that 30 additional doctoral researchers employed leadership as the primary dependent variable of dissertation research between 1979 and 1989 (p. 6).

There is great controversy over the definition of leadership and thus over approaches to studying leadership (Yukl, 1989). The present authors, however, focus exclusively on the transactional-transformational leadership model and the relationship between transformational leadership and organization effectiveness. The paper looks first at definitions of transactional and transformational leadership and the components of transformational leadership. It then reviews discussions of the transactional-transformational leadership model, particularly the differences between and relationships shared by the concepts of transactional and transformational leadership. In addition, it describes the four elements of transformational leadership.

The paper also investigates existing studies of organizational effectiveness and looks at scholars’ varying approaches to organizational effectiveness. Following this, it discusses the relationships between transformational leadership and organizational effectiveness. Finally, through a review of related literature from the field of recreational sports and fitness programs, the authors examine relationships between transformational leadership and organizational effectiveness.

The Transactional-Transformational Leadership Model

Working from Burns’s earlier efforts (1978), Bass (1985) elaborated the transactional-transformational model. As Yukl (1989) wrote, Bass offered a more thoroughly detailed theory of transformational leadership that further differentiated transformational from transactional leadership. Bass viewed transformational leadership from the perspective of leaders’ influence on subordinates. Influenced by transformational leaders, subordinates become motivated to surpass original expectations (Yukl, 1989). Bass argued that transactional leadership and transformational leadership are “distinct dimensions rather than opposite ends of one continuum” (Doherty & Danylchuk, 1996) Or, as Yukl (1989) and Weese (1994) wrote, while transactional leadership and transformational leadership are closely related parts of leadership, they remain distinct.

In addition, Bass viewed transformational leadership as an augmentation and extension of transactional leadership. In his understanding, “[A]ll leaders are transactional, to some extent, exchanging rewards for performance, but some leaders are also transformational, going beyond simple leader-subordinate exchange relations” (Doherty & Danylchuk, 1996, p. 294). Studies by other researchers support Bass’s argument both empirically and theoretically, according to Doherty and Danylchuk (1996).

In his discussion of transformational leadership among the coaches of sports teams, Armstrong (2001) laid out four main characteristics of transformational leadership: (a) ethical behavior, (b) shared vision and shared goals, (c) performance improvement through charismatic leadership, and (d) leadership by example (p. 44–45). Armstrong’s framework is a simplified version of the components of transformational leadership provided by Bass (1985), who identified those as intellectual stimulation, individual consideration, inspirational leadership, and idealized influence (Doherty & Danylchuk, 1996; Weese, 1994). Intellectual stimulation refers to a leader’s capability to stimulate followers to become curious and creative about thinking and problem solving (Doherty & Danylchuk, 1996; Weese, 1994). Individual consideration describes the relationship between leader and follower in terms of two dimensions, developmental orientation and individual orientation (Doherty & Danylchuk, 1996). A developmental orientation exists when leaders “assign tasks that will enhance an individual’s potential, abilities, and motivation” (Doherty & Danylchuk, 1996, p. 295). An individual orientation exists when a leader stresses “mutual understanding and familiarity via one-on-one relations and two-way communication” (Doherty & Danylchuk, 1996, p. 295).

Inspirational leadership refers to the transformational leader’s inspiration and encouragement of subordinates, which creates emotional attachment to the leader and greater identification with his or her vision for organizational goals (Doherty & Danylchuk, 1996; Weese, 1994). The final element is idealized influence, which is closely related to charisma (Weese, 1994). Doherty and Danylchuk (1996) view idealized influence as “the behavioral counterpart to charisma” (p. 295), with the leader’s traits promoting commitment among followers in order to tap their full potential (Doherty & Danylchuk, 1996; Weese, 1994).

Organizational Effectiveness

Effective leadership has a positive impact on behavior within organizations, according to many leadership researchers; transformational leadership’s role in improving many factors of organizations is especially pronounced (Weese, 1994). The effectiveness of behavior within organizations—the effectiveness of their performance—is known as organizational effectiveness.

The concept of effectiveness is of great importance to an understanding of organizational behavior (Chelladurai & Haggerty, 1991). However, organizational effectiveness is a term that is complicated, controversial, and difficult to conceptualize (Chelladurai, 1987). It is little wonder there are several different approaches to measuring and studying organizational effectiveness. As Sourcie (1994) mentioned briefly, Chelladurai and Haggerty (1991) describe four ways to measure organizational effectiveness; these methods are the goal approach, system resource approach, process approach, and multiple constituency approach.

