Sports Management – Page 29 – The Sport Journal

When Pride Goes Wrong

Dr. Steven Aicinena

Abstract
Pride is considered to be a positive emotion and is observed in human beings throughout the world. It is fostered through positive approval received from others and is associated with success and satisfaction. Feelings of pride serve to enhance an individual’s self-concept. When pride is at stake, individuals are motivated to work longer and harder to achieve success. Pride serves individuals and groups positively, however, experienced pride may lead individuals to feel special and entitled. When they are, they experience hubristic pride. Hubristic pride is sinister and dangerous. In the name of pride, sport participants cheat, engage in violence, and selfishly take advantage of others. Hubristic pride is not to be confused with the satisfaction one receives from successful performance and positive feedback. Hubristic pride is pride that has gone wrong. It allows individuals to engage in harmful acts without feeling remorse. Coaches, athletes and parents exhibit hubristic pride that causes harm to others. In this paper, examples of hubristic behavior and the harm that it causes in sport are presented. A lack of perspective enables individuals to choose to engage in hubristically motivated behavior.

Key Words: Pride, Hubris, Coaches, Athletes, Parents, Cheating, Violence, Sexual Behavior, Abuse, Hubristic Pride

The term pride is often viewed in a favorable light. It conjures up positive images such as a toddler’s glee after successful performance of a task, a parent’s delight in the athletic accomplishment of a child, a coach’s jubilation following an important victory, and an athlete’s elation after a record-setting performance. Few would find fault with these positive images of pride.

Pride, however, can degenerate into something abhorrent. Athletes cheat and injure others in order to achieve success and bolster their pride. Coaches can become controlling and abusive of athletes as they seek success and enhancement of their pride. Parents meddle into the affairs of coaches and abuse their children in the pursuit of athletic success, their means to enhancing parental pride. Pride can be the motivation for antagonistic actions as individuals compete for the social standing, fame, and riches associated with athletic success.

“In truth, pride is double-edged: destructive and ludicrous in the wrong place and the wrong proportions, but heroic and admirable in the right ones” (19, p. 46). How does pride positively serve individuals as they navigate the waters of social relationships and as they pursue success? How does pride, which can serve as a positive social attribute, become something negative? In order to answer these questions, the nature of pride as well as its positive social functions shall be examined. Hubristic pride will be explored as the origin of many ills plaguing sport and society. When pride suggests traces hubris, it becomes a negative force in the lives of many and all that fall within reach of its acridity. By better understanding the difference between pride and hubristic pride, coaches, parents and administrators may be better able to take action to prevent hubristic pride from causing harm to themselves or others.

The Nature of Pride and Its Positive Functions

Pride is a basic emotion observed universally in human beings (35). It is exhibited through specific and recognizable non-verbal expressions spontaneously displayed when individuals experience pride. They include a low-intensity smile, expanded posture, slight head tilt, and arms to the side with hands on hips or raised above the head with hands in fists (36). Children exhibit recognizable signs of pride by the age of two and a half years and are able to recognize physical expressions of pride in others by age four.

Pride is generally considered to be a positive emotion. It can be thought of as a sense of accomplishment and satisfaction in one’s actions. Pride is often linked to success and it is achieved through the receipt of social approval and the admiration of others (33). When individuals are rewarded with positive feedback and when they see faces brimming with pride over their accomplishments, they feel pride and understand that they stand well in comparison to others (26). Success enhances self-esteem and feelings of pride. Self-esteem and a sense of pride serve as positive means to find success in society (6,21).

Pride in One’s Work and Efforts

Pride is sometimes used to describe the satisfaction achieved through the completion of a task to the best of one’s ability. Former Major League Baseball player and Hall of Fame member Don Sutton illustrated the belief that one should take pride in doing one’s job and in doing it well (22):

I grew up in rural Clio, Alabama and in rural northwest Florida where your work ethic was what you took pride in, whether you might have been a farmer or a carpenter or whatever. You showed up on time, you did your job, and you went home. (5)

Sutton believed it was his responsibility to prepare himself for games to the best of his ability each day and that by doing so; he could feel a sense of accomplishment and pride.

National Football League quarterback and Super Bowl Most Valuable Player Drew Brees explained why he believed some athletes are superior to others. The key is having pride in one’s performance efforts (5):

I think it’s pride. That encompasses so many things. But in my mind, pride is that inner discipline, that inner voice to just be the hardest-working guy on the field — as tough as you can be — to give everything you can to your team, to not be a selfish player, to fulfill your role, to fight for your teammates, to be a great leader not only on the field but off the field. And just to work at your craft. (p. 1)

The comments of Sutton and Brees reflect the belief held by most involved in sport: individuals should work to the best of their ability and take pride in their efforts. Knowing that one has supplied the best effort possible is the means by which those defeated may find solace in their loss. Providing one’s best effort also enhances one’s chances of experiencing success.

Pride and Its Effect Upon Performance

Many athletes and coaches believe that when a person’s pride is challenged, superior performances result (18). Indeed, it has been demonstrated that the level of pride individuals possess is positively associated with goal-attainment motivation and perseverance (40). Those concerned with ego-enhancement and pride possess competitive orientations geared toward maintaining self-esteem and pride (6). When the pride of individuals is at risk, they work longer and harder to succeed.

Pride, however, can be a very damaging emotion for it can serve as the motivation to engage in harmful behavior as individuals seek to bolster and protect their pride. Further, a loss of pride in the form of humiliation or the potential loss of pride through ego threats can lead people to engage in aggressive and violent behavior (39,35).

The scriptures of many world religions proscribe pride and the egoism that is reflective of pride. Scriptures from two religious texts shall serve as illustrations.

Judaism and Christianity: “Pride goes before destruction, and a haughty spirit before a fall.” Proverbs 16.18 (25).

Hinduism: “Honoured (only) by themselves, void of humility, and full of the pride and frenzy of wealth, these calumniators (of the virtuous) perform sacrifices, which are sacrifices only in name, with ostentatiousness and against prescribed rules 3; indulging (their) vanity, brute force, arrogance, lust, and anger; and hating me in their own bodies and in those of others 4. These enemies 5, ferocious, meanest of men, and unholy, I continually hurl down, to these worlds 6, only into demoniac wombs. Coming into demoniac wombs, deluded in every birth, they go down to the vilest state, O son of Kuntî! without ever coming to me.” _The Bhagavadgita_ Chapter XVI (34, p. 115)

Writers and philosophers over the ages have also observed that pride may become something negative and destructive as evidenced by the following quotes (13):

> **Samuel Johnson:** “Pride is seldom delicate; it will please itself with very mean advantages.” (p. 517)

> **Louis the Eleventh:** “When pride and presumption walk before, shame and loss follow very closely.” (p. 518)

It is evident that pride can become something problematic in the lives of human beings. Though pride may benefit us, it may also be the cause of pain, suffering, and destruction.

### Hubristic Pride

Hubris is a term taken from the Ancient Greeks. Originally hubris described those who thought themselves superior to the gods and it entailed the moral failings of not knowing one’s place in a hierarchical scheme and vaingloriously sticking to it (23). Hubris is a false pride (9). The hubristic are puffed up with pride, exaggerate their importance, act recklessly in pursuit of glory, and may believe themselves to be infallible (19). Hubristic pride is associated with arrogance, conceit, narcissism, hostility, aggression, and it results in interpersonal problems (36- 37). Hubristic pride is not to be confused with the satisfaction one receives from successful performance and positive feedback. It is pride that has morphed into prideful. Hubris is pride that has gone wrong.

When individuals engage in a harmful act or transgression against another, the perpetrator may experience either shame or pride. If the choice is to experience pride, it is an indication that the perpetrator has morally disengaged from the victimized. The personal benefit gained through the harmful action is considered to be more important than the negative impact it has upon the victim (24).

In order to illustrate the real evil that can be caused by hubristic pride, three examples taken from outside the world of sport are presented below. Rapes occur frequently in war-zones as a consequence of narcissistic pride. Rape is deemed acceptable by the rapists because they believe the victimized deserve to be shamed through the act of rape. Shame displacement and narcissistic pride preclude the rapists from feeling shame over the horrible act of rape (3).

During the “Holy Wars” known as the Crusades, Byzantine Christian and Muslim writers characterized the Latin intruders as being prideful and arrogant (27). Who could war over religious beliefs and practices? Only the proud and arrogant could. The Byzantines believed that God would ultimately punish the pride and arrogance of the invading Latins. To the Muslims, Latin pride and arrogance was considered to be the gravest of sins. Those who acted with arrogance and pride, they believed, could not be true believers in their conceptualization of God.

The colonization and expansion of European settlements in North America resulting in the death of countless Native Americans required a measure of hubris. According to Lewy (17):

> The new Americans, convinced of their cultural and racial superiority, were unwilling to grant the original inhabitants of the continent the vast preserve of land required by the Indians’ way of life. The consequence was a conflict in which there were few heroes, but which was far from a simple tale of hapless victims and merciless aggressors. (68)

If indeed hubristic pride empowers individuals to engage in behavior that harms others in the quest to achieve their goals, it seems that sport would provide a context in which those who have achieved success and those committed to athletic success might display hubristic pride. One would also expect to observe conflict, pain and suffering in the wake of the hubristic sport participant.

