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Super Bowl Commercial and Game Consumption for the College Demographic
### Abstract
The Super Bowl is the largest annual sporting event in America in terms of single-game television viewership (5). In addition to the game, a tremendous amount of entertainment is intertwined into the Super Bowl telecast via commercials that can cost as much as $3 million for 30 seconds of air time (16). The consumption of the game and commercials is well documented. However, there is little evidence as to how the Super Bowl telecast is consumed by various demographic subgroups. College students, an often overlooked demographic for major sport marketing campaigns, are one group that appear to be an ideal target market for Super Bowl advertising due to their ability for discretionary spending (13) and affinity for popular culture. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to determine the commercial and game consumption patterns for college students during the Super Bowl. A sample of 651 traditional-aged college students at a mid-size Midwestern university was surveyed within 48 hours of Super Bowl XLIV to determine such patterns. Results indicated students watched in large numbers, watched in group settings, identified humor as a primary factor in commercial enjoyment, were interested most in the game itself, identified a different favorite commercial than the USA Today Ad Meter, are strong sport fans, and demonstrated different viewing consumption patterns by gender. It can be concluded from these results that college students resemble the average adult consumer identified in previous research (1,25) in some of their game and commercial consumption patterns (e.g., watching the Super Bowl in large groups and identifying humor as a primary attribute they enjoyed in commercials), but differed in their commercial preferences, their higher level of sport fanship, and their gender differences. Sport marketers can utilize this information to create strategies that appeal to this important demographic.
**Key words:** Super Bowl, commercials, marketing, sport consumption
### Introduction
On February 7th, 2010 the New Orleans Saints defeated the Indianapolis Colts in Super Bowl XLIV. This event, as nearly all Super Bowls before it, came with a tremendous amount of media attention, marketing savvy, and fanfare. In fact, this particular Super Bowl was the second most-watched single-game television program in American history behind Super Bowl XLV (5).
In addition to the football game, the Super Bowl television broadcast offers a definitive glimpse into the competitive and creative world of sport marketing and advertising. Consumers anxiously anticipate new commercials unveiled during the Super Bowl. These commercials, which cost as much as $3 million per 30 seconds for Super Bowl XLIV (16), have become a cultural phenomenon that create nearly as much buzz as the game itself (1,3,5,16). In essence, the commercials are considered part of the overall Super Bowl entertainment package. McAllister (22), as well as Apostolopoulou, Clark, and Gladden (1), illustrated the integration of Super Bowl commercials into popular culture by examining their content and relative importance. McAllister (2) found that the discourse surrounding the pre, during, and post-Super Bowl advertising led to special status for Super Bowl commercials. Specifically, Super Bowl commercials “often have characteristics more in line with entertainment media messages than stereotypical commercial media messages” (p. 421). Additionally, McAllister explained that Super Bowl commercials are more likely to include celebrities, are much more expensive, and are more thoroughly scrutinized by the public when compared to non-Super Bowl commercials. Blackshaw and Beard (4), echoed these sentiments by noting the uniqueness of Super Bowl advertising is partly due to their entertainment value, their ability to create a “free media” dividend, their high anticipation levels, and their growing ability to engage consumers beyond television (e.g., internet, telecommications, etc.).
Given the elevated status associated with Super Bowl entertainment, Apostolopoulou et al. (1) surveyed 1,101 Super Bowl viewers and NFL database subscribers to determine what elements of the Super Bowl contributed most to their enjoyment. Not surprisingly, the primary contributor to viewer’s enjoyment was the competitiveness of the game itself. The second largest contributor was the specific teams competing, indicating more enjoyment is based on the level of fanship towards a specific team. The third largest contributor was the Super Bowl commercials. The commercials were rated higher than the pre-game show, the celebrity coin toss, the national anthem, the team introductions, the halftime entertainment, and the post-game show. Furthermore, Elliot (9) reported that approximately 4% of the Super Bowl viewing audience watches the Super Bowl only for the commercials. Results from Apostolopoulou et al. (1) and Elliot (9) suggest that beyond the game, commercials have a tremendously powerful influence on Super Bowl viewing patterns.
Although the popularity of Super Bowl commercials is well-documented (1, 4, 16, 22), there is limited evidence to suggest whether a return on investment (ROI) is realized by the companies producing such commercials. Because the Super Bowl is an isolated event that has limited advertising time, in addition to the extreme cost, it is logical to question if ROI is attainable. O’Reilly, Lyberger, McCarthy, Séguin, and Nadeau (25) found a tremendous amount of volatility surrounding the influence of Super Bowl sponsorship. This volatility is caused by the many extraneous factors influencing advertising during this unique event (e.g., presponsorship awareness levels, existing brand associations, increased clutter in the marketplace, etc.). Despite this instability in the marketplace, there has been evidence for increased intent to purchase sponsored products, as well as a willingness on the part of consumers to pay higher prices for goods advertised during the Super Bowl (17, 25, 28). Additionally, an increasing trend for sponsors is to evaluate consumers’ intent to purchase, which ultimately impacts ROI. Blackshaw and Beard (4) noted a clear latency effect on advertised brands during the Super Bowl whereby brand opinion increased 16% and purchase consideration increased 13% in the week following the Super Bowl. Furthermore, the timing of Super Bowl commercials influenced intent to purchase and ROI, where commercials shown closer to the beginning of the game scored higher on nearly every positive advertising measure. Dotterweich and Collins (8) concluded that consumers’ intent to purchase was also impacted by the ratio of value and prestige for any given product. Achieving prestige is often accomplished by repeated brand recognition, and nearly impossible for new companies given the limited television time afforded during the Super Bowl. Therefore, ROI is likely to be greater for companies that are established and have identified a specific target audience versus start-up companies searching for their ideal demographic.
Findings from Dotterweich and Collins (8), as well as O’Reilly et al. (25), are consistent with the results of the USA Today Ad Meter. The Ad Meter is a real-time evaluation of Super Bowl commercials conducted by USA Today whereby participants’ reactions to Super Bowl commercials are measured using a hand-held device. The 2010 Ad Meter gathered information from 250 adult volunteers from San Diego, California and McLean, Virginia. The winning commercial from the 2010 Ad Meter featured famous actress Betty White in a Snickers advertisement. Consistent with findings from Dotterweich and Collins (8), Snickers is an established brand with a certain amount of prestige. Likewise, Anheuser-Busch and its well-known Budweiser commercials have been the Ad Meter champion a record ten times (16). Besides the prestige and brand recognition associated with these Ad Meter winners, there are some other qualities that impact affect toward the advertisement. Kelly and Turley (18) investigated all of the Super Bowl commercials between 1996 and 2002, and used the Ad Meter scores as a dependent variable. Content analysis revealed advertising for goods (i.e., products) was more effective than services, and the use of humor, animals, sports themes, children, and emotional appeal resulted in high levels of affect.
Although the preceding literature helps to contextualize the Super Bowl as a unique advertising opportunity, there is a gap in the literature pertaining to Super Bowl commercial consumption for specific demographic groups. Ad Meter research, as well as general research investigating viewing and consumption patterns have mostly focused their efforts on the general consumer, or on specific commercial content. For example O’Reilly et al. (25) identified respondents from 10 to 94 years of age when assessing their intent to purchase Super Bowl information, and Apostolopoulou et al. (1) investigated adults aged 25 to 44 when examining many forms of Super Bowl entertainment. However, evidence from Zhang, Lam, and Connaughton (30) suggest a need to differentiate demands of various sociodemographic groups during the marketing process. They found the most active sport consumer profile includes individuals that are relatively young (18-25 years of age), single, have low household income, and have a medium entertainment budget. Traditional college students fit this description well.
Given the similarities between the most active sport consumers and traditional college students, the current study attempted to isolate and examine the viewing patterns and perceptions of college students during the most watched sporting event of all time (5). To date, no research has attempted to ascertain the perceptions and consumption patterns of the Super Bowl for this important demographic audience. However, as consumers college students are a powerful force. Oftentimes this demographic, who are currently referred to as millennials (born between 1979 and 1994), are overlooked in marketing outcome research (2). “Considering that college students wield $200 billion in buying power each year, it may be time to set aside any preconceived notions about these coeds and start thinking of them as serious consumers” (13, p. 18). When evaluated individually, it was estimated that the average college student had $287 in discretionary spending per month, which totals $3,444 per year. Additionally, in 2002 over 99% of college students visited the internet a few times per week. Given the nearly exponential growth of the internet, as well as the increase in social and marketing websites, the number of college students who visit the internet regularly continues to rise. It is these technology-savvy college students (2) who are easily reached by the supplemental advertising offered via the Internet, and are often targeted in Super Bowl advertising (e.g., Twitter, Facebook, smart phone applications, etc.).
Within the college student market, as with most forms of marketing research, it is prudent to examine differences in gender consumption patterns. This was a secondary goal of the current research. Developments such as Title IX, female youth sports, and women’s professional leagues have the current generation of sport marketers realizing females are a viable and relevant group of sport consumers with different wants and needs than their male counterparts (24). Females, in general, have demonstrated an affiliation for the feelings of others while fostering communal relationships (27). Work from Chodorow (7) and Gilligan (14) suggests women are more likely to see “morality as emerging from the experience of social connections and value the ethic of responsibility and care.” (6, p. 609). Additionally, female athletes report they most value feelings of belonging, being part of a university community, exercise benefits, and team affiliation (10). These attributes guiding female consumption patterns lend themselves to various marketing strategies, particularly during the Super Bowl when it is common for group viewing to occur, and especially when one considers that nearly half of the viewers of Super Bowl XLIV were female (20). Furthermore, Beasley, Shank, and Ball (3) found that women’s attention levels were higher for Super Bowl commercials than they were for the game itself. According to Zhang et al. (30), “females represent the greatest market potential for professional sports, and identifying their expectations and interests are vital to the future of professional sport organizations” (p. 50).
In contract, males have generally been found to be motivated by an internal self-guided impulse whereby thoughts and behaviors are created by a particular level of self-efficacy or achievement (23). Furthermore, males have been found to be more physically and verbally aggressive (26), more competitive (12), and value autonomy (6). Similarly, male athletes were found to value competition and winning more than the social aspects offered by competitive sport (10), as well as display higher levels of athletic identity (21). From a purely marketing standpoint, males have been found to consume sport more frequently and value specific sport market demands (e.g., win/loss record, team history, close competition, love of the sport, ticket prices, etc.) more than females (30). These gender differences, combined with the unique and powerful college student demographic, may shed light on consumption patterns during the most watched annual sporting event in modern history (5).
### Methods
The purpose of this study was to determine the commercial and game consumption patterns for college students during the Super Bowl.
#### Sample
A sample of 651 traditional college students (mean age = 20.9 years) from a state-funded mid-sized Midwestern university agreed to participate. The original sample consisted of 656 participants, but five surveys were not used due to incomplete or missing answers. A total of 424 males and 227 females were included in the sample. Based on Frankel and Wallen’s (11) sampling methodology, 651 participants was a large enough sample to be representative of the entire University (approximately 20,000 students) at the 99% confidence level.
#### Procedures
Participants located at high-traffic areas on campus (e.g., food courts, busy common areas) completed a nine-item survey designed to determine; 1) The number of Super Bowl commercials watched; 2) Their favorite Super Bowl commercial; 3) The characteristic they enjoyed most about their favorite commercial; 4) Their intent to spend money on any products advertised during the Super Bowl due to the commercial; 5) The number of people they were with when watching the Super Bowl; 6) Their primary interest during the Super Bowl broadcast; 7) Their level of fanship; 8) Gender; and 9) Age. These variables were chosen in an attempt to initiate new lines of inquiry regarding college student consumer behavior s, as well as replicate some of the previous studies on Super Bowl consumption (e.g., 1, 22). Participants were surveyed using a convenience sample of on-campus college students within 48 hours of the completed Super Bowl telecast.
#### Data Analysis
Data analysis was conducted using PASW (version 18). Frequencies and measures of central tendency were used to evaluate all relevant data. Descriptive statistics, Pearson correlations, and multivariate analysis of variance were utilized to determine significance among appropriate categories.
