Contemporary Sports Issues – Page 36

The price of NFL fandom: An exploratory study of the past, present, and future purchasing power of NFL fans

Jeffrey J. Fountain, Nova Southeastern University; Peter S. Finley, Nova Southeastern University

### Abstract

Concerns regarding gentrification of sports and the loss of middle-income fans have increased throughout the years, as ticket prices have continued to increase well beyond the rate of inflation for professional sports. This research focused on the changes in purchasing power for fans wishing to attend live games in the National Football League from 1991 to 2009 and then made subsequent forecasts for purchasing power 10 years into the future, should current pricing trends continue unabated. The Fan Cost Index (FCI) was utilized to compare purchasing power over time. Results showed that average FCI price for the league increased by 75% beyond inflation from 1991 to 2009. Purchasing power for fans from all the teams in the study diminished in some fashion from 1991 to 2009. However, eight of the 24 teams in the study severely reduced fan purchasing power, including a 50% or more reduction in the number of tickets alone. If pricing trends continue, the league could experience decreased attendance, particularly from fans in the lower income brackets.

**Key words:** purchasing power, FCI, gentrification, NFL, ticket prices
(more…)

U.S. Sports Academy2017-08-03T10:21:27-05:00October 4th, 2010|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Facilities, Sports Management, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|Comments Off

Relationship of Arm Span to the Effects of Prefatigue on Performance in the Bench Press

David M. Bellar, Department of Kinesiology, University of Louisiana Lafayette, Lafayette LA; Lawrence W. Judge, School of Physical Education, Sport and Exercise Science, Ball State University, Muncie, IN; Tiffany J. Patrick, Department of Kinesiology, University of Louisiana Lafayette, Lafayette LA; Erin L. Gilreath, School of Physical Education, Sport and Exercise Science, Ball State University, Muncie, IN

### Abstract
The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of arm span on the acute effects of fatigue caused by maximum voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC) on performance in the bench press. Eight female collegiate track and field athletes involved in the throws events (shot put, discus, hammer, and javelin) volunteered for this investigation. Initial assessments included one-repetition maximums in the bench press (Pre Max 59.5±19.8kg) for each volunteer as well as basic anthropometric data including arm span. Volunteers reported twice for two treatments that included three maximal bench press attempts. The standard (STAND) treatment consisted only of the maximal attempts. The MVIC treatment consisted of a 30-second maximal voluntary isometric contraction prior to maximal attempts. General Linear Model analysis was performed to evaluate fixed effects (Treatment, Arm span) on maximum weight lifted. The model was significant (Likelihood Ratio Chi-Square 3507.525, p<0.001) and revealed main effects for treatment (STAND 59.78±18.8kg vs. MVIC 52.32±11.5kg, p<0.001) and arm span (p<0.001), as well as a significant two-way interaction treatment*arm span (p<0.001). Post-Hoc analysis revealed that under the STAND treatment arm span was not a predictor of change in bench press performance; however under the MVIC treatment (F=16.255, p=0.007) arm span was a significant negative predictor of change in bench press performance (Beta = -0.855, p<0.001). Arm span is a simple measure that can quickly and easily be assessed; yet also a variable that can provide valuable information for coaches to consider before planning weight training for track and field throws athletes.

**Key Words:** Anthropometry, Strength, Athlete

### Introduction
Muscular strength is one essential component contributing to optimal athletic performance (4). The development of upper body strength typically involves high-resistance, low-repetition exercises using larger muscle masses to increase the maximal force generation by a muscle or muscle group. The ability of individuals to adapt positively to increasing training loads requires careful consideration of the volume and intensity of the exercises (1). Regardless of precise planning by the coach, an athlete’s physical limitations may prevent optimal adaptation, or physical gifts may instead promote adaptation (4).

A plethora of anecdotal evidence surrounds the effects of the length of the appendages of the human body on performance in the weight room. In particular in the bench press lift, many recreational lifters maintain that long arm length is detrimental to performance. The fact that lifters with longer arms must displace the bar further from the chest in order to complete the lift would seem to lend some credence to this anecdotal belief. However, recent work by Mayhew et al. (5) demonstrated that skeletal length was not a valid predictor for performance on the NFL-225 bench repetition test. In more recent work, Reynolds et al. (7) examined the relationship between more basic anthropometric measurements and performance in the bench press. In this study, Reynolds et al. recruited seventy subjects, 34 men and 36 women ranging in age from 18-69, and found that no anthropometric measurements were significant predictors on one repetition maximum (1-RM) performance.

