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The Effects of Diaphragmatic Breathing and Sleep Training On Sleep, Jet Lag and Swimming Performance

U.S. Sports Academy2017-08-07T11:52:41-05:00February 15th, 2008|Sports Exercise Science, Sports Management, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|

Abstract

Members of the Swedish national swimming team (N = 16) traveled by air from Stockholm to Tokyo via Copenhagen enroute to the FINA (La Federation Internationale de Natation Amateur) world cup competitions in Hobart, Tasmania, and Sydney, Australia. The team was scheduled to train for 9 days at Cronulla Beach, 1 hr south of Sydney, following the competitions. This investigation assessed the effect of a regimen of diaphragmatic breathing and sleep training that some team members practiced, on sleep, jet lag, and swimming performance. Prior to the start of the investigation, swimmers were matched in terms of ability (by gender), using the FINA point-scoring system. Each swimmer in each of the 8 matched pairs was assigned to the experimental or control group via a flip of a coin. This procedure produced 2 matched groups that were statistically equal [falling within 2.75 FINA points of each other, t(14) = .071, ns]. The experimental group listened to a sleep-training tape and did diaphragmatic breathing each night during the 21-day experiment. To assess mood, the POMS questionnaire was administered daily, except when competitions were held in Hobart and Sydney. Following arrival first in Tokyo and then in Hobart, each swimmer assessed his or her experience of jet lag using an 11-point Likert-like scale. Each swimmer’s sleep was assessed daily using an Actiwatch, a wristwatch-like device that was programmed and positioned on the swimmer’s non-dominant wrist to record sleep length, sleep efficiency, movement and fragmentation index, and other sleep variables. The FINA point system was used to measure swimming performance. Univariate and multivariate analyses of the sleep, jet lag, mood, and performance data did not find any significant between-group differences. It was concluded that sleep training and diaphragmatic breathing as carried out by this study’s participants did not affect sleep, mood, jet lag, or swimming performance.

Effects of Diaphragmatic Breathing and Sleep Training On Sleep, Jet Lag, and
Swimming Performance

In a recent review, Youngstedt and O’Connor (1999) concluded that more rigorous research is needed to establish whether athletic performance is influenced by air travel. Youngstedt and O’Connor accepted that rapid transmeridian flight is a common reality for modern athletes and noted that “the scientific evidence supporting the view that performance is impaired [by such travel] is neither consistent nor compelling” (p. 197), because major methodological flaws characterize studies of athletic performance following transmeridian flight.

Despite Youngstedt and O’Connor’s (1999) assessment, there is growing evidence that high-speed transmeridian flight may have debilitating effects on athletes, especially on their sleep–wake cycles. Loat and Rhodes (1989), for example, reported that jet lag caused de-synchronization of an athlete’s physiological and psychological cycles and had adverse effects on performance. The severity of these adverse effects depends on number of time zones crossed, direction of flight, and type of individual (introvert or extrovert), along with age, social interaction, physical activity, and diet (Loat & Rhodes, 1989). Manfredini et al. (1998) also reported that athletes who cross multiple time zones experience a shift in their internal biological clocks.

In addition to assessing the effect of jet lag on athletic performance, this investigation determined the effect of diaphragmatic breathing and sleep training on sleep and jet lag. Diaphragmatic breathing is as old as the ancient exercises of yoga and tai chi and is a fundamental component of these practices. The rationale for the use of diaphragmatic breathing is well supported by stress management authorities such as Seaward (2002), who offered a physiological explanation of diaphragmatic breathing’s effects on the nervous system. According to Seaward, when pressure due to the expansion of the chest wall and muscular contraction is taken off the thoracic cavity, sympathetic drive decreases. Parasympathetic drive overrides the sympathetic system, and homeostasis results. Bentov (1988) provides a second explanation for the pacifying effect of diaphragmatic breathing, which is that vibrations emitted from the heart send a wave of stimulation through the aorta.

The study of sleep is gaining in popularity since the publication of texts by Dement (1999) and Maas (1998). Sleep research has been further helped along by the development of the Actiwatch, a wristwatch-like device that contains an accelerometer and measures such important information as sleep length, sleep efficiency, and movement and fragmentation. However, no previous studies of sleep training conducted among athletes were found.

The present study’s hypothesis was that athletes who engaged in diaphragmatic breathing and sleep training would sleep more effectively, have relatively enhanced mood, suffer less from jet lag, and perform more effectively than athletes in a control group.

Method

Participants

Approval of the study was obtained from the university human subjects committee. All participating swimmers signed consent forms. The participants (N = 16) ranged in age from 15 to 26 years. Mean age, height, and weight were 21.1 years, 179.5 cm, and 72.6 kg, respectively. For males in the group (n = 6), mean age, height, and weight were 22.7 years, 188.5 cm, and 86.0 kg, respectively. For females in the group (n = 10), mean age, height, and weight were 20.1 years, 174.1 cm, and 64.6 kg, respectively. In general, the athletes were quite accomplished. One swimmer had recently set a world record at the European Short Course Championship, and four had competed in the 1996 Atlanta Olympic Games. Three of the swimmers were attending college, while one had graduated from an American university where he had been named an All-American.

Formation of the Experimental and Control Groups

Prior to traveling, the investigators had ranked the male and female team members (separately) from best performer to poorest performer, using the point-based FINA performance rating system (Thierry, 1998). The top 2 male swimmers and top 2 female swimmers were assigned by coin toss to either the experimental group or the control group. In similar fashion, the 3rd- and 4th-ranked male swimmers and 3rd- and 4th-ranked female swimmers were assigned to a group, as were the 5th- and 6th-ranked swimmers, and so forth until all swimmers were assigned to either the experimental or the control group. This matching process produced 2 groups that were within 2.75 FINA points of each other: for the experimental group M = 953.88 (SD = 79.98), while for the control group M = 951.13 (SD = 74.71). A t test conducted with the matched pairs indicated that no statistically significant difference between the groups existed, t(14) = .071, ns. Each group comprised 8 swimmers (5 females and 3 males).

Flights

On January 8, 2000, 13 members of the Swedish national swimming team, the primary investigator, and 2 coaches traveled by air from Stockholm to Tokyo, via Copenhagen, enroute to FINA world cup meets taking place in Hobart, Tasmania, Australia, and Sydney, New South Wales, Australia. Because jet lag varies with the direction of flight and the number of time zones crossed, these were carefully recorded for each leg of the journey. The team stayed overnight in Tokyo and worked out at a pool near their hotel before flying to Hobart, via Melbourne, on January 10, 2000. In Hobart, the team was joined by 2 additional swimmers whose attendance at college required alternative travel arrangements. A third team member met up with the team in Sydney to take part in the training camp, although she was not competing in the world cup meets. In Hobart, competition took place January 12–13. On January 14, the team traveled by air from Hobart to Sydney, via Melbourne. Competition was conducted in Sydney on January 17–18, at the Homebush Bay Swimming Venue, site of the 2000 Sydney Olympic Games. On January 19, the team traveled by bus to their Cornulla Beach training facility and participated in 9 days of intensive preparation before returning to Stockholm.

Measurements and Apparatus

Direction of Flights, Time Zones Crossed

Flying east from Stockholm to Tokyo, the swimmers crossed 9 time zones; flying east from Tokyo to Hobart required crossing 1 time zone only. On the return trip from Sydney to Stockholm (via Bangkok and London), the team flew west through 9 time zones. Typically, flying east is more problematic than flying west. It is well documented that crossing greater numbers of time zones is associated with more intense jet lag (Oren et al., 1993).

Assessment of Jet Lag

For 4 consecutive days following each flight, each swimmer was asked to rate the degree of jet lag he or she experienced, using an 11-point Likert-like scale with 0 indicating no jet lag and 10 indicating severe disturbance. Swimmers rated jet lag upon arrival in Tokyo and in Hobart. Sleep disturbance is one of the most common problems associated with jet lag.

Assessment of Sleep

During the 21 days of the experiment, each swimmer used an Actiwatch, a wristwatch-like device that had been programmed and was worn continually on the swimmer’s non-dominant wrist (when not swimming or showering). The Actiwatch collected sleep data nightly throughout the 21 consecutive days. It contains an accelerometer that records the wearer’s movements at an epoch interval programmed into the device, in this case an epoch interval of 1 min. Chang et al. (1999) verified the validity of data collected with the Actiwatch, finding that the device correctly identified sleep 91.8% of the time, based on epoch-by-epoch comparisons with polysomnography. The swimmers’ Actiwatches recorded sleep length, sleep efficiency, movement and fragmentation index, and other sleep variables. Before the investigation began, each Actiwatch had been programmed with a swimmer’s name, age, gender, and epoch interval (1 min), which were uploaded into it. The primary investigator employed a watch position protocol to ensure that each Actiwatch was worn correctly, positioned on the non-dominant wrist just above the distal end of the head of the radius. Each watch was allowed to record data for 5 days; then, those data were downloaded using Mini-Mitter software (Mini-Mitter Company, 1999), and the Actiwatch was again programmed for the swimmer so that data could be recorded over the next 5 days.

Each athlete’s sleep data were analyzed with sleep-analysis software (Mini-Mitter Company, 1999). The analysis relied on the calculation of the sleep–wake cycle, so the swimmers were asked to press an event marker on the Actiwatch, both upon going to bed and again upon awaking in the morning. With the event marker feature establishing the beginning and end of the sleep–wake cycle for each swimmer, the software could generate a sleep profile for each participant, describing sleep length, sleep efficiency, movement and fragmentation index, number of awake and asleep bouts, and number of minutes spent moving. After the Actiwatch data were recorded in tabular form, univariate and multivariate analyses were used to look for differences between the experimental and control groups.