### Results
Research findings are presented in the following four sections: (a) frequencies (b) descriptive statistics, (c) correlations, and (d) MANOVA results.
#### Frequencies
Table 1 represents the frequencies reported by category for each item investigated, and is divided into commercial information and viewing patterns. For the categories identifying favorite commercial and the characteristics of their favorite commercial, the top three answers are provided. Responses for the amount of Super Bowl commercials watched, number of people students were watching with, and level of sport fanship were coded as a number for purposes of further statistical investigation. For example, the amount of Super Bowl commercials watched were coded into four groups where group 1 = none, 2 = a few, 3 = most, 4 = all. These numbers were then used in the following descriptive, correlational, and MANOVA calculations. Age is the only category listed as a mean score.
#### Descriptive Statistics
Table 2 displays descriptive statistics for the number of commercials watched, the number of people present to watch commercials, and the level of fanship. The highest mean score was found for the number of people students were with when they watched the Super Bowl (M = 3.28, SD = .842), indicating the majority of the respondents watched the 2009-2010 Super Bowl within a group setting. Most of the respondents also indicated they watched the majority of all commercials during the Super Bowl (M = 3.14, SD = .697). A high mean score (M = 3.11, SD = .859) for the level of sport fanship indicated the majority of the respondents identified themselves as a ‘big’ or ‘huge’ sports fans. Skewness and kurtorsis values ranged from |.229| to |.553| and |.625|to |.837|, respectively, which were within the criterion of +2.0 indicating establishment of normality among the variables (15).
#### Correlations
Table 3 displays Pearson correlation coefficients for the number of commercials watched, the number of people students were with during the Super Bowl, the level of fanship, gender, and age. A significant positive correlation (r = .21) was found between the number of Super Bowl commercials watched and the level of sport-fanship, indicating individuals who considered themselves big or huge fans were more likely to watch the Super Bowl commercials. A significant negative correlation (r = -.12) was found between the number of commercials watched and gender, indicating male respondents were more likely to watch the Super Bowl commercials. Gender was also negatively and significantly correlated with the level of sport-fanship (r = -.38), indicating male participants identified themselves as stronger sports fans than female respondents. A significant positive correlation between age and the number of commercials watched indicated older students were more likely to watch Super Bowl commercials. Similarly, older students were more strongly identified as a sport fan than younger students (r = .11). As evidenced by a significant positive correlation of .11, the level of sport-fanship was interrelated with the number of people present to watch commercials. This finding indicates that bigger fans were more likely to watch the Super Bowl commercials with people other than students who identified themselves as having a low level of fanship (r = -.09). The highest correlation among the variables was .38, which is lower than the suggested criterion of .85 to establish discriminant validity (19).
### MANOVA Results
To examine gender differences among the factors (the number of commercials watched, the number of people present to watch commercials and the level of sport-fanship – see descriptive statistics across gender in Table 4), a multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was conducted. The results of the MANOVA presented in Table 5 indicate that significant gender differences exist in all factors. The descriptive statistics for the three factors indicated males had higher mean scores in all factors, suggesting males were more likely to be influenced by the three motivational factors listed in the current study. In other words, males were more likely to 1) watch Super Bowl commercials, 2) watch Super Bowl commercials in the presence of others, and 3) display stronger sport fanship. Wilks’ Lambda value of .851 indicated that the three-factor model explained a total variance of approximately 15 percent. However, R squared values at the univariate level indicated that only a small amount of variance (ƞ2 = .014 and .008, respectively) was explained by the number of commercials watched and the number of people present to watch commercials, while a greater amount of variance (ƞ2 = .145) was explained by the level of sport fanship.
### Discussion
The frequency and statistical information presented in Tables 1-5 offers several important insights into the viewing and consumption patterns of college students during Super Bowl XLIV. First, the majority (536 out of 651 participants) indicated they watched most or all of the commercials during the Super Bowl telecast, with males indicating they watched slightly more commercials (M = 3.21) than females (M = 3.04). Given the tremendous popularity of Super Bowl commercials as entertainment (1, 4, 16, 22), it is no surprise college students overwhelmingly engaged in viewing these commercials. However, it is surprising that males watched more commercials than females because males have traditionally been found to be more interested in attributes of the game itself (30), and female attention levels during the Super Bowl were previously found to be higher during commercials (3). Perhaps the Super Bowl is such a mega-special-event (25) that male media desensitization is erased due to the powerful affiliation the commercials seem to have with the game experience. From a practical standpoint, it is important for marketers to acknowledge that male college student demographic is watching the Super Bowl commercials at a greater rate than female college students.
Second, college students were asked to list their favorite Super Bowl commercial and describe the characteristic they enjoyed most about that commercial. With over 70 commercials aired during the Super Bowl XLIV telecast, there were a variety of options. Out of 651 responses, 420 students indicated they had the same favorite commercial. The commercial was from Doritos and it depicted a young boy warning a potential suitor for his mother to “keep your hands off my mama, and keep your hands off my Doritos.” This commercial, although not the Ad Meter winner, was reported by TiVo Inc. to be the commercial that was stopped and played back the most on digital video recorders. Approximately 15% of homes replayed this commercial (5). The results for the Ad Meter ranked this Doritos commercial as the 11th most popular, falling behind another Doritos commercial depicting a dog placing a shock collar on a human to gain access to the man’s Doritos. The second and third rated commercials in the current study (Bud Light ‘house of cans’ and Snickers ‘Betty White football game’) were ranked third and first respectively for the Ad Meter. These results are particularly important for marketers because it suggest a rather large gap (11 spots) between the favorite commercial for college students versus adults who participated in the Ad Meter. This difference validates a marketing strategy that would attempt to isolate particular characteristics of various commercials to be most effective on a specific target audience (e.g., college students).
Although there were different favorite commercials reported for this study and the USA Today Ad Meter, the characteristics that make a commercial enjoyable appear similar. The top three characteristics most enjoyed by college students were humor, creativity, and originality. These characteristics could be used to describe many of the Super Bowl commercials, and reinforces the work of Kelly and Turley (18) who found that humor, sports themes, animals, children, and music increase the likelihood of positive affect towards advertisements. Specifically, the top ranked commercial in this study (i.e., Doritos) used humor and children. The second ranked commercial (i.e., Bud Light house) used humor and music. The third ranked commercial in this study, and first for the Ad Meter (i.e., Betty White football game) used humor and a sports theme. The use of humor is the recurring factor that appears in the top three commercials ranked in this study, and the characteristic chosen by 420 of the 651 participants (64.5%) that made their favorite commercial more enjoyable. Although it is not a secret that humor is an effective advertising tool (also see 29), confirming the importance of this factor within the college student population is a key point for marketers, especially given the overwhelming number of students who reported the importance of humor as the reason they enjoyed their favorite commercial.
Third, this study investigated college students’ intent to spend money on any products advertised during the Super Bowl, commonly referred to as intent to purchase (25). Results confirmed only 11.4% of students indicated they were likely to spend money on any of the products advertised during the Super Bowl. These numbers offer a less than optimistic view for marketers given the intent to purchase is a moderate to strong indicator of ROI (17, 25, 28). Perhaps college students believe the products and services advertised are not important to their lifestyles. Or, perhaps the $3,444 of discretionary spending reported by Gardyn (13) are being applied to products or services that are not advertised during the Super Bowl, but that are important to college students (e.g., laundry, other entertainment, etc.). If this is the case, marketing executives would be wise to understand the general acceptance by college students of Super Bowl advertising, and produce advertising that would peak their interest levels to influence their individual spending behavior, or choose advertising that targets a different demographic altogether.
Fourth, 518 of 651 participants (79.6%) watched the Super Bowl with at least four or more other people, and only 11 students reported watching the Super Bowl by themselves. This finding demonstrates that college students, much like society at large, enjoys the Super Bowl in a communal setting. Furthermore, correlational data demonstrates that males and college students who report themselves as big or huge fans are more likely to watch the Super Bowl with others. The finding that college students watch the Super Bowl in groups is consistent with literature that identifies the Super Bowl as a mega-special-event (25) that focuses on game and surrounding advertisement as a large entertainment package (1). However, the finding that male college students watch the Super Bowl with more people than females is counterintuitive to previous gender literature which suggested females are more attracted to communal relationships and social connections (6, 27). It is possible that the social environment afforded by campus living fosters a more communal context for which males can gather. It is also possible that given the importance of the largest annual sporting event in world, the fans that care about sports most (i.e., males) may find it more important than normal to gather in groups.
Fifth, this study supports the findings by Apostolopoulou et al., (1) which demonstrated that the game itself is the primary point of interest during the Super Bowl. Of the 651 participants, 458 (70.3%) reported they were most interested in the game. This finding is important because it reveals traditional college students are the same as other adults in their primary interest of the game. Marketers can use this interest to incorporate various advertising that might involve the flow of the game (e.g., commercials that air depending on the current score, or commercials that utilize the stars of each team, etc.). Furthermore, the current study found that only 66 of the 651 participants (approximately one percent) tuned into the Super Bowl telecast specifically for the commercials. This finding is noticeably lower than the four percent of the entire Super Bowl viewing audience found by Elliot (9), and implies that college students tune in to specifically watch the commercials at a lower rate than society at large. One must be careful to conclude this result implies college students do not watch commercials. In fact, this study found that most college students do watch and evaluate the majority of Super Bowl commercials, but watching those commercials are not as much of a priority as watching the game itself. Additionally, this study included more males than females, and males have been found to focus more on the aspects of the game (30).
Finally, this study attempted to identify the level of general sport-fanship, and its relationship to viewing patterns. Most students in this study (75.4%) identified themselves as big or huge fans. Males identified themselves as significantly bigger fans than females, and correlational results revealed bigger fans watched more commercials, and watched with more people. These findings allow marketers to begin construction of a blueprint for the average college student sport consumer whereby bigger fans will tend to be males, watch more commercials, and watch with more people. It is not a surprise that males considered themselves bigger fans than females given that males have been found to consume sport more frequently (30), be more competitive (12), value winning more (10), and display higher levels of athletic identity (21). It is also expected that bigger fans would watch more commercials and watch with more people given the large scale entertainment value surrounding the Super Bowl (1, 16). Implications for application are apparent. Marketers should attempt to identify the biggest fans and plan their advertising strategies accordingly. However, one must be mindful that the Super Bowl is a unique event with unusually high consumption, and offers a wide variety of consumers that may not routinely watch sporting events (20). Identifying marketing and advertising strategies for new consumers with varying levels of fanship is a challenging task during any sporting event, but particularly so during the Super Bowl.
### Conclusions
This study evaluated the viewing patterns and perceptions of commercials during Super Bowl XLIV for college students. The results suggest that although college students resemble the average Super Bowl viewer in many ways, they have specific differences that make them an important demographic for marketers to consider. The similarities between college students and the general population include watching the Super Bowl in large numbers, watching the Super Bowl with groups of other people, identifying humor as an enjoyable attribute in advertising, and being interested in the game over other factors (e.g., entertainment). These patterns of behavior lend themselves to specific market segmentation strategies, including advertising that appeals to groups and that contain humor. The differences found between college students and society at large highlight the gap in previous literature that has neglected to isolate this important demographic segment. Specifically, college students displaying a different preference for their favorite commercial (i.e., Doritos house rules vs. Betty White football game) appear to be extremely strong sport fans, and differ greatly by gender. The gender differences are of particular importance because previous literature would lead one to believe that females would be more interested than males in the entertainment portion of the Super Bowl, as well as gathering with large groups of people. This was not the case. The fact that males watched more commercials, and watched in larger groups, implies that male college students are a group of particular importance to marketers. These findings necessitate the need for further research into Super Bowl consumption patterns. Furthermore, given the Super Bowl is the most viewed annual sporting event in the world (5), identifying other sociodemographic consumption patterns is a key for effective marketing strategies.