### Hubristic Pride and Problems in Sport

During a televised speech, professional golfer Tiger Woods apologized for extramarital affairs that gained worldwide attention, garnered negative publicity and cost him millions of dollars in commercial sponsorships. The words of Woods (42) illustrated how athletic success can lead to hubristic pride and a sense of entitlement:

> I knew my actions were wrong, but I convinced myself that normal rules did not apply. I never thought about who I was hurting… I thought I could get away with whatever I wanted to. I felt that I had worked hard my entire life and deserved to enjoy all the temptations around me. I felt I was entitled. Thanks to money and fame, I didn’t have to go far to find them. I was wrong. I was foolish. I don’t get to play by different rules. The same boundaries that apply to everyone apply to me. I brought this shame on myself. (¶ 11 – 12)

Many who find success in sport are seduced by the calling of hubris. They grow to feel that they are special; that they are more important than others, and that they are entitled to have what they want and to act as they please. Actions taken as the consequence of hubristic pride held by coaches, athletes, and parents often impact others negatively.

#### Coaches and Hubristic Pride

Hubristic coaches dish out strong humiliation to athletes in an effort to achieve success that brings to them wealth, sporting glory and enhancement of their pride (23). Strong humiliation comes in the form of abusive and degrading language meant to embarrass and degrade the athlete’s self-concept. Strong humiliation is a violation of the basic respect one human being should have for another. It often results in more than an athlete’s loss of self-esteem that may come as a result of a loss; even an embarrassing loss. Athletes experience mental anguish, embarrassment, shame and may come to hate sport as a consequence of strong humiliation. More sinister is the prospect of the athlete feeling poorly about him or herself as a human being. Hubristic coaches coldly and calculably do harm in the name of athletic success and toward the enhancement of their personal reputation, fame and pride.

Recently, a college football coach at high profile program was accused of physically attacking and verbally abusing his players. A second was accused of grabbing a player by the facemask, shaking him, choking him, and punching him in the face (38).

Losses and insubordination enraged the coaches who suffered humiliation and a loss of face. The violent actions taken by the coaches as a consequence of assaults upon their pride made it clear that pride was more important than the athletes they chose to abuse.

Hubristic, glory-seeking coaches may violate rules and regulations in an effort to increase their chances of winning. For example, the New England Patriots’ coaching staff videotaped the defensive signals used by opposing coaches during games and practices. The Patriots used the information in order to call offensive plays to best take advantage of the defense, thus increasing their chances of success. The illegal activity was found by the National Football League to have taken place during the 2007 season, however, additional allegations of illegal filming surfaced during the 2008 season. It was also reported by a former Patriots’ employee that the team had filmed opponent’s signals beginning in 2000 during head coach Bill Belichick’s first season with the team (4). It is worth noting that the Patriots won three Super Bowl Championships between 2000 and 2006.

Hubristic coaches are found in youth leagues, high schools, and colleges. They feel as though they are above having to adhere to rules and regulations. Operating rules, they believe, are for everyone else to follow. In a sense, the hubristic do not believe they are cheating. They are simply doing what the timid and uncommitted will not do to achieve success.

Hubristic pride can lead to poor coaching decisions. A coach may leave a player in the game longer than appropriate because replacing the individual may make it clear that a mistake was made by either playing the athlete or by having left him/her in too long (28). Hubristic pride can lead coaches to make decisions concerning who plays where and when entirely upon opinions rather than the objective utilization of statistics as a part of the decision-making process. When athletes question hubristic coaches for reasoning behind opinion-based coaching decisions they indignantly respond, “Because I am the coach!” Sadly, hubristic pride hampers their ability to make good decisions. It prevents them from effectively motivating and communicating with their athletes. It thwarts the coach’s desire to learn and grow.

President Bill Clinton engaged in an adulterous sexual encounter with White House intern Monica Lewinsky. When asked some years later why he had the affair, he replied that it was for the worst possible reason, “Just because I could” (20, ¶ 16). Clinton felt special and entitled to do as he pleased. His actions were motivated by hubris. Illicit sexual activity is observed in coaches and it can also be motivated by a sense of hubris. Between 1993 and 2003, 159 athletic coaches were fired or received reprimands for sexual misconduct in the state of Washington (41). Coaches form strong bonds with athletes. They may take advantage of the closeness of their relationships and the power that they have over their athletes to garner sexual favors. They engage in the behavior because they can and because they do not consider the impact that the act has upon the victims.

Hubristic pride allows coaches to believe themselves to be exempt from the moral imperative of the “Golden Rule.” For example, they expect to be respected by officials, yet berate them when calls do not go their way. How many coaches refer to officials as “blind man,” “zebra,” and worse?

Hubristic coaches may demand respect from athletes, but give none in return. They wish to have athletes attentively listen to their instructions, wants, and needs, yet they fail to consider those of their charges. Though hubristic coaches may find success, their actions result in athletes who resent and despise them. The hubristic demonstrate to the world that they alone are important and spread the message that the self is important above all. Hubristic coaches simply use athletes to achieve their personal goals.

What insidious actions will hubristic coaches take in an effort to achieve victory and bolster their pride? Before a T-Ball playoff game a coach offered to pay one of his players twenty-five dollars if he hit a teammate on purpose with a thrown ball. The intended target was Harry, a nine year old who was autistic and mildly retarded (2). The goal was to avoid having to play Harry in the three innings required by league rules. Participation by the autistic and mildly-retarded child would naturally decrease the team’s chances for success. If Harry were hurt, he would most likely go home. When hitting Harry in the groin failed to have the desired effect, the coach asked the player to hit Harry harder with a second throw. The child hit Harry in the side of his face and ear drawing blood. Traumatized, Harry did not play in the game. The coach was, however, able to bask in the glow of an epic T-Ball playoff victory.

#### Athletes and Hubristic Pride

Successful athletes often feel entitled to special treatment from others. Earlier in this paper, the words of Tiger Woods illustrated how athletes may convince themselves that hard work and success entitle them to special treatment. Athletes who feel entitled to special treatment negatively impact others and at times, harm themselves.

Few athletes in history have been the embodiment of perfection. How can athletes improve if they believe themselves above the need for improvement? How can they better contribute to the success of a team if they do not realize their potential? Hubristic athletes cannot honestly consider these questions, because they have been successful and their attitude toward instruction becomes hardened. They have an unrealistic assessment of their abilities and cannot see that their current abilities may simply make them a “big fish in a small pond.” They do not achieve their potential because they have an inflated perspective of their abilities. They lack perspective.

Hubristic athletes often feel as though they should not be required to adhere to policies and expectations set forth by the coach. For example, they are offended when they are taken out of a game in order to allow a substitute to play, when they are punished for being late, when they are asked to stop talking while the coach is trying to instruct, and when they are required to perform in tactical roles determined by the coach.

Hubristic athletes are less than a joy to have on a team in spite of how talented they may be. They cause frustration, irritation and resentment. They do so because they believe their perceived self-importance is worthy of special treatment and understanding. They believe that because they are gifted, the team cannot do well without them. They deceive themselves.

The hubristic individual is a poor teammate for it becomes clear to all that their own views and their personal success are all that is important. The hubristic athlete feels entitled to tell others what they are to do instead of making suggestions. The hubristic quickly express their displeasure in the poor performance of others and are incensed when others have the audacity to suggest that their play could be improved. Teammates come to fear and in a way despise them.

Hubristic athletes may even come to expect special treatment from officials. Some professional basketball players receive favorable calls because of their historical success and fame. They also receive favorable calls because they complain to officials to the point of embarrassment when calls do not go their way (29).

Hubristic athletes may see no problem with intentionally harming opponents in response to a loss of face experienced during competition. For example, an opponent was dominating NFL defensive tackle Albert Haynesworth during a contest. In the midst of a play the helmet of Haynesworth’s opponent had fallen off. With his opponent lying unprotected on the ground, Haynesworth intentionally stomped upon the face of his tormentor with a cleated foot. The stomping resulted in the victim being removed from the game and receiving several stitches. When asked about the motivation for the reprehensible act, Haynesworth replied, “You come to a crossroads in your life. I’m a prideful guy and I hate to lose, and I thought I was losing or at the point where it was make it or break it. I wanted to make it.” (15, ¶ 26).

#### Hubristic Pride and Parents

Modern parents often believe that the successes and failures of their children are an indication of their parental prowess. According to Coakley (10) the moral worth of parents is often tied to their children’s sporting success. In the sports setting the consequences of a child’s success and failure therefore takes on high importance concerning the pride an individual may take in being a parent.