The goal approach is the most widely used, according to Weese (1997). It assesses the effectiveness of an organization in terms of its success in realizing its goals (Pratt & Eitzen, 1989). Regarded as the “most logical approach” to studying organizational effectiveness (Chelladurai and Haggerty, 1991, p. 127), the goal approach nevertheless has its weaknesses. Most obvious is the reality that an organization may have numerous goals that may conflict with one another (Weese, 1997; Pratt & Eitzen, 1989). In addition, an organization’s goals may shift over time, especially its short-term operative goals (Pratt & Eitzen, 1989). Goal shifts may result from an organization’s interactions with its environment, from internal changes, or from external pressures. When an organization’s goals are “unclear, unstable, and conflicting with each other” (Chelladurai & Haggerty, 1991, p. 127), it becomes very difficult to measure organizational effectiveness using the goal approach.

The third approach is the process approach, which focuses on organizational functioning and integration (Chelladurai & Haggerty, 1991). Under this approach, an organization’s effectiveness is viewed in terms of the smoothness and efficiency of its internal processes and general operation (Sourcie, 1994). Weese (1997) pointed out that effective operations of an organization do not necessarily result in “heightened organizational effectiveness,” because the sum of efficient components may not lead to an efficient whole (p. 267). Thus the process approach for measuring organizational effectiveness is also not without limitations.

In light of the limitations and disadvantages associated with these three approaches, a fourth, the multiple-constituency approach, was also proposed (Weese, 1997). Under the multiple-constituency approach, the opinions of the various constituent groups of an organization are considered in determining the effectiveness of the organization (Sourcie, 1994; Weese, 1997). Chelladurai and Haggerty (1991) discussed the differences between the multiple constituency approach and the earlier approaches. They noted that the former incorporates the other three within one model that “envisions the differential evaluation of an organization by different constituents on one or more dimensions of effectiveness. . . . [such as] productivity, resource acquisition, or internal processes.”

Organizational effectiveness is ambiguous in conceptualization and difficult to measure, due to the fact that it involves multiple dimensions, for example goals, processes, and resources (Chelladurai & Haggerty, 1991). To date, the multiple constituency model, in creating a synthesis of the earlier goal approach, process approach, and system resource approach, appears to best represent the multiplicity of organizational effectiveness.

Relation to Organizational Effectiveness

Efforts have been made to study the relationship between leadership (particularly transformational leadership) and organizational effectiveness. There is controversy, however, over whether transformational leadership has a positive impact on organizational effectiveness. For example, Weese’s (1996) study of the relationships among transformational leadership, organizational culture, and organizational effectiveness showed no significant relationship between transformational leadership and organizational effectiveness. Similarly, Weese (1996) and Lim and Cromartie (2001) found transformational leadership not to relate significantly to organizational effectiveness. They suggested that subordinates play an important role in an organization’s effectiveness.

Interestingly, in an earlier article, Weese (1994) pointed out that many who have studied leadership have found “convincing evidence” for leadership’s importance to the “success and survival” of an organization. He noted that transformational leaders, especially, “have a positive impact on employee satisfaction, productivity, and organizational effectiveness” (Weese, 1994, p. 188).

In addition, the studies by Weese (1996) and Lim and Cromartie (2001) recognized that a significant relationship exists between transformational leadership and organizational culture, while rejecting the argument that transformational leadership has an impact on organizational effectiveness. However, both studies also recognized that organizational culture has great influence on organizational effectiveness (Lim and Cromartie, 2001; Weese, 1996). The implication is that transformational leadership and organizational effectiveness do have an indirect relationship.

Conclusion

Leadership is an important but controversial concept in understanding organizational behavior. Burns (1978) and Bass (1985) provided a theoretical framework for two aspects of leadership, the transactional and the transformational leadership paradigms. Organizational effectiveness is no less controversial than leadership, and there are four approaches to measure and study it. The most comprehensive approach developed to date appears to be the integrated multiple constituency approach.

While the existing studies of relationships between transformational leadership and organizational effectiveness are controversial as well, it seems that leadership has at least an indirect impact on organizational effectiveness. Further empirical research and theoretical exploration needs to be conducted in order to gain better understanding of the topic.

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