### Applications in Sports
The results of this study make a strong case for differential game and commercial consumption patterns of college students during the Super Bowl telecast. If sport marketers choose to target the college student demographic in their design of commercials, they would be wise to focus their efforts on strategies which emphasize the importance of the game, using humor as a theme, products that college students would be most likely to use, and concepts that appeal to males. The fact that males are bigger fans, watch both the game and commercials more than females, and gather in groups more so than females, makes the male college student an ideal target market during the Super Bowl. Furthermore, if marketers understand that a majority of college students do not plan to spend money on products or services advertised during the Super Bowl, they may choose to ignore this demographic altogether.
### Tables
Table 1: Total Responses by Category
| Variables | Category | Frequency |
|---|---|---|
| Commercial information | ||
| Number of Super Bowl commercials watched | All | 210 |
| Most | 326 | |
| A Few | 115 | |
| None | 0 | |
| Top three favorite Super Bowl commercials | 1. Doritos | 290 |
| 2. Bud Light | 72 | |
| 3. Snickers | 45 | |
| Top three characters enjoyed most about favorite commercial | 1. Funny or humorous | 420 |
| 2. Creative | 24 | |
| 3. Original | 21 | |
| Intent to spend money on a product due to a Super Bowl commercial | Yes | 74 |
| No | 489 | |
| Not sure | 236 | |
| Viewing patterns | ||
| Number of people students were with when watching the Super Bowl | 8 or more | 323 |
| 4-7 | 195 | |
| 1-3 | 122 | |
| 0 | 11 | |
| Primary interest during the Super Bowl | Game | 458 |
| Commercials | 66 | |
| People students were with | 113 | |
| Place viewed | 14 | |
| Level of general sport fanship | Huge fan | 255 |
| Big fan | 236 | |
| Somewhat fan | 138 | |
| Not a fan | 22 | |
Table 2: Descriptive Statistics
| M | SD | Skewness | Kurtosis | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Statistic | Statistic | Statistic | Std. Error | Statistic | Std. Error | |
| Number of commercials watched | 3.14 | .697 | -.229 | .095 | -.837 | .190 |
| Number of people students were with during the Super Bowl | 3.28 | .842 | -.433 | .095 | .699 | .191 |
| Level of sport-fanship | 3.11 | .859 | -.553 | .096 | -.625 | .191 |
Table 3: Correlations
| (1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Number of commercials watched (1) | 1.0 | ||||
| Number of people present to watch commercials (2) | .07 | 1.0 | |||
| Level of sport-fanship (3) | .21** | .11** | 1.0 | ||
| Gender (4) | -.12 | -.09 | -.38 | 1.0 | |
| Age (5) | .11** | .04 | .11** | -.04 | 1.0 |
* p < .05
** p < .01
Table 4: Descriptive Statistics across Gender Groups
| Variables | Gender | M | SD | n |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Number of commercials watched | Female | 3.04 | .72 | 227 |
| Male | 3.21 | .67 | 424 | |
| Number of people present to watch commercials | Female | 3.18 | .91 | 227 |
| Male | 3.33 | .80 | 424 | |
| Level of sport-fanship | Female | 2.67 | .81 | 227 |
| Male | 3.35 | .78 | 424 |
Table 5: Multivariate Analysis of Variance
| Source | Dependent Variables | SS | df | MS | F | Sig.a |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Gender | Number of commercials watcheda | 4.270 | 1 | 4.270 | 9.031 | .003 |
| Number of people present to watch commercialsb | 3.519 | 1 | 3.519 | 4.987 | .026 | |
| Level of sport-fanshipc | 69.142 | 1 | 69.142 | 110.282 | .000 | |
| Error | Number of commercials watched | 306.867 | 649 | .473 | ||
| Number of people present to watch commercials | 458.038 | 649 | .706 | |||
| Level of sport-fanship | 406.895 | 649 | .627 | |||
| Total | Number of commercials watched | 6754.00 | 651 | |||
| Number of people present to wach commercials | 7470.00 | 651 | ||||
| Level of sport-fanship | 6775.00 | 651 |
Note: Wilks’ Lambda Value = .851; F(3, 647) = 37.635; p < .01
(a) R2 = .014 (Adjusted R2 = .012)
(b) R2 = .008 (Adjusted R2 = .006)
(c) R2 = .145 (Adjusted R2 = .144)
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### Corresponding Author
James E. Johnson, Ed.D.
HP 223A, Ball State University
2000 W. University Ave.
Muncie, IN, 47306
jejohnson1@bsu.edu
765-285-0044
### Author Bio
James Johnson and Donghun Lee are Assistant Professors in the School of Physical Education, Sport, and Exercise Science at Ball State University.
The Selling Mechanism of the Television Rights in Greek Professional Soccer
### Abstract
Television rights in professional soccer was, and perhaps still is, the most important and vital source of revenue for professional soccer clubs in most European countries. Much conversation and legislation was made to discuss, agree upon, and regulate the way the right to broadcast a game is sold to the TV stations and how this income is distributed to the clubs. This study examines the way this selling mechanism works in Greece. The study is carried out with questionnaires, given to at least one member of the higher management of the 34 professional soccer clubs (1st and 2nd division) whose games are on TV. According to the results, club managers think that collective selling is the optimal theoretical model to sell their TV rights, but the way it is implemented is not the optimal one, leading to lower results in income and stadium attendance than the ones anticipated by the managers. Also the Greek Soccer Federation must exploit the TV rights of the games. Moreover the participants believe TV viewers think of the soccer championship as an entity and not as a sum of certain games. Finally they believe TV viewers must pay a subscription to watch the games and that it must not be a free of charge service.
**Key words:** Television rights, Soccer Club Manager, Collecting selling, Individual Selling
### Introduction
While in Greece, studies in the area of professional soccer clubs’ TV rights are very rare, possibly even do not exist, in Europe and especially in the soccer-wise developed countries such as England, Germany, France and Italy. Various studies examined the professional soccer TV rights selling mechanism. Many studies use the USA sports TV market as an example and comparison (since modern sports marketing as we know it was born and developed in the US, and still influences the rest of the world.)
Since soccer became professional and commercialized, the selling of the TV rights was put on the table for discussion. The TV scene in all European countries became free starting from the 1980s until today, and that had much to do with the sharp increase in the professional soccer TV rights value in almost every European country and especially the most developed soccer-wise, such as England, Italy, France and Germany.
Tonazzi (4) points out the differentiality of the soccer market, arguing that while in other business areas a cooperation of the clubs would be characterized as an anticompetitive cartel, in soccer the product can be sold only if the clubs cooperate and offer a joint product. Otherwise, if clubs sell their rights separately, then it is certain that the most popular clubs will gain more income, which would be translated to higher quality players and an unbalanced championship.
Authors argue that if the TV income is lower, then the big clubs most probably will try to separate themselves from the clubs’ league in order to make more money in the free market, selling their TV rights by themselves (13). One probable way to achieve this is the use of digital TV, where they could create tailor-made programs for their fans.
In Europe, England is a leading soccer country and the developments in its televised soccer scene are a case to study, when one wants to define the optimal rights selling mechanism. Poli (14) studies the Italian professional soccer TV rights status in depth.
In Greece, until the early 1990s, EPAE (the governing body of the Greek soccer championship) used to sell the TV rights of the Greek soccer championship collectively to ERT, the public broadcaster. In the early 1990s, private TV stations started bidding to acquire the TV rights of the Greek soccer championship, but it was again the public broadcaster ERT that gained the collective TV rights of the Greek championship. From 1995 to the present, Supersport, a sports channel with subscription fee, has had the TV rights to the majority of the clubs (in 2001 Alpha Digital – a digital platform – acquired the rights for the majority of the clubs, and in the last 3 years ERT has obtained the rights to Olympiakos FC and Xanthi FC). The redistribution system of TV income to the participating clubs is based upon factors like the position of the club in the standings, its market value, its stadium attendance and fans in general, etc.
The purpose of this study is to show that the current TV rights selling model mechanism, used by the Greek professional soccer clubs, is not the optimal one, and revenues and stadium attendance of the clubs could be higher if the way the clubs sell their TV rights were changed. The authors’ hypothesis is that collective selling of TV rights of the Greek professional soccer clubs, based on performance and other criteria (fan base, stadium attendance, etc.), doesn’t maximize the clubs’ revenues or their stadium attendance. The need has been observed for a scientific approach and examination of the TV rights selling mechanism, so that the selling does not only lead to short-term monetary profit, but also to larger, long-term, welfare-wise profits for the parties involved.
### Methods
#### Description of questionnaire – data
For the data collection a questionnaire was used. The questionnaire used in the present research mainly included closed-type questions. The questionnaire was divided in fourteen parts. The first part posed general questions to the participants about the club in which they worked, and the general conditions of Greek professional soccer. Also in this first part, questions about Greek professional soccer’s problems were asked of the club managers. The second part consisted of questions about the ownership of the clubs’ home game TV rights. In the third part the participants were asked about the “product” and the way TV viewers and fans in general view championship and individual games. The fourth part dealt with the supply and demand of the “product”, and the number of games with TV coverage. In the fifth part, the club managers were asked about the cost and profit of the selling mechanism, while in the sixth part the issue was the competitive balance of the championship. The seventh part was a clubs’ talent investment topic and the eighth part questioned the number of club – members in the professional soccer league. In the ninth part, the club managers were asked about the factors influencing the clubs’ decision on choice of selling mechanism (such as stadium attendance, TV households accessibility etc.) The tenth part consisted of questions about the clubs’ TV revenues and their distribution to the clubs, while the eleventh part dealt with regulations and competition policies. Finally in the last part the club managers’ answered social-demographic data questions.
The sample for this study was 65 club managers of the 34 Greek professional soccer clubs who were associated with the clubs during the 2009–2010 season, in the first two divisions (Superleague and Second Division), that are covered by the Greek TV station. The number of clubs of interest was limited, while accordingly limited was the number of the club managers who could answer the questions in this study. Specifically, one to two, or at most three, managers in each club could help in achieving the goal of this study. The number of managers who participated can be easily characterized as quite a large number for this type of study.
#### Statistical Analysis Conducted
Besides the descriptive analysis of single items from the questionnaire, the qualitative variables of the questionnaire were additionally analyzed by utilizing suitable statistical methodology – such as principal components analysis (PCA), and cluster analysis – in order to identify relevant sets of variables and establish a series of factorial (latent) variables that summarize and explain a large proportion of the variability of the observed variables, and logistic regression analysis for attempting to identify the most significant factors for affecting managers’ preferences toward one of the two selling mechanisms.
The data analysis was carried out with the help of the statistical package SPSS v 15.0.
Moreover, in order to see if natural and useful clusters of data existed, the technique of hierarchical cluster analysis was used alternatively. Essentially, starting with each observation being a group by itself, in every step, the observations that have the smaller distance were united, so that the data of a formulated cluster would be part of the elements of the hierarchically next cluster(7,8). This can work not only toward the clustering of observations, but toward the clustering of variables too (7). Since the analysis unit is variable, the distance or similarity measures for all variables’ pairs were calculated. As a distance unit, the Euclidean distance was used and as a method of combination of the observations in clusters the method of “furthest neighbor” was used. According to this method, as a distance between two clusters the one between furthest points was taken (2).
To identify those factors that influence statistically significantly the opinion of Greek managers on the most suitable – according to their own perspective – Greek professional soccer TV rights selling mechanism, a logistic regression model was chosen to fit the data collected (1).