Assessment of Mood

Except on days when swim competitions occurred, each studied swimmer’s mood was monitored via daily administration of the written Profile of Mood States (POMS) Questionnaire (McNair, Lorr, & Droppleman, 1992). (During the 4 days of competition in Hobart and Sydney, the swimmers did not complete the paper-and-pencil assessments of mood.) The POMS questionnaire measures 6 important components of mood: tension, anger, fatigue, depression, vigor, and confusion. It is a valid, reliable assessment, with factor-analytic and concurrent validity studies consistently showing that POMS measures what it is supposed to measure (McNair et al., 1981). For example, correlation between the POMS and the MMPI–2 ranges from .52 to .69 (McNair et al., 1981). The POMS questionnaire was used to produce, for each swimmer, a score for total mood disturbance, calculated by adding scores for tension, anger, fatigue, depression, and confusion and then subtracting that sum from a negative score for vigor.

Diaphragmatic Breathing and Sleep Training

The experimental group (n = 8) received 2 treatments, diaphragmatic breathing and sleep training. Diaphragmatic breathing consisted of completing, once daily, a 49-breath exercise developed by Williams (1996). To complete the exercise, the swimmers were asked to assume a seated position with feet flat on the floor, hands resting on the thighs, trunk slightly flexed and chin resting on the manubrium of the sternum. In this position they were to take a series of breaths, inhaling through the nose, breathing deep into the abdomen, and forcing air deep into the lungs. The neck was to be hyperextended during each inhalation; the diaphragm muscle was to be fully contracted allowing the lungs to inflate to capacity. The experimental group members were asked to complete 3 sets of 14 breaths each, and a final set of 7 breaths, again, once each day.

Sleep training (intended to make sleep more effective) comprised listening to a sleep-training CD (Uneståhl, Leissner, & Leissner, 1995) each night. The CD, which is widely available in Swedish pharmacies, has been used by hundreds of thousands of Swedes since the early 1990s. It has three components, (a) 19 min of sleep training, (b) 10 min of sleep napping, or “siesta sleep,” and (c) a sleep onset portion lasting 29 min. Only the third component was used in this study; its goal is to foster quicker sleep onset and improve sleep quality. The approach involved is to let sleep happen, as opposed to making an effort to get to sleep. Swimmers in the experimental group were allowed to examine the entire contents of the CD, thereafter listening nightly (throughout the 21-day experiment) to the third component, after getting into bed. In addition, for the 25-hr flight between Sydney and Stockholm (via Bangkok and London), swimmers in the experimental group were asked to listen to the third part of the CD before attempting to sleep on the plane.

Assessment of Swimming Performance

Each swimmer earned points under the FINA scoring system based on his or her competitive performance. Official FINA points accumulated in 5 specified venues comprised the assessment of swimming performance used in the study.

Results

Swimming Performance

Because 5 participating swimmers became sick during training at Cronulla Beach in Australia following the FINA world cup competitions, the study was affected by missing data.

FINA swimming points employed in this study’s analyses had been accumulated by the swimmers at 5 venues: Hobart (Tasmania, Australia), Sydney (New South Wales, Australia), Malmö and Stockholm (Sweden), and Athens (Greece). Table 1 presents the average number of FINA points earned by members of the experimental group and the control group and illustrates that there was no significant difference between the swimming performance of the experimental group and that of the control group, at any of the venues.

The analytical strategy that had been planned was a mixed ANOVA comparing the experimental and control groups’ FINA points from the 5 venues; in light of the missing data, this plan was replaced with 2 other strategies able to maximize the data that were available. First, the FINA points accumulated by the experimental group and control group were subjected to separate independent-samples t testing, by venue, to compare the groups’ swimming performances, by venue. No significant difference was found between FINA points accumulated by the experimental-group swimmers and by the control-group swimmers. Second, the average FINA points earned by each swimmer were calculated. An independent-samples t test compared the grand mean for the experimental group (M = 931.85, SD = 27.63) to that of the control group (M = 942.31, SD = 20.98). This analysis indicated that FINA points (i.e., swimming performance) did not differ significantly between the experimental and control groups, t(14) = -.854, ns.

Jet Lag, Sleep, and Mood

Data collected in Tokyo and Hobart to measure the swimmers’ jet lag were analyzed. A 4 x 2 between-subjects ANOVA showed a significant main effect of the data-collection point, F(3,27) = 19.324, p<.0001. As seen in Table 2, the swimmers experienced jet lag most strongly in Tokyo (January 9, 2000) and least strongly in Hobart (January 12, 2000). However, the interaction between data-collection point and group was not significant, F(3.27) = .891, ns. The results show that degree of jet lag experienced by the swimmers differed based on the data-collection point, but the effect was the same for the experimental group and the control group.

The swimmers’ sleep data, downloaded from the Actiwatches they wore continually except when swimming or showering, produced the measures presented in Table 4, namely means, standard deviations, sample sizes, and t test values. The sample size was small, and the number of testing days was too large; thus repeated measures ANOVA for each sleep variable could not be calculated. As an alternative, the averages for all measured sleep variables across all testing days were calculated, for both the experimental and control group (Table 5). None of the sleep variables differed significantly between the two groups, leading the researchers to conclude that the sleep training tape did not enhance sleep among members of the experimental group.

As for measures of mood, Table 3 shows the means, standard deviations, and t test values for experimental-group and control-group swimmers. None of the POMS factors was found to be statistically significant. It is clear that both groups incurred extremely low scores on the vigor subscale. Because of the small sample size, only the score for total mood disturbance (TMD) was used for ANOVA comparisons. A mixed design ANOVA (days x condition), with days as the repeated measures factor and condition as the between-subjects factor, was calculated. This analysis revealed no significant main effect of day, F(13,117) = 1.62, ns. This value indicates that the TMD did not differ significantly from day to day. Nor was the interaction of day and condition found to be significant, F(13,117) = .475, ns. Thus no significant difference in mood between the experimental and control groups was indicated.

Discussion

Swimming Performance

Excepting Youngstedt and O’Connor (1999), most authorities believe that jet lag adversely affects athletic performance (Manfredini et al., 1998; Reilly, 1998; Sasaki, 1980). In a review paper, Youngstedt and O’Connor indicated that support for the jet lag–performance hypothesis is neither consistent nor compelling. They cogently pointed out the methodological flaws in numerous studies in which jet lag showed a debilitating effect on athletes. In the present study, after traveling halfway around the world, the swimmers in our experimental and control groups did not differ in terms of swimming performance.

Many factors may be involved in the results of this investigation. First, perhaps the experimental treatments (sleep training, diaphragmatic breathing) were ineffective strategies for combating jet lag. Second, perhaps loss of sleep does not significantly affect athletic performance; some athletes apparently claim to perform better upon getting relatively less sleep the night before a competition. As Uneståhl points out, a little fatigue may increase relaxation and prevent over-arousal that could otherwise have an impact during important competitions (personal communication, July 19, 2000).

The present findings support Youngstedt and O’Connor’s contention that jet lag does not affect athletic performance (1999), in that no significant differences in swimming performance were found between experimental-group and control-group participants. Thus, the null hypothesis of no difference in swimming performance was accepted. Our study’s findings, however, run counter to Reilly and Piercy’s findings (1994) suggesting that 4 days of sleep deprivation adversely affected weightlifters. The weightlifters studied by Reilly and Piercy showed significant increases in perceived exertion, along with progressive drops in maximal lifts. Takeuchi and Davis (1985) furthermore found athletes’ jumping ability to decrease with sleep deprivation, which they attributed to the athletes’ diminished level of alertness.

Jet Lag, Sleep, and Mood

Jet lag measures were highest in Tokyo, reached by flying east for 9 hr and crossing the greatest number of time zones crossed during this investigation. At a practice session in Tokyo, it became evident that the swimmers were very tired. Many authorities on jet lag (Ehret & Scanlon-Waller, 1987, for example) recommend 1 day of rest for each time zone crossed. The swimmers’ flight from Tokyo to Hobart lasted about the same 9 hr, but in Hobart the athletes did not assign the same high scores for jet lag as in Tokyo. Perhaps this discrepancy resulted from the need to cross only 1 time zone during the eastbound flight. Moreover, the flight from Stockholm to Tokyo was a daytime flight, whereas the flight from Tokyo to Hobart was at night; perhaps while traveling the athletes got more sleep at night than during the day. An important anti–jet lag principle is to schedule a flight at the right time (Dement, 1999; Maas, 1998; Oren et al., 1993). The principle has been used, for instance, by Dement (1999), who was able to help the Stanford University football team minimize jet lag on a trip to Tokyo to play in the Coca-Cola Bowl.

No significant differences in sleep variables were observed between swimmers in the experimental group and those in the control group. In brief, the sleep training CD did not increase sleep efficiency, and it did not reduce the number of awake bouts, the percentage of time spent awake, or the movement and fragmentation index. Compliance with the CD-auditing regimen may have been a problem, although most swimmers said they had used the tape on approximately 80% of the nights they were asked to.

Morgan (1985) has repeatedly demonstrated that elite athletes possess what he refers to as the iceberg profile, indicated by mood inventories producing low scores for tension, fatigue, depression, confusion, and anger, along with high scores for vigor. Swimmer profiles obtained for the present study (see Table 3) resemble Morgan’s iceberg profile, except in terms of vigor. The low scores recorded for vigor by both groups of swimmers were perhaps due to the duration and intensity of their training during the training camp at Cornulla Beach. Working out twice daily at high intensity and high volume perhaps drained their energy. Many swimmers appeared very tired; 5 became sick and missed several days of training. According to the study data, swimmers constituting both groups score low for tension, anger, fatigue, confusion, and depression and also for vigor. The absence of significant differences between groups may have been due to the restricted range of abilities: All participants were elite athletes, with relatively low component scores.

