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Training to Improve Bone Density in Adults: A Review and Recommendations
Abstract
The loss of bone density is becoming a major health concern in industrialized societies. Increasing bone density during puberty and young adulthood is considered the best option for preventing the negative health consequences associated with osteoporosis, even in middle aged and older adults an exercise program can increase bone density. While low volume impact oriented aerobic activities like running have been shown to be effective at increasing bone density excessive endurance training has been linked to low bone density. Strength training remains the best option for adults wishing to increase bone density. A regular program of high load (60-85% 1RM) training three or more times per week using a variety of exercises that challenge all major muscles has been shown to significantly increase bone density even in elderly adults.
Key Words: Bone Density, Exercise, Osteoporosis, Training
Introduction
Osteoporosis, which has been defined as bone mineral density (BMD) more than 2.5 standard deviations below the young adult mean value (14), is a growing health problem for both men and women. In developed and developing countries, the incidence of osteoporosis is increasing at a rate faster than what would be predicted by the aging of the population alone (15). In the U.S., it has been estimated that by 2025 the number of hip fractures attributed to osteoporosis will double to nearly 2.6 million with a greater percentage increase in men than in women (12).
Epidemiological evidence suggests that genetic factors are the most important cause of osteoporosis (20) and can account for as much as 80% of the variability in bone density in the population (6), but a variety of environmental factors have been linked to bone density including: negative energy balance, low calcium intake, lack of fruit and vegetable consumption, low body mass index, strength, and hormone levels (13,22,9,7,23) – all of which may influence the ability to develop or maintain bone density.
A well designed exercise can have a tremendous impact on bone, increasing density, size, and mechanical strength (23) and may be one of the keys to preventing complications associated with osteoporosis. If bone density and maximum tensile strength are increased before osteoporosis sets in, subsequent complications could be minimized (21). Unfortunately many adults wait to start an exercise program once they are diagnosed with low bone density.
For middle aged and older adults one of the primary health goals of an exercise program is to maintain bone density. Without an exercise intervention, after the age of 40, bone mass decreases by about 0.5% per year, regardless of sex or ethnicity (15). Whether appreciable increases in bone density can occur for this age group is equivocal (15) and dependant on the duration of the exercise program, age, dietary factors, and history of physical activity. A variety of different types of exercise have been used in bone building programs middle aged or older adults.
Training Techniques
Strength training
Although not all studies have shown improvement in bone density with strength training (15), strength training, if done with a high enough intensity for a prolonged period of time, seems to be effective for improving bone density in middle aged and older women who have low bone density (16). Programs that have been successful at increasing bone density have several common characteristics; training intensity above 70% 1RM, programs that last more than 12 months, and training frequency greater than two times per week.
Endurance Training
Endurance training can be an acceptable form of exercise for maintaining or increasing bone density in middle aged or older adults provided there is sufficient impact. Stuart and Hannan (2000) examined the effects of cycling, running, or both on bone density in recreational male athletes. They found that runners had greater total and leg BMD than controls and that those athletes participating in both cycling and running had greater total and arm BMD – whereas the cyclists had decreased spine BMD compared to controls. The lack of impact involved in cycling may explain the lack of change in BMD even though all groups performed equal volumes of work throughout the study period. Walking programs, because of their low impact, tend to show only modest or no effects on BMD (3,18). Rowing, because of the high compressive and shear forces placed on the spine (4.6 times body weight) has been shown to increase lumbar spine BMD but not at other areas (17). Moderate training volumes seem to be more effective for increasing bone density. Running mileage of 20-30 km per week has a positive effect on bone, particularly lower leg and distal femur, but training volumes greater than this may cause a chronic increase in cortisol that negatively impacts bone (4) as running 92 km per week has been shown to result in bone density lower than sedentary controls (2).
Jump training
Although effective and popular in school based programs for increasing bone density in younger people jump training does not appear to be as effective in middle aged and older women. In a study comparing the effects of 12 months of vertical jumping on spine and proximal femur BMD in a group of pre and post menopausal women, Bassey, Rothwell, Littlewood and Pye (1998) found that 50 jumps six days per week increased BMD in the pre-menopausal group but not in the post menopausal group compared to group specific controls. Interestingly, the lack of change occurred even though the ground reaction forces and rate of force development on landing were higher in the post menopausal group resulting in a greater strain overload than in the pre menopausal group.
While a variety of exercise modalities have proven to be effective at maintaining bone density in adults, there are some basic principles that should be considered when designing a long-term program for people with osteoporosis:
Exercise Considerations
Use a Progressive Program
Increase resistance and intensity progressively. This is necessary because for bone to form it requires a minimum amount of strain. Once a bone adapts to a given strain level, the stimulus for bone to form is removed and a higher strain level becomes necessary for it to adapt further (10).
Use Dynamic Movements
Mechanical loading of bone has an osteogenic effect only if the loading is dynamic and variable, as static loading of bone does not trigger an adaptive response (23). Impact and rapid changes of direction can be particularly effective because ground reaction forces tend to be highest during these activities. Jumps, running, and more explosive or dynamic strength training activities should make up the majority of exercise in a bone-building program. In adults with advanced osteoporosis, more explosive exercises should be phased in gradually as their conditioning and bone strength improves.
Vary the Exercises
Bone adaptations occur primarily at insertion and origin points where muscles attach to the bones. Ryan et al. (1994) suggest that increased BMD from strength training and explosive activities is related to the load placed on the muscles that act as prime movers. A wide variety of exercises, which change every 2-4 weeks, exercising the whole body will help ensure that all bones receive stimulus to increase BMC or BMD.
Minimum Intensity
As with most training, there is a minimum level of intensity that is needed to stimulate increase in BMD. For strength training activities there is a linear relationship between weight lifted and improvements in bone density (5). Chilibeck, Sale and Webber (1995) suggest that for strength training intensities of at least 60%, 1RM are needed to increase BMD, with faster and greater increases in bone density coming as intensity climbs (16). For impact activities like running and jumping, ground reaction forces of greater than two times body weight can increase bone density with higher forces having a greater effect.
Training Frequency
Improvements in BMD can occur with relatively short training sessions if high impact activities like jumping are the core of the program. However, there is a need to perform these sessions frequently. Studies of jump training have found that where three or more sessions per week are sufficient to increase bone – two sessions per week has negligible effect on bone density (11).
Program Duration
Consistency is one of the keys to long term bone health. Like other tissues, bone undergoes both adaptation to training and detraining during periods of decreased activity. The bone remodelling cycle lasts four to six months (8); this is the minimum period of time needed for BMD to change significantly. Training programs need to be designed so that they offer the variety and adaptability for people to make them a year round part of lifelong fitness regime.