Parents may display symptoms of hubris as they seek glory for their children. They feel entitled to impose their will, opinions, and desires upon anyone who may have an impact upon their child’s ability to shine. According to Dominowski (12):

> Some parents become obsessed with their son’s or daughter’s athletic success. Making all-conference, all-county, all-district, or all-state, for some parents caught in the web of showing themselves and their neighbors they are somehow ‘better’ because of their child’s success, is a case in point. Playing up to a coach, beseeching administrators, or running to the athletic director is a common occurrence among those with a do-or-die fixation personality. When things don’t go the way these individuals want them to go, out come the personal bashing, invective, provocative personal assaults, name-calling, and ‘get-even’ determination to end a coach’s career. (18)

Hubristic parents become a bane upon the lives of coaches. Parents evaluate all coaching decisions in light of how they may benefit or harm their child’s chances to achieve success and glory. Coaches are frequently second-guessed and criticized. Emboldened parents will often attempt to influence the decisions of coaches and become enraged if and when their attempts fail. Parents become incensed when it is perceived that their child has been “mistreated” or subjected to “humiliation” because it indirectly serves as an attack on their pride. Too frequently, their rage erupts into violence. Some salient examples are presented below.

* An angry parent attacked a coach because allegedly the coach had verbally embarrassed his son. The parent was a member of the United States House of Representatives (7).
* A parent ran onto the wrestling mat and grabbed the eleven-year-old athlete who was about to pin his child and threw him off of the mat (11).
* A parent attacked a coach after his child was forced to run a lap for being late to practice (1).
* An angry parent came after a coach with a loaded gun because his child did not get enough playing time (30).
* The organizer of a youth football league knocked his child’s coach unconscious during an argument over when the child would be placed into the game (14).
* A parent was found guilty of involuntary manslaughter over an attack leading to the death of a coach. The parent was angered over rough play that had occurred during a hockey scrimmage (8).

How many engage in violent activity because their parental pride has been wounded? How many angry parents believe that violence is justified because their pride is more important than the health, safety and even the lives of others? Those who do posses a puffed-up hubristic pride that makes them dangerous.

Parents may justify cheating as a means of assisting with their child’s success. The importance of success to the hubristic parent takes precedence over values such as fair play and sportsmanship. In an effort to achieve success, parents may falsify birth certificates or purchase performance-enhancing drugs for their children to ingest (16,32).

Hubristic parents may be despised by others because their conversational focus centers around their child’s talents, successes, future greatness, and because they often erupt into tirades concerning “unfair” treatment doled out by coaches and officials. Not to be forgotten are the stories of financial sacrifice, time invested and personal involvement in the skill development of their children. If people are not told, hubristic parents believe, how can they recognize the important impact that their actions have had upon the success of their children?

### Perspective Yields Humility

In a capitalistic society, competition is ubiquitous and the standing afforded us through our successes and failures has a tremendous impact upon our self-concept and experienced pride. Pride can indeed be a positive emotion. It serves to motivate human beings to accomplish great things both individually and collectively.

In the pursuit of success and in the afterglow of achievement we may deem ourselves special and, therefore above following the rules and standards of behavior set forth by society or the governing bodies of sport. We may come to believe ourselves to be worthy of special treatment and to take license to do as we please regardless of the harm we may do to others. When we do, we have chosen to be hubristic (27). We become a source of conflict, pain and discomfort. We may literally become a danger to others as well as to ourselves.

The perspective unknown to or unappreciated by the hubristic is that success and fame soon fade. Eventually time has its way and the mantle of greatness once bestowed upon the prideful is unceremoniously taken by vigorous youths. “In sports, more than most cultural pursuits, greatness is indeed on loan temporarily from the Gods” (23, p. 51). We cannot win forever. The applause we receive for our achievements does not echo throughout eternity.

Even those who achieve international renown should understand that to some, they are nothing more and nothing less than one of the 6.8 billion inhabitants of the earth. In an interview following Tiger Wood’s public apology for his hubristically motivated indiscretions, the Buddhist religious leader, Dalai Lama, stated that he did not know who Tiger Woods was (31). It is clear that the monumental achievements of some are unknown by and irrelevant to the many. Perspective yields humility. Perverted is the perspective held by the hubristic.

### Application in Sport

There is nothing wrong with the positive feelings of pride associated with athletic accomplishments. Athletes fittingly take pride in their abilities and performances. Coaches justifiably take pride in their work and successes. Parents rightly feel pride in the performances and accomplishments of their children. The desire to obtain a sense of accomplishment and pride drives individuals toward excellence in sport and life.

The danger to individuals and to society surfaces when pride in one’s athletic accomplishments leads them to believe that they are entitled to special treatment. At this point, pride has gone wrong. Pride has morphed into hubristic pride.

If sport is to prepare individuals to work and to live in harmony with one another, hubris must be eliminated from the competitive milieu. Athletic administrators, coaches, athletes, and parents must be vigilant for traces of hubristic behavior and sanction it quickly and effectively. In doing so, the spread of hubristic behavior through sport may be lessened.

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38. Ventre, M. (2009, December). College coaches can’t be medieval anymore: Leach is realizing that players have lot more power than they used to. NBCSports.com. Retrieved from <http://nbcsports.msnbc.com/id/34624968/ns/sports-college_football/>
39. Webster, J. M., Duvall, J., Gaines, L. M., & Smith, R. H. (2003). The roles of praise and social comparison information in the experience of pride. Journal of Social Psychology, 143 (2), 209-232.
40. Williams, L. A., & Desteno, D. (2008). Pride and perseverance: The motivational role of pride. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94 (6), 1007-1017.
doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.94.6.1007
41. Willmsen, C., & O’Hagan, M. (2003, December 14). Coaches who prey. The Seattle Times. Retrieved from <http://community.seattletimes.nwsource.com/archive/?date=20031214&slug=coaches14m>
42. Woods, T. (2010, February 19). Transcript: Tiger’s public statement. Tigerwoods.com. Retrieved from http://web.tigerwoods.com/news/article/201002198096934/news/

Corresponding Author
Dr. Steven Aicinena
Professor of Kinesiology/Athletic Director
The University of Texas of the Permian Basin
4901 East University
Odessa, TX 79762
<Aicinena_s@utpb.edu>
Office: 432-552-4675

U.S. Sports Academy2015-10-24T01:31:50-05:00August 19th, 2011|Sports Coaching, Sports Management, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|Comments Off

The Athletic Hurdles to Prestige: A Case Report

John L. Stump, Michael R. Allen, Robert J. Saxon, Jr., Vincent McConnell

### Abstract

This case report presents a history, diagnosis, prognosis and treatment of a young tennis athlete on scholarship to Florida State University. He sustains an acute ankle injury while in a tournament in the last month of high school that jolts him into realizing the injury hurdles that may lie ahead in the college athletic world. He and his parents choose alternative and complementary sports medicine rather than traditional methods and procedures for the health care of the young athlete. This case report details the procedures used to manage the acute ankle injury – Chiropractic, Acupuncture, Cold Laser – and the latest athletic training methods for sports rehabilitation are given in the integrative sports injury care given this athlete.

**Key Words:** Alternative, Complementary, Integrative, Chiropractic, Acupuncture, Cold Laser

### Introduction

Leonardo da Vinci called the human foot, which contains nearly 25 percent of the human’s bones and an elegantly functional arrangement of ligaments, tendons and fascia, a marvel of bioengineering and a work of art. Centuries after that observation by da Vinci, researchers continue to discover more about how the feet work, what can go wrong with motility maneuvers, and why (1).

Since 1990, Anderson Reed, a Daphne, Alabama resident and standout student at Bayside Academy in Daphne, Alabama, had been aspiring to greater heights in his chosen athletic endeavor of tennis (2). This year he graduated at or near the top of his class to go on to the University of his choice. He had a wide choice of colleges to select from by his sophomore year in high school when he became the top ranked tennis player in the State of Alabama. Reed played in tournaments across the United States through his high school career and accomplished a top 10 national ranking in tennis.

The young athlete narrowed his field of schools down to Georgia Tech, Vanderbilt, Louisiana State University, University of Alabama and Florida State University. After visiting the schools, talking with the administration, players, coach, and coaching staff at each college he felt informed enough to make a decision. His selection turned out to be Florida State University in Tallahassee.

His academic performance had been as good as his tennis record over the last four years, and it was reflected in the colleges and universities that sought Reed for their student body. Reed had decided on his collegiate career based on the academics of the school and the tennis program of Florida State University. Florida State has competed in the National Collegiate (NCAA) Sweet Sixteen finals each year for the past five years. They have top participants in the professional ranks, so he knew the coaching was going to be some of the best and – another plus – it was fairly close to home for him.

### Athlete and Injury

Last year at a state tournament in Mobile, Alabama, Reed was returning a hard volley and came down from a jump in the air, as he had done a thousand times before for a return shot. This time, however, he went down to the court in pain. He couldn’t move without severe pain. He had to forfeit the match and the game that day. His father and mother happened to be there and brought him home. They immediately called the practitioner they had depended on to keep Reed in good playing health for the last fifteen years. They all came together at the Integrative Medicine Centre office. The young athlete was taken to an examination room. It didn’t take long to determine that he had indeed sustained a bad ankle contusion with strain and sprain. The doctor thought he should be taken to the hospital for radiographs (X-rays), imaging (MRI), or both.