A careful review of the POMS profiles for athletes who became sick indicates that they experienced considerable mood disturbance. In brief, swimmers who became sick had inverse iceberg profiles, meaning high scores for tension, anger, fatigue, depression, and confusion as well as a low score for vigor. Coaches began to cut back on training when the swimmers’ POMS profiles suggested considerable mood disturbance.

Conclusion

Statistical analyses of sleep, POMS questionnaire data, and performance variables indicated no significant overall differences between the experimental and control groups. It was concluded that diaphragmatic breathing and sleep training were not effective in altering mood, sleep, or swimming performance among swimmers traveling long distances to compete or train.

Table 1: FINA Swimming Performance Point Values for Experimental and Control Groups

Table 2

2 Groups’ Likert-like (0–10) Ratings of Jet Lag Effects, by Location

Table 2: Average Jet Lag Ratings for Experimental and Control Groups

Note. 0 = no jet lag and 10 = severe jet lag. The date (in 2000) is given in parentheses next to the city.

Table 3

Descriptive Statistics and t Test Values Assessing Swim Team Members’ Mood

Note. For the t test, df = 14.

Table 4

Descriptive Statistics and t Test Values Assessing Swim Team Members’ Sleep

Table 4: Descriptive Statistics and t-test values for Sleep for Experimental and Control Group Swimmers

References

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Author Note

William F. Straub, Life University; Michael P. Spino, Life University; Lars-Eric Uneståhl, University of Örebro; Anna-Karin Englund, Norrbotten County Council, Luleå, Sweden.

Appreciation is extended to members of the Swedish national swim team and their coaches for their willingness to participate in this investigation. Appreciation is extended to Dr. Richard Darlington, Department of Psychology, Cornell University, and Dr. Ann Lynn, Department of Psychology, Ithaca College, for assistance with research design and statistical treatment of data. Appreciation is extended to Dr. Bruce Pfleger, director of research for Life University, for reviewing this manuscript.

The Image-Building Triangle: How Rejuvenology™ Helps Competitors Look, Feel, and Perform Better, Longer

U.S. Sports Academy2017-08-07T11:54:02-05:00February 15th, 2008|Sports Exercise Science, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|

Rejuvenology™ is defined (in part) as the proactive art and science of appearance, health, and performance enhancement, through both prevention and rehabilitation. This new discipline helps individuals look, feel, and perform better, longer. It gives them the comprehensive competitive package needed to win in any arena. Whether in sports, business, or interpersonal endeavors, success generally comes to the individual who understands human nature and comes to grips with why people do what they do and think as they think in this world that emphasizes beauty and brains as well as brawn. Rejuvenology’s™ essential image-building triangle includes physical, psychological, and aesthetic elements. The model can be used to enhance one’s own image or the image of a student or client. Image-builders come from a variety of professions to help others become the best they can be. In so doing, the image-builder achieves success for him- or herself.

Rejuvenology™ comprises both preventive and rehabilitative branches. The preventive branch provides lifestyle coaching designed to prevent disease, injury, and career-altering conditions and to detect conditions early on, when corrective measures are more apt to succeed. The rehabilitative branch offers ways for those who once enjoyed looking young and vibrant and performing at a high level to recapture those qualities. The links between appearance enhancement, health enhancement, and psychological well-being are secure. Individuals who do what is required to improve their physical appearance (e.g., weight management, sensible nutrition, regular exercise) tend to find better health and more opportunities. Those who develop a positive mental attitude for successful living tend to live happier, more productive lives.

A Reason Underlying Beauty

The recorded history of the civilized world affirms that people considered beautiful or handsome have always enjoyed favor. Some would argue that those blessed before birth with genes for aesthetically pleasing physical features should not use them to their advantage. Evidence gleaned from nature, however, suggests the opposite. The significance and interplay of aspects psychological, physical, and aesthetic–the image-building triangle–did not originate in humankind. In the animal and plant kingdoms, beauty and color play a major role in reproduction. Pollination is ensured when insects are attracted to and flit between brightly colored flowers, while the pairing off of animals involves brilliant color coupled with strutting and posturing to highlight the most aesthetically pleasing male, who is chosen by the female to provide genes for the next generation. Humans’ attraction to other humans who possess beauty and skill is deeply rooted in creative evolution and for good reason.

It is often said that there is a reason for all things. One definition of reason is “the power of comprehending, inferring, or thinking…in rational ways.” It is believed that, among all the animals, humans alone possess the ability to reason. Whether humans instinctively mimicked the other animals, or reasoned out, that aesthetics and athletics combine to create a combination of graces and charms making some more appealing than others, the fact remains that advantages have always been granted to people whose appearance and performance are extraordinary. There seems to be a reason for this fact. The reason is that those who invest time and energy to enhance physical appearance help shape not only their bodies but the destiny of humankind. Appearance plays a role in whom one marries and who becomes the other parent of one’s children. As with the other animals, the human species’ wisest and most talented members tend to lead the pack. The next wave of world leaders is being determined daily, as young people are attracted to each other.

A Reason Underlying Athleticism

Preservation of a species depends not only on its gene pool, but also on its ability to protect and provide for its young. The earliest athletes were hunters and warriors. Archeologists are now able to reconstruct the forms of primitive humankind, concluding that speed, strength, and endurance were factors in the survival of the fittest. As far back as the Cro-Magnons (who survived, while slower and stockier Neanderthals did not), the best hunters and warriors adorned themselves with ornaments and markings thought to enhance their appearance.

In clans of old, upward mobility seemed to hinge on the very psychophysical factors in effect today. We have learned that tribal leaders of the races that came to populate the world embraced the practice of hero-making, holding the strong, the swift, the graceful, and the wise in high regard.

In the Orient, martial arts combined athletics and art in systems that instructed, entertained, and provided defense, giving rise to a variety of disciplines endorsed by emperors and rulers throughout the Far East. The Samurai warriors of Japan are perhaps the best known examples of martial artists. Known for their strength and dexterity, their skills and mental discipline, the Samurai became icons of Eastern psycho-physico-aesthetic triangulation.

Ancient Greece, cradle of the Olympics, popularized image-building. Perhaps more than any other civilization, the Greeks appreciated the form and the function of the human body, to the point of encouraging exhibitionism. Statues idealizing the bodies of their “gods” were commissioned for public display. Athletic events bore as an underlying theme the appreciation of how mind and body can be forged into a finely tuned biomechanical machine.

The Greeks also recognized the value of creative thought. Image-building extended into academic and artistic arenas. Modern government, medicine, and philosophy are deeply rooted in Hellenic culture. The names of its great thinkers are found in modern libraries around the world and still influence the way we think.

Following the Greeks, the Caesars of Rome adorned their soldiers with both armor and plumes as statements of superiority and attention to aesthetic detail. Sadly, in Roman culture, sporting events became a matter of massacre. Crowds gathered to watch the gladiators do combat and to witness men and women of less favored cultures fight for and often lose their lives.

As time marched on, the kings and queens of Europe practiced their own form of image-building, creating an order of elite warrior-performers. The knights donned shining armor and colorful banners. People gathered on festive occasions to revel in knight-on-knight battles couched as entertainment. Public tournaments also served to display a domain’s military skill and might. King Arthur and his Knights of the Round Table provide a strong example of how knighthood may be compared to today’s iconic military and athletic pride-based organizations.

Perhaps civilization’s image builders reasoned that presenting the adorned performer as a model others should emulate offered a means of securing popularity for themselves. Perhaps, on the other hand, people instinctively idolized the fittest, most ideally proportioned among them. It is not clear, either, whether nobility led–or followed. Commoners and royalty alike recognized that winners acquired status, and that more physically attractive winners acquired even more status. In any case, more often than not the nobility became closely identified with psychophysical standards that were embraced by the masses . . . and by individuals who embodied those standards.

Expanding the Order of Heroes

In the 21st century, a space-age society still idolizes warriors, athletes, performers, achievers. They are dressed in brightly colored uniforms and adorned with banners and medals of bronze, silver, and gold, and in many cases they are draped with wealth and esteem previously undreamed of. But one thing has changed: Today’s idols are not necessarily the biggest and strongest of the species. Our games have come to include contests of speed, agility, and mental adroitness, as well as strength and daring, opening doors to greater numbers of participants and providing opportunity for upward mobility to people from all walks of life. And opportunity also comes, in turn, to contemporary image-builders, upon whom many aspiring achievers rely.

Technological advances allow competitors to become stronger, faster, more durable, and more aesthetically competitive as well. Advances in bioscience make it possible to change the body more effectively and efficiently than ever before. Competitors need no longer play only with the biological hand they were dealt. Through better nutrition, scientific conditioning and training, superior coaching, and plastic surgery too, it is possible to develop–improve–the body and mind. However, many aspiring competitors on their own would be unwilling or unable to take up Rejuvenology’s™ image-building triangle (the physical, psychological, and aesthetic). They need and desire leadership.

The role of competitive desire in the art and science of self-enhancement must not be underestimated. The fire of desire that burns inside a competitor is what makes psychology a crucial part of Rejuvenology.™ Anyone who encounters a young athlete practices a basic form of sports psychology, for from the first tossed ball or crossed finish line, we critique performance. That critique constitutes reinforcement; its positive or negative nature deeply affects the child’s psyche and self-esteem. Only in the past few decades, however, has the sports psychology specialty become necessary to improve gifted competitors’ performance under pressure. A growing number of image-builders are seeking certification in sports psychology from institutions of higher learning to meet the needs of their students or clients.

Now scientifically proven and recognized as essential to the image-building triangle, sports psychology’s principles need to be promulgated throughout our society. How best to accomplish this is undetermined, but the newly organized American College of Rejuvenology™ is dedicated to finding an answer. Solutions to political, social, and economic issues are also being puzzled out.