Conclusion
Decreased bone density is a growing problem in modern societies. Exercise remains one of the most potent alternatives to drug treatments for maintaining or improving bone density. An intensive program, three or more times per week featuring a variety of exercises that considers the individual needs of each person and promotes long term compliance can have a positive impact on bone density.
Applications in Sport
Over the past years, adults have become more and more active in age group sports, particularly in the endurance sports like running, cycling, and triathlon. The inclusion of an intensive strength training program will not only improve their performance, but will help offset the decrease in bone density that often accompanies aging and higher volumes of aerobic training.
References
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Author Profile
Ed McNeely
Ed McNeely is the senior physiologist at the Peak Centre for Human Performance and a partner in StrengthPro Inc. a Las Vegas based sport and fitness consulting company he is also a National Faculty member of the United States Sports Academy
Corresponding Author
Ed McNeely, MS: e.mcneely@rogers.com
An Analysis of Hammer Throw Facility Safety Factors in NCAA Division I
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to determine the level of compliance with National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) and International Amateur Athletics Federation (IAAF) track and field hammer facility recommendations at division I universities in the United States. A 35-item survey instrument was distributed to 279 applicable schools with a 28% response rate. A total of 78.1% participants in the study reported compliance with the NCAA minimum recommendations, and 38% also met the IAAF standards. An ANOVA of the coaches’ overall perception of hammer facility safety demonstrated significant differences for facility factors including the gate height, gate positioning, cage manufacturer, landing area security, and response time to maintenance issues. The NCAA may need to examine their present hammer facility guidelines and consider alignment with the new standards of the IAAF.
Key Words: Olympic, International, Track and Field, Equipment, Cage
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Evidence That Support Equality: Credential Characteristics of Georgia Female High School Coaches
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to increase awareness and understanding concerning gender differences in high school athletic coaches in terms of coaching characteristics. The authors conducted a more comprehensive follow-up study to their 2007 survey in which they compared female and male coaches in Georgia. All active members of the Georgia High School Association (GHSA), approximately 8000 coaches, representing each of five GHSA classifications, 5A, 4A, 3A, 2A and A, participated in the study conducted in the fall of 2008. The instrument used was a 76-item questionnaire that was developed and adapted from the previous coach’s survey. Results affirmed the authors’ previous research findings. When comparisons were made respecting gender, female coaches were comparable to males in such areas as degrees earned, the number of years of coaching experience between six and ten years, and in their level of coaching experience. Females exceeded males in some areas. More female coaches majored in Health and Physical Education; were recruited, supported and hired by the principal and athletic director; were teachers first; and were dedicated to educating young people.
Identifying desired qualities and competencies could assist athletic coaching candidates in preparing for careers and/or in improving their job performance, leading to greater coaching effectiveness. Also, from a qualification/preparation perspective women should be impartially represented in coaching positions, including head coach, a position where gender should be less of a factor in the hiring process.
Key Words: Gender, Coaching, Credentials, Characteristics, Preparation, Hiring
Introduction
Several studies have found female athletic coaches in high schools have equal or better qualifications than male coaches (3,9,14,22). In their study of high school coaches in the state of Georgia et al. (22) compared female and male coaching credentials and revealed female coaches possessed closely the same characteristics as male coaches, and in some instances exceeded the qualifications of their male counterparts. In spite of these favorable statistical comparisons, male coaches greatly outnumber females in terms of the number of coaching positions held, even with female athletic teams. According to the Women’s Sports Foundation website eighty percent of all coaches at the high school level are male (20). This was not always the case. In the early seventies around the passage of Title IX the number of female coaches of athletic teams was more prominent, but since then, the number has dwindled in many states across the United States.
Conceptual Background
The decline in women coaches could be due to several factors such as long held societal perceptions that men are more talented (5,21), more highly regarded (13), and more knowledgeable (12) than women. Several studies have reported that discriminatory attitudes in hiring decisions, lack of inclusion of women administrators in decision making, female athletes’ preferences for male coaches, homophobia, jobs that are not family-friendly and extreme workloads promoting unbalanced lifestyles have all played a central role in driving the decline (4,18,21).
Even though the number of female coaches has declined steadily since 1972 (7,4,15), the number of female high school athletes has risen dramatically and interest of girls in high school sports is ever increasing (11,19). Young girls need role models.
Hoch (10) stated that coaching qualifications are important and recently have become hot topics in high school athletics for numerous reasons, the first of which is accountability. In education generally and on the topic of athletics, specifically, parents expect and demand much more from public officials. Second, due to an ageing faculty and less coaching from physical education teachers, the number of teachers available to take on coaching assignments is diminishing, forcing schools to hire community coaches to fill their coaching vacancies. Third, most other professions have some form of certification in their fields; however, high school coaches do not. Anyone can apply as a coach, a position that influences millions of youngsters on a daily basis. Fourth, being a teacher in an academic discipline other than physical education does not qualify anyone to coach any more than an English instructor is equipped to teach math. Both coaches and teachers need specialized preparation. Fifth, just because someone has been a player does not necessarily ensure success as a coach. The skills involved with each are different and coaching depends upon one’s ability to teach and relate.
The encouraging news according to Popke (17) is that administrators at the high school level are beginning to see past gender as illustrated in several examples across the country. Even though the numbers are low and have been stagnant for years, there have been promising developments. In March 2010, Natalie Randolph was named as the head football coach at Calvin Coolidge Senior High School in Washington, D.C. According to the Washington Post, it is not clear how many women have been head coaches for boys’ high school football teams – but it is extremely rare. The Post reported that another Washington teacher, Wanda Oates, was named head football coach at a different Washington high school in 1985. However, she was removed a day later after coaches who did not want to coach against her pressured the school district (8). Prior to the hiring of Natalie Randolph at Coolidge Senior High, in the state of Georgia, Angela Solomon was the only known head football coach of a public middle school or high school team. She led Myers Middle School, located in Savannah, to the 2009 championship football game of Chatham County (1).
In Wilmington, Delaware, math teacher Katie Orga Godfrey was hired by the Salesianum School, a private Catholic all-boys institution, as its first ever female coach of a junior-varsity basketball team in fall, 2008. Her qualifications were the key to getting the job. Also, in fall 2008, Katie Mack was named as the first ever varsity soccer coach of a male team at Bellows Free Academy in Fairfax, Vermont; and Allison Meyer was hired as the varsity basketball coach at Fennimore, Wisconsin High School. The coaches have assumed roles where the best available leader, role model, coordinator and instructor with knowledge about their sport was needed. Therefore, the coaches’ qualifications were essential to their hiring irrespective of the coaches’ gender.