At the hospital the ER physician examined and followed up with radiographs and an MRI. It was determined he had sustained a grade III strain/sprain to the ankle (3). The radiologist had pointed out a couple of stress lines that he felt in most individuals would have been fractures (4). The diagnosis was a strain/sprain of the right ankle. Reed was to be out of action for the first time in his athletic career with an ankle injury. He had suffered mild shoulder, neck, wrist, and low back strains (5) over the past ten years, but nothing that kept him out of action more than a few days. This time was going to be different.

The team of Integrative Sports Medicine Specialists had seen hundreds of these injuries and had taken care of some of the best athletes in the world. They saw this as a good opportunity to illustrate the unified professional cooperation of the group.

![Reed’s Right Ankle](http://thesportjournal.org/files/)
Figure 1 Lateral View – Reed’s Right Ankle

### Biomechanical Analysis

The injury stunned Reed, his family and friends. Seeing him hobble around on crutches for weeks was just not what they were used to. But there were three components to this injury they had to understand. Because of the excessive flexibility of his body, especially the foot, over-pronation could easily have caused a fracture to occur. The three components that were involved, any one of which could have resulted in the injury were: a) too-rapid pronation (a turning-in of the foot); b) too extensive a degree of pronation; and c) pronation for too long a time.

When jumping, the athlete maintains pronation from the time of ground contact all the way into what’s called the propulsion phase. (At the propulsion phase, the foot should be very rigid to propel the body forward.) With a late-phase over-pronation, the foot is hypermobile (loose) and in danger of injury (6). Simply put, the body is applying a high level of force against the ground to propel the body forward while the foot is also excessively rolling inward. This inward foot rotation is transferred up the kinetic chain, alternating joint function. The uncontrolled load results in a high impact foot strike (6). So the athlete has reacted too fast, too excessively, and too long. The most difficult part for most people to understand is that he was just doing what his mind directed his body to do with the shot he was returning (6).

While traditional treatment methods for muscle, tendon and ligament injury have always emphasized rest, ice, compression and elevation (RICE), the team felt Reed should start functional treatment right away in order to retard scar tissue development (7).

### Methods and Materials

The team discussed the treatment plan after the consultation and examination, and determined that the athlete required a minimum of eight weeks of therapy, to consist of a physical examination (orthopaedic and neurological) (8,9), applied kinesiology or manual muscle testing to determine the weakened structures (10), acupuncture for quick pain control (10,11), and chiropractic for pelvic and low back compensation correction (6,8,10,12) as well as sports therapy procedures (13,14).

One new innovation in sports therapy, the Laser Therapy, a 500 mW cold laser (15,16), was to be utilized for the innovations provided by photobiostimulation technology within the last few years of Sports Medicine application and research (16). Medical Laser Systems has been working with doctors on a number of laser investigations, and this therapy seemed to be a good integrative approach to use. The laser utilizes acupuncture points that have been used in foot and ankle injuries in martial arts for hundreds of years with safety and efficiency (17).

Rehabilitative help from athletic training procedures and expertise was invaluable (18). The role of the Athletic Trainer’s (AT) involvement with the rehabilitation began early. Having worked with athletes for years, the AT was in tune with the mind and body needs of Reed’s injury from the start. There was the obvious need for some immobilization with an injury such as this, but the vital benefit of movement to promote healing in the affected area was not to be ignored (18).

The initial rehab session involved testing the ankle for range of motion (ROM) in relation to pain. The athlete needed to work in ranges where discomfort was 1-4 on a scale of 10 (19). This assessment was done in open chain fashion as the affected ankle tested in every possible position to locate the primary hindrances to healthy ROM.

What was found was there were a few positions in ROM (i.e. dorsiflexion) that caused greater degrees of pain than others. Once located, “pain-free zones” of ROM were used to work the ankle in those zones with resistance bands in a seated position. Some pain-free ROM with light resistance in the injured ankle progressed into the areas where discomfort was evident. The stimulus was kept passive as opposed to forcing any ROM that was not compliant. It must be noted here that the non-injured ankle was trained with the same resistance and workload. Well-established research literature indicates that working a non-injured limb results in strength improvement in the injured contralateral side. This is referred to as “cross-transfer” and even in immobilization situations reports show 10-77% (of healthy side) strength increases (20).

The athlete’s progress in ROM was quite amazing. He was seen 3-4 days per week through the rehab process in combination with his acupuncture and chiropractic treatments. Stability drills were added to the program. With the ankle, a healthy joint must have both mobility and stability (20). The ankle can be quite an uncooperative joint for an athlete, since if either the stability or mobility is compromised the other attribute suffers. Being a tennis player means the demands of repeated acceleration, deceleration, and change of direction are inherent. Proficiency in these athletic skills requires high degrees of mobility in the ankle joint. However, once that mobility threshold has been violated (as was the case with this injury), stability is the number one priority. Mobility cannot be restored to the athlete’s ankle without the presence of stability. Stretching of the lower leg was done with precision and care, to locate the ROM for that day as opposed to being competitive and forcing progress.

Though “ankle stability” was the focus, the vital fact is that the human body works in kinetic chains, meaning no specific area of the body (i.e. ankle) is an island unto itself. For example, the restoration of the ankle is intimately affected by mobility and stability in other key areas such as the hip and knee (21,22). We did not want our athlete performing closed chain movements on the injured ankle that would compromise ipsilateral hip function through compensations to “protect” the ankle. Standing exercises were implemented that required a “regulated stimulus” to the injured ankle. Reed performed these drills barefoot on a cushioned surface that required him to flex his feet into the surface.

After he developed the necessary stability in the ankle, it was time to implement lunge type drills with assistance from a resistance band around the waist. The bands are used in this case to _unload_ the drill so that less of the athlete’s bodyweight is placed on the injured ankle. The progression was to go into controlled horizontal force drills where the subject would move laterally while attached to the resistance band. This gradually reintroduced the ankle to deceleration forces as well as change-of-direction demands. These drills, and others similarly performed with trunk rotation, re-educated the kinetic chain that includes the hips and other core muscles as well as the shoulders.

Figure 2 Dr. Mike Allen, Dr. John Stump, Sports Medicine Specialist, with Anderson Reed

Reed followed the treatment and rehab plan exactly as was suggested and established a routine that had him back in competitive condition within the predicted 8 weeks.

It is reported, “Reed has been a natural athlete from the beginning of his career; not taking any medications, steroids or athletic enhancements has been his prerogative.” There was no question or desire for anti-inflammatory therapy during the treatment or rehabilitation phase. The athlete understood the theory that medication may give him short-term benefit but nothing permanent (23). He followed the daily grind of the exercises and the muscle therapy explained to him each week. The manual muscle testing (AK) showed the progress being made each week. His speed, strength and agility were there as before the injury. The relationship between the force of movement and the velocity of movement was well understood (24,25).

### Conclusion

Beginning high-competitive athletics at an early age, this young man just experienced what every athlete has to face, human frailty and lack of total control, the fact that athletic injury hurdles come up suddenly, unannounced and as quickly as moguls down a ski slope.

The sports injury team had worked with athletes from elementary to professional and Olympic levels during their career. They knew there are times when this happens to the best of athletes; it’s part of the price that each athlete has to pay climbing to the top of their athletic endeavor. Some athletes take it in stride and know and understand, but the knowledge is difficult for others. They just can’t understand why the body doesn’t always respond as quickly and as efficiently as it should to a mental command and when it tries, sometimes the communication breaks down.

This athlete has a great future ahead. He crossed this injury hurdle just as he had all other hurdles put in front of him, with hard work and patience. He took on his treatment and rehabilitation as if it was part of the challenge of the game, and it is a very important part. Our athletic staff would not be surprised at all to see him at Wimbledon in the near future if he continues to follow the work ethic he has set up for himself in the early stages of his athletic career. We want to thank the Physicians and staff of Thomas Hospital for their contribution and help with the imaging of the ankle.

Please address any questions, comments or suggestions to the authors at the following email address: bamashogun@aol.com or visit www.alternative-concepts.com

### Applications in Sport

This article was written for the coaches, trainers and other sports health related personnel not familiar with the benefits of working in an Integrative Sports Healthcare facility. In this type of facility there are chiropractic, acupuncture, laser, nutrition and many non-traditional clinical applications that can speed an athlete’s injury toward recovery, in addition to the traditional approach in Sport Medicine.

### Acknowledgements

The authors wish to thank the radiology staff at Thomas Hospital, Fairhope, Alabama, especially the physicians who consulted with us in this case.

