2001 – Page 2 – The Sport Journal

Effects of Three Modified Plyometric Depth Jumps and Periodized Weight Training on Lower Extremity Power

Damon P. S. Andrew, Troy University; John E. Kovaleski, University of South Alabama; Robert J. Heitman, University of South Alabama; Tracey L. Robinson, Adams State College

Abstract

Plyometric exercises increase muscular power and are most effective when designed to complement the specific movements required of the athletic activity. This study compared the effects of modified depth jump plyometric exercises versus a periodized weight training program on the following functional tests: one-legged vertical jump, two-legged vertical jump, 30-meter sprint, standing broad jump, and 1 RM of the seated single leg press. Sixty-four untrained participants (18-28yr) were randomly assigned to one of the following groups: hip depth jump (n = 12), knee depth jump (n = 13), ankle depth jump (n = 13), weight training (n = 13), or a control (n = 13). Experimental groups trained two days a week for 12 weeks. Statistically significant improvements were observed among the plyometric groups for functional tests of power and the weight training group for functional tests of strength and speed. Results indicate that modified plyometric depth jumps offer a greater degree of specificity related to power training in athletes.

Key Words

Hip depth jump, knee depth jump, ankle depth jump, muscle power, resistance training, plyometrics

Introduction

The term “plyometrics” refers to specific exercises which encompass a rapid stretching of muscle that is undergoing eccentric stress followed by a concentric, rapid contraction of that muscle for the purpose of developing a forceful movement over a short period of time (Chu, 1983). One particular plyometric activity, the depth jump, has been shown to improve power in the vertical jump (Batholemew, 1985; Miller, 1982; Parcells, 1977; Verkhoshanski & Tatyan, 1983). Depth jumps are a type of dynamic exercise where an individual steps off a box 20 to 80 centimeters in height, lands, and performs an explosive vertical jump (Wilson, Murphy, & Giorgi, 1996). The depth jump is thought to enhance vertical jump performance through the quickening of the amortization phase, which is the electromechanical delay from the initiation of eccentric to the initiation of concentric muscle actions of the movement (Steben & Steben, 1981).

Plyometric depth jumps have been modified to generate greater stresses at the joints of the hip, knee, and ankle (Holcomb, Lander, Rutland, & Wilson, 1996a). These variations were identified as the hip depth jump (HDJ), knee depth jump (KDJ), and ankle depth jump (ADJ). Each variation included modifications to the range of motion of the joint being emphasized during the eccentric portion of the depth jump. The HDJ, KDJ, and ADJ are thought to increase the workload, and thus power, at the particular joint for which they are named. The need for such a modification stemmed from biomechanical analysis of both the vertical and depth jumps. In biomechanical analysis of the vertical jump, the hip was found to contribute 23-39% of the total work done during the vertical jump (Bobbert, Huijing, & Van Ingen Schenaue, 1987; Bobbert, MacKay, Schinkelshoek, Huijing, & Van Ingen Schenaue, 1986; Hubley & Wells, 1983; Van Soest, Roebroeck, Bobbert, Huijing, & Van Ingen Schenaue, 1985). However, two analyses of the depth jump revealed the hip contribution to be only 19% and 13% respectively (Bobbert et al., 1986, 1987). Consequently, the traditional plyometric depth jump does not stress the hip joint to the extent that it is used during the vertical jump, the functional task it was originally designed to enhance.

Biomechanical analysis of the modified plyometric depth jumps was also performed to analyze joint contribution through total work done at each joint (Holcomb et al., 1996a). Total work at the hip, knee, and ankle joints was 80%, 5%, and 15%, respectively, during the HDJ. Analysis of the KDJ revealed contributions of 37% at the hip joint, 49% at the knee joint, and 14% at the ankle joint. The joint contributions during the ADJ were reported to be 24%, 20%, and 56% at the hip, knee, and ankle joints, respectively. Therefore, each depth jump primarily stressed the particular joint for which it was named.

The effectiveness of training programs is routinely measured via functional test performance. Functional tests usually contain a series of movements that have high correlations with athletic activity and are used for research, evaluation, and rehabilitation purposes. Biomechanical analyses of functional tests can reveal percent joint contributions to the activity. Table 1 contains the percent joint contributions of modified plyometric depth jumps and selected functional tests for this study. Although specific joint contributions have not been calculated for the 30-meter sprint or seated single leg press, some research has examined the power output of these functional tests. Researchers have identified the hip to be a dominant force producer in sprints of short duration (Mero & Komi, 1990; Mero ,Komi, & Gregor, 1992; Mero & Peltola, 1989). Wilk et al. (1996) examined the electromyographic activity of the quadriceps and hamstring muscles during a two-legged seated leg press and found a high degree of quadriceps activity, suggesting significant power contributions from the knee joint. When compared to the squat, the seated leg press allows for smaller compressive forces to the tibiofemoral joint (Escamilla et al., 1998), making the activity an ideal accommodation for untrained participants.

Table 1
Percent joint power contribution of modified plyometric depth jumps and functional tests

	Hip Joint	Knee Joint	Ankle Joint
Hip depth jump (22)	80	5	15
Knee depth jump (22)	37	49	15
Ankle depth jump (22)	24	20	56
30-m sprint	N/A	N/A	N/A
One-legged VJ (39)	34.4	23.9	41.7
Two-legged VJ (25)	28	49	23
Two-legged VJ (39)	32.9	37.7	29.4
Two-legged VJ (35)	40	24.2	35.8
Two-legged VJ (22)	57	23	20
Standing broad jump (35)	45.9	3.9	50.2
Seated single leg press	N/A	N/A	N/A

Holcomb Lander, Rutland, and Wilson (1996b) continued their research with a progressive resistance eight week training study comparing the modified plyometric depth jumps to other methods that have shown to significantly increase vertical jump height, including conventional plyometric depth jumps (Adams, O’Shea, O’Shea, & Climstein, M, 1992;, Blattner & Noble, 1979; Brown, Mayhew, & Boleach, 1986; Gehri, Ricard, Kleiner, & Kirkendall, 1998; Hewett, Stroupe, Nance, & Noyes, 1996; Huber, 1987; Polhemus & Burkhardt, 1980; Verkhoshanski & Tatyan, 1983; Wilson et al., 1996), countermovement jumps (Clutch, Wilton, McGown, & Bryce, 1983; Gehri et al., 1998), and weight training (Baker, Wilson, & Carlyon, 1994; Blaket, 1985; Ford et al., 1983; Stowers et al., 1983). The researchers chose to combine all three of the modified depth jumps into the training schedule of one group (Mod. Plyo) and compared that group to a traditional depth jump group (Plyo), a countermovement jump group (CMJ), a weight training group (WT), and a control group (CON). The weight training group performed four lower extremity exercises with progressive resistance including standing plantar flexion, knee extension, knee flexion, and leg press, while the control group did not train. The 51 college age male participants in the study trained three times per week for eight weeks. The exercise volume was controlled so that each group performed an identical number of repetitions, whether it involved lifting weights or jumping.

The results showed non-significant improvement for all groups during the static jump. All training groups improved performance in the countermovement jump (CMJ improved 4.0%; WT improved 4.7%; Plyo improved 6.5%; Mod. Plyo improved 4.5%), but the CON group performance decreased 3.2%. The traditional plyometric group differed significantly from the control group (9.7% difference). The lack of significant improvement of the Mod. Plyo group was attributed to a possible negative impact on the learning of the proper technique required for a successful jump due to altered range of motion of the plyometric depth jumps. We suggested that future research incorporate a longer period of training to assure a higher training effect.

Weight training has been shown to enhance power primarily through gains in peak force of the muscle rather than rate of force development (Hakkinen, Allen, & Komi, 1985a). Plyometric training of the lower extremity has been demonstrated to promote power primarily through increased rate of force development rather than increased peak force of the muscle (Bobbert, 1990; Hakkinen, Komi, & Allen, 1985b, Lundin, 1985). A positive relationship has been established between plyometric training and improvement in several functional tests of the lower extremity in addition to the vertical jump (Lyttle, Wilson, & Ostrowski, 1996; Wilson, Newton, Murphy, & Humphries, 1993). However, recent developments in modified plyometric depth jumps show promise of increased specificity for power training of the lower extremity (Holcomb et al., 1996a, 1996b). According to the principle of specificity (Wilmore & Costill, 1994), one should expect that a training program designed to stress the specific physiological systems required for the output activity would result in optimal performance. Holcomb et al. (1996b) grouped all of the modified plyometric depth jumps into one training program, which eliminated the possibility to determine the specific effects of each modified plyometric depth jump. Therefore, the purpose of this research was to assess the effects of three types of plyometric depth jumps and weight training on the (a) one-legged vertical jump with a countermovement, (b) two-legged vertical jump with a countermovement, (c) 30-meter sprint, (d) standing broad jump with a countermovement, and (e) 1 RM of the seated single leg press following a 12-week training program. The separation of the three modified plyometric depth jumps into distinct groups along with the addition of other functional tests for the lower extremity should show the increased training specificity of the modified plyometric depth jumps.

Hypothesis

Based on the biomechanical data concerning joint contributions in Table 1, the researchers formulated the following hypotheses:

H1: Participants who trained using the hip depth jump will significantly improve their 30-meter sprint times versus the participants who train using the knee and ankle depth jumps, weight training, and the control group.
H2: Participants who trained using the knee depth jump will significantly improve their two-legged vertical jump heights versus the participants who train using the hip and ankle depth jumps, weight training, and the control group.
H3: Participants who trained using the ankle depth jump will significantly improve their one-legged vertical jump heights and standing broad jump distances versus the participants who train using the hip and knew depth jumps, weight training, and the control group.
H4: Participants who weight trained the lower extremity will significantly improve their 1RM of the seated single leg press versus the participants who train using the hip, knee, and ankle depth jumps, and the control group.

Methods

Participants

Sixty-four recreationally active college-aged individuals volunteered for this study (Table 2). The participants did not perform either plyometric or weight training of their lower extremity for a period of at least six months prior to the study. After approval by the University’s IRB, all participants signed an informed consent.

Table 2
Descriptive group data

	HDJ^a	KDJ^a	ADJ^a	WT^a	CON^a
Number	12	13	13	13	13
Sex^b	M=9; F=3	M=11; F=2	M=8; F=5	M=7; F=6	M=9; F=4
Height (cm)	174.8 ± 8.3	177.0 ± 7.5	176.8 ± 9.7	175.3 ± 11.7	173.6 ± 11.4
Mass (kg)	70.6 ± 13.5	75.8 ± 14.3	72.8 ± 12.4	69.6 ± 15.5	76.4 ± 17.9
Age (yr)	22.3 ± 2.6	20.8 ± 1.6	20.8 ± 1.3	21.0 ± 2.4	22.0 ± 1.7

a) HDJ = hip depth jump, KDJ = knee depth jump, ADJ = ankle depth jump, WT = weight training, CON = control;
b) M = male, F = female

Participants were randomly assigned to one of five groups: hip depth jump, knee depth jump, ankle depth jump, weight training, or a control group that did not train.

Depth Jump Protocol

Three plyometric depth jump groups performed only the specific exercise for which their group was named. The exercises were performed as described by Holcomb et al. (1996b). For the hip depth jump, the subject began to flex the trunk during the fall from the box so that the trunk was flexed to 45° upon landing and continued to flex the trunk until the trunk was parallel to the ground. In the knee depth jump, the subject landed fairly erect, and flexed to beyond 90° at the knee, all while keeping the trunk erect. During the ankle depth jump, the subject remained as erect as possible when landing except for slight flexion at the knee. For all three jump groups, the participants jumped vertically with maximum effort as quickly as possible after landing.

All three depth jump groups performed an identical training protocol that included seven sets of 12 repetitions, which resulted in a total of 2016 repetitions for the 24 training sessions. Each jump set was followed by a period of rest from three to four minutes. Training intensity, defined as initial height of the depth jump, began with a 15.24 cm (six inch) drop height and progressed an additional 15.24 cm every three weeks, ending with a 60.96 cm (24 inch) drop height. The modified plyometric training groups were monitored by a researcher for correct jump form to ensure proper joint stress.

Weight Training Protocol

The weight training group’s exercises included the seated single leg press, standing calf raise, and knee extension and flexion for each leg. The weight training program was designed to first develop muscle strength with progression to workouts that emphasized muscle power. This periodized approach consisted of four phases with each phase lasting three weeks. The first phase involved three sets of ten repetitions of the subject’s ten repetition maximum for each exercise. The second phase included three sets of eight repetitions of the subject’s eight repetition maximum for each exercise. The third phase involved three sets of six repetitions of the subject’s six repetition maximum for each exercise. Finally, the fourth phase included three sets of four repetitions of the subject’s four repetition maximum for each exercise. The subject’s one repetition maximum for each exercise was measured prior to each phase, and a chart that estimates weight for designated multiple repetitions based on the one repetition maximum was used as a guide for training weight selection (Fleck & Kraemer, 1987). The weight training group completed a total of 2016 repetitions at the conclusion of the 24 workout sessions. The weight training protocol was more periodized than that of the modified plyometric depth jump groups because both repetitions and intensity were manipulated for the weight training group, whereas only intensity was manipulated for the modified plyometric depth jump groups.

Testing Protocol

Both the two-legged and one-legged vertical jumps were performed with a countermovement, with the subject’s dominant leg used for one-legged jumping. Testing procedures included having the subject standing flat-footed and erect facing a marked wall while extending the dominant arm. The highest height at which the fingers touched the wall was recorded. The subject then jumped vertically with maximum effort. The Vertec jump training system (Sports Imports, Inc., Columbus, Ohio) was used for data collection, and the best of three trials was recorded. The total vertical jump score was calculated in centimeters as the standing height score from the marked wall subtracted from the jumping height score of the Vertec. The vertical jump results along with the subject’s weight were used as variables in an equation to convert the data into Watts, a true measure of power that allows a fair comparison between participants (Sayers, Harackiewicw, Harman, Frykman, & Rosenstein, 1999). The Sayers formula (Sayers et al., 1999) is as follows: Peak Power (W) = 60.7 × [jump height (cm)] + 45.3 × [body mass (kg)] – 2055.

The standing broad jump was performed by jumping horizontally from a starting line with a countermovement. The participants began in a standing position with both feet firmly positioned on the ground. The participants jumped horizontally with maximum effort landing on both feet, and the distance covered from the heel of the foot closest to the back of the starting line was measured. The best of three trials was recorded in centimeters.