### Results
Analytically, the club managers evaluated the TV rights collective exploitation model to be “very good” (1.5%), “good” (33.8%), “medium” (60%), and “bad” (4.6%). The club members’ answers to the question, “if the TV rights individual exploitation increase the home game stadium attendance” were, “yes” (73.8%), and “no” (26.2%). The club members’ answers to the question, “if the TV rights individual exploitation increase clubs’ income from the TV rights selling” were, “yes” (58.5%) and “no” (41.5%). The club members’ answers to the question, “to whom belong the home games TV rights” were, “to the home team” (3.1%), “to both teams” (6.2%), “to the clubs’ league” (47.7%), and, “to the country’s soccer federation” (43.1%). To the question, “if the TV viewers see the championship as a single product or a sum of independent games” the club managers answered, “as a single product” (80%) and “as a sum of independent games” (20%). To the question, “if the sport product must be treated like a public product and offered free of charge or the viewer to be charged with a subscription fee or other kind of payment” the club managers answered, “like a public product and offered free of charge” (41.5%) and “to be charged with a subscription fee or other kind of payment” (58.5%). To the question, “if the maximization of the clubs’ total profits leads to the maximization of each individual club’s profits” the club managers answered, “a little” (32.3%), “medium” (58.5%), “enough” (4.6%), “much” (1.5%) “very much” (3.1%). To the question, “if the current TV rights selling model has increased, decreased or has not changed the stadium attendance” the club managers answered, “has increased” (36.9%), and “has not changed” (63.1%). Finally, in the instance of the question, “if with the current TV rights selling model of your home games, your revenues, comparing to their real values are higher, equal or lower” the club managers answered, “higher” (24.6%), “equal” (67.7%), and “lower” (7.7%).
In regard to the major problems from which Greek soccer is currently suffering (the means of the sample’s responses on the ten questions range between 2.66 and 3.03), the managers ranked as the most significant problem the lack of suitable training grounds. (see Table 1) The next highest mean value, 3, occured in the response to the question that mentioned the indifference of the State. Lower values showed that the managers considered to be problems the lack of quality of the foreign soccer players and the involvement in the club management of people with no experience in this professional area (2.98), the bad soccer stadiums condition (2.97), the lack of qualitative academies soccer players and the fans’ violence (2.94), with 2.8 the unreliability of the games’ (referees) outcomes (2.8), and the clubs’ bad finances (2.75). The least important problem was regarded by the managers to be the problem of competition with other sports, with a mean value of 2.66, indicating thus the domination of soccer in the Greek sports scene.
#### PCA Analysis
The data that resulted from the items on the questionnaires related to the most significant problems in Greek soccer were given to the club managers of the professional clubs of the Superleague and Second Division in Greece, and then was processed with the main principal components method. The proportion of the variance of each initial variable that the constructed PCA is explained in Table 2. The four principal components comprise 64.3% of the total variability of the ten input variables. For the interpretation of factors, the rotation of factors was conducted. More specifically, the orthogonal transformation process called varimax was used. The objective was to simplify the factor structure and to make the results more meaningful.
The first component showed “the negative attitude of the State and the bodies of professional soccer (Greek Soccer Federation – Referees) toward the ongoing problems of professional soccer (reliability – financial problems)”. The second component showed “the negative correlation that develops between the basic facilities infrastructure of professional soccer and the violence in the Greek stadiums with the foreign players’ quality that professional soccer attracts”. The third component showed “the negative correlation that develops between the professional soccer stadiums’ conditions and the quality of the players coming from the academies into professional soccer”. The fourth component showed “the negative correlation between the competition with other sports and involvement of people with no professional experience in this area in clubs’ management”. (see Figure 1)
#### Cluster Analysis
With the hierarchical analysis in clusters for the problems of Greek soccer, two clusters with the following identities “business type soccer problems” and “soccer problems – involvement of people with no professional experience in this area in clubs’ management” were created. The first cluster mostly dealt with the problems most fans think professional soccer has, and are the main reason of low stadium attendance, low TV viewership, low spending in clubs’ merchandising, etc. Also included was “the competition of the sports”, showing that unhappy fans (mostly those who were not dedicated to the sport) may turn to other sports viewing and attending. The second cluster had more to do with the “structural” problems of professional soccer; that is, the lack of programming and infrastructure in the academies and the training grounds, which leads to the lack of well-trained young and professional players, leading to a low level spectacle on the field. This is a major reason for the fans to turn their backs on their clubs, and on professional soccer in general.
#### Logistic Regression Model
To identify those factors that offer a statistically significantly influence on the opinion of Greek managers on the most suitable – according to their own perspective – Greek professional soccer TV rights selling mechanism, we have chosen to fit a logistic regression model to the data collected. A full description of the predictor variables can be found in Table 4.
A positive evaluation on behalf of the managers of the collective selling mechanism (i.e., “good-very good” category) was designated as predicted group for the dependent variable, while as a reference category the negative category of answers “very bad-medium” was chosen. The maximum likelihood method was used for the adaptation of the final model and the calculation of beta coefficients. In Table 3, the values of the coefficients of independent variables in the logistic model are shown, accompanied by the statistical significance of coefficients, derived by the Wald type test. In the last column, the odds ratios of the model are presented for each of the predictor variables separately.
It follows from an inspection of Table 3that the accessibility of the TV households to the broadcast of the games is a significant factor for the preference of collective selling mechanism, at a 10% level of significance, since those who reported an increase in the accessibility of the households seemed to have lower probability to choose the collective selling mechanism than those reporting the broadcast of games to be left unchanged (beta=-1.623, p-value=0.053<0.1). Indeed, as suggested by the model, the probabilities (odds) of a manager being in a club that had increased the broadcast of its games to TV households to be in favor of the collective selling was decreased by a factor of 0.197, when compared with managers who reported that accessibility was left unchanged. Accordingly, managers whose teams had increased stadium attendance with the utilization of collective selling were less in favor of the current mechanism, when compared with managers whose teams had left its stadium attendance unchanged (beta=-1.537, p-value=0.054<0.1). The most significant factor, however, in predicting the dependent variable in the final model is the club’s revenues. As indicated by the model, the probabilities (odds) of a manager to be in favor of the collective selling model, being in a club that had decreased or left unchanged its revenues with the utilization of the collective selling mechanism was decreased by a factor of 58.997 and 123.304, respectively, when compared with managers who reported that the club’s revenues had increased. (beta=4.077, p-value=0.02
### Discussion
In the study only 34.3% of the club managers considered the current collective selling model to be good or very good. The same clubs’ managers, in the question “whether TV rights individual exploitation increases the home game stadium attendance” answered yes with a rate of 73.8%; and in the question “whether TV rights individual exploitation increased clubs’ income from the TV rights selling” answered yes with 58.5%. This clearly shows a preference of the managers for their clubs to individually exploit their TV rights. As the study showed, managers who were mostly in favor of the individual selling mechanism were those whose teams has been underestimated in revenues compared to their real values. Unexpectedly, these managers believed that the utilization of the current selling mechanism, i.e. collective selling TV rights mechanism, had increased their stadium attendance, and had increased the accessibility of TV households to their games.
Statistical analysis has also shown that the managers who were held a positive stance toward a collective selling model accordingly stated that:
* their TV income with the current collective selling model was the same compared to their real TV rights’ value (73.8%);
* the maximization of total profits of the clubs did not maximize the profits of each club separately (92.9%);
* the less-popular/strong clubs would not get less money with individual selling of their rights (64.3%);
* the financial strengthening of the less-wealthy and -popular clubs, through an even distribution system of TV income, was not among the primary reasons to follow a collective selling model (66.7%);
* the current selling model did not change their team’s stadium attendance (69%);
* the current selling model did not change their club’s financial strength or its ability to acquire talented players (95.2%);
* income distribution based on the clubs’ performances did not change the investment level of the “weak” clubs in talent (66.7%);
* they had considered the possibility of increasing TV ratings of their games in the rights selling procedure (78.6%); and that they
* thought that the accessibility of TV households in games coverage was an important factor in their decision making (85.7%).
Greek soccer experts validated the authors’ hypothesis that the current collective selling model using the performance-based income redistribution system didn’t maximize the clubs’ revenues or stadium attendance.
In past literature, the collective selling mechanism was thought to be the optimal way of exploiting TV rights of the professional soccer championship games in almost all the famous and strong European championships, such as the Premier League in England, Budesliga in Germany, and Division 1 in France. Only in the Italian championship, Lega Calcio, were the TV rights exploited individually, due to the large discrepancies in the predicted and actual revenues of the big and traditional soccer clubs, compared to the small professional clubs (4,9,14,16).
This study shows that the optimal way to exploit Greek professional soccer clubs’ TV rights is via collective selling. That is the model chosen in most of the strongest and most popular professional soccer championships in Europe.
### Conclusions
Based on the findings of the current study, relative studies that were carried out in other European countries, and of course the particularities of the Greek professional soccer market, the authors suggest that the optimal clubs TV rights’ selling mechanism is collective selling through the governing bodies of Greek professional soccer (either the Greek Soccer Federation or the Superleague/EPAE).
The findings of this study clearly showed that the clubs’ managers recognized the need for all the clubs to collectively exploit their TV rights by stating that the games of a championship gain value as part of it, and that TV viewers see the championship as a unity, a product by itself. Mostly it could be concluded by their statement that the Greek soccer federation or the soccer leagues own the clubs’ TV rights and must exploit them. On the other hand, they saw individual selling as a more appropriate model to sell their rights, since in that way they increased their TV income and their stadium attendance. The combination of the two aforementioned contradictory findings, could lead to the conclusion that the club managers think that collective selling is the optimal theoretical model for selling their TV rights, but the way it is currently implemented is not the optimal one, leading to lower results in both income and stadium attendance than those anticipated by the managers. Nevertheless, the need for collective selling was recognized by the managers and by the Greek soccer reality itself, since this model is the model that Greek soccer has chosen to apply for many years, and still does, even now that Greek professional soccer clubs have gained much professional experience by participating in European tournaments and interacting with renowned foreign soccer clubs. The small size of the Greek soccer market and its “hostile” environment to the average fan “client” make this necessity more apparent than ever before.
The current system’s partial failure can be fixed through designing and implementing a “fairer” TV income redistribution model, which will enhance the weaker teams. (As a side note, it is difficult to implement a US-like model that equally distributes the TV income to all the clubs of the league. This is because the whole sport’s theory and concept in USA is totally different than the European one). If weaker teams take more income, then they can afford to acquire better players and create a more competitive squad, leading to a more balanced championship, with more uncertain results. And this uncertainty is the key to league success, through an increase in fans’ interest that is interpreted in higher TV ratings, stadium standings, and spending in soccer products.
### Applications in Sport
This study can be a valuable tool for owners (primarily) and for marketing managers – commercial directors of the Greek professional soccer clubs to compare the Greek TV rights’ selling model efficiency with those used in developed, soccer-wise countries such as England, Germany, France, and Italy. The clubs’ higher management could use this study to evaluate their current selling mechanism, and design and implement a new one that would best fit the Greek soccer market characteristics and have the best possible financial and overall results for all the clubs and the championship.
Specifically, the clubs’ higher management, based on the study, could agree to reform the income redistribution system, so that is not based only on performance related criteria (such as the club’s standing, stadium attendance, fan-base, etc.) and for a more equal distribution of the TV revenues to be applied.
In order to verify the findings, an additional study could be carried out measuring the effect of the current selling model to the TV ratings of the clubs’ televised home games, the TV households’ accessibility in the clubs’ games coverage, etc.