### References

1. Keele, KD with a commentary by Carlo Pedretti, Corpus of the anatomical works in the collection of her Majesty the Queen, New York: Johnson, 1979-1981. 3 vol. See also his fundamental study, Leonardo da Vinci’s elements of the science of man, New York: Academic Press, 1983.
2. American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons The Young Athlete New York, NY, July 2009.
3. Hole JW, Human Anatomy & Physiology, Wm C Brown Brothers, Oxford 1995 pages 172-200.
4. Fore, David and Radiology Staff, Thomas Hospital, Fairhope, AL. May 2009.
5. Gibble, M and Ashton, J. Young Athletes Fight Sports Injury www.CBS.Com June 2009.
6. Schafer RC. Clinical Biomechanics Musculoskeletal Actions and Reactions. Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore, 1998, pages 579-582.
7. Hammer, W. New Trends in Treating Muscle Injury. Dynamic Chiropractic, March, 2009.
8. Jenkins, DB Functional Anatomy of the Limbs and Back W.B. Saunders Company, Philadelphia, 1991.
9. Cyriax, J Orthopaedic Medicine Vol I & II Bailliere Tindall, London, 1984.
10. Micozzi M Fundamentals of Complimentary and Alternative Medicine Saunders Elsevier, 2006 pp 223-225.
11. Ibid pp255-73
12. Mayor DF Electroacupuncture Churchill Livingstone, London 2007 pp 191-195.
13. Oschman JL Energy Medicine: The Scientific Basis Churchill Livingstone London 2000 pp 165-193.
14. Stump JL Neuroma Pain of the Foot Successfully Managed with Laser Therapy Practical Pain Management, May 2009 pp 47-51.
15. Medical Laser Systems, Brandford, CT
16. White J and Kaesberg-White K Laser Therapy and Pain Relief. Dynamic Chiropractic. October 1994. 12(21).
17. Deadman P, AL- Khafaji M, and Baker K. A Manual of Acupuncture Journal of Chinese Publications. East Sussex, England. 2001.pp 10-20.
18. Konin JG Clinical Athletic Training SLACK Inc., Publishers, Thorofare, NJ 1996.
19. Irvin RL Classification of Chronic Pain. Pain. Supplement 3. 395-396.
20. Muscolino JE. The Muscular System Manual. Elsevier Mosby, St Louis, 2005.
21. Liebenson, C. Building Speed and Agility. Dynamic Chiropractic, June 2009.
22. Miller, John P. and Croce, Ronald V. (2007). “Analysis of Isokinetic and Closed Chain Movements for Hamstring Reciprocal Coactivation”. Journal of Sport Rehabilitation (16): 319–325.
23. Mishra DK, Friden J, Schmitz MC, et al. Anti-inflammatory medication after muscle injury. A treatment resulting in short-term improvement but subsequent loss of muscle function. J Bone Joint Surg Am, 1995; 77(10): 1510-9.
24. Munn, J., Herbert, R., & Grandevia, S. (2004). Contralateral effects of unilateral resistance training: a meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Physiology, 96, 1861-1866.
25. Lee, M., & Carrol, T. (2007). Cross Education: Possible mechanisms for the contralateral effects of unilateral resistance training. Sports Medicine, 37, 1-14.

### Authors

John Stump did his undergraduate work in biology at the University of Maryland and a Master’s and Doctorate in Sports Medicine at the United States Sports Academy. In addition he accomplished a doctorate in Chiropractic from Palmer College in Davenport, Iowa. He went on to do postdoctoral work in Oriental Medicine and Acupuncture in Japan, China and Korea. In addition he holds black belts in Judo, Karate, and Kempo.

Dr. Stump is armed with a unique perspective on health care from an eastern and western scientific view. Because of this Dr. Stump was asked to be a team doctor for the South Korean government in 1986 for the Asian Games and 1988 Seoul Olympics. He is the author of numerous scientific articles, and has coauthored 4 textbooks. The latest textbook publication Stump contributed to being Electroacupuncture, edited by David Mayor, published by Elsevier 2007. Later that year he released a non-fiction account of the tragic stroke he survived (“A Stroke of Midnight” Alternative Concepts Publishing, 2007.) John is now writing a unique east-west anatomy text for McGraw-Hill to be released in 2011. He is a National Faculty member of the United States Sports Academy.

Mike Allen did his undergraduate work at the University of Tennessee at Knoxville and graduated in 1999. He did post-graduate studies in Sports Medicine at the United States Sports Academy and Athletic Training at the University of Mobile in Alabama. He is presently assistant Clinic Director at Southwest College of Acupuncture, and attends patients at a clinic in Denver, Colorado. In addition he is Consultant in Acupuncture to the Integrative Medicine Centre, Fairhope, Alabama since 2005.

Bob Saxon did his undergraduate work biology at Loch Haven University in Pennsylvania. He graduated from New York Chiropractic College with his DC degree in 2000. He has worked at the Integrative Medicine Centre for the past three years as Assistant Clinic Director, Chiropractic Department. He is also certified in Acupuncture by the International College of Acupuncture. In addition he teaches Anatomy and Kinesiology for Blue Cliff College in Mobile, Alabama.

Vince McConnell is a certified fitness trainer and athletic preparation specialist. Coach McConnell has been working with private clients, as well as high school, collegiate and professional athletes. He has written numerous articles for various fitness magazines and is often a guest on TV and Radio programs. He owns and operates McConnell’s Athletics in Fairhope, Alabama.

### Corresponding Author

John L. Stump, DC, PhD, EdD
Integrative Medicine Centre
315 Magnolia Avenue
Fairhope, AL 36532
<bamashogun@aol.com>
251-990-8188

John Stump did his undergraduate work in biology at the University of Maryland and took his Master’s and Doctorate in Sports Medicine at the United States Sports Academy. In addition he accomplished a doctorate in Chiropractic from Palmer College in Davenport, Iowa. He went on to do postdoctoral work in Oriental Medicine and Acupuncture in Japan, China and Korea. He also holds black belts in Judo, Karate, and Kempo.

Dr. Stump is armed with a unique perspective of health care from an eastern and western scientific view. Because of this Dr. Stump was asked to be a team doctor for the South Korean government in 1986 for the Asian Games and 1988 Seoul Olympics. He is the author of numerous scientific articles, and has coauthored 4 textbooks. The latest textbook publication Stump contributed to was Electroacupuncture, edited by David Mayor, published by Elsevier in 2007. Later that year he released “A Stroke of Midnight” (Alternative Concepts Publishing, 2007), a non-fiction account of the tragic stroke he survived. John is now writing a unique east-west anatomy text for McGraw-Hill to be released in 2011. He is a National Faculty member of the United States Sports Academy.

U.S. Sports Academy2013-11-25T15:32:30-06:00August 8th, 2011|Sports Coaching, Sports Exercise Science, Sports Management, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|Comments Off

Usefulness of Bioelectrical Impedance in the Prediction of VO2max in Healthy Men and Women

Jordan R. Moon, Vincent J. Dalbo, Michael D. Roberts, Chad M. Kerksick, and Jeffrey R. Stout

### Abstract

VO₂max is an invaluable measure for the assessment of aerobic fitness; however, to yield accurate results direct assessment requires costly equipment, trained investigators, and that the participant produce a maximal effort to volitional fatigue. The majority of VO₂max prediction equations have attempted to predict aerobic capacity without considering physiological variables other than age and body composition. As a result, a majority of VO₂max prediction equations have been found to be invalid. A recent study proposed an equation accounting for additional physiological variables known to influence aerobic capacity, including blood volume, fat-free mass, urinary creatine excretion, and total body potassium. Therefore, this investigation sought to evaluate the validity of novel non-exercise prediction equations, which utilize bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) to obtain an estimate of blood volume and skeletal muscle mass as predictor variables in an attempt to increase the accuracy of non-exercise VO₂max prediction equations. VO₂max was assessed using indirect calorimetry. Healthy male (30.9 ± 6.0 y, 179.0 ± 4.3 cm, 94.1 ± 19.5 kg; n = 23) and female (32.0 ± 6.1 y, 167.8 ± 7.9 cm, 72.0 ± 9.6 kg; n = 25) participants completed a VO₂max test and a physical activity survey (PA-R) and were analyzed using bioelectrical impedance. Results indicated that each equation resulted in a significant (p ≤ 0.025) underestimation of VO₂max. These outcomes suggest that the use of BIA to estimate blood volume and skeletal muscle mass does not improve the accuracy of VO₂max prediction equations. Coaches and trainers will not benefit from the inclusion of BIA in an equation to predict aerobic fitness. Currently, the best methods to estimate aerobic fitness require submaximal and maximal exercise testing. Predicting aerobic fitness using non-exercise equations does not appear to be practical or valid.