The 30m sprint was performed by running a distance of 30 meters from a stationary position as quickly as possible. The participants began in a crouched sprinter’s position without blocks and were timed using a Solo time 450 electronic timing system with a hand pad (Solo Time, Denver, Colorado). The hand pad was placed on the starting line and was contacted by the subject’s hand after an acceptable starting position was obtained. The use of this device allowed the subject to begin the sprint at his or her own command by releasing the hand from the hand pad with the initiation of the sprint. When pressure to the hand pad was released, the electronic timing device was activated until the subject crossed an electric beam at the finish line. The participants performed three sprint trials and were allowed three minutes rest between each trial. The best of three trials for the time (seconds) it took the subject to travel 30 meters was recorded.

The dominant and non-dominant leg press was performed using a Paramount leg press machine (Paramount Fitness Equipment Co., Los Angeles, California). The participants were placed in a seated position with approximately 90° of knee flexion and instructed to lift the maximum amount of weight possible using only a single leg against the weight plate. The one repetition maximum mass for the dominant and non-dominant legs was recorded in kilograms along with the subject’s seat position data to ensure identical seat position from the pre to post test.

Data Analysis

Paired sample T-tests were used to analyze the difference between pre and post-test scores. A One-Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was performed on the pre-test scores for all groups on all functional tests. Due to significant differences between groups in pre-test dominant leg press scores, Analysis of Co-variance (ANCOVA) was used for subsequent analysis of functional test data. Significant findings from ANCOVA prompted Bonferroni adjusted independent sample T-tests for post hoc analysis. These T-tests compared the group hypothesized to excel in that particular functional test to the other groups. All tests were performed at the 0.05 alpha level of significance.

Results

Percent change from pre- to post-testing for all functional tests are presented in Table 3.

30 Meter Sprint

For the 30m sprint, only the weight training group lowered their times significantly (t = 2.226, df = 1, 12; p = .046) from pre to post-test, but the group’s improvement was not found to be significantly better than any other group (F = 1.181, df = 4, 63; p = .165).

Leg Press

Significant improvements were noted for the HDJ (t = -8.130, df = 1, 11; p < .001), KDJ (t = -8.849, df = 1, 12; p < .001), ADJ (t = -4.054, df = 1, 12; p = .002), and WT (t = -9.142, df = 1, 12; p < .001) groups for the dominant leg press. The WT group recorded the most improvement and was found to be statistically greater than the ADJ (t = 1.917, df = 1, 12; p = .035) and CON (t = 6.073, df = 1, 12; p < .001) groups.

Similar results were obtained for the non-dominant leg press. Significant improvements were gained by the HDJ (t = -6.607, df = 1, 11; p < .001), KDJ (t = -8.973, df = 1, 12; p < .001), ADJ (t = -4.068, df = 1, 12; p = .002), and WT (-8.652, df = 1, 12; p < .001) groups. Even though the WT group improved the most, it was statistically superior to only the CON (t = 3.959, df = 1, 12; p < .001) group.

Standing Broad Jump

Significant improvements for the HDJ (t = -2.687, df = 1, 11; p = .021), KDJ (t = -4.466, df = 1, 12; p < .001), and ADJ (t = -6.287, df = 1, 12; p < .001) groups were observed for the standing broad jump. The ADJ group recorded the greatest improvement but was not found to be statistically greater than any other group (F = 1.386, df = 4, 63; p = .125).

Vertical Jump

For the one-legged vertical jump, significant improvements were recorded for the KDJ (t = -4.335, df = 1, 12; p < .001), ADJ (t = -2.981, df = 1, 12; p = .011), and CON (t = -2.920, df = 1, 12; p = .013) groups. Even though the KDJ group improved the greatest, it was not statistically superior to any other group (F = 1.537, df = 4, 63; p = .102).

In the two-legged vertical jump, the results showed significant improvements for the KDJ (t = -3.721, df = 1, 12; p = .003), ADJ (t = -3.865, df = 1, 12; p = .002), and CON (t = -2.792, df = 1, 12; p = .016) groups. The ADJ group showed the most improvement and was found to be statistically superior only to the WT (t = 2.380, df = 1, 12; p = .014) group.

Discussion

The influence of the principle of specificity of exercise (Wilmore & Costill, 1994) was evident when examining the results of this study. In general, the modified plyometric depth jump groups excelled in functional tests of power, while the periodized WT group performed better in functional tests of speed and strength. However, not all testing outcomes occurred as expected.

The WT group showed the greatest increases in dominant and non-dominant leg press strength. In regards to the principle of specificity of exercise, this outcome was expected since the WT group incorporated dominant and non-dominant leg press exercises in their training protocol. In addition, significant increases in leg strength were also gained by the HDJ, KDJ, and ADJ groups. Previous plyometric training studies (Adams, 1984; 14, 34) have reported gains in leg strength (12.7 to 23.8%), but not to the magnitude shown by the modified plyometric depth jump groups (29.1 to 48.4%) with this study. Chu (NSCA, 1986) describes plyometric depth jumping as an activity that acts to increase the neuromuscular system’s ability to perform concentric contraction more effectively because the forces encountered in plyometric exercises lead to greater synchronous activity of motor units and earlier recruitment of larger motor units via the myotatic reflex. Therefore, the significant increases in leg strength experienced by the modified plyometric depth jump groups may be in response to an enhanced neuromuscular system.

A review of the biomechanical aspects of lower extremity functional tests revealed the contributions of each joint to the performance of a particular functional test. Muscle activation patterns involving EMG analysis of sprint running during its initial phases show maximal power output occurring at the hip joint (Mero & Komi, 1990). Although sprinting primarily measures speed, a short distance was chosen to maximize analysis of acceleration time, thereby increasing the measurement of power. Therefore, those training for power at the hip joint should have a physiological advantage when performing a short sprint. However, only the periodized WT group improved significantly from pre to post-testing. The possible explanations for this finding include the sprinting distance, which may have been too short to emphasize power production, and the use of untrained participants, who may have had low levels of muscle strength before training.

A study concerning the kinetics of broad jumping reported the joint power contributions of the hip, knee, and ankle joints to be 45.9%, 3.9%, and 50.2%, respectively (Robertson & Fleming, 1987). The ADJ group recorded the greatest gains as expected, but the HDJ and KDJ groups also attained significant improvements. Perhaps the general gains in lower extremity power by the modified plyometric depth jump groups enabled significant improvements in broad jumping distances.

Van Soest, Roebroeck, Bobbert, Huijing, and Van Ingen Schenau (1985) reported the joint power contributions of the hip, knee, and ankle joints during the one-legged vertical jump to be 34.4%, 23.9%, and 41.7%, respectively. The greatest gains in the one-legged vertical jump were experienced by the KDJ group, but significant improvements were also recorded for the ADJ and CON groups. The CON group also achieved significance despite showing the lowest percentage of height gain of all groups. The dominance of the KDJ group in this functional test was unexpected due to its reported low involvement in the activity when compared to the other joints of the lower extremity (Van Soest et al., 1985). Perhaps the knee joint is more important to power production during the one-legged vertical jump than previously reported.

Biomechanical analysis of the two-legged vertical jump showed the joint contributions for the hip, knee, and ankle joints to range from 28 to 57%, 23 to 49%, and 20 to 35.8%, respectively (Holcomb et al., 1996a; Hubley & Wells, 1983; Robertson & Fleming, 1987; Van Soest et al., 1985). The ADJ group improved most from pre to post-test, but significant results were also recorded for the KDJ and CON groups. Although the CON group agreed not to undertake any additional training outside of their normal daily activities, perhaps the normal activities of the physical education students selected for the control group influenced their performance on the functional tests. However, this possibility is merely speculation as an exit interview was not conducted due to time constraints.

An equalization of training volume was attempted between groups in this study through equating total training repetitions. Future training studies involving modified plyometric depth jumps should examine variables such as length of training period, participants’ prior training status, and training volume and intensity. Limited research has compared the training stimuli of depth jumping versus weight lifting in regards to the magnitude of stimulus provided by each respective training repetition. Perhaps lifting a particular weight produces a greater stimulus to the muscle than depth jumping from a particular height, or vice versa.

Furthermore, the exercise performed by the WT group emphasized involvement of the entire lower extremity, while the modified plyometric depth jumps primarily stressed one particular joint and muscle group. Perhaps a fairer comparison could be made if the weight training exercises were designed to be joint specific and then compared to the respective modified plyometric depth jump. The inclusion of weight training with the plyometric exercise, which has been reported to produce a synergistic training effect in traditional plyometric activities (Lyttle et al., 1996), could also be examined.

In summary, the effectiveness of four training methods constructed for their potential improvement of strength, speed, and power among untrained participants was examined in this study. Generally, functional tests requiring power were dominated by the modified plyometric training groups while the periodized weight training group prevailed on tests emphasizing strength and speed. The strength and conditioning professional can apply these results to better create training programs for athletes desiring strength, speed, and power of the lower extremity.

About the Authors

Damon P.S. Andrew is the Dean of Health and Human Services at Troy University in Troy, Alabama. John E. Kovaleski and Robert J. Heitman are from the Department of Health, Physical Education and Leisure Studies at the University of South Alabama in Mobile, Alabama. Tracey L. Robinson is from the Department of Human Performance and Physical Education at Adams State College in Alamosa, Colorado.

Corresponding author:

Damon P. S. Andrew, Ph.D.
Dean, College of Health and Human Services
Troy University

153 Collegeview
Troy, AL 36082
Office: 334-670-3712
Fax: 334-670-3743
dandrew@troy.edu

Adams, K., O’Shea, J., O’Shea, K., & Climstein, M. (1992). The effect of six weeks of squat, plyometric, and squat-plyometric training on power production. Journal of Applied Sports Science Research, 6, 36-41.

Adams, T. (1984). An investigation of selected plyometric training exercises on muscular leg strength and power. Track and Field Quarterly Review, 84(4), 36-40.

Baker, D., Wilson, G. & Carlyon, R. (1994). Periodization: The effect on strength of manipulating volume and intensity. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 8, 235-242.

Bartholemew, S. (1985). Plyometrics and vertical jump training. Unpublished master’s thesis. University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill.

Blakey, J. (1985). The combined effects of weight training and plyometrics on dynamic leg strength and power. National Strength and Conditioning Association Journal, 1, 60.

Blattner, S., & Noble, L. (1979). Relative effects of isokinetic and plyometric training on vertical jumping performance. Research Quarterly, 50, 583-588.

Bobbert, M. (1990). Drop jumping as a training method for jumping ability. Sports Medicine. 9, 7-22.

Bobbert, M., Huijing, P., & Van Ingen Schenaue, G. (1987). Drop jumping II: The influence of dropping height on the biomechanics of drop jumping. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 19, 339-346.

Bobbert, M., Mackay, M., Schinkelshoek, D., Huijing, P., & G. Van Ingen Schenaue, G. (1986). Biomechanical analysis of drop and countermovement jumps. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 54, 566-573.

Brown, M., Mayhew, J., & Boleach, L. (1986). The effect of plyometric training on the vertical jump performance in high school basketball players. Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 26, 1-4.

Chu, D. (1983). Plyometrics: The link between strength and speed. National Strength Coaches Association Journal, 5, 20-21.

Clutch, D., Wilton, M., McGown, C., & Bryce, G. (1983). The effects of depth jumps and weight training on leg strength and vertical jump. Research Quarterly in Exercise and Sport, 54, 5-15.

Dursenev, L., & Raevsky, L. (1982). Strength training of jumpers. Soviet Sports Review, 10, 53-55.

Escamilla, R., Fleisig, G., Zheng, N., Barrentine, S., Wilk, K., & Andrews, J. (1998). Biomechanics of the knee during closed kinetic chain and open kinetic chain exercises. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 30(4), 556-569.

Fleck, S., & Kraemer, W. (1987). Designing Resistance Training Programs. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Ford, H., Puckett, J., Drummond, J., Sawyer, K., Gantt, K., & Fussell, C. (1983). Effects of three combinations of plyometric and weight training programs on selected physical fitness test items. Perceptual Motor Skills, 56, 919-922.

Gehri, D., Ricard, M., Kleiner, D., & Kirkendall, D. (1998). A comparison of plyometric training techniques for improving vertical jump ability and energy production. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 12(2), 85-89.

Hakkinen, K., Allen, M., & Komi, P. (1985a). Changes in isometric force- and relaxation-time, electromyographic and muscle fibre characteristics of human skeletal muscle during strength training and detraining. Acta Physiologica Scandinavica, 125, 573-585.

Hakkinen, K., Komi, P., & Allen, M. (1985b). Effect of explosive type strength training on isometric force- and relaxation-time, electromyographic and muscle fibre characteristics of leg extensor muscles. Acta Physiologica Scandinavica, 125, 587-600.

Hewett, T., Stroupe, A., Nance, T., & Noyes, F. (1996). Plyometric training in female athletes: Decreased impact forces and increased hamstring torques. American Journal of Sports Medicine, 24, 765-773.

Holcomb, W., Lander, J., Rutland, R., & Wilson, G. (1996a). A biomechanical analysis of the vertical jump and three modified plyometric depth jumps. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 10, 83-88.

Holcomb, W., Lander, J., Rutland, R., & Wilson, G. (1996b). The effectiveness of a modified plyometric program on power and the vertical jump. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 10, 89-92.

Huber, J. (1987). Increasing a diver’s vertical jump through plyometric training. National Strength Coaches Association Journal, 9, 34-36.

Hubley, C., & Wells, R. (1983). A work-energy approach to determine individual joint contributions to vertical jump performance. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 50, 247-254.

Lundin, P. (1985). A review of plyometric training. National Strength Coaches Association Journal, 7, 69-74.

Lyttle, A., Wilson, G., & Ostrowski, K. (1996). Enhancing performance: Maximal power versus combined weights and plyometrics training. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 10, 173-179.

Mero, A., & Komi, P. (1990). Reaction time and electromyographic activity during a sprint start. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 61, 73-80.

Mero, A., Komi, P., & Gregor, R. (1992). Biomechanics of sprint running: A review. Sports Medicine, 13(6), 376-392.

Mero, A., & Peltola, E. (1989). Neural activation in fatigued and nonfatigued conditions of short and long sprint running. Biology of Sport, 6(1), 43-57.

Miller, B. (1982). The effect of plyometric training on the vertical jump performance of adult female subjects. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 16, 113.

NSCA (1986). Practical considerations for utilizing plyometrics. NSCA Journal, 8(3), 14-22.

Parcells, R. (1977). The effect of depth jumping and weight training on the vertical jump. Unpublished master’s thesis. Ithaca College.

Polhemus, R., & Burkhardt, E. (1980). The effects of plyometric training drills on the physical strength gains of collegiate football players. National Strength Coaches Association Journal, 2(1), 13-15.

Robertson, D., & Fleming, D. (1987). Kinetics of standing broad and vertical jumping. Canadian Journal of Sports Science, 12, 19-23.

Sayers, S., Harackiewicw, D., Harman, E., Frykman, P., & Rosenstein, M. (1999). Cross-validation of three jump power equations. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 31(4), 572-577.