Beliefs About the Beautiful and the Handsome

All contests have rules and rule-makers. Contestants who want to win must understand the standards, the expectations, of those who will judge them. Today’s image-builders and their students and clients must first recognize contemporary standards of beauty and handsomeness, then be willing to attain the standards by enhancing and adorning the body, appealing aesthetically to those whom they must impress. Research has established that the human who will stand out from a group possessed of similar skill is the good-looking human. As with any animal, other things being equal, the man or woman who is most aesthetically pleasing is likely to be chosen.

In one Olympic ice skating contest, the pair that appeared the obvious winner did not, in fact, take the gold medal; one judge had not appreciated the music the skaters used in their performance. As long as performance is judged by humans, judgments will involve a combination of factors appealing to the aesthetic senses. Aesthetic appeal–beauty or handsomeness–may best be defined as the combination of perceived graces and charms that pleases  the eye of the beholder.

This means that the standard–again, beauty or handsomeness–is a subjective one. It is not necessarily based on perfection, for humans cannot achieve perfection. Leonardo da Vinci laid out criteria for ideal proportions, to which must be added considerations of what is tasteful among one’s circle: hairstyling, makeup, clothing, accessories, and also posture, gait, manners, speech, and mien. The variety of tangible and intangible factors that enter into a standard of beauty or handsomeness means virtually anyone can secure a level of attractiveness, developing a package that will be rewarded in many arenas.

Noted psychologist Dr. Perry Buffington conducted research that showed better looking students to receive generally higher grades. Good looks also, he concluded, increase chances of success in personal relationships and in the hiring process. Furthermore, better looking psychiatric patients are admitted to hospitals relatively less often and their stays there are shorter.

The author has for a quarter century conducted an international facial plastic surgery practice and has observed firsthand that a patient’s self-perception is rather clearly suggested in his or her outward appearance. The patient who feels attractive dresses and acts the part–as does the patient who feels unattractive. Many times in the author’s practice, small alterations in a patient’s physical appearance have resulted in a tremendous psychological lift, often generating the self-confidence the patient needs to present inner beauty that was there all the while.

How successful an appearance-altering operation is also seems influenced by the psychological support the patient receives during recovery. While adjusting to a new appearance, patients need positive input from those whose opinions matter. Psychology is a major part of the practice of plastic surgery, body sculpting, cosmetic dentistry, and aesthetology.

Plastic surgeons rely on ideal proportions Leonardo da Vinci described for the human body in the 16th centtury to help them recognize whether features of the body are too big or too small. Most experts agree that beauty, whatever the art form that expresses it, is harmony. Something out of proportion draws too much attention to itself in a negative way and is thus disharmonious. And yet in his medical practice, the author has repeatedly interviewed prospective patients who already meet every physical standard of beauty or handsomeness but obsessively desire to have their features changed, often to extremes. Michael Jackson is a contemporary example of pushing appearance-altering surgery to extremes.

Many such individuals suffer from psychological imbalances including body dysmorphic syndrome as well as the eating disorders anorexia or obesity. Distorted or unrealistic self-images may respond to gentle management coupled with medical treatment and psychiatric counseling. It is not unheard of for an overbearing, misinformed image-builder to have contributed to psychological pathology that comes to be dangerously manifested in physical form. It is becoming increasingly apparent that professionals from all the disciplines involved in image-building need to pool their expertise to develop protocols helping people young and old to feel better, look better, and perform better, longer.

Image-Builders’ Role

Today’s image-builder occupies a complex role, and a working knowledge of each component of the Rejuvenology™ image-building triangle is a must. Without it, an image-builder may do harm to the sometimes fragile treasure seeking guidance from him or her. No one can be expected to know everything about everything. However, knowing when to ask help from a colleague or other qualified professional is a characteristic that leaders possess and great leaders freely exercise.

The sport industry provides models for prudent consultation, delegation, and cooperation. One of the author’s mentors, Coach Paul “Bear” Bryant, said his secret for continuing success was to hire coaches who knew more about some evolving element of the game of football than he did or who could teach things he could no longer demonstrate in his later years. Coach Bryant viewed his role as our team’s leader to center on instilling in us, his players, a belief that we were special. Because we worked harder at practice than our competitors and we took our work ethic and belief system into each game, we deserved, our coach convinced us, to win. Similarly, individuals who take care of their bodies and minds deserve and find better health. These are the individuals who tend to look, feel, and perform better, longer. Perhaps without knowing they have done so, they have embraced the principles of the Rejuvenology™ image-building triangle.

Self-image is a learned (and intangible) part of every human’s makeup. We look upon ourselves as either extraordinary, ordinary, or inferior. The point in life at which the realization takes place that physical attractiveness is an asset is yet unclear; nor do we know when it is, exactly, that a child becomes convinced he or she has or is capable of developing some special talent. Parents seem to be the initial image-builders, yet in many cases it is not until someone outside the home takes an interest in a child that he or she truly begins to believe in that potential. Nurturing that crucial belief later may fall to those who became products of their own such belief: the performers of yesterday, the image-builders of today.

Selling Beauty and Handsomeness

Around the world, beautiful or handsome faces and bodies sell. Advertisers and fashion houses hire good-looking people to represent their products and so does the sport industry. Few knowledgeable football enthusiasts would deny that Joe Namath was one of the greatest quarterbacks of the game. Coupled with his talent, Namath had looks, charisma, and wit. His value to a football franchise was expected to extend beyond the white lines of the playing field–and it did.

At the end of the bidding war, Namath became the highest paid football player in history, which fact alone was a publicity event. Many are unaware, however, that the St. Louis Cardinals football franchise (now the Phoenix Cardinals) actually offered Namath more money than the New York Jets did. What the Jets’ owner offered him that counted for more was to make his name a household word; the image of “Broadway Joe” was launched.

At the same time in history, beautiful, scantily clad cheerleaders appeared on the sidelines of every professional game. The Dallas Cowboy Cheerleaders developed a following of their own, traveling the world as America’s ambassadors and frequently appearing on television and in movies. Paula Abdul was a Los Angeles Lakers cheerleader, using that position to open doors beyond cheerleading, most recently as an American Idol&ndash;maker. Many college cheerleaders have been former gymnasts. Some, like the University of Alabama’s Sela Ward and Princeton University’s Lisa Najeeb Halaby, used their stints as cheerleaders–including the education acquired at the institutions they represented–to improve their stations in life. Halaby, known now as Queen Noor of Jordan, presents a modern example of how royalty continue to embrace athletic performers.

Hundreds of charismatic athletes and performers have parlayed athletic and artistic ability, and good looks, into lifestyles that are the envy of the world. Michael Jordan, Tiger Woods, and Britney Spears, for example, demonstrate how psychophysical aesthetics is a tangible entity that can be embraced to good ends.

Beyond the Arena

An attractive face and body, a gold medal or a bronze star, a championship ring or a certain green jacket gain the attention of the world’s star-makers. Such favors, however, should be viewed only as a springboard. Speaking intelligently, exercising good manners, and transitioning competitive edge (learned perhaps in the athletic arena) into systems that win in the business world is what truly separates enduring superstars from flashes in the pan. And again, throughout recorded history, the fittest, wisest, most attractive competitors are granted favors and a better chance to prosper.

With opportunity comes responsibility. The image-builder has a duty to prepare students or clients physically, mentally, socially, and spiritually for challenges they are sure to face. Coaches and teachers are charged with teaching the mechanics of competitive sports and, furthermore, heightening awareness of the need to package oneself to best attract opportunity. The ideal competitive package includes tools for competing in life long after athletics, for example by preventing disease and keeping the body high-performing. Early intervention seems to be crucial. Perhaps school officials and parent-teacher organizations should give more emphasis to physical and health education as part of preparation for healthy, productive life.

Obesity is the fastest growing preventable “disease” in the United States, and children are the fastest growing segment of the emerging obese population. Obesity contributes significantly to life-threatening conditions like high blood pressure, diabetes, arthritis, heart disease, and depression, any of which can shorten one’s years of productive life.

Let’s reflect on what is happening to the next generation of competitors.

Obesity is a major problem in the United States, yet in much of the world, malnutrition and starvation are leading causes of death. The need to address negative lifestyles that cause Americans to spend more resources on the treatment of disease rather than its prevention is a major thrust of the American College of Rejuvenology and the professionals who comprise its membership, representing many disciplines.

The interrelations of the Rejuvenology™ image-building triangle should be taught not only to athletes, but to every student, because there are numerous examples of individuals perceived by others to lack talent who yet worked hard and exceeded the expectations of everyone–except themselves. The need for such teaching is greater today than ever before. If the principles of Rejuvenology™ were embraced by the powers that be, the fattest generation could become the fittest generation.

The Mind-Body Connection

The Special Olympics organization approaches imaging-building the right way: It provides opportunities to compete, to be encouraged, and to win contests large and small. Public recognition seems to drive people from all walks of life to try harder, to defy the odds. Because of a vision shared by leaders from across this land, thousands of young people have experienced that recognition, in the simple yet stimulating form of applause.

Little League-type sport enthusiasts, however, have unfortunately, in many instances, done more harm than good by pressuring children to perform rather than to play. Too many young people are driven from athletics by overbearing parents and coaches who do not understand the damage that can be done to minds and bodies not yet those of the adult. Furthermore, some children’s beauty contests (especially those too closely modeled after adult pageants) force little girls to grow up faster than they may be prepared to. For decades, pediatricians have reminded medical colleagues that children are not little adults, neither mentally nor physically, but the message has yet to reach many children’s competitions.