**Keywords:** maximal, aerobic capacity, prediction, gender-specific

### Introduction

The rate of maximal oxygen consumption (VO₂max) has practicality in research and field settings as a measure of aerobic fitness, in order to prescribe exercise intensities and to assess exercise training responses following an intervention (19). An acceptable standard for VO₂max determination is the direct measure of expired gas samples obtained while an individual is performing maximal exertion exercise (2). From a research perspective reliable non-exercise VO₂max prediction equations could prove to be beneficial, as experimenters could obtain an immediate, valid measure of the aerobic fitness of an individual without maximal exercise testing. Additional advantages of non-exercise VO₂max prediction equations include the ease and cost associated with test administration and use in participants who are unable to perform a treadmill test, as VO₂max tends to be underestimated with other modes of exercise (19). However, the greatest advantage of an accurate VO₂max prediction equation is the practicality of use in research laboratories that do not possess the necessary equipment to access VO₂max and for coaches and trainers looking to evaluate several athletes and/or an entire team. Due to the disadvantages associated with VO₂max testing numerous submaximal (1,8,18,23) and non-exercise prediction equations (4,5,10,17,21,24,25) have been developed to reduce the necessity of direct VO₂max assessment.

Previous non-exercise prediction equations have been developed but the need to improve the accuracy of these equations has been suggested in previous literature (4,16,17,21). However, due to known deviations in VO₂max values determined from varying modes of exercise (bike, treadmill walking, treadmill running, and arm ergometry), the use of VO₂max prediction equations are dependent on the task. For example, a prediction equation for VO₂max during a treadmill run may not be accurate for predicting VO₂max during cycle ergometry. In addition, another primary shortcoming of non-exercise VO₂max prediction equations is the limited ability to account for genetic variability in VO₂max (21). According to Stahn et al. (21), the primary physiological determinants measured at rest to predict VO₂max are blood volume, which has been found to account for up to 80% of the variance in VO₂max, and a group of variables including fat-free mass, urinary creatine excretion, and total body potassium, which have been proposed to be related to skeletal muscle mass. Additional evidence supporting this claim was provided by Sananda et al. (20) who found total skeletal muscle mass to be highly correlated (r = 0.92, p < 0.001) with VO₂max (20).

Stahn et al. (21) sought to obtain an estimate of blood volume and skeletal muscle mass using bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA). Previous work has suggested BIA to have a strong correlation with blood volume (r = 0.89, SEE = 9.0%) using the impedance index of height squared divided by impedance (22) and skeletal muscle mass, as compared to magnetic resonance imaging (r = 0.927, SEE = 9.0%) (11). As a result Stahn et al. (21) developed a non-exercise VO₂max prediction equation, which utilizes BIA to estimate resting levels of blood volume and skeletal muscle mass as predictor variables. However, the equation by Stahn et al. (21) has yet to be validated by an independent laboratory, and the benefits of utilizing BIA for predicting VO₂max have not been established. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to validate treadmill VO₂max predictions using the recently published BIA equation of Stahn et al. (21). It was hypothesized that the BIA equations would produce accurate VO₂max predictions due to the relationship between VO₂max, BIA, skeletal muscle mass, and blood volume.

### Methods
#### Subjects

Sixty participants chose to participate in this study, but 12 were eliminated for not reaching VO₂max (n = 48; Table 1). All testing was conducted after the participant signed the IRB-approved informed consent and completed comprehensive medical history questionnaires. Participants were excluded if they: 1) had a history of metabolic, hepatorenal, musculoskeletal, autoimmune, or neurological disease; 2) were currently taking androgenic medications; or 3) had consumed nutritional supplements that may affect metabolism [i.e., over 100 mg•d-1 of caffeine, ephedrine alkaloids, etc.] and/or muscle mass [i.e. creatine, protein/amino acids, androstenedione, dihydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), etc.] within three months of starting the study; 4) were unable to reach at least two of the three stated criteria for reaching VO₂max.

Table 1. Participant characteristics of validated equations

	Stahn et al. (21)			Current Validation Participants
	N	Males	Females	N	Males	Females
N	66	33	33	48	23	25
Age (yr)	24.0 (4.0)	25.0 (4.0)	23.0 (4.0)	31.5 (6.0)	30.9 (6.1)	32.1 (6.1)
Height (cm)	174 (6)	180 (5)	168 (6)	173 (9)	179.0 (4)	169 (8)
Weight (kg)	68.4 (7.6)	74.9 (8.3)	61.8 (6.8)	82.6 (18.7)	94.1 (19.5)	72.0 (9.6)
PA-R	6.6 (1.1)	6.6 (0.9)	6.3 (1.3)	2.9 (1.9)	3.4 (2.3)	2.4 (1.5)
VO₂max (mlkgmin^-1)	53.6 (5.0)	59.6 (5.5)	47.6 (4.4)	43.9 (13.4)	42.4 (14.4)	45.2 (12.6)

#### Non-Exercise VO₂max Prediction Equations

The equations selected for validation were developed by Stahn et al. (21) and are presented in Table 2.

Table 2. Submaximal VO₂max prediction equations

2MF	Stahn et al. (21)	VO₂max (DF50) = 14.29 · H²/Z + 104.14 · PA-R – 440.79 • Gender (M = 1, F = 0) + 489.47
2M	Stahn et al. (21)	VO₂max (DF50) = 14.29 • Height/Z + 104.14 • PA-R– 440.79 • Gender (M = 1) + 489.47
2F	Stahn et al. (21)	VO₂max (DF50) = 14.29 • Height2/Z + 104.14 • PA-R – 440.79 • Gender (F = 0) + 489.47

∗ All values from prediction equations were converted to ml•kg•min-1
H = Height (cm)
Z = Impedance (Ohm)
PA-R = Physical activity rating scale
M = Male
F = Female

#### Experimental Design

Testing was performed between 9:00 a.m. and 3:00 p.m. in a temperature-controlled laboratory maintained at 21.6 ± 0.7oC and 28.2 ± 5.5% relative humidity. Prior to testing, each subject was instructed to avoid the consumption of alcohol, refrain from heavy exertion for 48 hours, and avoid smoking and caffeine consumption the day of testing. Subjects were also instructed to consume 2 liters of water the day before testing in an effort to promote normohydration.

#### Anthropometry and Physical Activity Assessment

After voiding their bladders, subjects changed into minimal clothing and removed footwear for measurement of body mass and height, conducted on a calibrated scale and stadiometer (Detecto, Webb City, MO). Body mass was measured to the nearest 0.2 kg and height was assessed to the nearest 0.5 cm. The PA-R was used to assess the average weekly physical activity patterns of each participant in the 6 months prior to testing (7).

### Bioelectric Impedance Measurement

Whole-body impedance measurements were performed using a single frequency (50 kHz) bioelectrical impedance analyzer (IMPTM DF50, ImpediMed Inc, Queensland, Australia). Each morning prior to testing, the bioelectrical impedance device was calibrated following the manufacturer’s guidelines. Measurements were taken from the right side of the body using a tetrapolar electrode arrangement following the standard procedures used by Stahn et al. (21). Prior to testing each subject was asked remove jewelry and excess clothing before being instructed to lie in a supine position for 10 minutes with arms and legs abducted from the body at 10˚ and 20˚ respectively, allowing body fluids to stabilize. Following identification of electrode placement, body hair was removed with a razor before the skin was cleaned with alcohol and allowed to dry. Current-inducing electrodes (575 mm2: 25 mm x 23 mm) (ImpediMed Electrodes, Queensland, Australia) were placed 1 cm below the phalangeal-metacarpal joint in the middle posterior surface of the hand and 1 cm below the transverse (metatarsal) arch on the dorsum of the foot. Detector electrodes of the same type were placed on the lateral epicondyle of the humerus and the lateral condyle of the femur according to the guidelines of Stahn et al. (21). Interclass and intraclass correlation coefficients for within and between days using this technology vary between 0.960 and 0.997 (6,21), while interindividual within-day reliability measures are commonly 1.3-2.0% (13,15,21).

#### VO₂max Assessment

VO₂max testing was performed on a calibrated Quinton treadmill (Q65 Series 90, Bothell, WA) according to Stahn et al. (21). Participants began the test with a 4-minute warm-up at 1.5 m·s-1 at a 1% gradient. Following warm-up, 3-minute testing periods began at speeds of 2.0 m·s-1 for women and 2.5 m·s-1 for men. Completion of each stage resulted in a speed increase of 0.5 m·s -1 until volitional fatigue despite verbal encouragement.

Maximal heart rate, respiratory exchange ratio (RER), and VO₂max were measured with a calibrated metabolic cart (ParvoMedics TrueOne® 2400 metabolic measuring system, Sandy, UT). The system was calibrated 15 minutes prior to testing according to manufacturer specifications. Mean oxygen uptake (VO2), carbon dioxide output (VCO2), and pulmonary ventilation (VE) were computed for each breath and averaged over 15-second intervals. Heart rate was monitored during testing using a heart rate monitor (Polar F6, Lake Success, NY). The test was considered maximal if two of the following criteria were obtained: 1) a plateau of VO2 occurred, defined as an increase of less than 150 ml·min-1 despite increasing speed, 2) Respiratory exchange ratio (RER) was ≥ 1.15, and 3) maximal heart rate was within 10 beats of age-predicted maximal heart rate (21).