Steben, R., & Steben, A. (1981). The validity of the stretch-shortening cycle in selected jumping events. Journal of Sports Medicine, 21, 28-37.

Stowers, T., McMillian, J., Scala, D., Davis, V., Wilson, D., & Stone, M. (1983). The short-term effects of three different strength-power training methods. National Strength and Conditioning Association Journal, 5, 24-27.

Van Soest, A., Roebroeck, M., Bobbert, M., Huijing, P., & Van Ingen Schenau, G. (1985). A comparison of one-legged and two-legged countermovement jumps. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 17, 635-639.

Verkhoshanski, Y., & Tatyan, V. (1983). Speed-strength preparation of future champions. Soviet Sports Review, 18, 166-170.

Wilk, K., R. Escamilla, R., Fleisig, G., Barrentine, S., Andrews, J., & Boyd, M. (1996). A comparison of tibiofemoral joint forces and electromyographic activity during open and closed kinetic chain exercises. American Journal of Sports Medicine, 24(4), 518-527.

Wilmore, J., & Costill, D. (1994). Physiology of Sport and Exercise. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Wilson, G., Newton, R., Murphy, A., & Humphries, B. (1993). The optimal training load for the development of dynamic athletic performance. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 25, 1279-1286.

Wilson, G., Murphy, A., & Giorgi, A. (1996). Weight and plyometric training: Effects on eccentric and concentric force production. Canadian Journal of Applied Physiology, 21, 301-315.

U.S. Sports Academy2013-11-25T19:27:24-06:00January 8th, 2010|Sports Coaching, Sports Exercise Science, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|Comments Off

Economic Impact of Equestrians on Aiken, South Carolina

Dr. Sanela Porca and Dr. J. Ralph Byington, School of Business Administration, University of South Carolina Aiken

Abstract

The equestrians have played a critical role in the growth and development of the Aiken County economy. The equestrian activities in Aiken, South Carolina, consist of many different events such as polo, horse racing, horse showing, carriage driving, and fox hunting, to name a few. The input-output analysis of the Aiken equestrian industry reveals that its operations have a substantial impact on output, jobs, and income in Aiken County. Like any other industry, the equestrian industry makes a variety of input purchases that translate into flow of funds throughout the local economy. The indirect and induced effects of the equestrian industry work through numerous other sectors within the local economy and contribute to Aiken County’s economic growth and development.

Introduction

The equestrians have played a critical role in the growth and development of the Aiken County economy. Besides the local economy, the equestrian migration from the north effected Aiken’s culture and businesses. Just like any other equestrian group, the Aiken equestrians are fragmented with numerous groups, associations, and stakeholders. All of them have different interests and goals. The goal of this paper is to define the Aiken County equestrian industry and to define its economic impact on Aiken County’s economy. In order to determine the nature and scope of the local equestrian industry, an equestrian survey was designed and conducted. The survey was aimed at the equestrian enthusiasts who live and work in Aiken and Aiken County. The data obtained from this survey was utilized to provide descriptive and normative analysis of the equestrian industry and its economic profile and impact.

Equestrian Activities in Aiken County

The equestrian population, activities, and events are constantly growing in Aiken, South Carolina. The equestrian activities consist of many different events such as polo, horse racing, horse showing, carriage driving, and fox hunting, to name a few. In order to define and analyze a complex sector such as the equestrian one, an equestrian survey was conducted. The purpose of this survey was to highlight a set of equine-related activities that are present in Aiken. The survey was distributed to randomly selected individuals considered to be horse owners and/or enthusiasts. An electronic version of the survey was sent to several different equestrian associations with an appeal to share the survey with their members. Furthermore, hard copies of the survey were placed at different locations in Aiken and 20% of the participants returned their responses. The survey had eight sections with questions related to equine activities, inventory, labor and capital expenses, equine expenses, gross receipts, tourism related activities, and general information.

The first survey question asked participants to define their equestrian activities in the past 12 months while specifically determining the number of days spent in Aiken versus the number of days spent in other counties in South Carolina and elsewhere. Figure 1 illustrates participants’ responses to the first question. The obtained data suggests that a majority of the equestrian activities are pleasure related (48%), followed by competition (21%), breeding (18%), and racing (13%). Individuals whose equestrian activities consist of pleasure riding and breeding spend more than 50% of their time in Aiken, while racing and competition account for one-third of responders’ time spent in Aiken. Responses indicate that the states of Pennsylvania, Delaware, and Wyoming are “other locations” where “local” equestrian enthusiasts spend their time.

When asked to define more specific activities within major categories, 17% and 21% of participants report that they enjoy fox hunting and polo, respectively. According to the survey results, the polo activists spend more than 55% of their time in Aiken, versus 45% for fox hunting enthusiasts. Fourteen percent of the survey participants indicate that trial riding (both English and Western) is their preferred equestrian activity in Aiken. These particular equestrian individuals spend about 30% of their time in Aiken and the other 70% outside of South Carolina. Eight percent of the participants report dressage as their main equestrian activity with 44% of their time spent in Aiken. Five percent consider driving as their leading discipline with 35% of their time in Aiken and 65% outside of South Carolina. Nineteen percent of the respondents are jumper and/or hunter enthusiasts with 47% of their time spent in Aiken. Four percent of participants select lessons, training, and fundraising as their dominant equestrian activity with 43% of their time spent in Aiken. Figure 2 illustrates different types of equestrian activities conducted in Aiken.

Horse Population in Aiken County

To address the equine inventory in Aiken, the second survey question asked participants to identify the equine breed they own or board. According to the data, the estimated total equine inventory in Aiken County tops 6,785 horses. As indicated by Figure 3, the most dominant breed is still Thoroughbred (32%) followed by Quarter Horse (22%), Warm Blood (9%), Ponies (9%), Tennessee Walker (6%), Pinto/Paint (6%), Miniature (5%), Mules and Donkeys (4%), Draft Horses (2%), and several other breeds (5%).

The obtained data was used to estimate the total and average value of equine inventory in Aiken County. Table 1 provides the estimated average value per breed for Aiken County. According to this data, the most valuable breed in Aiken is Warm Blood ($17,907.00) followed by Thoroughbred ($16,982.00). The survey showed the average equine value for all breeds is $5,002.00. The total estimated equine value for all breeds included in survey is $59,086,223. This somewhat higher total value of all horses in Aiken County is due to a high percentage of Thoroughbred horses present in the county and their respective high market value.

Table 1
Estimated Horse Value Per Breed

Equine Breed	Per horse value
TN Walker	2908
Thoroughbred	16982
Miniature	1684
Quarter Horse	3735
Draft Horse	2980
Warm Blood	17907
Mules/Donkeys	1016
Ponies	1557
Pinto/Paint	2904
Other	3350

Equestrian Industry Capital Expenditures and Gross Receipts

The equestrian industry is very important to the local economy as it affects numerous and diverse activities such as agriculture, business, sport, entertainment, and recreation. The equestrian industry has introduced thousands of new people to the area in terms of owners, riders, trainers, etc. In order to determine the scope of the equestrian sector, the survey respondents were asked several questions about their capital expenditures and gross receipts. The participants were asked to list their annual capital related costs for the following categories: new equine purchases, new building and equipment investment, building and equipment depreciation, fencing investment, and interest on investment. The largest capital expenditure were new building and equipment investments (56%) followed by the new equine purchases (36%). Figure 4 illustrates capital related spending for the year 2007.

In addition to this, the respondents were asked to list the value of their personal property, business property, land, and any other category they relate to their equestrian activities. The responses indicate that business property (e.g. farm, barn) are the most valuable properties in this category (49%) followed by personal property (39%), and land (11%). Figure 5 illustrates these responses.

When asked about the taxes they pay to state and local government, the respondents indicate that the taxes paid to state government account for 46% of their total tax burden, followed by Aiken County taxes (32%), and Aiken City taxes (19%). The government permits, licenses, and/or contracts account for 3% of total tax spending of the Aiken equestrian industry.

Employment and Labor Earnings

The equestrian industry has its effect on the local labor market as well. Survey question # 3 asked respondents to report the number of full-time, part-time, and seasonal workers they employed for the past 12 months. Besides these three labor categories, two other categories – family members and others – were also choices for respondents. According to the results obtained from the survey, far more full-time workers are employed by the Aiken equestrian industry than any other worker. Seasonal workers are the second largest labor category, followed by family members, part-time, and other workers. Not every survey participant provided employment and labor earning responses. The total number of all workers across survey respondents who answered these two questions was 751. Such a high number of workers clearly support the constant care and management which horses require. Figure 6 summarizes the responses regarding equine related labor. The respondents report 243 full-time, 106 part-time, and 200 seasonal workers employed by the Aiken equestrian industry. In addition, there are 163 family members who contribute to the local equestrian sector. Under the “other” category, respondents indicate 39 contract-workers were hired during the past 12 months. Question # 3 also asked respondents to indicate the total equine-related payroll expenses for the past 12 months. The total reported payroll in 2007 was $3,122,300.00. This indicates a relatively high level of compensation given the fact that almost 22% of equine related labor are family members and 41% are part-time and seasonal workers combined.

Tourism Related Activities and Benefits

Tourism activity generates a wide variety of benefits to the local economy such as tax revenues from travel-related expenditures and new employment opportunities. When tourists arrive in an area, they spend money on products and services acquired from the local business community. Businesses that benefit directly from tourism include lodging establishments, restaurants and bars, recreational facilities, amusement parks, gas/convenience stores, department stores, and sporting goods retailers. Over the past several decades, tourism in Aiken County has been steadily increasing and this growth can be related to the boom in the equestrian industry. The equestrian industry is bringing more and more people in for riding lessons, to watch the shows, to shop in the equine stores, to buy horses, and to attend polo and other equestrian events.

The survey of tourists was conducted during the spring time and that is when the Aiken equestrian community draws the most attention due to the Triple Crown events. A total of 96 surveys were filled-out and the data was analyzed to reveal some important characteristics of tourists visiting Aiken. Fifty percent of respondents had previously been to Aiken on more than one occasion. This indicates a high rate of return visitors with a majority of them stating that they repeat this visit at least 2-4 times. Generally, the people that responded with a higher number of return visits to Aiken also indicated a family and/or friend connection with Aiken or a horse association referral.

Figure 7 illustrates the results from the question that asked participants about the events that brought them to Aiken. The majority of respondents were either visiting family/friends (37%) or they were visiting a horse event (34%). For some of the respondents, these two categories were interchangeable. The other three “referral” categories for tourists to choose from were golf (11%), historical attractions (9%), and other (9%). The visitors who had family/friends and horse association connections also indicated that they did not need tour guide services while in Aiken. These respondents also characterized Aiken as “exciting for tourists” (67%). The remaining 33% stated that Aiken was not particularly exciting either because there is “no nightlife for single tourists” or there is very “limited activity for families.”

Economic Impact of the Equestrian Industry on Aiken County’s Economy

The equine related businesses bring over a billion dollars into the South Carolina economy and support suppliers throughout the state. These contributions are very important as industries such as tourism, marketing, and many others are impacted by the equestrian industry. This is important from the economic perspective as it is much easier to grow and maintain an existing, productive industry than to build a new one. Therefore, in this section the equestrian expenditures are reported as they serve as a main determinant of the size of this industry.

Table 2
Total Equestrian Related Expenditures in 2007

Expenditure Category	Dollar Value	Percentages
Boarding Fees	1,449,125	10%
Equine Purchases	2,496,000	18%
Stable Lease	629,000	4%
Animal Health	2,132,875	15%
Feed	1,215,195	9%
Grooming	2,299,735	16%
Fees	2,933,350	21%
Maintenance	1,014,720	7%
Total	14,170,000	100%

There are several main sources of equestrians’ expenditures in Aiken County. The equestrian survey asked participants to report their equestrian related expenditures for 2007. All together there were 32 expenditure categories which were combined into eight groups: boarding fees, equine purchases, stable lease payments, animal health, feed, grooming, fees, and maintenance. The total equestrian industry expenditures (without labor and capital costs) for 2007 were $14.17 million and are reported in Table 2.

As Table 2 and Figure 8 indicate, the equestrian expenditures were spread widely among the eight selected categories. The main expenditure categories reported by the participants were horse-related fees (21%), which include training, track, breeding, and show/tournament related fees. The second largest category was new equine purchases (18%). Grooming came in the third place (16%) and includes expenses such as farrier, clothing and other supplies (for both individuals and horses), grooming supplies, saddle & tack, advertisement, utilities, insurance, etc. The fourth largest category was animal health (15%), which included veterinarian fees, medicine, hospital-surgery/lab work, and other health related services. Boarding fees accounted for 10% of total equestrian expenditure while feed (feed, feed supplements, seeds, etc) and maintenance expenditures (fertilizers, building and equipment repair, fencing, etc) accounted for 9% and 7% respectively.

This study estimates an annual cost of $7,393.00 per horse, which amounts to $50.163 million in total spending produced by the equestrian sector. This immediate impact of the equestrian industry on Aiken County’s economy is a solid base for the County’s economic growth and development. However, in addition to the direct economic impact of the Aiken equestrian industry, there are additional indirect effects or so called “ripple” effects that get created by the initial equestrian spending. Numerous workers in Aiken County are employed by the local equestrian industry and those jobs provide workers with income which enables them to purchase goods and services from our local economy. These purchases are translated into additional economic impacts of the Aiken equestrian industry. These multiplied effects are explained and discussed in the following section.

Input-Output Analysis, Multiplier Effects & Economic Impact

It is important to measure the interrelationship of the equestrian industry with other industries in Aiken County. This study uses an economic input-output analysis in order to understand the inter-industry relationships between the Aiken equestrian industry and the local economy as well as the long-term impacts that result from equestrian businesses and activities. There are numerous economic models that can generate economic multipliers and estimate the long term benefits of an industry. However, this study uses the economic impact software program IMPLAN (IMpact Analysis for PLANning) to estimate the total economic contribution of the equestrian industry to the Aiken County economy. With this input-output model the purchases and sales of commodities between industries, businesses, and final consumers can be easily traced and analyzed. The input-output model uses the multiplier analysis to estimate the direct and indirect contribution of an industry. For example, total spending by the equestrian industry for labor, feed, veterinarian services, insurance, etc. create employment and income for businesses in those sectors. The output multiplier will measure the effect of a $1 change in an industry’s sales on the output of all other local industries.