With their previous research on coaching characteristics and professional preparation as the foundation for the current study, the authors conducted a comprehensive statewide survey of high school coaches in Georgia (22). The survey revealed important data concerning coaches’ education, experiences, qualifications, and teaching areas. Comparisons were made respecting gender, ethnicity, and school classification, etc. (22).
The purpose of this study was to increase awareness and understanding concerning gender differences in high school athletic coaches in terms of coaching characteristics. Coach preparation can be linked to greater effectiveness in meeting the psychological and physical development of athletes (2). Also, identifying particular characteristics such as qualities and competencies of athletic coaches could offer others assistance in preparing for coaching careers or in improving their job performance.
Methods
Participants
All active members of the Georgia High School Association (GHSA), approximately 8000 coaches, served as the population for the study which was conducted in the fall of 2008.
Seven hundred ninety five (795) individuals representing each of five GHSA classifications, 5A, 4A, 3A, 2A and A, responded to the survey.
Procedures
The instrument used was a 76-item questionnaire that was developed and adapted from a previous coach’s study that examined demographic characteristics (gender, age, ethnicity, etc.), educational level, college major and degree, current position, coaching experience, certifications, sport participant experience, and previous coaching education courses taken. The questionnaire was reviewed for face validity by coaching education faculty for appropriateness for coaches as well as individuals currently practicing as coaches.
A private company, “Georgia High School Coaches Association” (GHSCA) was contracted for dissemination of the questionnaire, which was posted on the internet and hosted by SurveyMonkey.com. The GHSCA maintains a database of active high school coaches in the state of Georgia. An email was sent to all public high school coaches in the database inviting them to participate in the study. The email provided an overview of the study, informed consent documentation, and a link to the questionnaire. Two weeks later, a reminder email was sent to all public high school coaches in the database.
Respondents were not required to answer all questions and were free to skip questions or sections of the questionnaire. The respondents did not receive any compensation for completion of the questionnaire and no personal identifying information was collected. This study was approved by the University’s Institutional Review Board.
Results
Coaching Characteristics
Results from the survey are presented in Tables 1-9. The coaches’ responses revealed information concerning demographic data, educational level, coaching experience, coaching level, types of certifications, teaching areas, individuals most supportive during the hiring process, the coach’s description of filling the coaching position, and the respondent’s reason(s) for coaching.
As represented in Table 1, the seven hundred ninety-five (795) individuals responding to the survey had the following demographic characteristics related to gender, ethnicity, and age: 70.4% were males and 29.6% were females, 86.6% were Caucasian and 9.3% were African American. Female respondents were 85.5% Caucasian and 9.4% African American. With respect to males, 87.1% were Caucasian and 9.3% were African American. Females’ average age was 35.63 years and males’ average age was 39.37 years. The overall age for all coaches ranged from 19-75 years old.
Table 1
Demographic Characteristics of Georgia High School Coaches by Gender, Ethnicity and Age as a Percentage of the Sample
| Gender | |
|---|---|
| Male | 70.4% |
| Female | 29.6% |
| Ethnicity | |
|---|---|
| Caucasian | 86.6% |
| African American | 9.3% |
| Caucasian Males | 87.1% |
| African American Males | 9.3% |
| Caucasian Females | 85.5% |
| African American Females | 9.4% |
| Age | |
|---|---|
| Male Average Age | 39.97 |
| Female Average Age | 35.63 |
| Overall Average Age (range 19-75) | 39.54 |
Note: At least one coach from ninety three different high schools responded, a total 795 coaches.
Table 2 depicts the educational level attained by the respondents. More than ninety-six percent (96.5%) of females had a Bachelor’s degree; 73.8% a Master’s and 7.4% a Doctorate. A higher percentage of the male coaches reported having earned degrees at the Bachelor’s (98.1%), Master’s (83%), and Doctorate (8.1%) levels than females. Also, a higher percentage of male coaches (56.5%) reported having taken additional coaching education courses than females (51.7%).
Table 2
Highest Degree Earned by Georgia High School Coaches by Gender, and the Percentage of Coaches that Have Taken at Least One Coaching Education Course
| Degrees Earned | Males | Females |
|---|---|---|
| Bachelors | 98.1% | 96.5% |
| Masters | 83.0% | 73.8% |
| Doctorate | 8.1% | 7.4% |
| Coaching Education Courses | 56.5% | 51.7% |
Table 3 shows the respondents’ years of coaching experience by gender. More than thirty-two percent (32.6%) of the females had coached 11 years or more, 5.8% had coached between 16-20 years, and 6.2% had coached more than twenty years. Nearly fifty-three percent (52.6%) of males had coached 11 years or more, 10.7% had coached between 16-20 years, and 25.2% had coached more than twenty years.
Table 3
The Years of Coaching Experience for Georgia High School Coaches by Gender
| Number of Years | Males | Females |
|---|---|---|
| 1-5 | 25.6% | 51.9% |
| 6-10 | 21.9% | 25.5% |
| 11-15 | 16.7% | 10.6% |
| 16-20 | 10.7% | 5.8% |
| More than 20 | 25.2% | 6.2% |
Table 4 indicates the respondents’ level of coaching. The highest level of coaching experience was in high school for 87.6% of females and 78.9% of males. Community college coaching accounted for the participants’ highest level of coaching experience for 2.2% of the female coaches and 2.2% of male coaches. College coaching was the highest level for 6.7% of the females and 16.7% of the males. Less than two percent of females (1.1%) and males (1.7%) had coached at the professional level.
Table 4
Highest Coaching Level Attained by Georgia High School Coaches by Gender
| Coaching Level | Males | Females |
|---|---|---|
| High School | 78.9% | 87.6% |
| Community College | 2.2% | 2.2% |
| College | 16.7% | 6.7% |
| Professional | 1.7% | 1.1% |
Table 5 depicts the types of certifications held by the coaches. Almost seventy eight percent (77.9%) of females held teacher certifications compared to 81.2% of males. Over seventy percent (70.2%) of females had certification in CPR, 51.5% in first aid, 3.4% in athletic training (ATC), and 0.9% in strength and conditioning (CSCS). Over seventy-five percent (75.4%) of male coaches had certification in CPR, nearly sixty percent (59.3%) in first aid, 3.6% in ATC, and 2.9% in CSCS.
Table 5
The Types of Certifications Held by Georgia High School Coaches by Gender
| Certifications | Males | Females |
|---|---|---|
| Teacher | 81.2% | 77.9% |
| CPR | 75.4% | 70.2% |
| First Aid | 59.3% | 51.5% |
| ATC | 3.6% | 3.4% |
| CSCS | 2.9% | 0.9% |
Table 6 displays the coaches’ teaching areas. Health and Physical Education was the most popular major among females (15.8%) and males (9.8%), and Math was the second most popular major chosen by 5.6% of females and 8.6% of males. With respect to females, 5.9% majored in physical sciences and of the males, 5.9% majored in the same discipline. A wide range of other majors were listed by respondents. More males than females majored in social studies.