### Figures
#### Figure 1: Dendrogram of the variables of the Greek soccer problems
### Tables
#### Table 1: Ranking of the most significant problems in the Greek soccer by the professional soccer clubs management
| Most significant problems in Greek soccer | N | Minimum | Maximum | Mean | Std. Deviation |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Training grounds condition | 65 | 2 | 4 | 3.03 | 0.77 |
| Indifference of the State | 65 | 2 | 5 | 3 | 0.729 |
| Quality of the foreign soccer players | 65 | 2 | 4 | 2.98 | 0.545 |
| Involvement in the club management of people with no experience in this professional area | 65 | 1 | 5 | 2.98 | 0.82 |
| The soccer stadiums conditions | 65 | 2 | 4 | 2.97 | 0.637 |
| Quality of the academies soccer players | 65 | 2 | 4 | 2.94 | 0.726 |
| Fans’ violence | 65 | 2 | 5 | 2.94 | 0.704 |
| Reliability of the game’s outcome (referees) | 65 | 2 | 5 | 2.8 | 0.755 |
| Clubs’ finances | 65 | 2 | 5 | 2.75 | 0.708 |
| Competition with other sports | 65 | 1 | 4 | 2.66 | 0.735 |
#### Table 2: Results of the PCA model conducted on the items of the questionnaires related to the most significant problems of Greek soccer
| Component | Initial Eigenvalues | Rotation Sums of Squared Loadings | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Total | % of Variance | Cumulative % | Total | % of Variance | Cumulative % | |
| 1 | 2.484 | 24.836 | 24.836 | 2.313 | 23.131 | 23.131 |
| 2 | 1.430 | 14.301 | 39.137 | 1.514 | 15.145 | 38.276 |
| 3 | 1.328 | 13.276 | 52.413 | 1.351 | 13.509 | 51.785 |
| 4 | 1.189 | 11.893 | 64.306 | 1.252 | 12.521 | 64.306 |
| 5 | .927 | 9.266 | 73.572 | |||
| 6 | .727 | 7.268 | 80.840 | |||
| 7 | .604 | 6.045 | 86.885 | |||
| 8 | .531 | 5.308 | 92.193 | |||
| 9 | .477 | 4.766 | 96.958 | |||
| 10 | .304 | 3.042 | 100.000 | |||
Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis
#### Table 3: Parameter Significance Tests for the logistic regression model for the evaluation of the TV rights income redistribution model (Reference Group: “very bad – medium”)
| Parameter | Beta | Odds Ratio (exp(B)) |
|---|---|---|
| Intercept | n.s. | |
| Collective selling model and stadium attendance (ref.: left unchanged) | ||
| Increased positively | -1.537* | 0.215 |
| Collective selling model and accessibility of the TV households to the broadcast of games(Ref.:left unchanged) | ||
| Increased positively | -1.623* | 0.197 |
| Maximization of the total profits of the clubs and maximization of the profits of each club separately (ref.: very much) | ||
| A little | n.s. | |
| Moderately | n.s. | |
| Enough | n.s. | |
| Much | n.s. | |
| Collective selling model and the TV ratings of games (Ref.: left unchanged) | ||
| Increased positively | n.s. | |
| Collective selling model and financial strength/ ability to acquire talented players (Ref.: left unchanged) | ||
| Increased positively | -1.961**** | 0.141 |
| Percentage of Clubs income and TV rights (ref.: 41%-60%) | ||
| 21-40% | n.s. | |
| Collective selling model and club’s revenues (ref.: increased) | ||
| Decreased | 4,077** | 58,997 |
| Left unchanged | 4,815*** | 123,304 |
| Who must own the home games TV rights (Ref.: Soccer Federation) | ||
| Both teams | n.s. | |
| Clubs’ League | n.s. | |
| -2 Log likelihood | 55.961 | |
| Nagelkerke R Square | 0.488 | |
| Cox & Snell R Square | 0.355 | |
Dependent Variable: Evaluation of the TV rights income redistribution model of the current collective selling.
* Coefficient is significant at a 10% significance level
** Coefficient is significant at a 5% significance level
*** Coefficient is significant at a 1% significance level
**** Coefficient is significant at a 20% significance level
n.s. Non-significant
#### Table 4: Operationalization of the independent variables used for the logistic regression analysis model
| Independent Variables | Values |
|---|---|
| “Who must own the home games TV rights?” |
|
| “The maximization of the total profits of the clubs leads to the maximization of the profits of each club separately?” |
|
| “The current selling model of your TV rights has increased, decreased or left unchanged the TV ratings of your games?” |
|
| “The current selling model of your TV rights has increased, decreased or left unchanged the accessibility of the TV households to the broadcast of your games?” |
|
| “The current selling model of your TV rights has increased, decreased or left unchanged your stadium attendance?” |
|
| “The current selling model of your TV rights has increased, decreased or left unchanged your financial strength and your ability to acquire talented players?” |
|
| “With the current selling model of your TV rights your revenues, comparing to their real value, are higher, the same or lower?” |
|
| “What percentage of your club’s income represents the money received from television rights?” |
|
### References
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### Corresponding Author
Christos Koutroumanides
Democritus University of Thrace, Greece,
5 Str Dagli, 65403, Kavala, Greece, T 0030-2510-232075
<christoskoutroumanides@yahoo.gr>
### Authors
**Christos Koutroumanides**,
Democritus University of Thrace, Greece
**Athanasios Laios**,
Democritus University of Thrace, Greece
Body Image Disturbances in NCAA Division I and III Female Athletes
### Abstract
The purpose of this study was to examine and compare eating characteristics and body image disturbances in female NCAA Division I and III athletes in the mainstream sports of basketball, softball, track/cross country, volleyball, soccer, tennis, swimming/diving, and ice hockey. Female collegiate athletes (N = 118) from Division I and III universities completed the EAT-26 and MBSRQ. Personal demographics and anthropometric data including height, weight, BMI and Body Fat estimates were also assessed. The study found that 49.2% (Division I) and 40.4% (Division III) of female athletes were in the subclinical eating disorder range. Results assessing body satisfaction, reported that 24.2% of Division I female athletes and 30.7 % of Division III female athletes were either very dissatisfied or mostly dissatisfied with their overall appearance. Results also showed that Division I female athletes were less satisfied with their appearance evaluation (body areas satisfaction, and lower torso). Division III female athletes reported higher levels of bulimic behaviors and weight preoccupation. The results indicate that athletes in refereed female sports are at risk for eating disorders, and that body image risk factors vary between NCAA competition divisions. This research provides sport professionals with a better understanding of risk factors influencing the prevalence of eating disorders between female athletes’ divisional competition levels.
**Key words:** body dissatisfaction, eating disorders, NCAA division, collegiate female athletes, eating disorder risk factors
### Introduction
Eating disorders are among the four leading causes of disease that may lead to disability or death (2). Eating disorders have the highest mortality rate of any mental health illness (41). Approximately nine million Americans suffer from an eating disorder with a lifetime prevalence rate of 0.9% – 4.5% and approximately 10% of college women suffer from a clinical or near clinical eating disorder (19,22).
Body image refers to the self-perception and attitudes an individual holds with respect to his or her body and physical appearance. Body image is a complex synthesis of psychophysical elements that are perpetual, emotional, cognitive, and kinesthetic. Cash and Fleming (10) defined body image as “one’s perceptions and attitudes in relation to one’s own physical characteristics” (p. 455). Body dissatisfaction focuses on body build and is often operationalized as the difference between ideal and current self selected figures (7).
Body dissatisfaction is a significant source of distress for many females. Gender is reported to be a convincing risk factor for disordered eating since females are 10 times more likely to develop an eating disorder compared to males (14). Research shows that the size of the “ideal” woman is far smaller than the size of the average woman (25). “The overwhelming evidence of female gender as a risk factor for the development of an eating disorder highlights the importance of determining the factors that put women at risk, particularly the sociocultural context in which these disorders develop” (31, p. 766).
Risk factors that accompany eating disorders are multi-factorial in nature. Research has revealed that sociocultural, developmental, personality, athletic, trauma, familial, and biological factors are critical identifiable areas that house potential eating disorder risk factors (31). Within these specific areas, body image dissatisfaction and low self-esteem are two situational aspects typically associated with individuals who are at risk for developing an eating disorder. In an early study on body dissatisfaction (5), 23% of the women expressed dissatisfaction with various parts of their body. The particular areas problematic for women were the abdomen, hips, thighs, and overall weight. When the study was replicated in the mid-1980s (11), the percentage of females dissatisfied with their body increased to 38%, with the same general body areas being defined by the participants. These same general body areas were also identified in a more recent study (16) in 56% of women.
Considerable scientific attention has been directed toward the potential role that sport involvement play in an athletes’ development of attitudes and behaviors about disordered eating. Female athletes experience a higher rate of eating disorders than non-athletes (4,24,43). Female athletes have an eating disorder prevalence of 15% to 62% compared to 0.5% to 3% in late adolescent and young adult female non-athletes (21). Researchers (33) assessed disordered eating in female collegiate athletes (N = 204) from three NCAA universities. The responses to the Questionnaire for Eating Disorder Diagnoses (Q-EDD) found 72.5% (n = 148) of the female athletes were asymptomatic, 25.5% (n = 52) symptomatic, and 2.0% (n = 4) eating disorder (29). Compared to recent research (8,39), this research study found a higher percentage of female athletes who were symptomatic. Athlete’s prevalence rate is an important factor, but understanding variables associated with increasing or decreasing risk factors for disordered eating is significant etiological information that should be evaluated (32).
Athletic factors promoting eating disorder development were first identified through research that began in the 1980s, which found particular sports induced higher rates of disordered eating behaviors (1,17). Even though physical activity may develop self-esteem and encourage physical and emotional well-being, there is verification that female athletes are at greater risk for developing disordered eating than their peers who are non-athletes (6). Female athletes encounter the same sociocultural pressures that of non – athletes, however the increased demand of sport – related pressures may independently or dependently increase their risk of eating disordered attitudes and behaviors (40). Coaches, sponsors, and families may all play a role in influencing an athlete’s weight and shape. Negative comments from those that surround and evaluate the athlete may trigger the onset of abnormal eating behaviors leading to an eating disorder (12,28).
The type of sport may also play a role in predisposing an individual to eating disorders based on struggles with body performance satisfaction. Specific sports where performance is judged on body leanness, shape and movement such as ballet, gymnastics, figure skating, diving, and cheerleading have a higher incidence of eating disorders (1,42,47). Shape judged sports such as gymnastics, diving, cheerleading, and dance place more importance on the individual’s body appearance, which may lead to body shape discontent among competitors (47). Researchers also report that 15% to 65% of women in “thin build” sports such as gymnastics or ballet have pathogenic eating patterns known to influence or manipulate the history and development of the eating disorder (27,44). Participation in competitive “thin build” sports in conjunction with personality traits associated with disordered eating could put these individuals at an even greater risk for developing an eating disorder (15, 44). The personality trait of many perfectionist increase disordered eating behaviors for female athletes (20). Researchers (26) compared athletes and non-athletes and reported perfectionism was the only factor that significantly distinguished the groups. In addition, Wilmore (46) reported that athletes high in perfectionism had an increased drive for thinness than athletes low in perfectionism. Refereed sports such as basketball place a stronger emphasis on training and do not rely as much on body appearance; therefore athletes participating in these sports may be less likely to be associated with disordered eating patterns (47).
Most research to date focuses on Division I female athlete’s prevalence rates, while female athletes regardless of NCAA division, experience similar sport specific pressures associated with body image disturbances. Limited research has compared prevalence between NCAA divisions, eating attitudes, and body image disturbances in female athletes. Research has reported that the prevalence of disordered eating, unhealthy dieting, and distorted body image in the athletic population ranges from 12% to 57% (30). Elite female athletes who suffer from eating disorders put themselves at greater risk for serious illnesses and/or death (38). Research has shown that more than one-third of female Division I NCAA athletes report attitudes and symptoms placing them at risk for an eating disorder (2). The National Collegiate Athletic Association study that surveyed student athletes from 11 Division I schools (N = 1,445) reported 1.1% of the female athletes met DSM-IV criteria for bulimia nervosa while 9.2% of female athletes had clinically significant symptoms of bulimia nervosa. This study also reported 0% female athletes met the DSM-IV criteria for anorexia nervosa while 2.85% of the female athletes had clinically significant symptoms of anorexia nervosa (24). Researchers believed the results suggest that Division I female athletes are at significant risk for the progression of eating disorder thoughts and behaviors. The study also stressed the need for future research to examine non-elite Division I, II and III schools since eating disorder risk factors may be higher among lower tier schools. Comparing divisional levels of competition in NCAA athletics could be an important aspect to understanding risk factors involved in the developmental process of an eating disorder.
The purpose of this study was to examine and compare eating characteristics and body image disturbances in female NCAA Division I and III athletes in mainstream sports of basketball, softball, track/cross country, volleyball, soccer, tennis, swimming/diving, and ice hockey. This study also examined female body part dissatisfaction and eating attitudes utilizing the Multidimensional Body Self-Relations Questionnaire (MBSRQ) and Eating Attitudes Test (EAT-26). These findings may assist coaches, strength and conditioning coaches, and athletic trainers in understanding disordered eating and body image disturbances across various female sports in different competition divisions.