The intention is to use the input-output model to estimate the “multiplier” portion of the equestrian industry’s impact on the Aiken County economy. However, the “equestrian industry” is not a well defined industry by the existing standard defined by the North American Industry Classification System (NAICS). In other words, while there are numerous other industries well defined by the United States Census Bureau and NAICS (e.g. farming, mining, manufacturing, trade, etc.), the equestrian activities are considered to be a part of the agricultural sector. Therefore, any spending regarding the equestrian sector (according to this definition) contribute to supporting the suppliers of the agricultural sector. However, the equestrian industry goes beyond the agricultural sector. Many race tracks and stables in Aiken County are not part of farm operations and not all horses are kept on farms. This makes it difficult to use a standard input-output model to estimate the economic impact of our local equestrian industry. Given the responses obtained from the equestrian and the tourist surveys, this study defines an equestrian industry as the one that reaches and affects numerous other industries and activities such as the agricultural sector, farm construction and maintenance, hunting, sporting goods, real estate, veterinary services, accounting and advertising services, hotels and other accommodations, and spectator sports. Based on the findings from the two surveys conducted, these 11 different industrial activities are closely related and affected by the Aiken equestrian industry. Therefore, when the economic impacts of the equestrian industry were estimated, a unique model that reflects diverse and multiple-industry related activities of the Aiken equestrian industry was created. All 11 above mentioned industries were combined and averaged out to obtain an economic impact that the equestrian industry has on our local economy.

The study estimates four different kinds of equestrian industry effects on our local economy:

Direct Effects are associated with the Aiken equestrian industry’s direct gross receipts.
Indirect Effects represent the relationship between different firms working through input purchases of goods and services.
Induced Effects are economic impacts that arise from spending of household income earned by workers employed by the Aiken equestrian industry.
Total Economic Impact of the Aiken equestrian industry is calculated as the sum of the direct, indirect, and induced effects of the Aiken equestrian industry.

The economic benefits gathered by the Aiken community are best measured in terms of the number of jobs created and the amount of personal income accruing to local residents. In the case of the equestrian industry, there are certain direct effects associated with the $50.163 million in total spending and estimated 1,329 full-time workers. The impacts of the equestrian industry on employment are given in Figure 9. As mentioned earlier, the Aiken equestrian industry itself accounts for 1,329 jobs. There are an additional 283 jobs due to indirect effects and 202 jobs due to induced effects. In total, 1,814 jobs in Aiken County can be attributed to the operations of the equestrian industry. The estimated 1,329 jobs translate into 1.7% of total jobs in Aiken County and this makes the equestrian sector an important local employer.

Furthermore, this study estimates the impact of the equestrian industry on the local household income. These estimates are given in Figure 10. There are $16.93 million in income effects that result directly from the local equestrian industry. In addition to this, there are indirect linkages that account for an additional $2.09 million, and the induced effects are another $217,513.00. In total, the impact of the Aiken equestrian industry on household income is estimated to be $19.25 million annually in 2007.

Finally, the economic impact of the Aiken equestrian industry can also be gauged by analyzing the effect of an average dollar in output on our local economy. In terms of the output multiplier of the equestrian industry, one dollar of spending by this industry leads to $1.65 of spending in the local economy. In other words, for every dollar of spending made by local equestrians, an additional 65 cents is generated for the Aiken County economy. Relative to other industries that dominate the Aiken economy, this multiplier is smaller than the ones produced by the manufacturing sector (2.05) or the construction sector (2.10). However, the equestrian multiplier is still larger than the FIRE multiplier of 1.51 (FIRE – Finance, Insurance, and Real Estate). Figure 5.4 illustrates direct, indirect, induced, and total output effects that the Aiken equestrian industry has on our local economy. The $50.16 million in direct gross receipts leads to an additional $11.76 million in indirect effects and an additional $9.89 million in induced effects for a total of $71.82 million.

Therefore, the key indicators of equestrian activities include total industry output, total income, and employment. Table 3 and Figure 12 summarize all the above mentioned effects of the equestrian industry on our local economy. The total estimated impacts of the Aiken equestrian industry are $71.81 million in gross output, 1,814 workers, and $19.25 million in labor earnings. The indirect effects are $11.76 in gross output, 283 workers, and $2.09 million in labor earnings, while the induced effects are $9.89 in gross output, 202 workers, and $217,513 in labor earnings.

Table 3

	Total Impact	Direct Impact	Indirect Impact	Induced Impact
Gross Output	$71,817,514.65	$50,163,380	$11,764,446.86	$9,889,687.79
Household Income	$19,250,943.46	$16,937,618.10	$2,095,812.09	$217,513.27
Employment	1814	1329	283	202

This input-output analysis of the Aiken equestrian industry reveals that its operations have a substantial impact on output, jobs, and income in Aiken County. Like any other industry, the equestrian industry makes a variety of input purchases that translate into flow of funds throughout the local economy. The indirect and induced effects of the equestrian industry work through numerous other sectors within the local economy and contribute to Aiken County’s economic growth and development.

Summary

The equestrian industry of Aiken provides many economic and cultural benefits to the people who live here. Aiken’s equine industry presents itself in many different ways starting from local business development to veterinarians, furriers, dentists, boarders, and other businesses closely related to horses. The current study estimates substantial benefits to the Aiken County economy through the creation of jobs, labor income, and output. Besides the economic benefits and contributions, the equine industry is very influential as it effects Aiken’s social, cultural, and financial environments. Given Aiken County’s strong reliance on industries susceptible to external factors – industries such as administrative and waste services, manufacturing, and construction – it is a recommendation of the current study to nurture the equestrian industry as an important economic cluster. The equestrian industry is an existing economic cluster of firms and institutions whose activities interconnect with the rest of the Aiken County economy. Nurturing the equestrian industry of Aiken should be the long-term goal. Industries such as tourism, accounting, marketing, and many others are impacted by continued growth of the Aiken equestrian industry.

References

South Carolina Department of Agriculture. (2008). South Carolina Market Bulletin. (Volume 83). Columbia, South Carolina: Author.

U.S. Bureau of Census. (2007), North American Industry Classification System. Washington, DC: Author.

Dr. Sanela Porca and Dr. J. Ralph Byington
School of Business Administration
University of South Carolina Aiken
Aiken, South Carolina 29801
803.641.3340

U.S. Sports Academy2016-10-12T15:01:23-05:00January 8th, 2010|Sports Facilities, Sports Management, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|Comments Off

Does Theory of Planned Behavior Explain Taiwan Teens’ Viewing of Televised NY Games With Pitcher Chien-Ming Wang?

Submitted by: Chen-Yueh Chen – National Chung Cheng University (Taiwan) and Yi-Hsiu Lin – Aletheia University (Taiwan)

Abstract

Taiwan’s Chien-Ming Wang pitches for MLB’s Yankees, his performance drawing Taiwanese viewers to telecasts and making him renowned in Taiwan. The theory of planned behavior was employed to investigate why Taiwanese adolescents watch Wang’s televised games. The proposed model was analyzed with LISREL. Path analysis was performed for five hypotheses, namely (a) belief will positively affect attitude toward the act of viewing a game; (b) attitude toward the act will positively influence intention to watch; (c) perceived norm will positively influence intention to watch; (d) perceived behavioral control will positively affect intention to watch; and (e) perceived norm will positively influence attitude toward the act. The adolescents’ behavior was well explained by the theory, the data supporting all hypotheses.

Does Theory of Planned Behavior Explain Taiwan Teens’ Viewing of Televised NY Games With Pitcher Chien-Ming Wang?

Chien-Ming Wang is a Taiwanese baseball player who currently pitches for the New York Yankees of Major League Baseball (MLB). Wang is one of the league’s best, collecting 19 wins for the Yankees in the 2006 and 2007 seasons. Wang’s spectacular performance with the Yankees has meant increasing numbers of Taiwanese viewers for televised Yankees games—more specifically, for televised Wang games. Games have been televised in Taiwan since 1992, via a satellite sports channel. Their ratings are much higher now than in 1992, especially when Wang is pitching (Hu & Tsai, 2008). In short, it appears that Chien-Ming Wang has taken a place as one of Taiwan’s most famous sports celebrities.

Adoration of celebrities is particularly characteristic of adolescence (Lin & Lin, 2007). Reverence for sports celebrities is one of various forms of such adoration that adolescents often demonstrate (Greene & Adams-Price, 1990). In this study, we attempted to identify exactly what drives Taiwanese adolescents to watch the televised games in which Wang pitches. We used Ajzen’s theory of planned behavior (1985) to try to explain the adolescents’ behavior.

The theory of planned behavior (TPB) has been used in various domains (Chiou, Huang, & Chuang, 2005; Goby, 2006), for example in empirical studies from the field of marketing (Chiou, 2000; Taylor & Todd, 1995). TPB proposes three conceptually independent antecedents of intention: attitude toward the act, perceived norm, and perceived behavioral control (Ajzen, 1985). According to TPB, the attitude toward the act is the degree to which the individual evaluates the particular behavior favorably or unfavorably. The perceived norm describes the individual’s perception of social pressure to perform the act or not perform it. Perceived behavioral control, finally, reflects the extent of the resources for controlling the behavior which the individual perceives him- or herself to have.

TPB is an extension of the earlier theory of reasoned action proposed by Ajzen and Fishbein (1980). The addition of perceived behavioral control distinguishes the two. Perceived behavioral control is a critical factor, because people’s behaviors are strongly affected by how confident they are that they can perform those behaviors (Chiou et al., 2005). Generally speaking, the more favorable a person’s attitude toward an act, and the more strongly the person perceives the act as normative, and the more perceived control over the act, the stronger will be the intention to perform the act.

In addition, the cognitive-affective-cognitive framework proposes that “attitude structure starts with beliefs and is followed by affective response (e.g., attitude) and then cognitive responses (i.e., purchase intention)” (Chiou et al., 2005, p. 319). From this it follows that belief is an antecedent of attitude toward an act. Research has also shown that perceived norm is very likely to affect the formation of attitude (Oliver & Bearden, 1985; Terry & Hogg, 1996). That is, people’s attitudes may be influenced by their significant others.

Based on the literature, we proposed that attitude toward the act, perceived norm, and perceived behavioral control would positively influence Taiwanese adolescents’ intention to watch Wang pitch in a televised game. Furthermore, we proposed that belief and perceived norm would positively affect their attitude toward this act. Our hypotheses were the following:

Hypothesis 1: Belief will positively influence attitude toward the act.

Hypothesis 2: Attitude toward the act will positively influence intention to watch Wang’s game.

Hypothesis 3: Perceived norm will positively influence intention to watch Wang’s game.

Hypothesis 4: Perceived behavioral control will positively influence intention to watch Wang’s game.

Hypothesis 5: Perceived norm will positively influence attitude toward the act.

Method

Participants

Participants were students from two junior high schools, two senior high schools, and two universities (we limited participation at the latter to freshman students). They were sampled in April 2008. Participation was voluntary. The questionnaires were distributed by the participants’ teachers during a regular class meeting. Of 650 questionnaires distributed, 521 usable questionnaires were collected and used for analysis. The age of the participants ranged from 12 years to 20 years, with a mean of 16.11 years and a standard deviation of 2.18 years. There were 278 male and 243 female participants.

Measures

The measures of attitude toward the act, perceived norm, and perceived behavioral control were developed from Ajzen and Fishbein (1980), Azjen (1985, 1991), and Taylor and Todd (1995). The measures of intention to watch Wang’s game were modified from Chiou et al. (2005). Measures of belief were based on a focus group of 5 students; the participants were asked to reveal the most important attributes driving them to view televised games featuring Wang. The results showed that excitement, national pride, and the tension of the game were the most important such attributes. All measures employed a 7-point Likert-type scale.

Table 1

Items Measuring Latent Constructs Derived from Theory of Planned Behavior

Construct	Items
Perceived norm	Those who are important to me would consider my watching Wang’s game to be wise. Those who are important to me would consider my watching Wang’s game to be useful. Those who are important to me would consider my watching Wang’s game to be valuable. Those who are important to me would think I definitely should watch Wang’s game.
Belief	To me, Wang’s game is exciting. To me, Wang’s game is national pride. To me, Wang’s game is a tension game.
Perceived behavioral control	I have full control regarding watching Wang’s game. To me, to watch Wang’s game is what I can decide on my own. It is up to me whether I will watch Wang’s game.
Attitude toward the act	My watching Wang’s game in the future would be favorable. My watching Wang’s game in the future would be good. My watching Wang’s game in the future would be wise. My watching Wang’s game in the future would be useful.
Intention to watch Wang’s Game	I would watch Wang’s game in the future. The probability that I would watch Wang’s game is high. To me, (continuing to) watch Wang’s game is the best choice.

Data Analysis

The efficacy of the proposed model was analyzed using SPSS 14.0 and LISREL 8.51. Using LISREL with the maximum likelihood method, we tested the constructs and the measurement model for goodness of fit. A confirmatory factor analysis of the measurement model was conducted. The measurement model examined the relationships between 18 variables and 5 latent constructs (belief, perceived norm, attitude toward the act, perceived behavioral control, and intention to watch Wang’s game). Then, a path analysis was conducted to test whether identified antecedents of intention to watch a televised game featuring Wang reflected our hypotheses.

Results

Descriptive Statistics

The summated means for the constructs were 3.77 (perceived norm), 4.86 (belief), 4.97 (perceived behavioral control), 4.12 (attitude toward the act), and 3.81 (intention to watch Wang’s game). The standard deviations ranged from 1.73 to 1.98 (see Table 2).

Table 2

Mean, Standard Deviation, and Reliability of Constructs

Construct	M	SD	Cronbach’s α
Perceived norm	3.77	1.78	.93
Belief	4.86	1.73	.89
Perceived behavioral control	4.97	1.97	.91
Attitude toward the act	4.12	1.73	.91
Intention to watch Wang’s game	3.81	1.98	.91

Proposed Measurement Model

Overall model fit. The overall fit of the measurement model was found to be good. The root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) value was .072, which is lower than the suggested threshold of .08 (Hu & Bentler, 1999). Additionally, the normed fit index (NFI), non-normed fit index (NNFI), comparative fit index (CFI), goodness of fit index (GFI), and incremental fit index (IFI) scores were .96, .97, .97, .91, and .97, respectively. All were greater than the suggested threshold of .90 (Hair, Black, Babin, Anderson, & Tatham, 2006), and each criterion of fit thus indicated that the proposed measurement model’s fit was acceptable.

Scale reliability. Cronbach’s alpha was used to evaluate the reliability of the constructs. The obtained values were .93 (perceived norm), .89 (belief), .91 (perceived behavioral control), .91 (attitude toward the act), and .91 (intention to watch Wang’s game) (see Table 2). Scale reliabilities for the constructs were acceptable according to the suggested threshold of .70 (Nunnally & Berstein, 1994, p. 265).