Table 6
Teaching Areas of Georgia High School Coaches by Gender
| Teaching Area | Males | Females |
|---|---|---|
| Health / Physical Education | 9.8% | 15.8% |
| Math | 5.6% | 8.6% |
| Sciences | 4.1% | 5.9% |
| Social Studies | 5.8% | 3.9% |
| Special Education | 4.6% | 5.9% |
Table 7 identifies the individual(s) that hired the coach. Females were hired by the principle 25.5% of the time; by the Athletics Director 19.6% of the time; and by the head coach alone 14.5% of the time. Males were hired 15.9% of the time by the principle, 16.4% of the time by the Athletics Director, and 11.2% of the time by the head coach alone.
Table 7
Individual Most Supportive of Hiring Georgia High School Coaches by Gender
| Person | Males | Females |
|---|---|---|
| Principal | 15.9% | 25.5% |
| Athletic Director | 16.4% | 19.6% |
| Head Coach | 11.2% | 14.5% |
Table 8 illustrates the coaches’ description of themselves in terms of fulfilling their coaching responsibilities. Females described themselves as a teacher and coach (68.2%), as a coach who can teach (4.7%), and as a teacher who can coach (27.1%). Males described themselves as a teacher and coach (78.4%), as a coach who can teach (7.8%), and as a teacher who can coach (13.8%).
Table 8
Georgia High School Coaches’ Description of Filling Coaching Position by Gender
| Description | Males | Females |
|---|---|---|
| Teacher and coach | 78.4% | 68.2% |
| Teach who can coach | 13.8% | 27.1% |
| Coach who can teach | 7.8% | 4.7% |
Table 9 indicates the respondents’ reasons for coaching. Female coaches listed being dedicated to educating young people (20.4%), inspired by a previous coach (11.1%), parent coached and inspired me (4.3%), and my child played the sport (1.3%). Over fourteen percent (14.1%) of male respondents claimed to be coaching because they were dedicated to educating young people, inspired by a previous coach (15.2%), parent coached and inspired me (1.3%) and my child played the sport (1.2%).
Table 9
Georgia High School Coaches’ Reason(s) for Coaching by Gender
| Reason for Coaching | Males | Females |
|---|---|---|
| Parent coached and inspired me | 1.4% | 4.3% |
| Inspired by a previous coach | 15.2% | 11.1% |
| My child played the sport | 1.2% | 1.3% |
| Dedicated to educating young people | 14.1% | 20.4% |
| Other | 4.5% | 10.2% |
Discussions
In terms of the coaches’ credentials, comparisons were made between the current study and the authors’ 2007 survey findings (22). Based on the responses to this survey, the typical female high school coach in Georgia is a 36 year-old Caucasian who holds a Master’s degree, a major in Health and Physical Education, and has coached five years or less. These characteristics are identical to and affirm the authors’ 2007 research findings concerning female high school coaches in Georgia (22). Based on the responses to the survey, the typical male high school coach in Georgia is a 39 year-old Caucasian who holds a master’s degree, training in CPR and First Aid, and describes himself as a teacher and coach. These characteristics are also very similar to the authors’ previous research findings concerning male high school coaches in Georgia (22). Further, consistent with previous research outcomes, when comparisons were made respecting gender, female coaches possessed approximately the same characteristics as male coaches and in certain areas were better qualified than males.
Both studies found that more female coaches majored in Health and Physical Education; were recruited, supported and hired by the principal and athletic director; were teachers first; and were dedicated to educating young people. In addition, this study showed that a larger percentage of the high school coaches in the state of Georgia were females – nearly one third as opposed to the previously reported figure (22) and national average (20) of approximately twenty percent. Also, a higher percentage of female coaches held certifications in teaching, first aid and CPR than reported in the previous study. Female coaches were comparable to males in such areas as degrees earned, the number of years of coaching experience in the 6-10 year time frame, and in their level of coaching experience.
As a result of this survey, additional research is needed in several areas. For instance, additional research could increase understanding concerning why Georgia female high school coaches have better credentials than male coaches in certain areas and why male coaches have better credentials than female coaches in certain areas. Further research should be conducted concerning the coaches performance assessment, which would likely have a positive impact on coaching performance and ultimately on young athletes. High school principals and athletic directors should also be surveyed to get their perspective on coaching qualifications and hiring practices related to gender.
Conclusions
From a qualification/preparation perspective women should be impartially represented in coaching positions, including head coach, a position where gender should be less of a factor in the hiring process. As stated by Pedersen and Whisenant (16), equity in hiring is simply a matter of fairness, young females (and males) need to see women in key decision-making positions where their abilities and contributions are valued, they can be visible as role models, and influence (through hiring and networking) the next generation of coaches, and utilize their acknowledged perspectives, skills, and abilities. As disclosed by this study’s findings, high school principals and athletic directors are appropriately taking leadership roles in the recruitment, hiring, and support of qualified women coaches. According to Fazioli (6), this involves more than just passively posting the job announcement and waiting for qualified applicants to appear at the door. Also, head sport coaches, those with jobs to offer, and others in leadership positions should be supportive by helping stem the outcries from opposing individuals who see female coaches as threats rather than persons simply seeking equal opportunities. In addition, the general public’s understanding, trust, and embrace of female coaches is a must. Given that female coaches are better qualified or as qualified as male coaches in many of the important coaching attributes, there is a strong likelihood that they would be as successful as males in terms of their coaching performance.
Applications in Sport
Coaching is less about gender and more about whether or not the person can actually coach. Participation and educational background, training, skills, and knowledge and experience provide vital information about an individual’s qualifications. School administrators want the best candidate possible, and therefore, should seek the candidate with the best credentials for the job, male or female. Based on the findings of this study, it is possible to find qualified women coaches even for boys’ teams. Fazioli (6) states increasing the number of women coaching boys’ teams may be even more of a priority than boosting the number of female coaches in women’s sports because it is the former jobs that are higher in status and salary. The more visible and successful female role models there are in high school coaching, the more attractive coaching jobs look to young aspiring female coaches, and the more will apply for coaching vacancies.
It is hoped that the results of this study would assist decision-makers in the school systems, the Georgia High School Association, and colleges that offer a coaching education curriculum by providing useful information for coaching preparation in Georgia. This study provides some initial incentives for gathering additional information that would be useful in assessing coaching characteristics and the implications. Future researchers are encouraged to use the findings to compare coaching data from Georgia with other U.S. states and/or other countries.