#### Data analysis

Validity of VO₂max estimates were based on an evaluation of predicted values versus the criterion value from direct treadmill VO₂max assessment by calculating the constant error (CE = actual VO₂max – predicted VO₂max), r value (Pearson product moment correlation coefficient), standard error of estimate and total error (9,14). The mean difference (CE) between the VO₂max prediction equations and the direct measure of VO₂max was analyzed using dependent t-tests with the Bonferroni alpha adjustment (12). The method of Bland and Altman (3) was used to identify the 95% limits of agreement between actual VO₂max values and predicted VO₂max values.

### Results

Demographic information of participants in the Stahn et al. (21) study and the current investigation are presented in Table 1. To optimize the accuracy of the prediction equations, results of the validation analysis are presented in two groups: male- and female-specific equations (Table 3). Each sex-specific equation produced a significantly different VO₂max value from the direct measure (p<0.05). TE values were greater than 13.2 ml•kg•min-1, SEE values were greater than 9.1 ml•kg•min-1 and r values were less than 0.75.

Table 3. Validity of non-exercise prediction equations for estimating VO₂max ml•kg•min-1

Method	VO₂max ± (x SD)	CE	r	Slope	Y-intercept	SEE	TE
Direct VO₂M	42.4 (14.4)
Male	33.3 (8.3)	9.1*	0.74	1.2	-0.5	9.9	13.3
Direct VO₂F	45.2 (12.6)
Female	34.0 (6.5)	11.2*	0.70	1.3	-0.78	9.2	14.5

### Discussion

The sex-specific equations analyzed in this investigation produced predicted VO₂max values that were significantly below the actual VO₂max (p<0.05). Using the predicted VO₂max values to produce exercise prescriptions would yield exercise intensities underestimated by an equivalent amount.

The aim of the Stahn et al. (21) study was to demonstrate the viability of using BIA for the non-exercise prediction of VO₂max. The authors attempted to account for the influence of physiological variables on aerobic performance by indirectly accounting for blood volume, fat-free mass, urinary creatine excretion and total body potassium with a time efficient assessment of blood volume and skeletal muscle mass using a BIA device. Results from the Stahn et al. (21) study appeared promising as their equation was reported to account for 88.7% of the variance in VO₂max in an athletic population, and the authors postulated the equation would be more effective in a more diverse population. However, in the current investigation the equations developed by Stahn et al. (21) were found to be invalid in a population of healthy men and women. Errors in the equations were most likely introduced by using predicted values of blood volume and skeletal muscle mass (via BIA). In essence, predicted variables were used to predict another predictor, VO₂max. The validity of the equations developed by Stahn et al. (21) may be improved by using a more accepted and still cost-effective measure of skeletal muscle mass, such as a multiple-site skinfold, as was used in VO₂max prediction equations developed by Jackson et al. (10).

### Conclusions

The equation developed by Stahn et al. (21) may have been effective at predicting VO₂max in the athletic population used in the original investigation but appears to significantly underestimate VO₂max in a representative sample of healthy young men and women. Future prediction equations should include percent body fat and physical activity rating scales, as these variables appear to have the greatest predictive power in the estimation of non-exercise VO₂max prediction equations. Although the prediction equations developed by Stahn et al. (21) were not found to be valid in this investigation, non-exercise VO₂max prediction equations should attempt to increase their predictive power by accounting for physiological factors that are known to influence VO₂max, namely skeletal muscle mass. Furthermore, future research should examine the accuracy of the equations developed by Stahn et al. (21) in an athletic population and determine the viability of using a BIA device in the prediction of VO₂max.

### Applications in Sport

An athlete’s aerobic fitness is a crucial component of performance regardless of the sporting event. Aerobic athletes and coaches/trainers can benefit from accurate measurements of aerobic fitness through VO₂max testing. However, direct VO₂max testing requires expensive equipment and is not practical in the field. Many prediction equations have been developed in an attempt to find an easy way to predict VO₂max in the field. However, results from this investigation suggest that using BIA in a non-exercise VO₂max equation may not be appropriate or valid in healthy men and women. Specifically, the Stahn et al. (21) BIA VO₂max equations underpredicted VO₂max, resulting in significantly lower VO₂max values, giving the impression of an individual who is less aerobically fit. Therefore, it is suggested that coaches and trainers utilize either submaximal or maximal VO₂max prediction equations for their athletes and clients, as non-exercise prediction equations may not provide valid information.

### Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank all the participants for their willingness to participate in this investigation.

### References

1. Astrand, & Ryhming, I. (1954). A nomogram for calculation of aerobic capacity (physical fitness) from pulse rate during sub-maximal work. J Appl Physiol, 7(2), 218-221.
2. Balady, G. J., Berra, K. A., Golding, L. A., Gordon, N. F., Mahler, D. A., Myers, J. N., et al. (2000). ACSM’s guidelines for exercise testing and prescription (6 ed.). Philadelphia: Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins.
3. Bland, J. M., & Altman, D. G. (1986). Statistical methods for assessing agreement between two methods of clinical measurement. Lancet, 1(8476), 307-310.
4. Davis, J. A., Storer, T. W., Caiozzo, V. J., & Pham, P. H. (2002). Lower reference limit for maximal oxygen uptake in men and women. Clin Physiol Funct Imaging, 22(5), 332-338.
5. Fairbarn, M. S., Blackie, S. P., McElvaney, N. G., Wiggs, B. R., Pare, P. D., & Pardy, R. L. (1994). Prediction of heart rate and oxygen uptake during incremental and maximal exercise in healthy adults. Chest, 105(5), 1365-1369.
6. Fornetti, W. C., Pivarnik, J. M., Foley, J. M., & Fiechtner, J. J. (1999). Reliability and validity of body composition measures in female athletes. Journal of Applied Physiology, 87(3), 1114-1122.
7. George, J. D., Stone, W. J., & Burkett, L. N. (1997). Non-exercise VO₂max estimation for physically active college students. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 29(3), 415-423.
8. Golding, L. A. (2000). YMCA Physical Fitness Testing and Assessment Manual (4 ed.). Champaign: Human Kinetics
9. Heyward, V. H., & Wagner, D. R. (2004). Applied Body Composition Assessments. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
10. Jackson, A. S., Blair, S. N., Mahar, M. T., Wier, L. T., Ross, R. M., & Stuteville, J. E. (1990). Prediction of functional aerobic capacity without exercise testing. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 22(6), 863-870.
11. Janssen, I., Heymsfield, S. B., Baumgartner, R. N., & Ross, R. (2000). Estimation of skeletal muscle mass by bioelectrical impedance analysis. J Appl Physiol, 89(2), 465-471.
12. Keppel, G. a. T. D. W. (2004). Design and Analysis: A Researchers Handbook (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
13. Kushner, R. F., & Schoeller, D. A. (1986). Estimation of total body water by bioelectrical impedance analysis. Am J Clin Nutr, 44(3), 417-424.
14. Lohman, T. G. (1996). Human Body Composition. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
15. Lukaski, H. C., Johnson, P. E., Bolonchuk, W. W., & Lykken, G. I. (1985). Assessment of fat-free mass using bioelectrical impedance measurements of the human body. Am J Clin Nutr, 41(4), 810-817.
16. Malek, M. H., Berger, D. E., Housh, T. J., Coburn, J. W., & Beck, T. W. (2004). Validity of VO₂max equations for aerobically trained males and females. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 36(8), 1427-1432.
17. Matthews, C. E., Heil, D. P., Freedson, P. S., & Pastides, H. (1999). Classification of cardiorespiratory fitness without exercise testing. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 31(3), 486-493.
18. Pare, G., Noreau, L., & Simard, C. (1993). Prediction of maximal aerobic power from a submaximal exercise test performed by paraplegics on a wheelchair ergometer. Paraplegia, 31(9), 584-592.
19. Ross, R. M. (2003). ATS/ACCP statement on cardiopulmonary exercise testing. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 167(10), 1451; author reply 1451.
20. Sanada, K., Kearns, C. F., Kojima, K., & Abe, T. (2005). Peak oxygen uptake during running and arm cranking normalized to total and regional skeletal muscle mass measured by magnetic resonance imaging. Eur J Appl Physiol, 93(5-6), 687-693.
21. Stahn, A., Terblanche, E., Grunert, S., & Strobel, G. (2006). Estimation of maximal oxygen uptake by bioelectrical impedance analysis. Eur J Appl Physiol, 96(3), 265-273.
22. Stahn, A., Terblanche, E., & Strobel, G. (2004). Relationships between bioelectrical impedance and blood volume. Proceedings of the 11th Pre-Olympic Congress, 219-220.
23. Storer, T. W., Davis, J. A., & Caiozzo, V. J. (1990). Accurate prediction of VO₂max in cycle ergometry. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 22(5), 704-712.
24. Wier, L. T., Jackson, A. S., Ayers, G. W., & Arenare, B. (2006). Nonexercise models for estimating VO₂max with waist girth, percent fat, or BMI. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 38(3), 555-561.
25. Williford, H. N., Scharff-Olson, M., Wang, N., Blessing, D. L., Smith, F. H., & Duey, W. J. (1996). Cross-validation of non-exercise predictions of VO2peak in women. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 28(7), 926-930.