The complex and sometimes delicate mind-body connection is being acknowledged by increasing numbers of experts from a variety of backgrounds. The delicate or fragile quality of this connection is not based on age, explaining why psychology provides the base of the Rejuvenology™ image-building triangle. Successful leaders incorporate motivational psychology in their modus operandi. The greatest image-builders know at what age and in what circumstances to apply pressure, when to motivate with a hug or pat on the back, and when to do and say nothing.

Coach Bryant as well as Coach Vince Lombardi and Gen. George Patton inspired men of ordinary ability to believe in themselves and perform like men of extraordinary ability. The three prepared their men mentally and physically, making victory the expected outcome. These great leaders’ understanding and use of psychology became the critical factor in their becoming icons in their fields. All were image-builders of the highest order.

It is well documented that mind–for example, the firm expectation of achieving one’s goals–and body work in concert. Some are born bigger, better looking, more talented; this is an indisputable fact. But it is also a matter of record that the human mind and body are malleable and capable of unlooked-for achievement. That humans are a product of thought, as well as the source of thought, is what is often held to differentiate the species from other animals. Thus those people who are capable of influencing thought possess great power and responsibility.

Recent data suggest that the human body is programmed to live more than 100 years, but that people’s daily decisions subtract years from potential lifespan. Scientists have learned that through ideal nutritional practices and fitness training life-threatening conditions can be slowed and in some cases reversed. How can science convince people to be accountable for themselves, doing the things proven to be in their best interests? Image-builders must persuade students and clients that life is a marathon, not a sprint. For example, some things athletes do to their bodies in the name of performance enhancement, specifically steroid and other drug abuse, may seem beneficial in the short term, but it is a fact that such abuse diminishes both length and quality of life after the athlete has finished with competition (and sometimes sooner than that).

At an increasing rate, health professionals and image-builders in many disciplines are collaborating in institutions focusing on longevity, health, and appearance. They are urging people to practice prevention and early detection of harmful conditions that impinge on quality and quantity of life. On 13-16 March 2003 many of the world’s experts in appearance and health enhancement will gather in Gulf Shores, Alabama, for the organizational meeting of the American College of Rejuvenology (www.rejuvenology.com). They will share and explore ways to help people look, feel, and perform better, longer. Beyond the purely medical objectives, a major focus of the college is image-building for men and women of all ages and from all walks of life.

Evidence explored at the meeting will show that, individually and collectively, human beings are the framers of destiny. In our society, we can choose from a variety of lifestyles. Given what we know of nutrition and fitness, for example, we choose to be fit or fat. So widely published throughout society are the standards of beauty that we can choose to imitate attractiveness’s icons or, alternatively, to be identified with the counterculture. With the increasing availability of technology, we can choose to be in the stream of traffic speeding down the information super-highway or we can choose to sit on the sidelines watching mental athletes play the intelligence game. Excuses for not being in the mainstream are waning. With access to competitive sports and information now available to men and women in all socioeconomic groups, virtually everyone can choose to be a participant or a bystander.

The question confronting the world in the 21st century is this: Who will assume the role of the conscience of competition? Who will introduce young people to the pathways paved with opportunity? Who will be a coach, mentor, source of encouragement, and broad shoulder on which developing champions can cry?

Who will tell young people who aspire to greatness to cut and comb their hair, choose well-fitting clothes, talk like a champion, turn from things that poison mind and body, and provide a positive model of conduct on and off the field? Who will tell them, furthermore, that the classroom is more important, and lasts longer, than anything that can be accomplished on the field or the court? Who will convince today’s young people that to meet with life’s best opportunities to succeed they must appear and behave in a manner considered mainstream, the manner that secures the confidence of (and appeals to the senses of) the people who control the purse strings of the civilized world?

Such questions are a challenge to image-builders in all disciplines and professions. The good ones will equip those who turn to them for guidance with the tangible and intangible tools of success in a complex, demanding society. The great ones will teach such students how to think, how to recognize their potential, how to develop talents and gifts that are theirs, and how to use assets acquired by hard (and smart) work. The wisest of all image-builders will heed their own advice.

The Expectation Factor

Defining expectations–those belonging to a society, an individual competitor, or both–should be the first step in strategic planning. Devising innovative packaging of competitors’ physical and mental assets to help them meet and exceed defined expectations is a vital second step. To accomplish these tasks may require interdisciplinary cooperation of the various professionals who work in the areas of Rejuvenology’s™ image-building triangle, cooperation being facilitated by contemporary trends.

As athletics shades into the world of entertainment, sports becomes big business. Those who deal with aspiring competitors young and old will be called on to expand their own understanding of what the future holds for their students or clients. In the case of student-athletes, educational leaders must join with parents so that both can become better prepared to counsel young people about competing well, in every domain of society at every stage of life.

Balance provides the glue binding the angles of the equilateral image-building triangle. The legs of the triangle are the physical, psychological, and aesthetic aspects of human development. Recognizing the component parts, understanding how and when to introduce them in a success-oriented master plan for health, well-being, and longevity, will define the next generation of image-builders, who are the role models young people so desperately need–and want.

What better way is there to ensure upward mobility of our species than to begin a quiet revolution based on physical, mental, social, and spiritual excellence? It will be a revolution made one case of prudent image-building at a time. We must believe that each man and woman is born with a responsibility to be the best he or she can be in every phase of life and to pass to the next generation the useful things he or she comes to know. This is precisely how cave-dwelling early humankind evolved to inhabit the skyscrapers of the modern era. It is also how aspiring achievers will stress–and test–their bodies to ensure the highest level of performance and endurance.

With some of the promising results coming out of the Human Genome Project, it may soon be possible to provide each individual with a genetic map scientists can consult to learn which disease-producing genes will be factors in the individual’s health. It may furthermore become possible to understand the individual’s mental capacity at a very early age. Early intervention is likely one day to allow physicians to head off some conditions altogether and delay the onset of others. With respect to genetic intelligence markers, information may prove a double-edged sword. Experts continue to debate whether scientists tamper too freely with life on earth.

Thomas Edison wrote, “The doctor of the future will give no medicine, but will interest his patients in the care of the human frame, in diet, and in the cause and prevention of disease.” Presidents George W. Bush and Bill Clinton endorsed the proactive approach to disease prevention and health enhancement framed by the American College of Rejuvenology. The rest is up to us. The problems have been identified, and at the McCollough Institute for Appearance and Health in Gulf Shores, Alabama, programs are being developed in conjunction with the college to help a generation of competitors become their best physically, mentally, and aesthetically, whatever their field of endeavor.

Conclusion

Leadership might be defined most simply, perhaps, as an ability to leave the world a better place than one found it. Image-builders are leaders who have both an opportunity and responsibility to do their best to help people help themselves. What image-builders can do is nowhere more apparent than in sports, where achievement built on hard work is measured in the arena, where the smallest of advantages often separates winners from losers. The challenge for professional image-builders is to prepare competitors (physically, mentally, aesthetically, and spiritually) to seize a moment in time to become more than was thought possible, and not just for that moment but for a lifetime.

Opportunity knocks for those willing to lead by example, for role models and image builders, the giants from whose shoulders future generations will see more clearly into a future of their own choosing. Join us March 13-16 for the organizational and scientific program of the American College of Rejuvenology and become a part of the solution.

Author Note

E. Gaylon McCollough, American College of Rejuvenology, McCollough Institute for Appearance and Health Gulf Shores, Alabama.

Inquiries concerning this article should be directed to E. Gaylon McCollough, M.D., FACS, President, American College of Rejuvenology, McCollough Institute for Appearance and Health, P.O. Box 4249, Gulf Shores, AL 36547; e-mail drmccollough@gulftel.com , www.rejuvenology.com.

Special Edition: Refuting IOC’s Plan to End Modern Pentathlon Competition

U.S. Sports Academy2016-10-12T11:49:38-05:00February 15th, 2008|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports History, Sports Management|

The recent decision of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) to drop the modern pentathlon from the Olympic Games has prompted Dr. Thomas P. Rosandich, president of the United States Sports Academy, and the editors of The Sport Journal to publish a special edition bringing attention to this grave matter. We join the call that has gone out from various quarters to retain the modern pentathlon. It is a vital component of the Olympic Games and an important historic tradition. The special edition features the opinions of several IOC members, reproduced from four sources.

The first source is an abridged version of a letter from Klaus Schormann, president of the Union Internationale de Pentathlon Moderne (UIPM), to IOC President Jacques Rogge:

Monaco, 5 November 2002

According to our discussion during our last meeting in Lausanne [Switzerland], the UIPM is sending a summary of its arguments and response to the Program Commission report which it feels appropriate to be considered for the sport of modern pentathlon to remain in the Olympic program. These arguments, which cover a larger spectrum than those developed by the Program Commission, should be given to the IOC executive board prior to their last meeting in November, and to the IOC members in case the matter would be voted during the session in Mexico.

I. Answer to the arguments of the Program Commission

—Lack of global participation by nations and individual athletes
Ninety-four nations from five continents are now affiliated with the UIPM (more are coming, as they are in establishment procedure), while the Olympic Charter requires 75 nations in four continents. The sport meets the criteria of the Olympic Charter. We want to remind that Pierre de Coubertin founded the sport in 1912 from scratch, on the model of the ancient pentathlon, the symbolic and complete sport of the Ancient Games, which means that this sport has never stopped growing since its creation.

—Significant expense of practicing the sport, with resulting difficulties in major development
Modern pentathlon is not more significantly expensive than most of the other Olympic sports or than those willing to enter the Olympic program. The change of its format to the one-day in 1992 and the new shooting system (air pistols instead of guns) have reduced the costs for organizing and training. Facilities already used by other sports are also for modern pentathlon, inside and outside of Olympic Games, for competing, training, and studying. The new compactness of venues in many cities gives new possibilities for modern pentathlon. The reduction of the costs for sport equipment (including horse riding) brings new possibilities. It is to be noted that pentathletes do not need to have a horse of their own, are not charged for that in competitions, and that the use of local horses does not require any guarantee.