References
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Brylinsky, J., (2002). National standards for athletic coaches. Retrieved from ERIC database (ED477725): http://www.ericdigests.org/2004-1/coaches.htm
Burden, W. & Zwald, D. (2003). A survey of Georgia high school coaches. The GAHPERD Journal 36(3), 19-21.
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Falduto, k. (2006). Can the concept of “good coaching” be quantified for the purposes of title ix sex discrimination claims? Journal of Sports Law & Contemporary Problems 3(2), 220-249.
Fazioli, J. K. (2004). The advancement of female coaches in intercollegiate athletics. Background paper for the Coaching and Gender Equity Project, Department of Labor Studies and Industrial Relations, The Pennsylvania State University. Retrieved from http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:NjnC1pFzvhsJ:lser.la.psu.edu/workfam/CAGEbackground.doc+The+Advancement+of+Female+Coaches+in+Intercollegiate+Athletics&cd=1&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us
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Hanna, J. (2010, March 15). Woman named high school’s head varsity football coach. Retrieved from: http://www.cnn.com/2010/LIVING/03/11/woman.football.coach/index.html
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Howard, B. & Gillis, J. (2009). High school sports participation increases for 20th consecutive year. Retrieved from National federation of State High Schools Association website: http://www.nfhs.org/content.aspx?id=3505&terms=High+school+sports+participation+up
Keilman, J. (2009, May 10). Female volleyball high school coaches: a spike in man’s world. Chicago Tribune. Retrieved from http://archives.chicagotribune.com/2009/may/10/local/chi-volleyball-coaches-10-may10
LeDrew, J., Zimmerman, C. (1994). Moving towards an acceptance of females in coaching. Physical Educator, 51(1), 6-14.
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Pedersen, P. & Whisenant, W. (2005). Successful when given the opportunity: Investigating gender representation and success rates of interscholastic athletic directors. Physical Educator, 62(4), 178-9.
Popke, M. (2008, December). Just call her ‘coach. As more women take the reins of boys’ teams, high schools may be entering a post-gender era. Athletic Business. Retrieved from http://www.athleticbusiness.com/articles/article.aspx?articleid=1928&zoneid=3
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Zwald, D. Burden, W., & Czech, D. (2007): Are female coaches in Georgia high schools more qualified than male coaches? The GAHPERD Journal 40(3) 16.
Author Profiles
Dr. Willie Burden
Dr. Burden is an Associate Professor in the Department of Hospitality, Tourism, Family & Consumer Sciences at Georgia Southern University and also is Advisor to the Sport Management Major’s Club. His previous professional appointment was at North Carolina A & T State University in Greensboro, where he served as the Director of Intercollegiate Athletics and Instructor in the Department of Health and Physical Education.
Dr. Trey Burdette
Dr. Trey Burdette is an Assistant Professor of Coaching Education in the Department of Health and Kinesiology at Georgia Southern University. His primary teaching responsibilities are in Coaching Education – undergraduate and graduate. His research interests are in human performance and sport leadership.
Dr. Drew Zwald
Dr. Drew Zwald is the Director of the Coaching Education Program and a Professor in the Department of Health & Kinesiology at Georgia Southern University. He also is the Past President of the National Council for Accreditation of Coaching Education. His previous academic appointment was at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, where he was the Director of the Physical Education Activity Program in the Department of Physical Education, Exercise and Sport Science.
Dr. Dan Czech
Dr. Dan Czech is a Professor in the Department of Health & Kinesiology at Georgia Southern University. His primary teaching responsibilities include teaching the sport and exercise psychology courses within the department. He also serves as a mental consultant for numerous professional football and baseball players in the National Football League and Major League Baseball respectively.
Dr. Tom Buckley
Dr. Tom Buckley is an Assistant Professor and Director of the Graduate Athletic Training Program in Athletic Training within the Department of Health and Kinesiology at Georgia Southern University. His work on the elucidation of the central and peripheral mechanisms which influence dynamic postural stability during transitional movements in individuals with central nervous system disorders has been funded by the Army Research Office and the National Athletic Trainers’ Association.
Corresponding Author
Willie James Burden, Ed.D: burdenw@georgiasouthern.edu
Educating Sports Entrepreneurs: Matching Theory to Practice
Abstract
Sports entrepreneurship courses are part of sports management programs because some students hope to own their own sports-oriented business, and major sports conglomerates look to hire employees with entrepreneurial skills. Sports management instructors prepare students for these challenges. However, not all sports entrepreneurship instructors have owned their own businesses nor worked for large sports corporations. As a result, this study was conducted to determine if sports entrepreneurship instructors and sports entrepreneurs agree on the content that should be taught in sports entrepreneurship courses in order to prepare students for the real-world.
Results of the study indicate that sports entrepreneurship instructors do agree on a set of content standards for sports entrepreneurship courses, specifically, the Consortium for Entrepreneurship Education National Content Standards (1). Additionally, when ranking the content skills, sports entrepreneurship instructors and sports entrepreneurs agreed on four of the five top skills students should be taught in order to be successful sports entrepreneurs.
Key Words: Sports Entrepreneurship, Entrepreneurs, Sports Education, Sports Entrepreneurship Courses
Introduction
Sport management programs continue to grow in number. Since the first sport management program was developed at Ohio University in 1966, programs continue to spread across the United States and the world. According to the North American Society for Sport Management, there are more than 200 sport management programs in the United States alone (6). This growth has prompted a need for innovation within sport management curricula and the development of courses that are high quality, content-rich, and flexible.
The sports industry is the third largest industry in the United States, accounting for more than $213 billion dollars a year in revenues (3). Kurtzman (4) outlined the importance of sports tourism as the impetus for the pursuit of business entrepreneurship, economic impact, and profitability. He categorized sports tourism jobs into categories of events, resorts, cruises, tours and attractions – along with listed subgroups in those categories. These subgroups, such as sports events planning and sports tour operators, are areas that are ripe for entrepreneurial endeavors.
An industry as large as the sports industry requires educated people to run a variety of sports related businesses. However, it should not be assumed that sports entrepreneurs are only owners of professional sports franchises. The sports industry entails a variety of sub-businesses, both large and small. For example, there are owners of health club facilities, sports arena and facility operators, league owner/operators, sporting goods store owners, sports ticket agencies, and sport physical therapists – just to name a few. Sport management students take sport entrepreneurship courses in order to learn the skills that are necessary to operate these types of sport-related businesses.