Construct validity. Construct validity refers to “the extent to which a set of measured items actually reflects the theoretical latent construct those items are designed to measure” (Hair et al., 2006, p. 776). Both convergent validity and discriminant validity should be achieved in order to fulfill construct validity (Hair et al., 2006). Convergent validity exists when “the items that are indicators of a specific construct . . . converge or share a high proportion variance in common” (p. 776), while discriminant validity indicates whether “a construct is truly distinct from other constructs” (p. 778). Standardized loading estimates above .5 indicate acceptable convergent validity, while evidence of discriminant validity is seen when the variance extracted for two factors is greater than the square of the correlation between the two factors (Hair et al., 2006).

In the present study, standardized loading estimates ranged from .80 to .97, indicating satisfactory convergent validity. In addition, the variance extracted for each construct ranged from .82 to .86, which was greater than the square of the correlation between two factors (which ranged from .30 to .79). Thus the study’s construct validity was also ensured.

Test of the Structural Model

Path analysis was used to test the fit of the proposed paths between constructs. The model fit of the path model was found satisfactory, with the RMSEA measuring lower (.074) than the suggested threshold of .08. The NFI, NNFI, CFI, GFI, and IFI were .99, .99, .99, .98, and .99, respectively, all greater than the suggested threshold of .90. All of the criteria for adequate fit indicated that the fit of the proposed structural model was satisfactory.

Hypothesis Testing

Figure 1. Path-analytic model: Influence on intention demonstrated by perceived norm, perceived behavioral control, and attitude toward act.

The results (see Figure 1) showed that perceived norm, attitude toward the act, and perceived behavioral control generated significant coefficients for intention to watch Wang’s game and also that perceived norm and belief generated significant coefficients for attitude toward the act. The path analysis produced the following measures: β_at→iw = .34, t = 7.90, p < .001; γ_pn→iw = .44, t = 10.21, p < .001; γ_pbc→iw = .12, t = 4.29, p < .001; γ_pn→at = .43, t = 15.01, p < .001; and γ_be→at = .52, t = 17.93, p < .001, where β_at→iw refers to the β coefficient between attitude toward the act and intention to watch Wang’s game, γ_pn→iw stands for the γ coefficient between perceived norm and intention to watch Wang’s game, γ_pbc→iw means the γ coefficient between perceived behavioral control and intention to watch Wang’s game, γ_pn→at indicates the γ coefficient between perceived norm and attitude toward the act, and γ_be→at refers to the γcoefficient between belief and attitude toward the act.

Additionally, the square multiple correlations were .68 and .80, respectively, for intention to watch Wang’s game and for attitude toward the act. The data analysis showed support for each of the study’s hypotheses. That is, belief positively affected attitude toward the act (H1); attitude toward the act positively influenced intention to watch Wang’s game (H2); perceived norm positively influenced intention to watch Wang’s game (H3); perceived behavioral control positively affected intention to watch Wang’s game (H4); and perceived norm positively influenced attitude toward the act (H5).

Discussion

Our study showed a goodness of fit for the proposed model that was satisfactory based on the various suggested criteria. All five hypotheses offered for the present study were supported by the data. A brief discussion of each path coefficient follows.

First, belief about the attributes of televised games featuring Wang’s pitching was a positive antecedent of attitude toward the act of watching. Beliefs about game attributes were described in items such as “Wang’s game is exciting,” “Wang’s game is national pride,” and “Wang’s game is a tension game.” As an antecedent of attitude toward act, a relatively strong belief that Wang’s performance was a source of national pride or that Wang’s games were exciting was an indicator of a relatively positive attitude toward watching a televised game featuring Wang.

Second, a participant’s attitude toward the act of viewing a televised game in which Wang will pitch positively influenced his or her intention to watch Wang’s game. This result illustrates that behavior is strongly affected by attitude (Blackwell, Miniard, & Engel, 2006). It follows that the more favorable the attitude toward the act of viewing Wang’s game, the stronger the intention to view it.

Third, perceived norm positively influenced the intention to watch Wang’s game. This relationship implies that peer pressure has an influence on whether adolescents watch a televised game. Such a finding is supported by the concept of the collectivistic society (Hofstede, 1983). People in a collectivistic society usually belong to a few in-groups (Hofstede, 1983). Securing a place in a group is important to adolescents (Chiou et al., 2005), but to be accepted by an in-group’s members (and to remain accepted by them), a would-be member must demonstrate his or her conformity to the in-group’s norms. Thus if an adolescent’s friends enthusiastically follow Wang’s game, it becomes necessary for the adolescent to follow Wang’s game as well, providing all in the group with common conversational themes, for instance. The idea applies similarly to the present finding of perceived norm’s positive influence on attitude toward the act.

Moreover, perceived behavioral control positively affected the adolescents’ intention to watch Wang’s game. This is an indication that perceived behavioral control is a positive antecedent of intention to watch Wang’s game, which is in line with Ajzen’s argument that the individual can be expected to carry out an intention when he or she has sufficient control over the behavior involved (1985). To sum up, the findings of the present study of Taiwanese adolescents’ behavior concerning the viewing of televised games featuring pitcher Chien-Ming Wang suggest that such behavior is well explained by Ajzen’s theory of planned behavior.

An interesting topic for future study would be adolescents’ adoration of sports celebrities. Specifically, researchers could investigate whether and how adoring a sports celebrity moderates the relationship of the variables included in the present study. They might ask, for example, whether the relationship between perceived norm and intention to watch Wang’s game is relatively strong among a group of adolescents who strongly admire or adore Wang, as compared to a group exhibiting less admiration.

References

Ajzen, I. (1985). From intentions to actions: A theory of planned behavior. In J. Kuhl & J. Beckmann (Eds.), Action control: From cognition to behavior (pp.11–39). New York: Springer-Verlag.

Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50, 179–211.

Ajzen, I., & Fishbein, M. (1980). Understanding attitudes and predicting social behavior. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Blackwell, R. D., Miniard, P. W., & Engel, J. F. (2006). Consumer behavior (10th ed.). Mason, OH: Thomson Higher Education.

Chiou, J. (2000). Antecedents and moderators of behavioral intention: Differences between the United States and Taiwanese students. Genetic, Social, and General Psychology Monographs, 126(1), 105–124.

Chiou, J. S., Huang, C. Y., & Chuang, M. C. (2005). Antecedents of Taiwanese adolescents’ purchase intention towards the merchandise of a celebrity: The moderating effect of
celebrity adoration. Journal of Social Psychology, 145(3), 317–332.

Goby, V. P. (2006). Online purchase in an infocomm sophisticated society. Cyberpsychology and Behavior, 9(4), 423–431.

Greene, A. L., & Adams-Price, C. (1990). Adolescents’ secondary attachment to celebrity figures. Sex Roles, 23, 335–347.

Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., Anderson, R. E., & Tatham, R. L. (2006). Multivariate data analysis (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Hofstede, G. (1983). The cultural relativity of organizational practices and theories. Journal of International Business Studies, 14, 75–89.

Hu, L. T., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6, 1–55.

Hu, W. L., & Tsai, M. H. (2008). The influence of sports-fan ethnocentrism on viewing motivations and behavior of sport broadcast. Physical Education Journal, 41(1), 51–68.

Lin, Y. C., & Lin, C. H. (2007). Impetus for worship: An exploratory study of adolescents’ idol adoration behaviors. Adolescence, 42, 576–588.

Nunnally, J. C., & Berstein, I. H. (1994). Psychometric theory (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.

Oliver, R. L., & Bearden, W. O. (1985). Crossover effects in the theory of reasoned action: A moderating influence attempt. Journal of Consumer Research, 12, 324–340.

Taylor, S., & Todd, P. (1995). Decomposition and crossover effects in the theory of planned behavior: A study of consumer adoption intentions. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 12(2), 137–156.

Terry, D. J., & Hogg, M. A. (1996). Group norms and the attitude-behavior relationship: A role for group identification. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 22(8), 776–793.

U.S. Sports Academy2016-10-20T09:59:29-05:00January 8th, 2009|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|Comments Off

A New Scale Measuring Coaches’ Unethical Behaviors for Comparison by Gender, Age, and Education Level of Coach

Submitted by: Semiyha Dolaşir Tuncel – Ankara University

Abstract

An effort to develop a scale measuring coaches’ unethical behaviors included two phases. In the first, factor and reliability analyses were made of potential survey items meant to gather data from athletes describing coaches’ behavior. In the second, select items were incorporated in a survey randomly administered to 221 male and female taekwondo competitors at a national competition in 2006, for comparison of behaviors by coach gender, age, and education. Behavior was not found to differ significantly by gender (n = 219, t = 1.71, p > .05), age (n = 216, t = 1.13, p > .05), or education (n = 217, t = 1.60, p > .05).

A New Scale Measuring Coaches’ Unethical Behaviors for Comparison by Gender, Age, and Education Level of Coach

In coaching, a code of ethics is a tool providing a minimum standard of conduct and behavior expected of the coach as he or she develops into a professional. Many other professions, including medicine and law, also expect members to adhere to a behavior code requiring them to do their best and maintain professional standards (Ring, 1992). Codes established for coaches provide common values and guidelines for performing one’s job.

It has been suggested that there is a sensitive relationship between physical education and moral education. Stoll (1995), who is with the University of Idaho Center for Ethical Theory and Honor in Competitive Sports, emphasized that “physical education and athletic programs could be harmonious in promoting the development of sportsmanlike behaviors, ethical decision-making skills, and a total curriculum for moral character development.” Many studies by philosophers of sport concern the relationship of moral education and competition concepts; many conclude that a completed sports education involving both competition and development of an understanding of fair play effects a moral education (i.e., an education in moral values such as honesty, equality, justice, and respect) (Bergmann, 2000; Carr, 1998; Priest, Krause, & Beach, 1999; Singleton, 2003; Spencer, 1993). Sabock (1985) argued that sports provide students an important opportunity to develop ethical behaviors including honesty and fairness. Bergmann (2000) noted a logical relationship between physical education and moral education, one based on students’ understanding of the concept of success and their acceptance of the importance of competitions. Bergmann added that, through competition, students have opportunities to compare their skills and talents to those of others, which motivates them to gain practical knowledge meeting certain standards.

As role models for athletes, coaches can help them develop fair and ethical behavior by demonstrating how these can be applied in sports. Coaches have the capacity to teach and reinforce ethical behavior by athletes and indeed are central to value development in young people, since they are role models of institutional norms (Wandzilak, 1985).

Today, however, unethical behavior exhibited in the course of coaching is decreasing respect for coaches and for sports. Too many coaches approach their duties without adequate regard for values such as honesty, objectivity, and justice. This is so despite the fact that many sports organizations and communities have published codes of ethics that coaches are expected to uphold (American National Youth Sports Coaches Association, n.d.; American Psychological Association, 1992; Australian Sports Commission, n.d.; British Institute of Sports Coaches, n.d.; Canadian Professional Coaches Association, 2003; International Coaches Federation, 2003; Sports Medicine Australia, n.d.; Sports Coach, n.d.). Figure 1 presents a summary of the standards set out by these codes of conduct, classifying them as either a responsibility of coaches or a form of respect coaches are expected to demonstrate.

Responsibility	Respect
1. A coach should provide a healthy environment for competition and practice.2. A coach should always work toward personal development, in order to continuously improve his or her job performance. 3. A coach should provide the media and members of the public with correct information. 4. A coach should direct injured athletes to medical treatment and act in accord with medical professionals’ instructions and suggestions. 5. A coach should help athletes with their personal and family problems. 6. A coach’s support should extend to athletes in need, whether or not they are his or her own athletes. 7. A coach should work cooperatively with any expert who might contribute to the development of athletes. 8. A coach should inform athletes of how they should behave during media interviews. 9. A coach should not use training techniques that are harmful to athletes. 10. A coach should select equipment carefully to ensure athletes’ safety. 11. A coach should have the injured athlete’s well-being in mind when deciding whether to permit a return to competition and should never permit return ahead of complete recovery. 12. A coach should assign athletes appropriate responsibilities in order to contribute to their development. 13. A coach should take a protective stance toward athletes when it comes to harmful drugs, by informing athletes about drugs’ dangers. 14. A coach of nonprofessional athletes should schedule practice and competitions that do not interfere with athletes’ need to develop academically. 15. A coach should develop effective ways of communicating to athletes and their families their rights and responsibilities as part of the team. 16. A coach should emphasize education’s importance to athletes, as well as sports’ importance. 17. A coach should instill in athletes the idea that winning results from good team work. 18. A coach should always ensure that athletes receive an explanation of the objectives of training. 19. A coach who disciplines an athlete through punishment should not, in so doing, harm the athlete’s personality. 20. A coach should always explain for athletes the objectives of any rule that will be applied.	1. A coach should have respect for each athlete’s being.2. A coach should avoid behavior that is likely to diminish the respect afforded him or her by the society. 3. A coach should not exaggerate his or her capabilities. 4. A coach should encourage fair play and sportsmanlike behavior. 5. A coach should keep confidential all personal information on athletes (e.g., personal problems, family problems) and all information about the coach’s job (e.g., budget, recruitment policy), unless disclosure is required by law. 6. A coach should emphasize honesty in competition. 7. A coach should respect the rules of competition. 8. A coach should respect written and unwritten rules of fair play. 9. A coach should respect decisions of referees during competitions. 10. A coach should not encourage athletes or spectators to disrespect referees. 11. A coach should always have his or her behavior under control. 12. A coach should not use negative words to criticize other coaches or organizations. 13. A coach should take responsibility in areas in which he or she feels confident. 14. A coach should not criticize athletes publicly or act to hurt them.

Responsibility

Respect

1. A coach should provide a healthy environment for competition and practice.2. A coach should always work toward personal development, in order to continuously improve his or her job performance.

3. A coach should provide the media and members of the public with correct information.

4. A coach should direct injured athletes to medical treatment and act in accord with medical professionals’ instructions and suggestions.

5. A coach should help athletes with their personal and family problems.

6. A coach’s support should extend to athletes in need, whether or not they are his or her own athletes.

7. A coach should work cooperatively with any expert who might contribute to the development of athletes.

8. A coach should inform athletes of how they should behave during media interviews.

9. A coach should not use training techniques that are harmful to athletes.

10. A coach should select equipment carefully to ensure athletes’ safety.

11. A coach should have the injured athlete’s well-being in mind when deciding whether to permit a return to competition and should never permit return ahead of complete recovery.

12. A coach should assign athletes appropriate responsibilities in order to contribute to their development.

13. A coach should take a protective stance toward athletes when it comes to harmful drugs, by informing athletes about drugs’ dangers.

14. A coach of nonprofessional athletes should schedule practice and competitions that do not interfere with athletes’ need to develop academically.

15. A coach should develop effective ways of communicating to athletes and their families their rights and responsibilities as part of the team.