—High operational complexity
Experience with organization of UIPM events on all continents and in the previous Olympic Games shows that all organizers were able easily to offer facilities for the five disciplines of modern pentathlon (shooting, fencing, swimming, riding, running) within walking distance. It is to be noted that no specific venue is required for the modern pentathlon, and that UIPM has developed a policy of polyvalent international technical officials. Modern pentathlon helps to a more efficient use of venues used at Games time. The official report of the XXVII Olympiad made by SOCOG makes a clear statement on this.

—Relatively low broadcast and press coverage
The relatively low broadcast stated by the Program Commission does not fit the statistics established by the UIPM, which can easily be checked. . . . All major UIPM events on all five continents were covered by international TV during the last seven years. Due to its TV coverage, the UIPM has developed a successful marketing program . . . which is in very good standing in comparison with other Olympic sports.

II. Arguments which should be taken into consideration by the IOC to keep modern pentathlon in the Olympic program

—Modern pentathlon is the only sport that has ever been created in its entirety by Pierre de Coubertin and the IOC, as the Ancient sports were created by the Ancient Greeks, and therefore [has] a symbolic value within the Olympic Games.
It was especially designed on the model of the ancient pentathlon in order to show all possible skills developed, through five sport events, in one single athlete, and not for a massive number of participants. It is important for the sake of the Olympic tradition.

—Modern pentathlon, from the skills it develops, has an educational value.
[It is] a complete sport: On the physical side, swimming, running are the basic disciplines; on the mental side, shooting requires stress control and a precise technique; on the intellectual side, fencing requires adaptability and intelligence; riding an unknown horse requires a mix of adaptability, self-control, and courage.

—Modern pentathlon has an entertainment function at the Olympic Games.
Since the Atlanta Olympic Games and the introduction of the one-day format, the interest of spectators at Games time has grown dramatically, which can be easily shown by statistics on the number of spectators at the Sydney Games (full venue and 15,000 spectators per session) and by an independent survey published in the Olympic Review.

—An Olympic sport with reasonable number of athletes and with a high representation of NOCs.
Only 32 women and 32 men, a total of 64 athletes (in fact around 0.5% of the total athletes number), competing for only two days (six medals), which means that modern pentathlon, as one of the 28 sports of the Olympic program, has a very limited impact on the overall number of athletes in the Games. Remarks: The average number of athletes for the other sports is (10500 – 64) /27 = 386/ At the same time, modern pentathlon gives to many NOCs the possibility to take part in the Olympic Games. In Sydney 48 pentathletes competed while 24 NOCs were represented. This means 50% of the quota was dedicated to NOCs’ representation, which is the highest value of all Olympic sports.

—A drug-free sport.
Since the one-day format has been created and due to the permanent efforts of the UIPM, modern pentathlon has become a drug-free sport. The one-day format has discouraged prohibited behaviors, as there is no interest in using drugs for shooting when fencing comes right after it. Anabolic substances are not useful in a sport that does not place the success of the winner only on his physical skills, but in his overall physical and intellectual harmony.

—UIPM, a flexible organization.
In addition to the changes in the modern pentathlon’s format, the UIPM has created an ad hoc commission looking at the optimal evolution of the sport for the future. The purpose is to keep to symbolic construction of modern pentathlon in placing its complete skills first, but looking, at the same time, at its events in order to fit with the evolution of sport practice in general. This commission already collaborates with the International Pierre de Coubertin Committee and intends to do the same with the other international federations and the IOC.

—Modern pentathlon is a symbolic sport for the Olympic Movement.
Modern pentathlon is a true representation of the Olympic Movement. The five Olympic rings are reflected in modern pentathlon’s five events and participation from all five continents. It is a true sport of the Olympic Games, created by the founder of the Modern Games, Pierre de Coubertin, and reflecting the ideals embodied by the Olympic Movement. It has to remain an indefatigable part of it.

The concept and the philosophy of the pentathlon are 2,710 years old, as described by Aristotle: “The most perfect sportsmen are the pentathletes, because in their bodies strength and speed are combined in beautiful harmony.” Created by the Greeks and renovated by the founder of the [Modern] Games, it shows the symbolic complete athlete in his body, will, and mind as stated and described in Fundamental Principle 2 of the Olympic Charter. Let’s keep this part of the soul of the Olympics, let’s keep it on the field of play, let’s see it on the stadium, and not only in the Olympic Museum in the future!

Table 1

The 28 Sports of the Olympic Program, Participating NOCs, and Disqualification Quotas

The second source reproduced in this special edition is HSH Prince Albert Monaco’s address to the IOC in Switzerland on behalf of the cause of the modern pentathlon:

HSH Prince Albert reaffirms Modern Pentathlon as soul of Olympic Movement, to be maintained for the sake of olympic tradition & values

I’m here not only because I am the honorary president of the UIPM, nor because Monaco is host to the headquarters of the UIPM. I’m here above all as an IOC member who is fearful that some very important part of the values and the philosophy of the Olympic Movement handed down to us by Baron Pierre de Coubertin might be lost forever if modem pentathlon should disappear from the program. The cultural dimension of this sport, its ancient roots and the educational value of its different components, are an important legacy for the IOC, for the Olympic Movement. This dimension is more important than the sport itself; the consequences of its demise larger than any one of us in this room.

Some people will argue that tradition and values are not the only elements that should guide us. If you look around you, watch TV, or read a newspaper article, you will find quite a few people saying the opposite: that a society has lost points of reference, that values have diminished. Why not continue to provide our youth with the kind of values and symbol that this sport possesses, and that they obviously are looking for? Why challenge a sport that celebrates and showcases the versatile, complete athlete? According to the latest figures from the Sydney Olympic Games, more people than ever seem interested in watching athletes test their abilities in combined events.

Is it right to deny the development of a sport that is growing in popularity and has sustained youth programs? There is a quotation from a young Cuban athlete in your brochure, “I want to compete in modem pentathlon at the Beijing Olympic Games.” Is it right to deny Jose Fernandez and his friends the opportunity to realize his dreams in an existing Olympic sport?

Having said all this, we are not stifled in tradition, we are not dinosaurs, we are willing to be open to change, if it is for the better.

The American philosopher and author Tom Wolfe once wrote, in his book The Search for Excellence,  “We must learn to accept change, as much as we hated to in the past.” I’m sure he meant changes in our society, changes in behavior, changes in economics, etc., not changes in our values.

The values of education and culture, and understanding through sport, are everlasting and something we in the Olympic Movement should hold sacred.

The third source reproduced in the special edition is a further communication written by Klaus Schormann, UIPM president:

I am just back in my home after a lot of traveling. . . . In Busan during the Asian Games (modern pentathlon was included, with the whole competition-program: individual women/men and relay women/men and team-medal. I could speak with a lot of IOC members, NOC presidents, and media people. As you can see [Table 2], my schedule for the next weeks is very busy; therefore, I think we should meet in Colorado Springs at the GAISF meeting (20 to 24.11.2002). I send you some documents about the “IOC Program Commission” and our actions now, for your information. UIPM needs from all institutions of international-sport-scene support: Public statements . . . for modern pentathlon are needed.

Table 2

UIPM President Klaus Schormann’s Schedule, September to December 2002

The fourth source reproduced in the special edition is an abridged version of a UIPM press release dated 8 October 2002:

UIPM Delegation Visits IOC Regarding the Olympic Program; HSH Prince Albert Reaffirms Modern Pentathlon as the Soul of the Olympic Movement, to be Maintained for the Sake of Olympic Tradition and Values; International Pierre De Coubertin Committee and DeCoubertin’s Family Call for Pentathlon’s Respect and Promotion

On 4 October, a UIPM delegation composed of President Klaus Schormann, Honorary President HSH Prince Albert of Monaco, First Vice President Juan Antonio Samaranch, and Secretary General Joel Bouzou was welcomed at the IOC headquarters by IOC President Jacques Rogge, accompanied by Sport Director Gilbert Felli and his new assistant, Olivier Lenglet.

The purpose of the meeting was to answer to the Program Commission’s recommendation to the IOC executive board and to present additional arguments to be considered by the IOC executive board before their final decision during their meeting in Mexico City, 26 and 27 November.

After the opening by IOC President Rogge, UIPM President Klaus Schormann referred to the letter sent to the IOC that answered the points raised by the technical report of the Program Commission. [As Schormann noted,] “We now have more than 95 countries in the five continents. . . . De Coubertin started the sport from scratch in 1912, and the media coverage of our events has dramatically increased since the adoption of the one-day format. Our sport is only using existing venues during the Games and therefore is not expensive, as stated in the report. Equally, compact venues in modern cities allow more and more pentathletes to practice the sport and combine it with studies.

President Schormann also mentioned the surveys made during the last Olympic Games by an independent observer, Prof. Dr. Mfiller from the research group of the Gutenberg University in Mainz, and by SOCOG, which both support the UIPM counter-arguments. Dr Rogge confirmed that he took into account the point made by President Schormann concerning the flexibility of UIPM in terms of the sports evolution.

UIPM Secretary General Bouzou recalled that modem pentathlon does not need any specific venue for the Games; that most modem cities have multisport complexes adapted to the organization of modem pentathlon; that nine modem pentathlon major competitions are seen on international TV in the five continents; that, as stated by SOCOG (in a post-Games report), “[T]he quality of competition and sports presentation, combined with the most comprehensive television coverage ever of modem pentathlon in Olympic Games history, ensured first-class viewing for live spectators and global television audiences.” He also acknowledged the fact that modem pentathlon is not, and will never be, practiced by millions of athletes throughout the world. However, it was never designed for this by the founder of the Games, Pierre de Coubertin, but to be used as a living symbol of all values within a single sport. This was the reason why exceptional personalities like General Patton or Chevalier Raoul Mollet chose this sport in their respective athletic times.