On the other hand, sport management instructors are entrusted with preparing their students for jobs in sport-oriented businesses. It is up to them to develop effective curriculum that prepares students for careers in an industry that is constantly changing and evolving. However, not all sport entrepreneurship instructors have owned their own businesses nor worked for large sports corporations. Research into what type of content and skills sport entrepreneurship instructors are teaching was sorely needed.
This study was conducted to compare what sport entrepreneurship instructors and practicing sport entrepreneurs believe are the important skills necessary to teach sport entrepreneurship students in order to be successful in running sport-oriented businesses. It is relevant to sports entrepreneurship educators as well as students of sports management programs – in regards to gauging what is currently being taught in sports entrepreneurship courses.
Methods
There were two research populations for this study. The research populations included: 1) NASPE/NASSM instructors of sport entrepreneurship courses in college level sport management programs that are accredited by the National Association for Sport and Physical Education (NASPE) and the North American Society for Sport Management (NASSM). 2) Sport entrepreneurs located throughout the United States in a variety of sports oriented businesses.
Two hundred and seventeen (217) sport management instructors were identified through their faculty web pages. However, it should be noted that this was not a complete list of sport entrepreneurship instructors, because there is no way to determine how many of these sport management instructors actually taught sport entrepreneurship courses. The instructors that were contacted, were all members of sport management programs, and taught sports management related courses at the time the data was gathered. However, all sport management programs do not have sport entrepreneurship courses, nor do all sport management professors teach sport entrepreneurship. Therefore, it was impossible to get an exact count of how many sport entrepreneurship instructors exist in NASPE/NASSM accredited sport management programs. Ultimately, 43 (N = 43) sport entrepreneurship instructors participated in the study.
The second research population consisted of 250 sport-oriented businesses. The researcher randomly selected four sport-oriented businesses in each of the fifty states in the United States of America. Small sport-oriented businesses were chosen, as opposed to utilizing owners of large sports conglomerates. This is because they represented a good mix of sport-oriented businesses and they were more indicative of the types of businesses that would have been opened by recently graduating sports management students. Ultimately 67 (N = 67) sport entrepreneurs participated in the study.
The research instruments that were used to conduct this study were two questionnaires that were developed and piloted by the researcher and reviewed by a panel of experts to achieve validity and reliability.
The questionnaires were administered via email and regular mail for both research populations. The questionnaires were made available over the Internet to maximize participation. The researcher created electronic versions of the questionnaires and administered them on the Internet using www.surveymonkey.com.
Results
The Instructor Group was comprised of 88.4% males and 11.6% females, with 60.4% of the overall population between the ages of 36 and 55. A doctorate or master’s degree was held by 72.1% of the population. 60.4% were associate or full professors. 88.4% had 5+ years of general teaching experience. 90.7% had some type of online teaching experience. 93% had some type of blended teaching experience. 81.4% taught in 4-year colleges or universities or in graduate programs. Finally, 79.1% had sports entrepreneurship courses as an elective at their respective institutions.
An analysis of the descriptive data of the Sport Entrepreneur Group was as follows. 85.1% of the Sport Entrepreneur Group were males whereas 14.9% were female. 68.6% were between the ages of 36 and 55. 82.1% had some type of college degree. Sporting goods store owners were the largest type of business represented by this group at 37%. 25.4% of the Sport Entrepreneur respondents were relatively new businesses that had been in existence less than five years. On the opposite end, 20.9% of the group had been in business for over 25 years. The largest legal structure was a sole proprietorship at 34.3%. 38.8% of the business had over $500,000 in revenues. 17.9% only had themselves as the only employee whereas 83.6% had anywhere up to 14 employees.
To address the question of whether there is a universal set of content standards in sports entrepreneurship courses, both groups were asked if they thought that CEE’s National Content Standards (1) (Appendix A) were a complete list of all of the skills and traits necessary for sports entrepreneurship students to learn in order to become successful business owners. The results were as follows:
Table 1.1 Are CEE’s National Content Standards Complete? (Instructors)
| Yes or No | Frequency | Percent | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Yes | 41 | 95.3 | |||
| No | 2 | 4.7 | |||
Table 1.2 Are CEE’s National Content Standards Complete? (Sports Entrepreneurs)
| Yes or No | Frequency | Percent | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Yes | 65 | 97.0 | |||
| No | 2 | 3.0 | |||
University Athletic Websites: An Analysis and Comparison of Revenue Generation Features
Abstract
In an effort to understand the scope of the commercial and revenue generating aspects of athletic websites, this paper examines the quantity of advertising and content on the homepages of all twenty-six schools in two major conferences in Division IA of the NCAA: the Big East and PAC-10. The study also provides a detailed analysis of the different products, services and advertisements displayed on the homepages. An analysis of the variability of the advertisements across the schools was done for various types of the schools.
Analysis
In his 2009 State of the Association Speech, Myles Brand, President of the NCAA, discussed the relationship of commercialism to sports and in particular, “the dramatic changes in the media, including especially the sports media, that have generated new and greater opportunities for commercial activity associated with athletics” (Brand,2009, p.3). In noting that there are now “three different types of screens to watch,” (TV, Internet, and handheld) Brand concerned his remarks with the question of the “balance point” between “too much and too little commercial activity” (Brand, 2009, p.4).
University athletic department websites provide content that serve a wide array of constituencies (current students, alumnae, the press, and perspective student-athletes). However it is clear that athletic departments also see their websites as a revenue generation opportunity as evidenced by the numerous advertisements displayed on many of the sites’ pages. With Brand’s statement in mind, this research seeks to examine the extent of commercial activity on university athletic department websites to see if the “balance point” between commercial activity and content has tipped.
Prior Research
An inventory of major studies of public impressions of issues relating to the media between 1986 and 2006 (Cooper, 2008) found that across all media channels, invasive and excessive advertising was a major concern for a majority of consumers. Further research on online advertising has focused on consumer first impressions and loyalties. McCoy et al. found that “consumers’ first impressions (and loyalties) are made in the opening moments of a Web site visit and the degree to which that visit may be intruded by pop-ups, pop-unders, and banner advertisements” (2007, p. 84).
The sports marketing literature also provides insight into the consumer’s perception of in-arena signage and virtual signage which may relate to websites. A study by Bennet et al. looks at viewers’ attitudes towards virtual advertising (digitally superimposed images in television broadcasts). The researchers found that “virtual advertisements inserted near the score display were less intrusive than all ad locations” (2006, p.77). One reason for this, they theorize, is that sport consumers are accustomed to such placement of signage on the field of play, with advertisements placed on or near the scoreboard or sidelines. However, advertising images superimposed onto the playing field were viewed more negatively. Sport fans may not like their attention distracted from the game (Bennet et al, 2006). Rotational signage in stadiums and arenas has also come a long way in reducing advertising clutter and delivering a more consistent message to the sport consumer. Some arenas now feature an entire façade of upper tier rotational digital signage offering one consistent message over the course of 1,000 feet. Such signage is usually sold as a part of a marketing package which may include smaller signage in the arena. It offers a clean look and avoids sponsor conflicts (Cifareli, 2000).