Although previous results have not demonstrated a relationship between anthropometric measurements and 1-RM strength, results supporting differences in strength based on skeletal position have been witnessed. Murphy et al. (6) reported a significant correlation between isometric strength at 90 degrees of elbow flexion and 1-RM in the bench press exercise. Interestingly, the participants in this study demonstrated greater isometric strength at 120 degrees of elbow flexion, but this was not related to 1-RM strength. This angle (90 degrees) coincides to the ‘sticking point,’ the point of lowest force production, in the lift (3). It is intuitive that 1-RM strength in the bench press should correlate to the angle of lowest isometric force production. To complete a successful attempt, a lifter must move the weight through the ‘sticking point’ in order to achieve the elbow angle of 120 degrees, a point of greater isometric force production, and from there, finish the lift (3). Lifters who have longer arm spans will thus have a greater total distance to push the bar in order to reach the 120 degrees angle of elbow flexion. Thus, longer arm length could potentially be disadvantageous in the bench press lift.

Although previous research has not demonstrated this disadvantage (5), the Mayhew et al. investigation was descriptive in nature, predicting performance in one predetermined maximal set to failure. Past research evaluating the relationship between arm length and bench press strength has ignored how arm length may affect a total workout. Studies accounting for the potential effects of arm length during fatigue on the bench press are missing from the body of research. It is possible that effects of arm length do not manifest until the lifter is in a fatigued state. Thus, the purpose of the present investigation is to examine, in a very practical way, the effects of arm length on performance in the bench press while fatigued.

### Methods

#### Participants

The present investigation was presented to and approved by the local Institutional Review board for human subject usage. Eight apparently healthy college-aged (19.75yrs±1.2) female track and field athletes who compete in the throws events (shot put, hammer, javelin, discus) volunteered for this study (Table 1). The participants underwent a 1-RM test (Pre Max) for the bench press as prescribed by Baechle and Earle (2) as a normal part of practice and their coach reported their values (59.5kg±19.8).

Table 1. Descriptive Data of the Participants

Conditions	Mean±SD
Age (yrs)	19.7±1.2
Height (cm)	171.5±8.7
Weight (kg)	94.7±29.9

*Descriptive data of the (n=8) female participants listed in mean±SD.*

#### Procedures

Participants recruited for the investigation underwent initial anthropometric testing including both height measurement via stadiometer (Health-o-Meter Inc., Bedford, OH.), weight via a balance beam scale (Health-o-Meter Inc., Bedford, OH.), and arm span measured from the farthest distance between finger tips with the arms held outstretched using a vinyl open reel tape measure. Arm span was determined in this manner because it was a simple and inexpensive method of performing an anthropometric assessment of the length of the arms that might also be assessed by a coach with relative ease. The experimental procedures were thoroughly explained to the participants prior the first session. Participants were also given a demonstration on the MVIC device. Grip width was also selected during the initial visit to limit the known effect of different grip widths on the bench press exercise (6). Following the initial visit, participants reported twice more for a total of 30 minutes per session.

##### MVIC induced fatigue

Fatigue was induced in the participants through a 30-second maximum voluntary contraction against a stationary bar set a height equal to 90 degrees of elbow flexion for the participant. The position of the bar was chosen to be approximately at the ‘sticking point’ in order to fatigue at a position critical to the successful completion of the lift. The MVIC device consisted of a standard power rack (York Barbell, York, PA.) with two sets of rails inserted, and a flat bench. A standard Olympic bar (York Barbell, York, PA.) was placed between the rails. The bar was supported from underneath by the lower rail and prevented from being lifted upward by the upper rail; the bar was thus held in a stationary position. The rails were adjustable in height, and the device was set to a point where the elbow of the participant was as close to 90 degrees as the adjustments on the device would allow. Participants were required to lay supine on the bench and press maximally against the Olympic bar for 30 seconds.

#### Experimental Design

The present investigation employed a within subjects design, with random assignment. The participants reported to the weight room on two separate occasions with 72 hours between visits. The sessions occurred at the same time as a normally scheduled team weightlifting session. Each participant was randomly assigned to one of two orders for treatment (STAND then MVIC, or MVIC then STAND).

##### Treatments

Each day began with a standard warm-up on the bench press. The first warm-up set consisted of 5 repetitions of a weight that represented 70% of the previously established one repetition maximum (1-RM). The second warm-up set of three repetitions was done with a weight that represented 80% of 1-RM. Following the warm-up on each day participants completed the protocol for one of two treatments. The first treatment was a standard (STAND) one repetition maximum determination on the bench press. The participants were instructed to attempt a total of three single repetition lifts to determine the maximum amount of weight that could be lifted on that day. The starting weight was set at a value that was approximately 2.25kg underneath the previously determined 1-RM. If the participant successfully completed the attempt they were allowed to increase the weight; if they failed at the attempt approximately 5kg was removed before the second attempt. The second treatment, pre-fatigue via maximum voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC), was identical to STAND except that immediately prior to each attempt the participants performed 30 seconds of MVIC against a stationary bar at approximately 90 degrees of elbow flexion. All participants completed all three attempts under both conditions. At least 3 minutes of recovery were allowed between attempts to reduce between lift fatigue effects (1,7).