### Methods
#### Participants
Participants (N = 118) included Division I (n = 41) and Division III (n = 87) female athletes from National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) member institutes of the following sports: basketball, softball, track/cross country, volleyball, soccer, tennis, swimming/diving, and ice hockey. The convenient sample participants were voluntary, anonymous, and in accordance with university and federal guidelines for human subjects.
#### Instruments
Each athlete completed questionnaires assessing participant demographics and athletic involvement (sport, division). Eating behavior patterns were assessed utilizing the Eating Attitudes Test (EAT-26) and attitudes concerning body image were assessed with the Multidimensional Body-Self Relations Questionnaire (MBSRQ). Anthropometric measurements (height and weight) and body fat measurements were taken on each athlete. (Omron Fat Loss Monitor, Model HBF-306C). The Fat Loss Monitor (Omron Fat Loss Monitor, Model HBF-306C) displays the estimated value of body fat percentage by bioelectrical impedance method and indicates the Body Mass Index (BMI). The bioelectrical impedance, skinfold, and hydrostatic weighing methods have all been shown to be reliable measures of body composition (r = .957 – .987) (23).
##### Eating Attitudes Test (EAT-26)
Eating Attitudes Test (EAT-26) was used to differentiate participants with anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, binge-eating, and those without disordered eating characteristics. It is a 26-item measurement consisting of three subscales: 1) dieting, 2) bulimia and food perception, and 3) oral control. Scoring for this instrument was a Likert scale of six possible answers (always, usually, often, sometimes, rarely, never). Scores ranged from zero to three for each question and a total score greater than 20 indicates excessive body image concern that may identify an eating disorder (Garner et al., 1982; Williamson et al., 1987). EAT-26 has been proven to be a reliable measurement (r = .88) (17). The total score of the EAT-26 and the Drive for Thinness scale of the Eating Disorder Inventory (EDI) have reports of a 90% agreement (37).
##### Multidimensional Body-Self Relations Questionnaire
The Multidimensional Body-Self Relations Questionnaire: The Multidimensional Body-Self Relations Questionnaire (MBSRQ) is a 69 item self-report inventory for the assessment of self-attitudinal aspects of the body image construct. The MBSRQ measures satisfaction and orientation with body appearance, fitness, and health. In addition to seven subscales (Appearance Evaluation and Orientation, Fitness Evaluation and Orientation, Health Evaluation and Orientation, and Illness Orientation), the MBSRQ has three special multi-item subscales: (1) The Body Areas Satisfaction Scale (BASS) approaches body image evaluation as dissatisfaction-satisfaction with body areas and attributes; 2) The Overweight Preoccupation Scale assesses fat anxiety, weight vigilance, dieting, and eating restraint; and 3) The Self-Classified Weight Scale assesses self-appraisals of weight from “very underweight” to “very overweight.” Internal consistency for MBSRQ subscales range from .74 – .91. This questionnaire has been studied and used extensively in the college population. Internal consistency for the subscales of the MBSRQ ranged from .67 to .85 for males and .71 to .86 for females (9).
### Results
#### Descriptive statistics
Participants in the study included 118 female athletes from NCAA Division I (34.7%) and Division III (73.7%) universities. Participants reported their ethnicity as 80.5% White (n =95), 16.1% Black (n =19), .02% Hispanic (n =2), .01% Asian (n =1), and .01% as other (n = 1). The female athletes had a mean age of 19.81 years + 1.29 and a mean body fat percentage of 21.17% + 5.07 (Table 1). There was no significant difference between the divisions in regards to body fat percentage F (1,117) = .727, p = .395.
#### Test for Significance
A multiple analysis of variance (MANOVA) was conducted to determine the effect of NCAA Divisional Status (I or III) on eating characteristics and body image (Table 2). Significant differences were found between Division I and III, Wilks’s Lambda = .664, F(17, 114), p<.0001.
##### Disordered Eating Behaviors
Base frequency scores indicated that 49.2% of Division I female athletes and 40.4% of Division III female athletes scored a 20 or higher on the EAT-26. A follow – up ANOVA reported no significant differences between 20 or higher EAT-26 scores and NCAA Division, F (1, 117) = 1.732, p = .190. A significant difference was found between divisions on the bulimia subscale of the EAT-26, F (1, 117) = 9.107, p = 003. No significant differences were found between division for the EAT-26 dieting subscale, F (1, 117) = .125, p = .724 and oral control subscale F (1, 117) = 2.123, p = .148.
##### Body Disturbance
The results of the MANOVA indicated a significant difference between divisions on the MBSRQ, F(17,114 ) = 3.391, p = .000. The results of the MBSRQ, which assessed body satisfaction, found that 24.2 % of Division I female athletes and 30.7 % of Division III female athletes were either very dissatisfied or mostly dissatisfied with their overall appearance. In addition, a difference was found between Division I and III athletes for appearance evaluation, F (1, 3) = 10.525, p = .001, body areas satisfaction F (1, 3) = 8.36, p = .004, lower torso F (1, 3) = 5.975, p = .016, and overweight preoccupation F (1, 3) = 17.895, p = .000. Division I female athletes were less satisfied with their appearance evaluation, body areas satisfaction, and lower torso than Division III female athletes. Division III female athletes were more weight preoccupied than Division I female athletes.
### Discussion
The main purpose of this study was to examine and compare the eating attitudes and body image satisfaction in female NCAA Division I and III athletes in mainstream sports of basketball, softball, track/cross country, volleyball, soccer, tennis, swimming/diving, and ice hockey. Limited research is available comparing eating disturbances between NCAA divisions so the information acquired may help explain the prevalence of body image disturbances and eating disorder among college female athletes at different levels of competition.
The results of this study indicated that 49.2% (Division I) and 40.4% (Division III) of the female athletes scored 20 or higher on the EAT-26, putting them in a subclinical eating disorder range (18). Comparative research studies using the EAT-26 reported percent subclinical populations of females athletes to be 15.2%, N = 425 (3); 5.8%, N = 190 (13); and 10.2%, N = 59 (36). The current research study did not find a significant difference between subclinical population scores and division, however both Division I and Division III female athletes had a considerably higher subclinical eating disorder female athletic population compared to these previous studies. This finding may be an important implication because the desire to be thin does not always result in clinically diagnosed signs and symptoms of anorexia or bulimia. If left undetected, subclinical eating disorders may result in dysfunctional social interaction, decreased physical performance reduced physical health, and an increase in the propensity for athletic injury.
Between divisions, a significant difference was found on the bulimia subscale of the EAT-26. Division III female athletes struggled more with bulimic behaviors compared to the Division I female athletes. This finding agrees with previous research suggesting that disturbed eating behavior may be higher among lower tiered athletes (35). Bulimic behaviors may be viewed as more destructive to athletic performance so the elite competitive athletes (Division I) may be deterred from participating in such behaviors. Bulimic behaviors may also require a greater level of secrecy, so elite competitive female athletes competing may avoid such behaviors due to increased time commitment, travel requirements, and contact they experience with their coaches and athletic trainers.
It has been reported that female athletes participating in judged sports such as gymnastics, cheerleading, and dance are more prone to eating disorders compared to those who participate in referred sports such as basketball, swimming, and softball (26,34,47). The assessment of body satisfaction through the MBSRQ found that 24.2 % of Division I female athletes and 30.7 % of Division III female athletes were either very dissatisfied or mostly dissatisfied with their overall appearance. We believe that our findings warrant further investigation into the relationship of female athlete’s body dissatisfaction and those participating in referred sports.
A significant difference was also reported on the MBSRQ subscales between Division I and III athletes for appearance evaluation, F (1, 3) = 10.525, p = .001, body areas satisfaction F (1, 3) = 8.36, p = .004, lower torso F (1, 3) = 5.975, p = .016, and overweight preoccupation F (1, 3) = 17.895, p = .000. Division I female athletes were less satisfied with their appearance evaluation, body areas satisfaction, and lower torso than Division III female athletes. Division III female athletes were more weight preoccupied than Division I female athletes. A performance-related drive for thinness through appearance evaluation, body areas satisfaction and lower torso may have a greater impact on female athletes that compete in higher level divisions such as Division I. Being weight preoccupied may not be as closely associated with physical performance measures as compared to general body dissatisfaction.
Even though this was a well-designed study and used a diverse sample of female athletes, it is not without limitations. The participant sample was limited in racial/ethnic minorities, therefore future research should examine female athletic samples with greater racial/ethnic diversity. This research also compared Division I female athletes to Division III female athletes. Increasing the number of institutes and divisions would greatly benefit the findings of this study. Lastly, although a diverse group of female athletic teams was represented in this study, equal number of female athletes from each team was not available due to the sports each institution offered, scholarships, and general participation. For example, ice hockey could only be evaluated at the Division III level. It is possible that the results would have varied if there were equal participant representation. Future research should examine a greater number of institutions at varied divisions to increase participant representations among each sport.
### Conclusion
Our results indicate that refereed female sports are at risk for eating disorders and body image risk factors vary between NCAA competition divisions of female sports. Body dissatisfaction factors that may lead to serious eating disorders will continue to impact the female athletic audience due to added pressures innate to sport performance. Female athletes, regardless of sport, show evidence of risk for developing an eating disorder. Understanding what motivates the developmental process to accelerate in sport may vary depending on level of competition. The educational and scholarly implications of this research project include contributing to the body of literature in the area of body image and eating attitudes of female athletes and providing professionals with a better understanding of the risk factors that influence the prevalence of eating disorders at varied levels of competition.
### Applications in Sport
These findings may assist coaches, strength and conditioning coaches, and athletic trainers in understanding disordered eating and body image disturbances across various female sports in different competition divisions. Professionals that work with female athletes understand the sensitive nature of optimizing performance without compromising overall health. Recognizing and identifying prevention indicators for body image disturbances that lead to disordered eating will assist professionals when dealing with at risk female athletes in varied levels of competition of referred sports. This information will also greatly benefit programs aimed at ceasing the progression of disordered eating
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### Corresponding Author
Kim Kato, Ed.D.
PO Box 13015, SFA Station
Nacogdoches, TX 75962-3015
<kkato@sfasu.edu>
936-468-1610
Dr. Kim Kato is an Assistant Professor in Health Science in the Department of Kinesiology and Health Science at Stephen F. Austin State University in Nacogdoches, Texas.
### Authors
**Kim Kato**, EdD, NSCA-CPT
Stephen F. Austin State University
**Stephanie Jevas**, PhD, ATC, LAT
Stephen F. Austin State University
**Dean Culpepper**, PhD, CC-AASP
Lubbock Christian University
Two United States Olympic Committee Olympism Programs: Team USA Ambassador Program and Olympic Day
The United States Olympic Committee administers a number of programs with the objective of spreading Olympism and the Olympic Ideals. Outlined below are its two most robust Olympism programs: the Team USA Ambassador Program and Olympic Day.
### Team USA Ambassador Program
The USOC considers its athletes the greatest representatives of the Olympic Movement and Olympic values. By developing the Olympic values in elite athletes, and, through sharing their stories, we aim to inspire others to seek the highest levels of excellence and to have respect for all, regardless of nationality, religion, race or background.
Started prior to Beijing 2008, the goal of the Team USA Ambassador Program is to expose U.S. Olympians, Paralympians and hopefuls to the expectations, roles, and responsibilities of representing the United States at the Olympic and Paralympic Games. This extensive athlete education program guides athletes through what it means to be an ambassador for their sport and country, how to embrace and maximize their role as a role model, and to consider the legacy and impact they hope to create.
The multi-phase program includes presentations, inspirational speakers and small group activities to cover such topics as:
* What it means to be an Olympian/Paralympian
* The athlete’s role as an ambassador
* The Olympic Ideals and why they matter
* Interview and media preparedness
* Leadership
* Leaving a lasting legacy through sport and Olympism
* Challenges all Olympians and Paralympians face
The 2012 program includes mandatory half-day sessions that take place at seminars conducted around the country, based on National Federation availability. The program allows for comprehensive discussions on the program objectives, including small group activities and interactive elements. A brief wrap-up session will be conducted in conjunction with the 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games, providing a quick overview of ambassador program learnings, while focusing on inspirational activities and final tips.