The few studies of athletic department websites that exist used those sites as a source of data to research other issues in sport. In studying gender equity, Cunningham and Sagas (2002) used word count as a measure of coverage in articles on athletic department websites devoted to various men’s and women’s sports. Sagas et al. (2004) also studied gender discrepancies and media coverage using articles on athletic websites. Cooper (2008) used content analysis and position of content on the websites to study the same gender bias issues.
Data Collection Methodology
The data collected was limited to the homepage of each university athletic website. This decision seemed reasonable as it is most likely that advertisements and links to revenue pages will appear on the homepage. We did find that advertising on team pages is prevalent but what advertising is there is a duplication of that which appears on the homepage.
Each athletic department homepage was printed on the same printer, at the same resolution, and manually coded. One trained coder performed all measurements. Therefore there was no issue of inter-coder reliability. The output of this coding was a page that was segmented into independent areas measured by their square inches. The following classification process was used:
Product / Services
Each area on the page was reviewed to see if the text or image on the area appeared to be a link to a product/service being sold by the athletic department. Each item on the menu navigation bar was clicked and scanned for menu items that were suggestive of being a product/service. In both cases, the linked page was brought up to confirm that there was a product/service being sold by the athletic department or its agent.
Advertisements
Each area on the page was reviewed to see if the text or image on the area was an advertisement from an organization not affiliated with the athletic department. A determination was made if it was from a regional or national company. Our interest in categorizing the advertisements was to see if there was any relationship between national companies and more nationally recognized athletic programs such as football programs. We also wanted to see the variability of advertisements from regional companies across schools.
Calculating the number of advertisements on web pages is complicated by two design ideas that are commonly used. The first is the use of rotating advertisements where multiple advertisements are displayed in the same area at a fixed time interval. Using this technique, the owner of the webpage can sell more advertisements at attractive positions on the webpage. In our calculation, we treated each of the advertisements in the rotation equal to any other advertisement. It could be argued that the use of a changing image on a webpage will draw more attention than that of a static advertisement. A second technique uses tabs to allow the web designer the ability to reuse the same webpage area multiple times. Here a small area at the top of the advertisement is carved out with multiple tabs that have a suggestive heading and are clickable. When the user clicks on a tab, a different advertisement is displayed. Again, in our calculation, we treat each tab equally.
Percentage of Content
The importance of revenue generation on the website was measured by calculating the percentage of the homepage that was devoted to content. To get greater insight into the importance of revenue generation, we also measured the percentage of the homepage devoted to content that is “above the fold.” We use the term fold as an analogy to a fold in a newspaper where stories above the fold have more prominence. In terms of a webpage, above the fold is the area that the viewer sees when the homepage is first displayed. The implications for web pages are that material that is below the fold is less likely to be seen by the viewer. This is similar to Cooper’s idea of “nonscroll coverage” (2008, p.232).
Areas that were either product/services or advertisements were considered to be revenue generators. The other areas on the page were either content, navigation or what we termed community. Our view of what constituted content was broad. We considered the following as content: images, captions of images, video, fan polls, scores, schedules, pictures of athlete of the week and league standings. Space on a webpage has to be devoted to navigation around the website. An example of this would be a menu bar that has a dropdown list of links. Additionally, all of the homepages the authors examined had links/advertisements to non-revenue generating sites. An example of this would be a link to school’s conference homepage. We called these areas community. For our calculation of the content percentage, a page = content + ads + navigation + community. The percentage of content is therefore the content area divided by the size of the entire homepage. For rotating or tabbed advertisements, the area taken up by the entire advertisement is apportioned based on whether it is content, product/service, advertisement, community or navigation.
Schools in Sample
As the thrust of the study was revenue generation, Division IA institutions were selected as the focus. In establishing a representative sample of Division IA institutions across the country, the authors chose to use two Division IA conferences, the PAC-10 and Big East Conferences, as a basis for their research. These two conferences were chosen as they represent a distribution of small, medium and large, private and public institutions ranging across the country. Some of the schools are located in major urban areas, and some in college towns. Some of these institutions have major football programs and some do not. All have major basketball programs and very competitive sports programs for both men and women. All have at least one nationally recognized team. And all are at least 100 years old and have a major athletic tradition.
Results
The following details the results of our examination of the 26 homepages. The products and services sold are first described with Table 1 showing the percentage of schools that had links on their homepage to these items. This is followed by a discussion of data on advertisements found on the homepage.
Table 1: Percent of Schools That Have Links to Products/Services Sold on the Homepage
| Product / Service | Percent of Schools That Links to the Product / Service |
|---|---|
| Ticket Sales | 100% |
| Merchandise Sales | 100% |
| Multimedia/Media Guides | 39% |
| Video | 92% |
| Auctions | 65% |
| Photos | 61% |
| Camps | 42% |
| Ringtones for Cell Phones | 19% |
Products / Services Sold by Athletic Department
Ticket Sales: As the most important source of revenue for most sports, advertisements with links to ticket sales are prominent and, in many cases, displayed in multiple spots on the homepage. On a significant number homepages a large banner advertisement appears at the top of the homepage. Additionally, there is a menu option that provides links to the various ways that tickets are sold. Before a big event, such as a bowl game, many schools display a splash screen before showing the homepage on which a link for purchasing tickets is provided. Finally some schools now provide a link to StubHub, their official site to allow fans to buy and resell tickets.
Merchandise Sales: Another staple of athletic websites is the link to the fan store where hats, shirts and other souvenirs can be purchased online. This link is often prominently displayed at the top of the homepage.
Multimedia/Media Guides: Some schools have traditionally used media guides as a source of revenue which are now being sold via the website. In addition, some schools are selling DVDs of famous teams from the past, bowl games and other video content that would be enticing to their fans.
Video: The Internet now provides schools with an easy to use mechanism to transmit live or taped games that are not being broadcast commercially to their fans. This content is typically of games that are not being broadcast over-the-air or via cable. Some of this content is broadcast for free but the bulk of the programming is sold via either a monthly or yearly contact. All but two schools charged $79.95 annually or $7.95 per month. The outlier schools charged $99.95 annually or $9.95 per month.
Auctions: For many Internet users who know of or have used auctions sites like eBay, the idea of purchasing a piece of memorabilia via a website is common. Athletic departments are now running their own auctions of game-worn uniforms and equipment. In addition, items such as basketball bench chairs, autographs on programs signed by the coach or former players, and autographed plaques are also being auctioned off.