16. A coach should emphasize education’s importance to athletes, as well as sports’ importance.

17. A coach should instill in athletes the idea that winning results from good team work.

18. A coach should always ensure that athletes receive an explanation of the objectives of training.

19. A coach who disciplines an athlete through punishment should not, in so doing, harm the athlete’s personality.

20. A coach should always explain for athletes the objectives of any rule that will be applied.

1. A coach should have respect for each athlete’s being.2. A coach should avoid behavior that is likely to diminish the respect afforded him or her by the society.

3. A coach should not exaggerate his or her capabilities.

4. A coach should encourage fair play and sportsmanlike behavior.

5. A coach should keep confidential all personal information on athletes (e.g., personal problems, family problems) and all information about the coach’s job (e.g., budget, recruitment policy), unless disclosure is required by law.

6. A coach should emphasize honesty in competition.

7. A coach should respect the rules of competition.

8. A coach should respect written and unwritten rules of fair play.

9. A coach should respect decisions of referees during competitions.

10. A coach should not encourage athletes or spectators to disrespect referees.

11. A coach should always have his or her behavior under control.

12. A coach should not use negative words to criticize other coaches or organizations.

13. A coach should take responsibility in areas in which he or she feels confident.

14. A coach should not criticize athletes publicly or act to hurt them.

Figure 1. Summary of coaching behaviors mandated by various organizational codes of ethics.

When such standards are ignored, unethical coaching behaviors typically fall into four main categories, according to the United States Olympic Committee (DeSensi & Rosenberg, 1996). They are (a) offending athletes verbally or physically, (b) treating athletes inhumanely, (c) encouraging athletes’ use of performance-enhancing drugs; and (d) ignoring the athletic program’s educational goals. In its various forms, unethical behavior in coaching is becoming an important topic in the physical education literature. The present study’s purpose was to develop a valid and reliable scale measuring the extent of unethical behavior by coaches and then to test whether their unethical behavior was associated with gender, age, or educational level.

Method

Sampling and Research Design

The study collected data in 2006 from 221 competitors in a national taekwondo championship, 86 of whom were female (38.9%) and 135 of whom were male (61.1%). The majority of the sample (76.9%) were ages 17 to 23 years. The mean length of their experience in taekwondo was 7 ± 3 years. The average age at which they began high-performance training (attending training camps and national and international competitions regularly) was 8 ± 2 years.

Instruments and Data Collection

The instrument was developed in three phases. First, from a review of the codes of ethics of the American National Youth Sports Coaches Association (n.d.), American Psychological Association (1992), British Institute of Sports Coaches (n.d.), Canadian Professional Coaches Association (n.d.), International Coach Federation (n.d.), Sports Medicine Australia (n.d.), Sports Coach (n.d.), and several Olympic committees, a pool of 48 survey items was created and subsequently analyzed.

Second, with the 48 items providing a basis, an instrument was developed that used a 5-point Likert-type response scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree) to assess perceived ethical or unethical nature of coaching behaviors (see Table 1). This instrument was administered to a group of 18 taekwondo coaches, taekwondo players, and faculty members or instructors knowledgeable of the sport. They read each item on the instrument and circled a response. The 18 participants unanimously assigned a score of 5 to 35 of the items, so these 35 were accepted by the researcher as describing unethical behaviors (Balci, 1993). The scale was dubbed the Coaches’ Unethical Behaviors Scale, or CUBS.

Table 1

Score Levels Reflected in 5-Point Likert-Type Scale

	Choice	Score Level
1	Strongly disagree	1.00–1.79
2	Disagree	1.80–2.59
3	Undecided	2.60–3.39
4	Agree	3.40–4.19
5	Strongly agree	4.20–5.00

In the third phase, the final CUBS instrument of 35 items (with 5-point Likert-type response categories) was administered to the 221 taekwondo contestants. Each item posed a scenario involving coaching behavior; respondents circled the numeral indicating how strongly they agreed that they had experienced their coaches demonstrating the unethical behavior.

Statistical Analysis

The construct validity of CUBS was evaluated using exploratory factor analysis (EFA). EFA seeks to identify a factor or factors based on relationships among variables (Kline, 1994; Stevens, 1996; Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001). The reliability of CUBS was assessed using the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient and Spearman-Brown (split-half) correlation. In order to test whether coaches’ unethical behaviors change with gender, age, and educational level, a t test and one-way ANOVA analysis were applied.

Findings

Factor Structure of CUBS: Construct Validity

Results of exploratory factor analysis assessing CUBS’ validity showed 11 of the 35 items to have a factor loading below .45. These 11 were extracted, and the analysis was repeated with the remaining 24 items. Of these, 14 could be classified as pertaining to coaches’ responsibility for athletes, for rules, and for the integrity of the coaching profession; the 14 became Factor 1. The remaining 10 could be classified as forms of respect coaches are charged with upholding (for example, respect for individuals, personalities, gender, and health). These became Factor 2.

For Factor 1, factor loading ranged from .562 to .847, while for Factor 2 it ranged from .561 to .782. Factor 1 accounted for 50.34% of variance, and Factor 2 accounted for 11.31%, so together the factors accounted for 61.65% of total variance (see Table 2).

Item	Factor 1	Factor 2	Communalities Variance
1	.562	.466	.533
2	.589	.424	.527
3	.761	.359	.708
4	.674	.426	.635
5	.719	.352	.641
6	.641	.436	.601
7	.758	.155	.599
8	.747	.192	.594
9	.794	.328	.738
10	.833	0.61	.698
11	.811	.228	.710
12	.720	.285	.600
13	.847	.262	.786
14	.834	.281	.774
15	.777	0.46	.606
01	.211	.675	.500
02	.301	.721	.611
03	.377	.561	.456
04	.236	.667	.501
05	.131	.709	.519
06	.191	.737	.580
07	.308	.782	.706
08	0.94	.753	.576
09	.180	.752	.597

Reliability

The reliability of CUBS was assessed using Cronbach’s alpha and the Spearman-Brown correlation. The Cronbach’s alpha coefficients indicate internal consistency; for the two CUBS subscales administered to the 221 athletes, Cronbach’s alpha was .78 for Factor 1 and .77 for Factor 2. The total internal consistency for the scale was .76. The Spearman-Brown correlation yielded .98 for Factor 1 and .93 for Factor 2. Total correlation for CUBS was thus .92.

Corrected item total correlations, which ranged from .63 to .87, are shown in Table 3, along with t-test scores for the items in CUBS. Statistical significance at a level of p < .01 was attained for each item’s mean score.

Table 3

Corrected Item Total Correlations and t Scores for Items in CUBS

Item	Factor 1	Factor 2	t	p
1	.67		-7,122	.000
2	.70		-8,587	.000
3	.81		-9,341	.000
4	.77		-10,376	.000
5	.79		-10,645	.000
6	.76		-10,468	.000
7	.74		-9,826	.000
8	.75		-11,786	.000
9	.86		-11,590	.000
10	.78		-9,253	.000
11	.82		-12,238	.000
12	.76		-11,763	.000
13	.87		-14,444	.000
14	.86		-9,477	.000
15	.69		-11,574	.000
01		.67	-11,814	.000
02		.74	-9,108	.000
03		.63	-12,701	.000
04		.66	-10,988	.000
05		.74	-10,084	.000
06		.68	-10,174	.000
07		.74	-12,483	.000
08		.81	-11,849	.000
09		.70	-10,783	.000

Unethical Behaviors of Coaches

Using the data from the surveyed taekwondo competitors, coaches’ unethical behaviors were measured with descriptive statistics (see Table 4). As Table 4 illustrates, the athletes reported they had observed in the behavior of their coaches the 24 unethical behaviors reflected in CUBS, although the values measured for these behaviors were low. Observed unethical behavior did not, according to t-test results, appear significantly dependent on gender (n = 219, t = 1.71, p > .05), age (n = 216, t = 1.13, p > .05), or education level (n = 217, t = 1.60 p > .05).

Table 4

Mean, Standard Deviation, and Percentages for Coaches’ Unethical Behaviors as Indicated by CUBS Respondents

Unethical Behaviors	M	SD	%
Responsibility
1. The coach does not deal honestly with athletes.	1.56	1.01	5.50
2. The coach does not inform athletes about harmful effects of drugs (drug abuse).	1.75	1.14	12.70
3. The coach does not build respectful, effective communication with athletes.	1.60	0.95	4.10
4. The coach encourages athletes’ weight loss via means that may harm their health.	1.75	1.02	7.30
5. The coach does not provide athletes necessary information about training.	1.61	0.98	7.70
6. The coach does not continuously improve his or her professional knowledge and skills.	1.72	1.16	10.90
7. The coach does not care about honesty in competition.	1.80	1.17	10.40
8. The coach does not know the legal regulations relevant to his or her sport.	1.53	1.00	5.00
9. The coach does not have sufficient knowledge of training science.	1.73	1.16	13.6
10. The coach abuses his or her authority as a coach.	1.61	0.99	6.80
11. The coach is not honest about the finances of competition.	1.62	1.04	5.90
12. The coach does not prepare effective training programs reflecting athletes’ ability levels.	1.84	1.11	7.20
13. The coach does not evaluate athletes’ performances as they reflect established goals.	1.66	1.00	5.90
14. The coach does not provide athletes with feedback about their performances.	1.68	0.99	7.20
Respect
1. The coach does not treat athletes respectfully.	1.39	0.95	5.90
2. The coach discriminates among athletes based on gender, religion, or language.	1.44	0.82	3.20
3. The coach curses or uses street language.	1.41	0.77	9.00
4. The coach does not respect the being of the athletes.	1.42	0.76	3.60
5. The coach is not careful to avoid harming athletes’ personalities when using punishment to discipline them.	1.56	0.89	5.50
6. The coach causes athletes physical harm in the course of using punishment to discipline them.	1.61	0.95	7.70
7. The coach discriminates among athletes based on reasons other than individual merit.	1.97	1.22	15.00
8. The coach degrades athletes with insults.	1.52	0.87	6.40
9. The coach becomes publicly angry and displays violence after a defeat in competition.	1.62	1.02	8.60
10. The coach does not respect rules and referees.	1.67	1.04	6.80

Discussion and Results

The present study’s purpose was to develop a valid and reliable scale measuring the extent of unethical behavior by coaches and then to test whether their unethical behavior was associated with gender, age, or educational level. CUBS is such a scale, according to the results of factor and reliability analysis (Kline, 1994; Stevens, 1996; Tabachick & Fidell, 2001).

Data obtained with CUBS were subjected to descriptive statistical analysis that suggested the three most frequent unethical behaviors in coaching are discrimination among athletes based on reasons other than individual merit; lack of technical knowledge; and failure to offer athletes facts about harmful drug use. Coaches’ unethical behaviors did not change to a significant degree with changes in gender, age, or education level, according to ANOVA and t-test results.

Addressing ethical issues is becoming a standard part of a coach’s duties. Increasingly, sports coaches must be able to teach and model fair play, respect for officials, paramount concern for athletes’ well-being (rather than the win-loss record), and the wise and legitimate use of power. At the same time, they must steer athletes away from harmful drug use, cheating, bullying, harassment, and eating disorders. The coach’s position on these issues, reflected in his or her coaching behaviors, has enormous impact on athletes, shaping their enjoyment of sports, their attitudes toward their peers in a sport, their self-esteem, and their continued involvement in sports.

The sports ethicist’s basic goal is to see individuals in sports accept a pertinent ethical code (Wuest & Bucher, 1987) and embody that code in their behavior patterns. The aim for the profession of coaching is each coach’s acceptance of an ethical code for his or her sport, exhibited in daily behavior. A scale like CUBS can not only indicate the level of unethical behaviors coaches engage in, it can point the way to the most urgently needed additions to coach education and development programs.

Knowledge and skills are vital to a profession, but appropriate attitudes and behaviors—professional ethics—are just as important. Professional ethics involve written codes containing rules tailored to specific professions and founded in general moral values like honesty, equality, justice, and respect (Fain, 1992; Pritchard, 1998). Unlike in the past, a workforce today is likely to include people of various races, ages, religions, educational levels, and socioeconomic statuses. They are likely to possess divergent values (Lankard, 1991; Frederick, Post, & Davis, 1988). Inculcating a set of professional ethics ensures that, although they are very different people, members of a profession together espouse common standards and rules designed to protect both themselves and the people they serve. The changing nature of the business world has increased the need for professional ethics, the most important characteristic of which is the need for systems, structures, and management that can secure compliance.

A common understanding of sports is that they consist of various activities people pursue that lead to competition (Penney & Chandler, 2000). In fact, sports is a multidimensional phenomenon. It involves social structures (an indispensable part of human life), and it is based on long-established ethical and value systems (Whitehead, 1998). A number of sports organizations want to see the essential ethical nature of sports brought home to spectators and the society by developing athletes’ and coaches’ ethics (Wuest & Bucher, 1987).

Concern for ethics (or the lack of concern) will have an important role in how sports continues to develop; much of the related work will fall to coaches, who are expected to do their jobs honestly, objectively, openly, and with respect and a sense of justice, tying their work to universal values and principles (Wuest & Bucher, 1999). Coaches who may be held responsible for demonstrating ethical behaviors need, first of all, to understand their sports’ particular ethical codes.

The present study was the very first research conducted in Turkey into unethical behaviors exhibited in coaching. Moreover, to date the literature worldwide has offered few studies on coaches’ unethical behaviors. For this reason, further research employing various designs, with various samples, is likely to contribute to understanding of the topic.

References

American National Youth Sports Coaches Association. (n.d.). Coaches’ code of ethics. Retrieved March 22, 2004, from http://www.nays.org

American Psychological Association. (1992). Ethical principles of psychologists and code of conduct.

American Psychologist, 47(12), 1597–1611.

Australian Sports Commission (n.d.). Ethics in sports: Code of behavior. Retrieved August 31, 2007, from http://www.ausport.gov.au/ethics

Balci, A. (1993). Research in social science: Method, technique and principles. Ankara: Öncü.
Bergmann, D. S. (2000). The logical connection between moral education and physical education. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 32(4), 561–573.

British Institute of Sports Coaches. (n.d.). Code of ethics and conduct for sport coaches. Retrieved April 26, 2002, from http://www.brianmac.co.uk/ethics.htm

Canadian Professional Coaches Association (n.d.). Coaches of Canada coaching code of ethics: Principles and ethical standards. Retrieved December 19, 2008, from http://coach.ca/eng/certification/documents/REP_CodeofEthics_01042006.pdf

Carr, D. (1998). What moral educational significance has physical education? A question in need of disambiguation. In M. J. McNamee & S. J. Parry (Eds.), Ethics and sport (pp. 119–133). London: E & FN Spon.

DeSensi, J. T., & Rosenberg, D. (1996). Ethics in sports management. Morgantown, WV: Fıtness Information Technology.