#### Statistical Analyses

Prior to analysis all dependant variables were analyzed for normality. Paired samples t-tests were utilized to examine the differences between the two treatments so the degree of pre-fatigue can be determined. Generalized Estimation Equation analysis was utilized to examine the fixed effects of measured arm span on subsequent bench press performance. Any significant interaction effects were further explored via multiple regression analysis. Significance was set a priori at alpha ≥0.05.

### Results

Paired samples t-tests were used to determine the difference between treatments (MVIC vs. STAND). The MVIC treatment resulted in significantly lower performance on the 1-RM test (p=0.02, Table 2). General Linear Model analysis was performed to evaluate fixed effects (Treatment, Arm span) on maximum weight lifted in the bench press. The omnibus test for the model was significant (Likelihood Ratio Chi-Square 3507.525, p<0.001). The analysis revealed main effects for treatment (STAND 59.78±18.8kg vs. MVIC 52.32±11.5kg, p<0.001) and arm span (p<0.001), as well as a significant two-way interaction treatment * arm span (p<0.001). Post-Hoc analysis via linear regression revealed that under the STAND treatment arm span was not a predictor of change in bench press performance as the ANOVA for the model was not significant (F-0.806, p=0.404); however, under the MVIC treatment (F=16.255, p=0.007) arm span was a significant negative predictor of change in bench press performance (Beta = -0.855, p<0.001) (Figure 1).

Table 2. Changes in 1-RM Strength by Treatment

Treatment	1RM post (kg)	Change from PreMax Value
MVIC pre-fatigue	53.0±11.5	-6.51±8.56
STAND	60.9±18.8	1.43±2.99

*All values are listed ±SD. 1RM post MVIC and STAND are significantly different p=0.02. Change between MVIC and STAND treatment are significantly different p=0.02.*

### Discussion

Based upon these data it would appear that in a state of induced pre-fatigue, arm span is a significant predictor of 1-RM performance in the bench press for female collegiate track and field throwers. Though previous research has not demonstrated similar findings(5), these findings did not represent data obtained from fatigued subjects. It would appear plausible that the effects of arm span on the bench press may only become manifest in situations of fatigue.

Understanding fatigue is an important consideration for coaches. First, a majority of an athlete’s bench press workouts is a series of sets resulting in muscular fatigue. Secondly, weight-training sessions may occur after a practice has already taken place, ensuring muscular fatigue before the bench press workout begins. Post-exercise fatigue may limit the effectiveness of the resistance-training program as an adaptive physiologic stimulus for strength gains. Understanding how each athlete reacts to fatigue in a workout is imperative to designing a training program in order to achieve maximal strength.

Track and field throws coaches in particular must specifically understand how arm span will affect bench press workouts. Throws coaches often target athletes with longer arms for recruiting purposes; longer levers are advantageous for the discus and hammer events. Coaches training athletes with a greater arm span may have to change bench press protocol to account for a greater fatigue.

The present investigation was not without limitations. Firstly, the choice of measurement of arm span versus actual determination of skeletal lengths was made to increase the applicability of the findings to coaches, but is also a limiting factor. Secondly, the simulated method of fatigue chosen for practicality for the current investigation may not be completely representative of fatigue that occurs as the result of a weight room training session. Though not without limitation, the finding remains that arm span was a significant negative predictor of performance in the pre-fatigued condition.

Future research needs to establish the relationship between arm span and differences in muscle fatigability, and exercise training and prescription in order to optimize strength development in males and females.

### Conclusions

Arm span is a practical measure that can easily be assessed by any coach with access to a tape measure. Fitness professionals and coaches should be aware that in a fatigued state arm span is a negative predictor of performance in the bench press in female track and field throwers. Therefore, it is important for the coach to understand the individual differences among the athletes who are involved in the program; the amount of required recovery time may differ among individuals (4). Considerations for this can be suggested to professionals working with similar athletes including limiting the number of sets performed and focusing on quality of the lifts performed in order to allow for the associated fatigue.

The professional may also want to consider the optimization of the training volume for these athletes based upon the finding that arm span may affect performance in a multiple set lifting scheme. The coach can reduce the number of sets based upon arm span in order to compensate for the increased impact of fatigue that will likely occur for athletes with longer arm spans. For optimizing strength gains, exercise training and prescription to females should be modulated based upon arm span and related to: (1) resistance training to failure versus not to failure; and (2) the effects of a single set versus multiple sets.

### Applications in Sport

Coaches involved in events or sports (i.e. basketball and volleyball) where arm length is a determinant of athletic potential must recognize that these athletes might fatigue to a different degree during weight training than shorter-armed teammates or counterparts. Therefore, it is essential for the coach to understand the individual anthropometric differences among the athletes who are involved in the resistance training program because the amount of required recovery time may differ among individuals. Coaches need to understand this concept in order to get the full strength potential out of their athletes.