UIPM Vice President Samaranch reminded that 15,000 spectators attended each of the two days of modem pentathlon at the Sydney Olympic Games, in sold-out venues, and that there are only 64 athletes competing in modem pentathlon, which represents only 0.5% of the overall number, and, therefore, that taking the sport out of the program would not affect the reality in terms of cost.

IOC President Rogge, following the presentation of all the arguments, informed the UIPM delegation that he would ensure they would all be duly reported on to the IOC executive board.

Professor Dr. Norbert Muller, president of the International Pierre de Coubertin Committee, wrote a letter to the IOC president saying that he had been “informed with great regrets about the proposal of the program commission,” adding that, “this sport represents the real legacy of Pierre de Coubertin, which he elaborated personally when he wanted to showcase the Perfect Olympic Man or Woman.” [Muller] transmitted an appeal from the committee, saying, “[T]he personal legacy of Pierre de Coubertin should be respected and modem pentathlon permanently included.”

Mr. Geoffroy de Navacelle de Coubertin, the great-nephew of Pierre de Coubertin, also wrote to the IOC president, saying, “Let me tell you my astonishment and my emotion. I have always decided not to interfere with the IOC business. I am simply concerned in making sure that the achievements and the philosophy of Pierre de Coubertin will be respected. This sport is the most symbolic one in showing the perfect athlete. Should you not promote and support it in order to make it grow, instead of only promoting ‘specialists’ which media like so much?” De Coubertin had contacted Schormann . . . in order to create a permanent Pierre de Coubertin Commission within UIPM, that he would lead, the role of which will be to promote the philosophy of the founder “on the ground,” particularly through modem pentathlon events, in close cooperation with the International Pierre de Coubertin Committee, throughout the entire world. The Pierre de Coubertin Commission was established 1 October 2002, comprising the following members: de Coubertin, Schormann, Muller, Bouzou, and modern pentathlon Olympic champions Dr. Stephanie Cook [of Great Britain] and Janus Peciak [of Poland].

Author’s Note:

Correspondence regarding this articLEwhould go to:

Union Internationale de Pentathlon Moderne (UIPM)
Tel. +377,9777 8555 Fax.+377 9777 8550
E-mail: pentathlon@monaco.mc
For more on Pentathlon, visit the website: http://www.pentathlon.org
08.10.2002/ JB

A Review of Service Quality in Corporate and Recreational Sport/Fitness Programs

U.S. Sports Academy2015-10-24T01:32:33-05:00February 15th, 2008|Sports Facilities, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|

Abstract

This article is a review of the literature related to the study of service quality in corporate and recreational sport and fitness programs. It considers earlier discussions of conceptualization and operationalization aspects of consumers’ perceptions of service quality. It reviews several models used by researchers in the past, as well as more recent approaches to understanding the constructs of service and service quality and the various means used to measure them.

Quality of service has been studied within the discipline of business management for years, because the market is increasingly competitive and marketing management has transferred its focus from internal performance (such as production) to external interests like customer satisfaction and customers’ perceptions of service quality (Gronroos, 1992). However, the concept of service quality has only recently—over the last two decades—gained attention from sport and recreation providers and those who study them (Yong, 2000). The service-quality framework known as SERVQUAL comprises a traditional disconfirmatory model and was the first measurement tool to operationalize service quality. Although it made a contribution to the field of service quality and was very popular among service-quality researchers in many areas, SERVQUAL proved insufficient due to conceptual weaknesses in the disconfirmatory paradigm and to its empirical inappropriateness.

Later service-quality frameworks included a greater number of dimensions than SERVQUAL offered. Most recent models, such as Brady’s (1997) hierarchical multidimensional model, have synthesized prior approaches and suggest the complexity of service-quality perception as a construct. Because of this complexity, despite numerous efforts in both business management and the sport/fitness field, the study of service quality is still in a state of confusion. No consensus has been reached on its conceptualization or its operationalization of consumers’ perceptions of service quality.

Service and Service Quality

Service quality has long been studied by researchers in the field of business management. However, they have reached no consensus concerning how the service quality construct is best conceptualized or operationalized. In presenting the literature that reflects this lack of consensus, it is first necessary to focus on the definitions and characteristics of service and service quality. The concept of service comes from business literature. Many scholars have offered various definitions of service. For example, Ramaswamy (1996) described service as “the business transactions that take place between a donor (service provider) and receiver (customer) in order to produce an outcome that satisfies the customer”(p. 3). Zeithaml and Bitner (1996) defined service as “deeds, processes, and performances” (p. 5). According to Gronroos (1990),

A service is an activity or series of activities of more or less
intangible nature that normally, but not necessarily, take place in
interactions between the customer and service employees and /or
systems of the service provider, which are provided as solutions
to customer problems. (p. 27)

Some researchers have viewed service from within a system-thinking paradigm (Lakhe & Mohanty, 1995), defining service as

a production system where various inputs are processed, transformed
and value added to produce some outputs which have utility to the service
seekers, not merely in an economic sense but from supporting the life of the
human system in general, even maybe for the sake of pleasure. (p. 140)

Yong (2000) reviewed definitions of service and noted the following features of service that are important to an understanding of the concept. First, service is a performance. It happens through interaction between consumers and service providers (Deighton, 1992; Gronroos, 1990; Ramaswamy, 1996; Sasser, Olsen, & Wyckoff, 1978; Zeithaml & Bitner, 1996). Second, factors such as physical resources and environments play an important mediating role in the process of service production and consumption (American Marketing Association, 1960; Collier, 1994; Gronnroos, 1990). Third, service is a requirement in terms of providing certain functions to consumers, for example problem solving (Gronroos, 1990; Ramaswamy, 1996). From these points Yong (2000) concluded that “a service, combined with goods products, is experienced and evaluated by customers who have particular goals and motivations for consumers for consuming the service.” (p. 43)

Among researchers generally, there is no consensus about the characteristics of service. According to Yong (2000), their various conceptualizations fall into two groups. First, there are those researchers who view the concept from the perspective of service itself. They pay attention to the discrepancy between marketing strategies for service and goods, in an approach that differentiates service (intangibles) from goods (tangibles). The suggestion is that distinct marketing strategies are appropriate for the two concepts. Parasuraman, Zeithaml, and Berry (1985) as well as Zeithaml and Bitner (1996) identified the following features of service that distinguish it from goods: Service is intangible, heterogeneous, simultaneous, simultaneous in production and consumption, and perishable.

Pointing out the unique features of service advances understanding of the concept, but it has drawn criticism, for example because the identified features are not universal across service sectors. As Wright (1995) noted, first, a service industry depends more on tangible equipment to satisfy customers’ demands, while some customers do not care whether or not goods are tangible. Second, some service businesses are well standardized; an example is franchise industries (Wright, 1995). In addition, some customers value equality and fairness in the service provided. Third, many services are not simultaneously produced and consumed (Wright, 1995). Fourth, highly technological and equipment-based services could be standardized. Critics other than Wright (Wyckham, Fitzroy, & Mandry, 1975) have argued that the four-point approach to service ignores the role of customers.

The second group of researchers conceptualizing service comprises those who view service from the perspective of service customers. These researchers focus on the utility and total value that a service provides for a consumer. This approach points out that service combines tangible and intangible aspects in order to satisfy customers during business transactions (Gronroos. 1990; Ramaswamy, 1996). The approach implies that because consumers evaluate service quality in terms of their own experiences, customers’ subjective perceptions have great impact upon service businesses’ success or failure (Shostack, 1997).

Conceptualization and Operationalization of Service Quality

Although researchers have studied the concept of service for several decades, there is no consensus on how to conceptualize service quality (Cronin & Taylor, 1992; Rust & Oliver, 1994), in part because different researchers have focused on different aspects of service quality. Reeves and Bednar (1994) noted that “there is no universal, parsimonious, or all-encompassing definition or model of quality” (p. 436). The most common definition of service quality, nevertheless, is the traditional notion, in which quality is viewed as the customer’s perception of service excellence. That is to say, quality is defined by the customer’s impression of the service provided (Berry, Parasuraman, & Zeithaml, 1988; Parasuraman, Zeithaml, & Berry, 1985). This definition assumes that customers form a perception of service quality according to the service performance they experience and in light of prior experiences of service performance. It is therefore the customer’s perception that categorizes service quality. Many researchers accept this approach. For example, Bitner and Hubbert (1994) defined quality as “the consumer’s overall impression of the relative inferiority/superiority of the organization and its services” (p. 77). But their definition of service quality differs from that of the traditional approach, which locates service quality perception within the contrast between consumer expectation and actual service performance (Gronroos, 1984; Lewis & Booms, 1983; Parasuraman, Zeithaml, & Berry, 1985; Parasuraman, Zeithaml, & Berry, 1990).

Parasuraman, Zeithaml, and Berry (1985) viewed quality as “the degree and direction of discrepancy between customers’ service perception and expectations.” According to this approach, services are different from goods because they are intangible and heterogeneous and are simultaneously produced and consumed. Additionally, according to the disconfirmation paradigm, service quality is a comparison between consumers’ expectations and their perceptions of service actually received. Based on the traditional definition of service quality, Parasuraman, Zeithaml, and Berry (1985) developed their gap model of perceived service quality. The model incorporates five gaps: (a) the gap between management’s perceptions of consumer expectations and expected service, (b) the gap between management’s perceptions of consumers’ expectations and the translation of those perceptions into service-quality specification, (c) the gap between translation of perceptions of service-quality specification and service delivery, (d) the gap between service delivery and external communications to consumers, and (e) the gap between the level of service consumers expect and actual service performance. This disconfirmation paradigm conceptualizes the perception of service quality as a difference between expected level of service and actual service performance. The developers of the gap model proposed 10 second-order dimensions consumers in a broad variety of service sectors use to assess service quality. The 10 are tangibles, reliability, responsiveness, competence, courtesy, credibility, security, access, communication, and understanding (Parasuraman et al., 1985).