Fain, G. S. (1992). Ethics in health, physical education, recreation and dance. (Report No. ED342775 1992-04-00). Washington, DC: ERIC Digest. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED342775)

International Coach Federation (n.d.). The ICF code of ethics. Retrieved December 18, 2008, from http://www.coachfederation.org/ICF/For+Current+Members/Ethical+Guidelines/

Kline, P. (1994). An easy guide to factor analysis. New York: Routledge.

Lankard, B. A. (1991). Resolving ethical dilemmas in the workplace: A new focus for career development. (Report No. ED334468 1991-00-00). Washington, DC: ERIC Digest. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED334468)

Penney, D., & Chandler, T. (2000). Physical education: What future(s)? Sport, Education and Society, 5(1), 71–87.

Priest, R. F., Krause, J. V., & Beach, J. (1999). Four-year changes in college athletes: Ethical value choices in sports situations. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 70, 170–178.

Ring, J. J. (1992). An alliance to excellence: To preserve medical professionalism. Vital Speeches of the Day, 58(12), 367–368.

Sabock, R. (1985). Coach (3rd ed). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Singleton, E. C. (2003). Rules? relationships?: A feminist analysis of competition and fair play in physical education. Quest, 55, 495–209.

Spencer, A. F. (1996). Ethics in physical education and sport education. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance, 67(7), 37–39.

Sports Medicine Australia. (n.d.). Sports Medicine Australia sports first-aider/sports trainer code of ethics. Retrieved December 19, 2008, from http://www.sma.org.au/sportstrainers/ethics.asp

Stevens, J. P. (1996). Applied multivariate statistics for the social sciences (3rd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Stoll, S. K. (1995). Should we teach morality?: The issue of moral education. In A. E. Jewett, L. L.

Bain, & C. D. Ennis (Eds.), The curriculum process in physical education (2nd ed.), 334.

Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2001). Using multivariate statistics (4th ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Sports Coach (n.d.). Code of ethics and conduct for sports coaches. Retrieved December 19, 2008, from http://www.brianmac.co.uk/ethics.htm

Wandzilak, T. (1985). Values development through physical education and athletics. Quest, 37, 176–185.

Whitehead, M. E. (1998). Sport ethics and education. Sport, Education and Society, 3(2), 239–241.

Frederick, W. C., Post, J. E., & Davis, K. (1988). Business and society: Corporate strategy, public policy, ethics (6th ed.). Columbus, OH: McGraw-Hill.

Wuest, D. A., & Bucher, C. A. (1986). Foundations of physical education and sport (10th ed.). St. Louis, MO: Times Mirror/Mosby.

Wuest, D. A., & Bucher, C. A. (Eds.). (1999). Foundations of physical education and sport (13th ed.). New York: WCB/McGraw-Hill.

U.S. Sports Academy2017-08-07T11:39:17-05:00January 8th, 2009|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Coaching, Sports Facilities, Sports Management, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|Comments Off

Sports Tourism in Cyprus: A Study of International Visitors

Submitted by: Nicos L. Kartakoullis, Stavros Pouloukas and Christina Loizou – University of Nicosia, George Karlis – University of Ottawa and Thanos Kriemadis – University of the Peloponnese

Abstract

A decline in the number of tourists visiting Cyprus from 2000 to 2007 prompted the Cyprus Tourism Organization to examine sports tourism as a means of appealing to international visitors. Face-to-face interviews were conducted at airports in the cities of Larnaca and Pafos with 802 international tourists departing Cyprus. The respondents were surveyed about their experiences with three types of sports tourism in Cyprus: competitive (elite- and amateur-level athletic training or other preparation as well as competition), recreation (competition without trophy rewards), and leisure (sports-related play or pastimes). Statistical analysis showed most respondents had engaged in swimming, water sports, or other leisure-type sports tourism, with minimal numbers participating in the other two types.

Sports Tourism in Cyprus: A Study of International Visitors

In industrial nations, sports tourism contributes 1% to 2% of gross national product, while the contribution of tourism in general is 4% to 6% (Hudson, 2003). In the United States, the Travel Industry Association (TIA) reports that the crisis in tourism following the September 11 terrorist attacks in New York and elsewhere did not extend to sports tourism; the number of sports tourists remained steady (Neirotti, 2005). Although sports tourism has been an emerging trend in the tourism industry only since the mid-1990s (Gibson, 1998; Hinch, Jackson, Hudson, & Walker, 2005), it seems to be one form of tourism not marked by decline during difficult times (Karlis, 2006).

The nation of Cyprus has traditionally relied on the sun and sea in marketing its tourism industry. But a recent steady decrease in tourism in Cyprus (during 2000–2007, visits fell from 2,434,285 to 2,416,086) has the Cyprus Tourism Organization (CTO) considering new approaches to selling its tourism product. A focus on sports tourism is one approach being weighed.

In 2003 the CTO adopted a tourism development plan, and accompanying strategy for implementation, with 2010 as the target date. The plan identified competitive and recreational sports as likely contributors to the achievement of its five objectives: (a) increasing per-tourist expenditure, (b) improving winter season tourism, (c) extending tourists’ stays in Cyprus, (d) increasing repeat visits, and (e) increasing the number of tourist arrivals in Cyprus. The CTO’s plan called specifically for the development of sports services and sports-related human resources and for the organization of sports events.

Research by Papanikos (2002) indicates that countries interested in expanding sports tourism must carefully consider how to go about that task. Building new facilities is not necessarily the right approach to establish a sports tourism market, and Papanikos advises officials like those in Cyprus to pursue extensive research before investing in the sports tourism industry (2002). Thus the CTO, prior to creating its 2010 plan, completed a SWOT analysis—an assessment of strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats characterizing an enterprise—to evaluate sports tourism’s appropriateness as a major pillar of the strategic plan for tourism in Cyprus (Kartakoullis & Karlis, 2002). The analysis by Kartakoullis and Karlis (2002) indicated that potential existed for developing sports tourism in Cyprus. Strengths and opportunities were plentiful, and the 2004 Olympics in Athens, Greece, would provide a means to educate the international community about Cyprus’s sports tourism potential. The analysis also noted, however, that positioning Cyprus as a sports tourism destination would demand the collaboration of the nation’s tourism and sports industries and experts, given certain internal weaknesses such as lack of existing expertise in sports tourism. Organizations assuming a role in developing sports tourism in Cyprus would be able to administer services effectively only if proper strategic management were provided.

Kartakoullis and Karlis’s SWOT analysis (2002) was the initial study concerning sports tourism in Cyprus. It argued that Cyprus has all the necessary elements of a sports tourism destination, and it comprised a first guide for the CTO and the national government, as well as interested private tourism and sports groups. None of these players had a formal policy on sports tourism, and all were likely to be needed to administer future sports tourism services. A series of issues was identified that the three players would need to consider. The present study grew from those identified issues and represents expanded research on sports tourism’s potential in Cyprus, as called for by Kartakoullis and Karlis.

To suit the present study’s purpose, the definition of sports tourism offered by Gibson, Attle, and Yiannakis (1997)—namely, that sports tourism is travel undertaken in order to participate in recreational or competitive sports—was expanded. A third type of sports tourism, leisure sports tourism, was added. Sports tourism here, then, refers to travel for reasons related to (a) elite or amateur athletic competition, training, or other related preparation; (b) recreation sports, defined as participation in competitive sports without trophy rewards; or (c) leisure sports, defined as play or pastimes involving a sports activity. The study examined the sports tourism experiences of all three types that international visitors to Cyprus self-reported during interviews. Specific objectives of the study were to assess the purposes of tourist visits to Cyprus; to identify sports activities in which tourists participate while in Cyprus; and to explore tourists’ intentions concerning future sports tourism visits to Cyprus.

Procedures

To begin the study, we obtained from the Department of Civil Aviation in Cyprus a list of July and August 2005 departures from the country’s two main international airports, which are in the cities of Larnaca and Pafos. The destinations of the departing flights included the United Kingdom, countries in western Europe, countries in eastern Europe, countries in the Middle East, and other destinations. The four regions and catchall category (other destinations) supplied categories used to ensure that a representative sample of departing tourists would be interviewed. Using the list of departures from the two airports, we prepared a timetable for data collection, covering all destination categories at various times of the day and night.

Keeping to this timetable, a team of trained interviewers conducted 489 face-to-face interviews in Larnaca and 313 in Pafos. An interview lasted approximately 5–10 minutes as the respondent prepared to take a departing flight. The interviewers asked participants a series of quantitative questions, including basic demographic questions as well as questions about the current trip to Cyprus. Respondents were asked about (a) the purpose of their travel to Cyprus, (b) any sports activities they participated in while in Cyprus, and (c) whether their intention was to visit Cyprus again for sports-related purposes. The questionnaire was designed to generate basic descriptive statistics in the form of frequency counts and percentages.

Results

Demographic Characteristics

Males comprised a slight majority of respondents, 51% (n = 407); females comprised 49% (n = 395). The occupational status of the majority of the respondents—65% , or 511 respondents—was white-collar professional or white-collar personnel (see Table 1). British tourists have long been a mainstay of Cyprus’s hospitality industry. In this study, respondents from the United Kingdom, at 62.5% of the sample, characteristically outnumbered those from other nations. German tourists were next most numerous, comprising 8.6% (see Table 2).

Table 1

Respondents’ Occupation Status, Most Represented to Least Represented

Occupation Status	Number of respondents indicating this status	Percentage of respondents indicating this status
White-collar personnel	374	47
White-collar professional	142	18
Blue-collar worker	139	17
Student	81	10
Retired	35	4
Homemaker	31	4

Table 2

Respondents’ Country of Residence, Most Represented to Least Represented

Country	Number of respondents (N = 802)	Percentage of all respondents
United Kingdom	501	62.5
Germany	69	8.6
Sweden	48	6.0
Norway	42	5.2
Ireland	27	3.4
Greece	19	2.4
Netherlands	17	2.1
Switzerland	13	1.6
Israel	11	1.4
Denmark	10	1.2
Hungary	9	1.1
Russia	9	1.1
Belarus	3	0.4
Austria	2	0.2
Bahrain	2	0.2
Canada	2	0.2
Hong Kong	2	0.2
Iran	2	0.2
Japan	2	0.2
Jordan	2	0.2
Oman	2	0.2
United States	2	0.2
Other countries	6	0.7

Current Trip to Cyprus

The largest percentages of tourists interviewed for the study had secured accommodations (for the main part of their current stay in Cyprus) in the tourist destinations Pafos (sometimes spelled Paphos) (39%) and Ammohostos (38%) (see Table 3). The next most popular sites for accommodations were Limassol (sometimes called Lemesos) (11%) and Larnaca (9%). Three percent of those interviewed had stayed mainly in the capital city of Nicosia, which, while it is a business center, is not widely considered a place for tourists (see Table 3). Fully half of the respondents had stayed 6 to 10 days in Cyprus; another 29% had spent 11 to 15 days on the island (see Table 4).

Table 3

Site of Respondents’ Main Accommodations in Cyprus, Most to Least Popular

City	Number of respondents (N = 802) with accommodations in city	Percentage of respondents with accommodations in city
Pafos (Paphos)	312	39.0
Ammohostos	306	38.0
Limassol (Lemesos)	92	11.0
Larnaca	71	9.0
Nicosia	21	3.0

Table 4

Duration of Respondents’ Visits to Cyprus, in Days

Days	Number of respondents (N = 802)	Percentage of respondents
1-5	126	16.0
6-10	398	50.0
11-15	232	29.0
More than 15	46	6.0

The respondents were asked the reason for their current travel to Cyprus and were allowed to offer more than one reason. Including the multiple responses, 864 reasons for visiting Cyprus were recorded for the 802 respondents (see Table 5). The most common reason was tourism/recreation; 87.8%, or 704 respondents, said they traveled to Cyprus for that purpose (see Table 5). A reason involving sports tourism specifically was given by 16 respondents, or 2.0%. (The breakdown by type of sports tourism was as follows: recreation sports tourism, 1.2%, and competition sports tourism, 0.8%, with 0.4% of the latter representing preparation for competition and 0.4% representing actual participation in competition.)

Of the 16 respondents who traveled to Cyprus for sports tourism purposes, 13 were male and 3 were female (see Table 6). The largest percentage of people visiting Cyprus in order to pursue sports-related activities were aged 20–29 years; the next largest group of sports tourists were aged 60 or more. All respondents indicating they had visited Cyprus for sports tourism purposes were from western Europe (see Table 8). Those who came because of sports competitions stayed in Cyprus 11–15 days, whilst those who came to prepare for competition spent 6–10 days (see Table 8).

Table 5

Purpose of Respondents’ Current Travel to Cyprus, Most to Least Common (Sports-Related Purposes Shaded)

	Number of respondents stating this purpose	Percentage of all respondents
Tourism/recreation	704	87.8
Business	72	9.0
Visiting relatives	32	4.0
Attending a wedding	20	2.5
Visiting friends	18	2.2
Recreation sports tourism	10	1.2%
Competition sports tourism—actual competition	3	0.4%
Competition sports tourism—preparation	3	0.4%
Attending a funeral	1	0.1%
Honeymooning	1	0.1%

Note.Because respondents were not limited to a single purpose for travel, 864 responses were recorded for the interview item on purpose of travel. To obtain the percentages in the column headed “Percentage of all respondents,” the number of respondents stating a particular purpose (middle column) was divided by 802 (the sample size). The right-hand column entries total 107.7% (= 864/802). For the same reason, entries in the middle column of Tables 6-13 do not equal 802 and entries in the tables’ right-hand columns do not equal 100%.

Table 6

Purpose of Respondents’ Current Travel to Cyprus, by Gender

	Male		Female
	Number of male respondents stating this purpose (n = 407)	Percentage of male respondents stating this purpose	Number of female respondents stating this purpose	Percentage of female respondents stating this purpose
Tourism/recreation	354	87.0	350	88.6
Business	52	12.8	20	5.1
Visiting relatives	14	3.4	18	4.6
Attending a wedding	10	2.5	10	2.5
Visiting friends	5	1.2	13	3.3
Recreation sports tourism	8	2.0	2	0.5
Competition sports tourism—actual competition	2	0.5	1	0.3
Competition sports tourism—preparation	3	0.7	0	0.0
Attending a funeral	0	0.0	1	0.3
Honeymooning	1	0.2	0	0.0

Note. See note for Table 5.