The program is primarily delivered by iconic U.S. Olympians and Paralympians who have demonstrated sportsmanship and perseverance on and off the field of play in their own careers. The Olympic facilitators have included speedskaters Bonnie Blair, Eric Heiden and Dan Jansen; football player Brandi Chastain; softball player Jessica Mendoza; skier Picabo Street; decathlete Dan O’Brien; and others.
### Positive Outcomes
* The program was first administered in 2008, followed by 2010. Both Olympic and Paralympic Games resulted in better behavior and self-awareness by members of Team USA. The overall feedback from the American public was pride in the athletes’ performances on the field of play, but also their conduct off the field as good representatives of the USA and members of the Olympic Movement.
* Athlete feedback on the program has been overwhelmingly positive. All athletes who complete the program are surveyed and rank program elements on a scale of 1-5, with 5 being the highest ranking. For the 2010 program, the average score on each question ranged from 4.0 to 4.4.
* The program has been a successful case study in bringing together cross-functional teams consisting of staff members throughout the National Olympic Committee, National Federations, alumni, coaches and athletes.
Not only have Team USA athletes represented themselves well on and off the field of play, but a nation and beyond have been inspired by their demonstration of the Olympic values. With 4 billion individuals around the world witnessing the Olympic Games, this program has the opportunity to disseminate elements of Olympism globally.
### Olympic Day
Olympic Day in the United Sates represents the pinnacle USOC-led event to educate youth on the values of Olympism by coordinating all the leaders within the U.S. Olympic Family. All constituencies within the U.S. Olympic Family work in tandem to spread the message of Olympism and plant seeds among youth about entering the athlete pipeline and pursuing their Olympic and Paralympic dreams.
U.S. Olympic Day celebrations of a national magnitude occurred for the first time in 2009 thanks to the support of Chicago 2016 and the U.S. Conference of Mayors, in conjunction with the U.S. Olympic Committee. In 2010, the U.S. Olympic Family rose to the challenge of surpassing the success of 2009 through increased participation among the National Federations, Athletes’ Advisory Council (AAC), Multi-Sport Organizations (MSO), current athletes, athlete alumni and more.
2011 proved to be the most successful U.S. Olympic Day in history From June 19-27, the U.S. saw:
* 385 events
* 311 participating cities in all 50 United States
* 230 Olympians, Paralympians, hopefuls and coaches
* 90,000 participants
At these events, athletes led discussions with youth about the Olympic Values of excellence, friendship and respect. Sports demonstrations, fun runs and festivals helped introduce young people to Olympic and Paralympic sport.
The U.S. Olympic Committee has designed a turnkey program that assists communities across the nation in celebrating Olympic Day. The organization creates a team of account managers who work directly with a portfolio of communities to provide assistance in preparing for the events. In addition, an online toolkit is available for each event, consisting of:
* Olympic Education Materials (scripts and DVD) for one of the following topics: fair play, respect, perseverance, sportsmanship
* Recommended Olympic Day agenda
* U.S. Olympic Flag
* Certificate of Participation
* Olympic Day Mayoral Proclamation Template
* News Release Templates
* Team USA Logo and Guidelines
* User-Generated website for posting photographs
The account manager also works with the more than 5,000 Olympians and Paralympians currently living in the United States, endeavoring to have an athlete present at most Olympic Day celebration to share their experiences and the role the Olympic Ideals have played in their lives.
Thanks to the support of all participating organizations, Olympic Day is on the verge of appearing in every community across America within the next several years while continuing to expand partnerships among the U.S. Olympic Family. Olympic Day is becoming a great springboard in the United States for disseminating Olympic values across and grassroots organizations and participants.
Contemporary Issues of Heat Illnesses
### Abstract
Heat illnesses are of major concern. More and more high school, college, and professional athletes are suffering from and/or dying from heat related illnesses. With all of the knowledge that medical professionals have in this day-in-age, there should be fewer instances of heat illnesses. Parents, coaches, and athletes also need to be aware of prevention and treatment procedures in case an emergency occurs. Heat stroke, the most serious heat illness, is a life threatening emergency and needs to be treated immediately. Ice water immersion is the best method for lowering the body temperature quickly and effectively.
**Key Words:** heat illness, heat stroke, heat index, prevention, treatment
### Introduction
After working on a sports medicine team for the last two years, exertional heat illnesses (EHI) were brought to my attention. I never knew how often they occurred or how life-threatening they could be. The purpose of this paper is to spread awareness to athletes, parents, and coaches, of the dangers of heat illnesses as well as how to prevent, treat, and return-to-play after an episode of heat illness. Heat illness-related deaths are on the rise, and I am curious to know why athletes are dying from heat injuries, such as heat stroke. In 2004, Coris et al. (4) stated, “the recent high-profile deaths of a collegiate athlete and a professional athlete in Florida and a professional athlete in Minnesota have the sports medicine and family medicine communities in a state of ‘high alert’ and searching for the most efficacious methods of preventing such tragedies.” In 2007, heat stroke was “the third leading cause of death in U.S. high school athletes.” (Coris, Walz, Konin, & Pescasio, 2007). Now, in 2010, “exertional heat stroke is the second leading cause of death among athletes, followed only by sudden cardiac death.” (Mazerolle, Scruggs, Casa, Burton, & McDermott, 2010). There are several different heat illnesses, ranging from mild to life threatening. Heat edema, heat rash, heat syncope, and heat cramps are the milder heat illnesses while heat exhaustion and heat stroke are more serious. Sunburns can also be considered a heat illness, ranging from mild to severe (1st degree to 3rd degree burns). Heat edema is swelling of the extremities, often found in people who are not used to activity, heat, or a combination of the two. Heat rash is a specific area of skin that has been irritated. It is often, red, inflamed, itchy, and tingly. Heat cramps are painful, involuntary muscle spasms, most often occurring in the abdomen or calf. Heat syncope is defined as an orthostatic dizziness which is a result of a sudden pooling of the blood in the extremities, commonly seen in marathon runners after they cross the finish line and abruptly stop running. Heat exhaustion occurs when an athlete has become dehydrated and has a core body temperature of approximately 102°F. This athlete will often feel dizzy, and present as pale, warm, and diaphoretic. They may also present with a rapid pulse and could be hyperventilating. Heat stroke is a life threatening emergency and care needs to be provided immediately. An athlete suffering from heat stroke will usually suddenly collapse. The athlete will have hot and dry skin, a rapid pulse, and a core body temperature above 104°F. Athletes, coaches, and medical staff will benefit the most from this paper as I provide information on how to prevent and treat heat illnesses, learn how to identify and modify risk factors, as well as considering communication and special circumstances. However, parents, family and friends of athletes can also benefit from this article in learning about ways to help if need be.
### Levels of Care
_Prevention_
One of the best methods for preventing heat illnesses, if done correctly, is the preparticipation physical exam (PPE). The PPE is used to find any intrinsic risk factors that an athlete may have. It could be anything from low blood pressure, to heart problems, from asthma to obesity, and everything in between. “Several intrinsic risk factors that increase susceptibility to EHI have been identified, but information about their relative contributions is limited. These risk factors include (a) previous history of EHI, (b) poor cardiovascular (CV) fitness, (c) obesity, (d) inadequate heat acclimatization, (e) dehydration or electrolyte imbalance, (f) recent febrile illness, (g) sleep deprivation, (h) a ‘never give up’ or ‘warrior’ mentality (high level of motivation or zealousness), and (i) use of questionable drugs, herbs, or supplements.” (Eberman, & Cleary, 2009). Each of these risk factors needs to be considered so that appropriate actions can be taken to provide the safest situation possible for the athlete at risk. An athlete with any of the previously mentioned risk factors is at a higher risk for experiencing a heat illness.
Not only do members of the sports medicine team need to be educated, but athletes, coaches, and parents should also be informed about the risks, signs and symptoms, and treatments of heat illnesses. If an athlete is suffering from heat stroke, it is essential to provide immediate treatment, and with more people being educated properly, faster treatment may be more readily accessible. Hydration is one of the most important factors in preventing heat illness. It is important to educate athletes and coaches on proper hydration techniques. In some instances, mostly seen in football, coaches have withheld water breaks as a form of punishment or as a motivation technique. The coaches may or may not have known that withholding water could be dangerous and life threatening in long durations. It seems that football players are more susceptible to heat illnesses because they have “double days” usually during the hottest part of the year. The double days often take place in the beginning of summer after a long summer break where athletes have not been practicing and have lost any acclimatization to exercise and heat that they had before. Therefore, the athletes are more likely to suffer from some form of heat illness during the first few weeks of practice. “During prolonged work periods in the heat, the maintenance of high sweat rates leads to progressive dehydration, which may be accompanied by impairment of mental and physical performance and of heat dissipation.” (Bates, & Miller, 2008). The combination of water and sports drinks seem to offer the best hydration. The sports drinks replenish sodium and other electrolytes that water does not have. However, only drinking sports drinks can provide too much salt and therefore, drinking water becomes necessary as well. “Ingestion of non-caffeinated sports drinks containing vital nutrients such as water, electrolytes and carbohydrates during exercise may help maintain physiological homeostasis, resulting in enhanced performance and/or reduced physiological stress on an athlete’s cardiovascular, central nervous and muscular systems. Both the volume of the rehydration fluid and its composition are critical in maintaining whole body fluid homeostasis.” (Snell, Ward, Kandaswami, & Stohs, 2010).
Proper clothing, equipment, and preparation are also key factors in preventing heat illness. “Heat production during exercise is 15 to 20 times greater than at rest, and is sufficient to raise a person’s core body temperature 1°C every five minutes, if there were no inherent regulatory mechanisms.” (Miners, 2010). It is important to drink fluids, monitor oneself and others and wear proper clothing. Players should be aware of how much fluid they drink and take note if they start to cramp or feel lightheaded. Players and coaches need to be sure to wear sunscreen and to reapply it accordingly. Lightweight, breathable clothing should be worn in order to allow air to flow and dissipate heat. Light-colored clothing should be worn when possible as the light colors reflect the sun’s rays where as darker colors such as black absorb the rays and thus intensifies the heat that the body is absorbing. Shorts and short-sleeved shirts should also be worn when possible to allow for as much breeze to flow to skin contact. This is the idea behind the recommendation of the National Athletic Trainer’s Association (NATA) and American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) to acclimatize to the heat. It is especially important for football players in the early summer months to follow this safety guideline. It can take up to 14 days to acclimatize the body to the heat. So, it is important to start off with shorter practices during the early morning or later evenings. The players should start practices in shorts and short-sleeved shirts and build up to pads, then full pads, and then finally full pads with full uniform. It is also important to slowly increase the length of time the players practice and to modify which part of the day they are practicing in. Not only do the athletes need their proper equipment to help prevent heat illness, but the coaches and sports medicine team need their proper equipment as well. Ice water immersion has been identified as the best way to cool a person’s body rapidly and so a small pool-like container is needed on the sidelines of every sporting event. Coolers of ice and others with water should be kept next to the pool with the intent to use it only for the need of an emergency. Other coolers should be provided for drinking water. In some cases where a small pool-like container is not available, ice water buckets and towels should be available to cool an athlete. The sports medicine team should also supply a few tents to allow a place for athletes to escape from the sun. Although it may be an uncomfortable situation for the athlete and/or the athletic trainer, rectal temperature is the best way to determine core body temperature. Oral, tympanic, or other methods of reading a temperature are just not sufficient enough. They do not read a true core body temperature. Ingestible pills that read the body’s temperature are a great way to find out the athlete’s temperature for a few days, however, they are costly. The pills can be used to track an athlete’s body temperature, which is especially important for those who are susceptible to heat illnesses.