Using these 10 dimensions, Parasuraman et al. (1988) made the first effort to operationalize the concept of service quality. They developed an instrument to assess service quality that empirically relied on the difference in scores between expectations and perceived performance. Their instrument consisted of 22 items, divided along the 10 second-order dimensions, with a seven-point answer scale accompanying each statement to test the strength of relations. The 22 items were used to represent 5 dimensions, ultimately: reliability, responsiveness, tangibles, assurance, and empathy. Yong (2000) described the five as follows:

Reliability refers to the ability to perform the promised service
dependently and accurately. Responsiveness reflects the willingness
to help a customer and provide prompt service. Tangible refers
to the appearance of the physical facilities, equipment, personnel and
communication material. Empathy refers to caring, individualized
attention the firm provides its customer. (p. 66)

In their seminal study, Parasuraman and colleagues used SERVQUAL to measure service quality as the gap between expectation and perception in several venues: an appliance repair and maintenance firm, retail banks, a long-distance telephone provider, a securities broker, and credit card companies (Parasuraman et al., 1985). The study provided a comprehensive conceptualization of service quality, and it marked the first time, in service-quality research, that an instrument for measuring perceived service quality was used. It became very well known among service-quality researchers.

However, numerous researchers challenged the usefulness of the SERVQUAL scale as a measure of service quality (e.g., Babakus & Boller, 1992; Brown, Churchill, & Peter, 1993; Carmen, 1990; Cronin & Taylor, 1992; Dabholkar, Thorpe, & Rentz, 1996). Carmen (1990) selected four service settings that were quite different from those in the original test and found that in some situations, SERVQUAL must be customized (items added or edited), despite its introduction as a generic instrument measuring service quality in any sector. In addition, Carmen suggested that SERVQUAL’s five dimensions are insufficient to meet service-quality measurement needs, and that measurement of expectation using SERVQUAL is problematic.
Finn and Lamb (1991) argued that “the SERVQUAL measurement model is not appropriate in a retail setting” (p. 487). Furthermore, they argued, “retailers and consumer researchers should not treat SERVQUAL as an ‘off the shelf’ measure of perceived quality. Much refinement is needed for specific companies and industries” (p. 489). According to Brown, Churchill, & Peter (1993) SERVQUAL’s use of difference between scores causes a number of problems in such areas as reliability, discriminate validity, spurious correlations, and variance restriction. Finally, Cronin and Taylor (1992) argued that the disconfirmation paradigm applied by SERVQUAL was inappropriate for measuring perceived service quality. The paradigm measures customer satisfaction, not service quality, and Cronin and Taylor’s study employing solely the performance scale SERVPERF showed SERVPERF to outperform SERVQUAL.

SERVQUAL’s shortcomings result from the weakness of the traditional disconfirmatory definition of service quality which it incorporates. Yong (2000) notes several problems in this traditional definition of service quality. First, customers’ needs are not always easy to identify, and incorrectly identified needs result in measuring conformance to a specification that is improper. Schneider and Bowen (1995) pointed out that

[C]ustomers bring a complex and multidimensional set of expectations to the service encounter. Customers come with expectations for more than a smile and handshake. Their expectations include conformance to at least ten service quality attributes (i.e., Parasuraman et al.’s 10 dimensions—reliability, responsiveness, competence, access, courtesy, communication, credibility, security, understanding, and tangible).” (p. 29)

Second, the traditional definition fails to provide a way to measure customers’ expectations, and expectations determine the level of service quality. Because customer expectations may fluctuate greatly over time (Reeves & Bednar, 1994), a definition of quality based on expectation cannot be parsimonious. It is invalid, empirically speaking, to use the disparity of scores for expectation and scores for perceived service quality to measure service quality.

Oliver (1997) is another researcher who pointed out the traditional model’s difficulty distinguishing service quality from satisfaction. While perception of quality may come from external mediation rather than experience of service, consumers must experience satisfaction in person. In addition, judgments and standards of quality are based on ideals or perceptions of excellence, while judgments concerning satisfaction involve predictive expectations, needs, product category norms, and even expectations of service quality. Moreover, while judgments concerning quality are mainly cognitive, satisfaction is an affective experience (Bitner & Hubbert, 1994; Oliver, 1994). Service quality is influenced by a very few variables (e.g, external cues like price, reputation, and various communication sources); satisfaction, in contrast, is vulnerable to cognitive and affective processes (e.g., equity, attribution, and emotion). Quality is primarily long-term, while satisfaction is primarily short-term.

Discussing various analyses in terms of their definitions of service quality, Yong (2000) pointed out that service quality should not be defined using a disconfirmation paradigm (i.e., by comparing expectation and perceived quality). Indeed, since service quality may not necessarily involve customer experience and consumption, the disconfirmation paradigm does not clarify service quality (Yong, 2000). Furthermore, it is easier to measure service quality if judgment occurs primarily at the attribute-based cognitive level. Yong (2000) stated as well that customer perception of quality to date has been the main focus of service-quality research; consumers’ overall impressions determine service quality. Yong (2000) argues that what constitutes service changes from one service sector to another, so each sector’s consumers may perceive service quality differently, and that service quality is multidimensional or multifaceted. Finally, according to Yong (2000), service quality must be clearly differentiated from customer satisfaction.

Several researchers have approached service quality from perspectives quite different from that of Parasuraman et al. (1988). On the one hand, some scholars argue for multidimensional models of service quality. At first, Gronroos (1984) used a two-dimensional model to study service quality. Its first dimension was technical quality, meaning the outcome of service performance. Its second dimension was functional quality, meaning subjective perceptions of how service is delivered. Functional quality reflects consumers’ perceptions of their interactions with service providers. Gronroos’s model compares the two dimensions of service performance to customer expectation, and eventually each customer has an individual perception of service quality. McDougall and Levesque (1994) later added to Gronroos’s model a third dimension, physical environment, proposing their three-factor model of service quality. This later model consists of service outcome, service process (Gronroos, 1984), and physical environment. McDougall and Levesque (1994) tested the model with confirmatory factor analysis, using the dimensions of the SERVQUAL scale (which provided empirical support for the three-factor model). The three components from the above models, together with Rust and Oliver’s (1994) service product, represent one important aspect of services. All of them contribute to consumers’ perception of service quality (Yong, 2000).

On the other hand, Dabholkar, Thorpe, and Tentz (1996) proposed a hierarchical model of service quality that describes service quality as a level, multidimensional construct. That construct includes (a) overall consumer perception of service quality; (b) a dimension level that consists of physical aspects, reliability, personal interaction, problem solving, and policy; and (c) a subdimension level that recognizes the multifaceted nature of the service-quality dimensions. Dabholkar and colleagues found that quality of service is directly influenced by perceptions of performance levels. In addition, customers’ personal characteristics are important in assessing value, but not in assessing quality.

The two lines of thought on the modeling of service quality were combined by Brady (1997). He developed a hierarchical and multidimensional model of perceived service quality by combining Dabholkar, Thorpe, and Tentz’s (1996) hierarchical model and McDougall and Levesque’s (1994) three-factor model (Brady, 1997). Brady’s model incorporates three dimensions, interaction quality, outcome quality, and physical environment quality. Each dimension consists of three subdimensions. The interaction quality dimension comprises attitude, behavior, and expertise subdimensions. The outcome quality dimension comprises waiting time, tangibles, and valence. Finally, the physical environment quality dimension comprises ambient conditions, design, and social factors. Brady’s hierarchical and multidimensional approach is believed to explain the complexity of human perceptions better than earlier conceptualizations in the literature did (Dabholkar, Thorpe, & Rentz, 1996; Brady, 1997). Furthermore, empirical testing of Brady’s model shows the model to be psychometrically sound.

In a study of service quality in recreational sport, Yong (2000) further developed Brady’s (1997) model, proposing that perception of service quality occurs in four dimensions. The first is program quality: the range of activity programs, operating time, and secondary services. The second is interaction quality, or outcome quality. The third is environment quality. Yong tested his model with a two-step approach of structural equation modeling, and he supported multidimensional conceptualization of service-quality perception.

Conclusion

Perception of service quality is quite a controversial topic; to date no consensus has been reached on how to conceptualize or operationalize this construct. In its summarization of the existing literature about service quality, this article explored the concepts of service, service quality, consumer perception of service quality, and the conceptualization and operationalization of the service-quality concept. It covered several models of service quality, the earliest one of which was SERVQUAL. An application of the traditional disconfirmatory model, SERVQUAL represents the first effort to operationalize service quality. Although it made a great contribution to the field and was very popular among service-quality researchers in many areas, SERVQUAL is now thought to be insufficient because of conceptual weaknesses inherent in the disconfirmatory paradigm and also because of its empirical inappropriateness. Service-quality researchers working after SERVQUAL’s introduction proposed models containing additional dimensions. Brady developed a hierarchical and multidimensional model of perceived service quality by combining the ideas of earlier researchers. The relatively recent approaches like Brady’s (1997) utilize ideas seen in earlier models, yet more fully represent the complexity of the concept of service-quality perception.

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ADR Fundamentals

U.S. Sports Academy2013-11-26T21:31:25-06:00February 15th, 2008|General|

©2002 Adam Epstein, J.D./M.B.A. Removed due to copyright until advised otherwise.