Table 7

Purpose of Respondents’ Current Travel, by Age (in Years), as Percentage of Respondents in Each Age Group n

	Percentage of those < 20 years old (n = 43) stating this purpose	Percentage of those 20–29 years old (n = 210) stating this purpose	Percentage of those 30–39 years old (n = 233) stating this purpose	Percentage of those years old 40–49 (n = 168) stating this purpose	Percentage of those years old 50–59 (n = 96) stating this purpose	Percentage of those > 60 years old (n = 52) stating this purpose
Tourism/recreation	90.7	88.1	88.4	83.9	89.6	90.4
Business	2.3	12.4	8.2	11.3	5.2	3.8
Visiting relatives	7.0	1.9	2.6	6.5	5.2	5.8
Attending a wedding	0.0	1.9	5.6	0.6	2.1	0.0
Visiting friends	0.0	1.9	2.1	3.6	1.0	3.8
Recreation sports	0.0	2.4	1.3	0.0	1.0	1.9
Competition sports tourism—actual competition	0.0	1.4	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0
Competition sports tourism—preparation	0.0	1.0	0.0	0.6	0.0	0.0
Attending a funeral	0.0	0.0	0.4	0.0	0.0	0.0
Honeymooning	0.0	0.0	0.4	0.0	0.0	0.0

Table 8

Purpose of Respondents’ Travel, by Country of Residence, as Percentage of n

	Percent of those from the United Kingdom (n = 501) stating this purpose	Percent of those from Western Europe (n = 249) stating this purpose	Percent of those from Eastern Europe (n = 23) stating this purpose	Percent of those from the Middle East (n = 19) stating this purpose	Percent of those from other countries (n = 10) stating this purpose
Tourism/recreation	86.45	92.0	95.7	68.4	70
Business	8.6	7.6	8.7	21.1	40
Visiting relatives	4.4	2.8	4.3	5.3	10
Attending a wedding	3.4	1.2	0.0	0.0	0.0
Visiting friends	3.4	0.0	0.0	5.3	0.0
Recreation sports	1.4	1.2	0.0	0.0	0.0
Competition sports tourism—actual competition	0.6	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0
Competition sports tourism—preparation	0.6	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0
Attending a funeral	0.2	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0
Honeymooning	0.2	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0

Note. See note for Table 5.

Respondents’ Sports Activities While Visiting Cyprus

Most respondents (85.8%, or 688 individuals) indicated they had participated in some type of sports experience during their visit to Cyprus (see Table 9); 114 respondents said they did not participate in any type of sports in Cyprus (14.2%). Swimming was most widely participated in (by 82.9%, or 665 respondents), followed by water sports (24.7%, or 198 respondents), and soccer (7.2%, or 58 respondents). For males and females alike, swimming and water sports were the top two sports pursued. In the subsample of females, however, it was beach volleyball rather than soccer that was the third most popular sports activity.

Visitors from the United Kingdom and western Europe tended to participate more in sports activities while in Cyprus than did visitors from eastern Europe or the Middle East (see Table 11). Visitors who stayed mainly in Ammohostos and Pafos were most likely to have participated in sports during their time in Cyprus; those staying in Nicosia were least likely to have (see Table 12). Finally, those respondents staying in Cyprus for more than six days showed the highest rate of sports participation during a visit (see Table 13).

Table 9

Sports the Respondents Participated in While in Cyprus, Most to Least Commonly

	Number of respondents stating this sport	Percentage of respondents stating this sport
Swimming	665	82.9
Water sports	198	24.7
No sports activity	114	14.2
Soccer	58	7.2
Cycling	56	7.0
Beach volleyball	52	6.5
Tennis	51	6.4
Orienteering	34	4.2
Golf	12	1.5
Jogging	10	1.2
Gymnastics	6	0.7
Aerobic exercise	4	0.5
Fishing	3	0.4
Bungee jumping	2	0.2
Equestrian sports	2	0.2
Miniature golf	2	0.2
Parachuting	2	0.2
Bowling	1	0.1
Go-Karting	1	0.1
Diving	1	0.1
Judo	1	0.1
Karate	1	0.1
Table Tennis	1	0.1

Note. See note for Table 5.

Table 10

Sports the Respondents Participated in While in Cyprus, by Gender, as a Percentage

	Percentage of males stating this sport	Percentage of females stating this sport
Swimming	80.8	85.1
Water sports	27.5	21.8
No sports activity	14.7	13.7
Soccer	13.8	0.5
Cycling	8.4	5.6
Beach volleyball	4.2	8.9
Tennis	7.9	4.8
Orienteering	3.9	4.6
Golf	2.5	0.5
Jogging	1.5	1.0
Gymnastics	0.7	0.8
Aerobic exercise	0.0	1.0
Fishing	0.5	0.3
Bungee jumping	0.2	0.3
Equestrian sports	0.0	0.5
Miniature golf	0.2	0.3
Parachuting	0.0	0.5
Bowling	0.0	0.3
Go-Karting	0.2	0.0
Diving	0.2	0.0
Judo	0.2	0.0
Karate	0.2	0.0
Table Tennis	0.2	0.0

Note. See note for Table 5.

Table 11

Sports the Respondents Participated in While in Cyprus, by Country of Residence, as a Percentage

	Percentage of visitors from United Kingdom stating this sport	Percentage of visitors from Western Europe stating this sport	Percentage of visitors from Eastern Europe stating this sport	Percentage of visitors from Middle East stating this sport	Percentage of visitors from other countries stating this sport
Swimming	82.2	84.3	82.6	73.7	100.0
Water sports	26.7	22.1	21.7	21.1	0.0
No sports activity	15.0	12.4	17.4	21.1	0.0
Soccer	9.6	4.0	0.0	0.0	0.0
Cycling	8.6	4.8	4.3	0.0	0.0
Beach volleyball	8.4	3.6	4.3	0.0	0.0
Tennis	5.6	8.4	0.0	10.5	0.0
Orienteering	5.2	2.4	0.0	5.3	10.0
Golf	1.6	1.6	0.0	0.0	0.0
Jogging	0.8	2.0	0.0	5.3	0.0
Gymnastics	0.8	0.4	0.0	5.3	0.0
Aerobic exercise	0.2	0.8	4.3	0.0	0.0
Fishing	0.4	0.4	0.0	0.0	0.0
Bungee jumping	0.4	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0
Equestrian sports	0.2	0.4	0.0	0.0	0.0
Miniature golf	0.2	0.4	0.0	0.0	0.0
Parachuting	0.2	0.4	0.0	0.0	0.0
Bowling	0.2	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0
Go-Karting	0.0	0.4	0.0	0.0	0.0
Diving	0.2	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0
Judo	0.0	0.4	0.0	0.0	0.0
Karate	0.2	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0
Table Tennis	0.0	0.4	0.0	0.0	0.0

Note. See note for Table 5.

Table 12

Sports Participated in While in Cyprus, by Site of Main Accommodations, as a Percentage

	Percentage of visitors to Pafos stating this sport	Percentage of visitors to Ammohostos stating this sport	Percentage of visitors to Limassol stating this sport	Percentage of visitors to Larnaca stating this sport	Percentage of visitors to Nicosia stating this sport
Swimming	81.1	90.5	76.1	77.5	47.6
Water sports	21.2	30.1	25.0	21.1	9.5
No sports activity	14.1	8.8	21.7	19.7	42.9
Soccer	12.5	3.6	4.3	4.2	4.8
Cycling	13.5	1.3	5.4	7.0	0.0
Beach volleyball	11.5	2.6	8.7	0.0	0.0
Tennis	9.9	3.6	5.4	4.2	4.8
Orienteering	5.8	3.6	1.1	5.6	0.0
Golf	2.6	0.3	1.1	1.4	4.8
Jogging	1.0	2.0	1.1	0.0	0.0
Gymnastics	0.3	0.7	1.1	1.4	4.8
Aerobic exercise	0.0	1.0	0.0	1.4	0.0
Fishing	0.0	0.7	0.0	1.4	0.0
Bungee jumping	0.0	0.7	0.0	0.0	0.0
Equestrian sports	0.0	0.3	1.1	0.0	0.0
Miniature golf	0.0	0.7	0.0	0.0	0.0
Parachuting	0.0	0.7	0.0	0.0	0.0
Bowling	0.0	0.0	0.0	1.4	0.0
Go-Karting	0.0	0.0	1.1	0.0	0.0
Diving	0.0	0.3	0.0	0.0	0.0
Judo	0.3	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0
Karate	0.0	0.0	1.1	0.0	0.0
Table Tennis	0.0	0.3	0.0	0.0	0.0

Note. See note for Table 5.

Table 13

Respondents’ Participation in Sport Activities by Duration of Stay (in Days), as a Percentage

	Percentage of visitors staying 1–5 days stating this sport	Percentage of visitors staying 6–10 days stating this sport	Percentage of visitors staying 11–15 days stating this sport	Percentage of visitors staying more than 15 days stating this sport
Swimming	69.8	86.4	84.1	82.6
Water sports	17.5	23.6	30.6	23.9
No sports activity	28.6	11.3	11.6	13.0
Soccer	11.1	7.5	4.7	6.5
Cycling	4.8	8.8	4.7	8.7
Beach volleyball	10.3	7.8	3.4	0.0
Tennis	4.8	6.8	7.3	2.2
Orienteering	4.8	4.0	3.0	10.9
Golf	2.4	1.8	0.9	0.0
Jogging	0.8	1.5	1.3	0.0
Gymnastics	1.6	0.8	0.4	0.0
Aerobic exercise	0.8	0.5	0.4	0.0
Fishing	0.0	0.3	0.4	2.2
Bungee jumping	0.0	0.3	0.4	0.0
Equestrian sports	0.0	0.3	0.4	0.0
Miniature golf	0.0	0.3	0.4	0.0
Parachuting	0.0	0.5	0.0	0.0
Bowling	0.8	0.0	0.0	0.0
Go-Karting	0.0	0.3	0.0	0.0
Diving	0.0	0.0	0.4	0.0
Judo	0.0	0.3	0.0	0.0
Karate	0.0	0.3	0.0	0.0
Table Tennis	0.8	0.0	0.0	0.0

Note. See note for Table 5.

Intention to Visit Cyprus Again to Participate in Sports Tourism

The respondents were asked during their interviews whether it was their intent to visit Cyprus again in order to participate in sports tourism; 87% said they did intend to do so, and 13% indicated they had no intention of returning to Cyprus to participate in sports activity at any future time.

Discussion

A major limitation of the study was that data were collected only during the summer months. Data collected in the winter season might generate different results, because Cyprus also features mountainous regions, like Troodos, where winter sports like cross-country and alpine skiing, snowboarding, and snowshoeing are available. Conducting a similar airport-interview study during the winter months would be interesting.

In any case, the summer study results indicate that few sports tourists come to Cyprus to pursue either the competition (whether actual competition or training or preparation for competition) or recreation types of sports. And it certainly is no surprise that most sports tourists in Cyprus are leisure sports tourists. The climate and the beaches of Cyprus provide ample opportunities to pursue leisure swimming and water sports, and these were indeed the sports activities most widely pursued by the respondents in our study.

The study generated information that may be useful for the further development of sports tourism in Cyprus. For example, the data show that sports tourists tend to come to Cyprus from the United Kingdom and western Europe. As Weed and Bull have suggested (2004), the proximity of Europe to Cyprus should support growth in sports tourism by Europeans in Cyprus. The CTO’s sports tourism marketing strategies in Europe, then, might promote Cyprus as a sports tourism destination. (The marketing strategies for eastern Europe and the Middle East might follow suit.)

Particular CTO campaigns targeting Europe and other regions should address the fact (supported by our data) that many who visit Cyprus engage in leisure sports activities rather than competitive or recreation ones. More competitive and recreation sports tourists might be drawn to the country if its resources for competitive and recreation sports tourism were actively marketed. The experience of the United Kingdom’s Olympic team, which trained in Cyprus prior to the Athens Games, offers a starting place. After the Games had concluded, the British Olympic performance manager, Richard Simmons, commented that “We made the right decision to choose Cyprus as not just our training base for the Athens Olympic Games but also our warm weather training centre of operations for at least the next ten years. Cyprus now offers great training facilities for a huge range of sports, and is blessed with wonderful weather and a superb environment. Athletes and coaches from whatever the sport and whatever level could not choose a better place” (Simmons, 2005).

The benefits of a plan to build sports tourism in Cyprus would extend to the nation’s citizens as well as tourists (Hall, 2000). Whether or not new sports facilities are part of it, such a plan can be expected to point the way to development of local economies as well as to citizens’ increased use of improved sports services and available facilities. Our data show that most respondents say they would return to Cyprus specifically for sports tourism experiences. There is, then, potential for Cyprus to become a sports tourism destination, enjoying the financial impact such tourism can bring. The Cyprus Tourism Organization might consider moving in a direction that develops and broadens Cyprus’s sports tourism role.

References

Cyprus Tourism Organization. (2003). Tourism development strategy and implementation plan: 2003–2010. (Available from the Cyprus Tourism Organisation, Lemesou Ave. 19, P. O. Box 24535, CY 1390, Lefkosia, Cyprus)

Cyprus Tourism Organization. (2007). Annual report 2007. (Available from the Cyprus Tourism Organisation, Lemesou Ave. 19, P. O. Box 24535, CY 1390, Lefkosia, Cyprus)

Gibson, H. (1998). Sport tourism: A critical analysis of research. Sport Management Review, 1(1): 45–76.

Gibson, H. J., Attle, S., & Yiannakis, A. (1997). Segmenting the active tourist market: A life span perspective. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 4(1): 52–64.

Hall, C. M. (2000). Tourism planning. New York: Prentice Hall.

Hinch, T., Jackson, E. L., Hudson, S., & Walker, G. (2005). Leisure constraint theory and sport tourism. Sport in Society, 8(2): 142–163.

Hudson, S. (2003). Sport and adventure tourism. New York: Haworth Press.

Karlis, G. (2006, September). Assessing the needs of “sport volunteer tourists” at the Olympic Games: Implications for administrators of mega sport events. Keynote address presented at the 14th congress of the European Association for Sport Management, Nicosia, Cyprus.

Kartakoullis, N. L., & Karlis, G. (2002). Developing Cyprus as a sport tourism destination: The results of a SWOT analysis. Journal of Sport Tourism, 7(4): 1–16.

Neirotti, L. D. (2005). Sport tourism markets. In J. E. S. Higham (Ed.), Sport tourism destinations: Issues, opportunities and analysis (pp. 1–16). Oxford, Oxfordshire, UK: Elsevier.

Papanikos, G. (2002, May). Tourism in Greece. Paper presented at the meeting of the OKE (Economic and Social Council of Greece), Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.

Simmons, R. (2005, February). Choosing a pre–Olympic Games training destination. Paper presented at the meeting of the Cyprus Tourism Organization, Nicosia, Cyprus.

Weed, M., & Bull C. (2004). Sports tourism: Participants, policy and providers. New York: Elsevier Butterworth Heinemann.

U.S. Sports Academy2016-10-12T14:57:35-05:00January 8th, 2009|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Management, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|Comments Off