_Modifiable Risks_
Some of the things listed above in prevention techniques are also found in the modifiable risks category. Acclimatization to heat, dehydration, humidity, and high heat are all risks that can be modified, and thus, prevented. With proper education and planning, a heat acclimatization process can be initiated, proper hydration methods can be provided, and practices and games can be modified accordingly whether high heat, humidity, or other environmental factors occur. As mentioned above, the ACSM has set recommendations for acclimatization to heat but they also include information on hydration, humidity, and heat. “These recommendations consist of guidelines that measure heat stress and define the severity of heat stress by a Wet Bulb Globe Temperature (WBGT) Index. Based on the WBGT at the time of the event, the ACSM also has recommendations regarding the type, durations, and frequency of exercise regimes for a particular day, the frequency of hydration and rest breaks, and whether or not the activity should be moved to a different time of day or cancelled altogether.” (Cooper, Jr, Ferrara, & Broglio, 2006). Each sports medicine team should make their own policy based on these recommendations. Each employee should receive a copy and should sign a form acknowledging receipt and cooperation. The WBGT Index has become widely recognized and used as one of the best methods to determine whether it is safe to engage in physical activity outside or not. “WBGT is not air temperature, but is measuring the relative heat and humidity. It indicates web bulb globe temperature, an index of climatic heat stress that can be on the field by the use of a psychrometer…High WBGT indicates extreme risk of heat-related problems and appears to be one of the best predictors of heat illness.” (Cleary, 2007).
_Measuring Heat_
Another way to help determine whether it is safe to participate in physical exercise outside is by using one of the many heat index charts available to the public. A new one in particular, the Kleiner Exertional Heat Illness Scale (KEHIS), eliminates the many traditional categories of heat edema, heat cramps, heat, syncope, heat exhaustion and heat stroke and combines them to set three categories: mild, moderate, and severe. This scale is similar to the Glasgow Coma Scale in that it uses a points system to help determine which category the person falls into. Since not every person will have each sign or symptom found in the traditional categories, Kleiner felt this method of a point system would help identify the seriousness of the illness the athlete is suffering from. The points range from zero to 25. “A need exists for a universal scale that can objectively quantify the severity of heat-related illness. The KEHIS has been designed to fill that void. A KEHIS score of 12 is different than a KEHIS score of 15, and a score of 15 on one patient has the same level of urgency as a score of 15 in another. There is no disagreement about the level of severity.” (Kleiner, 2002). So, the WBGT and other heat index charts are used to determine whether it is safe to begin play and the KEHIS is used to determine which level of heat illness a person is experiencing. It is important to identify which level the athlete is experiencing because a severe, or heat stroke illness, is life threatening and needs to be treated immediately. It is also important to determine if an athlete is experiencing a mild or moderate heat illness. Heat illnesses are a continuum and one level can progress to the next very quickly.
### Considerations
_Communication_
Communication between medical team members is crucial when dealing with an emergency. The Certified Athletic Trainer (ATC) is usually the only medical personnel on the sideline for athletic events. In some cases a physician, physical therapist, and/or Emergency Medical Services (EMS) may also be present. One of the best ways for a medical team to effectively communicate during a medical emergency is by having an Emergency Action Plan (EAP) in place. Practice of the EAP is essential so that every person knows exactly what their job is in order to help eliminate confusion and chaos during the actual emergency. The EAP should specifically list every member of the medical team, their title, and contact information. Each venue; baseball field, soccer field, gymnasium, tennis courts, pool, etc., will need their own specific EAP established. Things included should be where to locate the ATC and emergency equipment such as Automated External Defibrillator (AED), splints, crutches, spine board, and bandages, to name a few. Communication lines such as cell phone, land lines, or 2-way radio with frequency and channel information, should also be noted. Also included in the venue section are directions for EMS to reach the specific facility. Details on who will call 911 and who will meet the ambulance when it arrives should also be included. This section should also have a list of all the area hospitals and directions so that they may be given to family members of those being transported. Other things to consider are environmental concerns such as thunderstorms, lightening, hail, hurricane, tornados, etc. For each of these situations, there needs to be a specific “safe location” for people to evacuate. Instructions for athletes to drop any metal equipment (bats, rackets, clubs, etc.) and for anyone to avoid metal stadium seating or tall trees are of utmost importance. The ATC will be in direct communication with the head coaches and officials and can suspend the game for safety reasons at any point.
With specific regards to heat illness injury, communication is crucial between members of the medical team. From the time the athlete suffers an attack, the ATC must put the EAP into action. After the athlete is released from the hospital, communication needs to be present between the athlete, athletic trainer, physician, coach, and in the case of a minor, the parents or guardians. Communication is crucial in order to provide the best care possible for the athlete.
_Returning-to-play_
Currently, there is no one set of standards for returning-to-play (RTP) after suffering a heat illness attack. Some commonly found suggestions include: 1) athlete suffered from heat cramps can RTP after hydrating until the cramps are gone, 2) athlete who suffered heat exhaustion should not RTP for 24 hours or more, and 3) athlete who suffered from heat stroke should stay out of activity for at least one week and must be cleared by a physician. “Recovery from EHI is typically determined by normalization of serum electrolytes, CK, creatinine, liver function tests, and normal mental status. When EHI victims meet these conditions, they can resume light to moderate exercise for 15 minutes daily. Maximal efforts, such as competitive running, and competitive sports, such as football, should not be permitted until recovery is complete. . . If the victim does not exhibit heat tolerance after three months post EHI episode, recommendations can be modified to an unrestricted exercise/workload, but maximal exertion, particularly during significant heat load conditions, should avoided.” (Muldoon, Deuster, Voelkel, Capacchione, & Bunger, 2008). Even though there are no set standards of returning an athlete to play, it seems wise to assure proper hydration and clear mental status as well as being cleared by a physician before allowing the athlete to compete. The timeline of RTP widely varies depending on the type of heat illness suffered and varies from athlete-to-athlete. As far as I, a medical professional, am concerned, we need to establish a professional standard for returning athletes back to practice and competition.
_Special circumstances_
There are many special circumstances to consider when dealing with heat illnesses. Amateur athletes, older athletes, and “weekend warriors” are of major concern themselves. These athletes tend to be out of shape or far less active than the collegiate or professional athlete, and yet many expect to go out and perform just as well. They push themselves too far and often experience a myriad of injuries and illnesses as a result. “Amateur participants may not have a complete understanding of recommended strategies for handling outdoor extreme conditions like heat and humidity. Thus, heat-related illnesses like heat stress and eventually heat stroke become increasingly possible, with susceptibility increasing with age, vulnerability factors like co-morbidity (e.g., chronic diseases), and various health-related behaviors (e.g., nutrition, hydrations, and sleep or rest).” (Shendell, Alexander, Lorentzon, & McCarty, 2010).
When thinking of athletes, many think of sports that take place on land. However, athletes who compete in or on the water are also of concern. Just because the athlete is in or on the water does not mean that they should be treated any differently than the land athlete. With regards to those athletes on the water, “paddlers should be encouraged to drink to thirst and replace electrolytes during long distance races and frequently be assessed for signs and symptoms of heat illness to prevent life threatening increases in body temperature and heat stroke. Paddlers should aggressively seek sun protection and have lacerations and skin injuries properly cleaned and evaluated by medical personnel if there are signs of infection.” (Haley, & Nichols, 2009).
On the other end of the spectrum are those who may have other health issues, thus, making them even more susceptible to exertional heat illnesses. Some researchers believe that there may be a link between exertional heat illness with those who have exertional rhabdomyolysis (ER), malignant hyperthermia (MH), and/or menstrual cycles. While exertional heat illness can be described as someone who has extreme high core body temperature, impaired mental status, and possible musculoskeletal or organ damage, a person with malignant hyperthermia does as well. Both EHI and MH are also both found in otherwise healthy people. Some of the people, who suffered from what appeared to be EHI, were later found to actually have been malignant hyperthermia. In contradiction, ER can also occur in warm or cool environments. However, like EHI and MH, “ER also is a hypermetabolic state wherein the skeletal cell membrane is severely compromised and serum CK values are markedly increased.” (Muldoon, et al, 2008). The recovery process of each of these seems to be very similar in that it calls for normalization of CK, serum electrolytes, creatinine, and liver functions. As of 2008, there are no biochemical tests, genetic tests, or functional bioassay tests available to determine the differences between the three. Further research is needed in order to be able to identify the similarities, differences, and treatments for each. In addition, Muldoon mentioned that females are more susceptible to heat illnesses than males. While searching through other articles I ran across an article researching the physiological responses to the menstrual cycle. In this article it was shown that females had a longer time to exhaustion than expected but was thought that by extending their time to exhaustion they become more susceptible to injury or illness. “Given the difficulty in conducting clinical research into the development of heat illness, obtaining evidence of the theoretical increased susceptibility to heat illness during the luteal phase in females remains elusive; however, it is an area that warrants further investigation.” (Marsh, & Jenkins, 2002).
The last special circumstance to consider is that of actually warming up before an activity while wearing an ice vest. The ice vest warm up was used on runners in a long distance race. The results showed that although heart rates varied, a lower body temperature was a consistent result. “The ice vest slowed the increase in core temperature throughout cross-country warm-up and racing among the participants of this study. With the reduced thermal strain, greater blood flow may be available for transport of oxygen to muscle. Sweat rate will likely be decreased during performance when the ice vest is used during the warm-up, and with a decreased sweat rate, blood volume should be better maintained, improving oxygen delivery to muscles. The greater blood flow and blood volume should lead to a better performance.” (Hunter, Hopkins, & Casa, 2006). While it is a fairly new idea, the ice vest warm up seems to provide impressive results. If we can decrease the core body temperature before an athletic event, it will theoretically, take longer for an athlete’s core body temperature to rise to a dangerous level. I found this article of interest because I am an athletic trainer in southern California where heat illnesses seem to be on the rise.
### Conclusions
In conclusion, the hope of this paper was to provide insight to how serious heat illnesses can be and how easy it is to prevent them. Currently, it seems that not enough people are knowledgeable of heat illnesses and the danger they possess. I urge everyone to take the time to learn about the prevention, treatments, and possible outcomes of heat illnesses. Learning this information could save a life. Even after years of education and research on heat illness, more and more athletes are suffering and dying from heat stroke. It is currently the second most leading cause of death in high school athletes and I find that totally unacceptable. The research and information on heat illness is out there for the public, however, they seem unaware of it. Medical professionals need to find a way to educate the public about heat illnesses, whether it is for the athlete or just a regular person.
### Applications in Sport
The mild versions of heat illness include: heat edema, heat rash, heat syncope, and heat cramps while heat exhaustion and heat stroke are much more serious and can lead to death. Parents and athletes need to be educated about the risks of playing sports, including environmental factors such as heat and humidity. Athletes also need to be aware of proper hydration methods to keep themselves healthy. The parents, athletes, coaches, and sports medicine team need to be on the same page with regards to the athletes’ safety and well being. Things like acclimatizing to the heat over a period of at least two weeks, proper hydration techniques, wearing proper, light-colored, breathable clothing, and identifying any underlying health issues before the start of the season are all important factors in helping to prevent heat illnesses. The sports medicine team is ultimately responsible for the safety of the athletes and must provide proper equipment, like a small pool with coolers of ice and water, for use of an ice water-immersion in the event of a heat related emergency. Communication between athletes, coaches, parents, and the sports medicine team are a necessity. An emergency action plan needs to be in place and implemented should an emergency arise. The timeline of when an athlete can return to play is unclear, however, the participant should be properly hydrated, have a clear mental status and should be cleared by a physician before returning to competition. There are always athletes with special circumstances or underlying health issues and it is important to try to identify these before the sport season begins so appropriate planning can be done regarding those issues. Further research is needed in the distinction between exertional heat illness, exertional rhabdomyolysis, and malignant hyperthermia. Additional information is also sought for those with menstrual cycles and the effect of possible heat illnesses. Warming up with an ice-vest also seems like it could be beneficial to the athlete, however, I believe additional research is still needed.
### Acknowledgments
None
### References
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