### Corresponding Author

Jordan R. Moon, PhD
Department Head
Department of Sports Fitness and Health
United States Sports Academy
One Academy Drive
Daphne, AL 36526

### Author Affiliations

Jordan R. Moon, PhD
Department of Sports Fitness and Health
United States Sports Academy
One Academy Drive
Daphne, AL 36526

Chad M. Kerksick, PhD and Jeffrey R. Stout, PhD
Department of Health and Exercise Science
University of Oklahoma
1401 Asp Ave.
Norman, OK 73019

Vincent J. Dalbo, PhD
School of Medical and Applied Sciences
Institute of Health and Social Science Research
Central Queensland University
Rockhampton, Australia

Michael D. Roberts, PhD
University of Missouri-Columbia
Department of Biomedical Science
Veterinary Medicine Building
Columbia, MO 65211

U.S. Sports Academy2016-04-01T09:13:13-05:00July 27th, 2011|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Exercise Science, Sports Management, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|Comments Off

IOA President’s Closing Remarks on the 11th Joint International Session for Directors of National Olympic Academies

Isidoros Kouvelos, International Olympic Academy president

Dear participants, the 11th International Session for Directors of NOAs, which has just been completed, has left us a remarkably positive sense regarding the future of the Olympic Education dissemination in a global scale.

Nowadays, the meaning of globalization is totally understandable to have been identified more with a political movement and less with an effort to achieve educational uniformity in the field of promotion of the Olympic Education in different regions of the world.

Even though I didn’t have the opportunity to attend all the lectures, I have realized from their presentations that they face the special subject of the Session with great sensitivity. Through the presentations of prominent lecturers, like Dr. T.J. Rosandich, from the USA and Professor Axel Horn from Germany, we have all found out that the new forms of technology which are currently developing really fast, apart from the risks that are being involved, such as abuse of one-sided and insufficient information, they also offer unlimited potentialities of the dissemination of the Olympic Idea.

Proessor A.M. Najeeb has introduced us a new level of knowledge concerning teaching systems and methods, which have been developed recently, via globally recognized interdisciplinary strategies, while our oncologist friend, Dr. Spyros Retsas, has guided us, in an elegant way, through the medical paths of Ancient Greece and the influence of medicine in the formation of a social culture connected to nature and competitive sports.

Dr Yohan Blondel, through his presentation regarding the recent French approach to the teaching of Olympic Values, has convinced us that we will always have the hope of improving the classical methodology for the dissemination of the Olympic Values, through school programs which associate directly the sport action with the Olympic knowledge.

The IOC Vice President and Chairman of the Organizing Committee for the 1st Youth Olympic Games Singapore 2010, Mr. Ser Miang Ng, has brought us close to the astonishing IOC efforts for the creation of an athletic culture, on a different basis, which combines physical exercise with the cultural education of youth and the new model athlete we have all anticipated. At this point, I would like to underline my friend’s Miang Ng’s presence in this Session, which is of great importance, since it shows the IOC’s interest for the works of the Session and the issues raised by the National Olympic Academies.

I would also like to point out Professor Margaret Talbot’s interesting approach with regard to the controversy between the educators and the sports administrators. It is a controversy which creates various side effects, ambiguous interpretations and most times, human dead ends. In an era where the phenomena don’t respond to the reality, the need to enhance the role of the Olympic educators becomes more and more significant.

The subject we have chosen this year for discussion in the Session for the National Olympic Academies has left a margin of reasoning pursuit, while at the same time, has provided an opportunity of evaluation of the course, followed until recently, towards the propagation of the Olympic Ideals.

The conclusions as well as the thoughts you have just expressed (even though they were not known to me the moment I prepared this speech) is certain that they will be further discussed by all of us. More specifically, the National Olympic Academies members are requested to examine in depth the issues that have come into question and define their stance, which we would like to record as soon as you return to your home countries.

As I have already stated in the 10th Joint International Session for Presidents or Directors of NOAs and Officials of NOCs “The contemporary societies desperately need ideas and people with vision.”

I am absolutely sure that these people are within the National Olympic Academies, and if you have not discovered them yet, search around you and especially among the young people.

Give them food for thought and action and take advantage of their anxiety before the oncoming New Era which comes along with globalization. Simultaneously, make use of the things that this New Era offers you, along with the technological evolution and innovations, so that you can form the conditions which will facilitate the work of educating and training the youth, through a global procedure.

The Olympic Values are not going to corrupt because of the globalization. On the contrary, the prefabricated ideas as well as the nihilistic dogmatic perceptions, which usually follow such movements, could be influenced by the purity included in the terms, fair play, respect, meritocracy and peace.

Dear friends, I would like to thank you, once more, for your presence here, in this sacred place of Olympia and for your efforts to attend this Session in an active way. I wish you a safe return back home, health to all of you and I promise to be always close to you and assist you in your work. Thank you.

U.S. Sports Academy2013-11-25T15:27:55-06:00July 1st, 2011|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Coaching, Sports Management|Comments Off

Closing Remarks on Behalf of the Lecturers

Dr. T.J. Rosandich

I know that I’m speaking on behalf of all of my colleagues who have presented over the past few days when I say that I consider it both an honor and a privilege to have been asked to come here to the birthplace of the Olympics to participate in this conference. There are very few places in the world where the conference topic spans some 3,000 years of human existence as was both the venue and lecture topics we have all enjoyed over the past few days.

Following the opening remarks of President Kouvelos which set the agenda for the conference, Dr. Retsas discussed medicine in the ancient Olympic Games. As one considers events in the ancient Games such as the Pankration, it is little wonder that medical invention was often needed. The next day as we toured the Sanctuary, I thought of Dr. Retsas’ presentation wondering about how almost 50,000 people on that site in the height of summer got by with the medical services available at the time.

From the ancient to the modern, there were presentations on the Information Age and digital revolution. The presentations given by Professor Horn and myself complimented each other well. I provided an overview of the information evolution wrought by the advent of the internet and described some of the pros and cons of Web 2.0 technology. With this overview as a backdrop, Professor Horn did an admirable job in describing some of the societal effects of the digital age, especially in the younger generation. Whatever your personal attitude toward technology, it is important to recognize that the society-wide changes being brought about by the digital revolution are here to stay and we all need master the skills of using these tools.

Speaking of Games, the presentation by IOC Vice President Ng who served as the Chairman of the Singapore Organizing Committee of the inaugural Youth Olympic Games was superb. An outstanding multi-media presentation on the Games set the stage for earnest questioning from the delegates on the event and raised our expectation for the Games yet to come.

A common theme throughout the program was the primacy of education as a means for the dissemination of the Olympic ideals and values. Dr. Najeeb described how he was able to get the National Institute of Technology-Calicut to include a course on Olympic Values as a requirement in that institution’s curriculum. Given that the world-class bureaucracy that is India, to do so is a testament to perseverance and determination. Dr. Blondel also presented a similar success story on getting the OVEP into France’s national educational curriculum and their strategies to insure it is actually carried out. Last, and certainly not least, Ms. Talbot, President of the International Council of Sport Science and Physical Education did an outstanding presentation on the role of Olympic education in today’s world of sports which closed out the presentations of the 11th NOA Session.

Speaking on behalf of the lecturers, I’m sure that we too have all been enriched by our participation in the program. I, for one, feel I’m taking away from the program far more than I contributed. Watching the presentations of the NOAs over the past few days was for me both inspiring and educational. I was continually impressed with the untiring efforts being put forth by the NOAs to spread the message and ideals of the Olympic movement and the philosophy of Olympism across the globe. I also found the creativity of the NOAs in the undertaking of these tasks to be a marvelous learning experience given the wide divergence of resources available and the difference in cultures where this work is being done.

But more than that was the exchange between colleagues that took place outside of the auditorium. This gathering afforded us the opportunity to make new acquaintances from different corners of the globe and much of our discussion over a meal or a beverage went far beyond “shop talk” into topics that provided insights into who and what we are. This person-to-person exchange is every bit as important as the formal exchange in the lecture hall in making the Olympic values a reality.

I would like to take a moment to thank the administration and staff of the IOA for all their efforts to make this program a success. From the very beginning with the invitation to speak, the secretariat responded in a timely, helpful and professional way to requests for information or other administrative details. The technology staff has done a marvelous job on making sure that all of the presentations received the support they needed. Having observed Mr. Voggelis race up and down the stairs as a regular occurrence, I think he is faster than some Olympic sprinters and has about worn out the carpet. And last, but certainly not least, is the work of the translators, those unseen voices over the earphones without whose intervention the conference would have been greatly diminished. I believe that they all deserve a round of applause.

I hope that all of the participants are leaving here energized with new ideas to make your programs more vital and how to reach more of your constituents. Good Luck in your endeavors and thank you.

U.S. Sports Academy2013-11-25T15:25:57-06:00July 1st, 2011|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Coaching, Sports Management|Comments Off