Photos: The sale of both still and action photographs appears on many athletic websites. Typically there are photos for sale for every team fielded. The photos, which are of professional quality, range from the standard team poses to action scenes taken during the game. The photos are of both current and past players.
Camps: Summer sports camps, in a variety of sports, have become a standard product at well known athletic programs. As many athletic departments provide these as a source of compensation for their coaches, it is unclear how much revenue is realized by the athletic department for this product. We have included it for completeness.
Ringtones for Cell Phones: As cell phones allow users to customize ringtones, a market for specialized ringtones has emerged. Athletic departments have added this service to their portfolio of products by offering music that has an affiliation with their school, such as the university fight song.
Advertisements
The values in Table 2 show the number of advertisements from regionally-based companies, national companies, products/services sold by the school and the total of all advertisements on the homepage. Except for the first column, which shows all the schools in the study, the other columns show comparisons of different types of schools: PAC-10 versus Big East, public institution versus private institution and schools with varsity football programs versus those without varsity football.
Table 2: Average Number of Ads on Homepage
| Type of Company Placing the Ad | All | PAC-10 | Big East | Public | Private | Football | Non-Football |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Regional | 2.8 | 2.4 | 3.1 | 2.4 | 2.0 | 3.0 | 2.2 |
| National | 8.5 | 9.3 | 8.0 | 8.3 | 8.7 | 8.7 | 8.0 |
| School | 7.6 | 8.6 | 7.0 | 7.9 | 7.3 | 8.2 | 5.8 |
| Total | 18.9 | 20.3 | 18.1 | 19.6 | 18.0 | 19.9 | 16.0 |
Table 3 displays this advertising data as a percentage of the area occupied on the homepage.
Table 3: Average Percent of Homepage Devoted to Advertisements
| Type of Company Placing the Ad | All | PAC-10 | Big East | Public | Private | Football | Non-Football |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Regional | 2.1 | 1.7 | 2.3 | 2.2 | 1.9 | 2.2 | 1.7 |
| National | 15.3 | 21.7 | 11.3 | 15.1 | 15.6 | 15.9 | 13.3 |
| School | 16.2 | 19.9 | 13.8 | 15.3 | 17.3 | 17.0 | 13.6 |
| Total | 33.6 | 43.3 | 27.4 | 32.6 | 34.8 | 35.1 | 28.6 |
Table 4: Percent of Homepage Devoted to Content
| Average | Range | Standard Deviation | |
|---|---|---|---|
| All Schools | 33.3 | 14.3-59.1 | 10.1 |
| Big East | 35.9 | 19.9-59.1 | 10.5 |
| PAC-10 | 29.2 | 14.3-45.0 | 8.5 |
| Public | 32.8 | 23.3-59.1 | 9.7 |
| Private | 34.0 | 14.3-48.9 | 11 |
| Football | 32.6 | 14.3-48.9 | 11 |
| Non-Football | 35.5 | 19.9-45.3 | 9.6 |
Table 5: Percent of Homepage Devoted to Content Above the Fold
| Average | Range | Standard Deviation | |
|---|---|---|---|
| All Schools | 43.8 | 20.6-62.1 | 10.7 |
| Big East | 47.1 | 29.8-62.1 | 10.2 |
| PAC-10 | 38.7 | 20.6-56.3 | 10.0 |
| Public | 37.0 | 20.6-57.7 | 15.3 |
| Private | 49.8 | 32.1-62.1 | 12.9 |
| Football | 42.3 | 20.6-57.7 | 10.6 |
| Non-Football | 48.9 | 32.1-62.1 | 10.4 |
Discussion of Results
The key finding in our work is that on average only 33.3% of the homepage of the schools in the study is devoted to content. The amount of space devoted to advertising is 33.6% and the balance is either navigation or community. For two reasons we think that the advertising amount is understated. First, a practice of many of the athletic departments in our study is to have sponsored content areas. In this arrangement, area devoted to content will also have the corporate name or logo of a sponsor displayed in a prominent spot. We counted this as content as the bulk of the area is non-advertisement but it is clear that there is some form of commercialism in this area. The average number of sponsored content areas in our sample was 2.4. Second, a common content area on homepages is a video clip window where a user can see video content ranging from game highlights to coaches interviews. In our calculation, this was considered content. However, many times the clip displayed included an advertisement for an upcoming event.
Another consideration in assessing the commercialism of the website is the placement of advertising. In 62% of the schools in our sample, an advertisement was placed at the top of the homepage. In some cases, more than one advertisement was placed at the top, either above and/or beside the school name and logo. In many cases the advertisements were for ticket sales or school merchandise. However, in five cases, the advertisers were national companies. The impact of this idea is reduced somewhat by noting that more of the advertising occurs below the fold than above.
Whether this ratio of content to advertising is consistent with Brand’s “balance point” is impossible to determine. We believe it is not but we leave it to the reader to form their own judgment.
Additionally, we found the number of advertisements from regional companies was markedly smaller than those from national companies. The most likely explanation is that in addition to supplying technical support, CBS Interactive and JumpTV (the largest providers of web services for intercollegiate athletic programs) also sell web-based advertisements to national companies and place the advertisements on their customer’s websites. CBS Interactive and JumpTV have a revenue sharing agreement with those schools where advertisements are placed.
In comparing the characteristics of different schools/conferences, the largest difference between groups occurred between the PAC-10 and Big East in the average percentage of page devoted to advertisements. While there may be many factors that influence this, we speculate that schools with football programs have greater followings and therefore more views of their website. This in turn would cause more companies to place advertisements. Our contention that football is the cause is bolstered by the difference in football versus non-football schools value in Table 2. Note that only 7 of the 16 schools in the Big East have football while all do in the PAC-10.
We observed that the homepages in our study seemed cluttered and busy which is supported by our finding that the average number of advertisements is close to 19. With the addition of area devoted to content and links to other pages, the number of distinct areas on the homepage averages 30. This appears excessive given the size of most computer screens.
Finally the breadth of products and services sold seemed comprehensive. While we anticipated that selling tickets and clothing on the website would be a natural service desired by users, we were surprised that athletic departments would be in the business of selling ringtones and running auctions.
In conclusion, the development of university athletic websites will continue to evolve. In the period from our data collection until the present, most of the websites we reviewed have added, as an example, RSS news feeds and links to Twitter. It seems most likely that athletic departments will continue to seek new ways to use their websites to generate additional revenue. Whether they are mindful of the balance of content and commercialism remains to be seen. Future research should objectively test if the amount of commercialism on the websites is excessive by surveying the impressions of the users of the site.
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