### References

Ambdessemed, D. (1999). Effects of recovery duration on muscular power and blood lactate during the bench press exercise. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 20(6), 368-373.

Baechle, T.R., & Earle, R.W. (2008). Essentials of strength training and conditioning (3rd ed.). Champaign: Human Kinetics.

Elliot, B.C., Wilson, G.J., & Graham, K.K. (1989). A biomechanical analysis of the sticking region in the bench press. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 21(4), 450-462.

Judge, L.W., & Burke, J. (2010). The effect of recovery time on strength performance following a high intensity bench press workout in males and females. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance, 5, 184-196.

Mayhew, J.L., Jacques, J.A., Ware, J.S., Chapman, P.P., Bemben, M.G., Ward, T.E., & Slovack, J.P. (2004). Anthropometric dimensions do not enhance one repetition maximum prediction from the NFL-225 test in college football players. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 18(3), 572-582.

Murphy, A.J., Wilson, G.J., Pryor, J.F., Newton, R.U. (1995). Isometric assessment of muscular function: The effect of joint angle. Journal of Applied Biomechanics, 11, 205-215.

Reynolds, J.M., Gordon, T.J., Robergs, R.A. (2006). Predictions of one repetition maximum strength from multiple repetition maximum testing and anthropometry. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 20(3), 584-592.

Wagner, L.L., Evans, S.A., Weir, J.P., Housh, T.J., Johnson, G.O. (1992). The effects of grip width on bench press performance. Journal of Applied Biomechanics, 8(1), 1-10.

### Corresponding Author
Dr. David Bellar
Department of Kinesiology
University of Louisiana at Lafayette
225 Cajundome Blvd
Lafayette, LA 70506
<dmb1527@louisiana.edu>
(216) 374-2590

### Author Bios

David Bellar is an assistant professor and director of the human performance lab in the department of kinesiology at the University of Louisiana at Lafayette. Dr. Bellar has a background in coaching track and field athletes, and researching performance attributes within this population.

Lawrence Judge is an associate professor and coordinator of the graduate coaching program at Ball State University. Dr. Judge has a long-established background in coaching track and field athletes and an extensive research background in coaching behavior, moral issues, and competitiveness versus participation in athletics, specifically in youth sports.

Tiffany Patrick is an undergraduate student studying exercise science in the department of kinesiology at the University of Louisiana at Lafayette.

Erin Gilreath is a graduate assistant studying coaching/sports performance at Ball State University. Erin is the current American record holder in the hammer throw and a 2004 Olympian.

U.S. Sports Academy2013-11-25T16:46:57-06:00October 4th, 2010|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Exercise Science, Sports Facilities|Comments Off

Introduction to the International Olympic Academy

Anne Kent Rush, Editor

International Olympic Academy in Olympia, Greece

### IOA Today

The International Olympic Academy (IOA) established in Olympia, Greece, serves a multi-national community as an International Academic Centre for Olympic Studies. It is an outstanding academic resource for students and researchers around the globe. Run by the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and the Greek government, the IOA makes available a broad spectrum of educational programs and studies aimed at disseminating the vision of Olympism.

In February 2010, in collaboration with the Department of Sports Organization and Management of the University of Peloponnese (UOP) in Sparta, the IOA announced their new Master’s Degree Program titled, Olympic Studies, Olympic Education, Organization, and Management of Olympic Events. The program is constructed on the three pillars of Olympism, Education, Sports, and Culture. Prospective students can access information on the programs through the National Olympic Academy (NOA) of their home country. Students may also contact the Secretary of the IOA Master Program by telephone at 30-210-6878952, or by email at ioa-ms@uop.gr. Applications may be sent directly to the following address: Dr. K. Georgiadis, Program Director; Postgraduate Studies Program U.O.P. 52; Dimitrios Vikelas Avenue 152 33 Halandri; Athens, Greece.

Participants in the 10th Joint International Session for Presidents or Directors of National Olympic Academies and Officials of National Olympic Committees gather in front of the International Olympic Academy.

International conferences on topics related to Olympism are often held on the idyllic grounds at Ancient Olympia. The Olympic Solidarity organization in Lausanne, Switzerland, offers a variety of scholarship funds for many IOA studies and projects. The new Master’s Degree Program, limited to 30 students, is privately funded by the John S. Latsis Foundation, and no costs are charged to the students for its course fees and accommodations. The duration of the program is three semesters, two of which take place in Greece at the International Olympic Academy. Participants in IOA seminars must be fluent in at least one of the three official languages, Greek, French, and English.

Based on Olympic ideals, IOA educational programs not only benefit individual students, but also have the potential to help raise the standards of global interaction among countries for years to come. In May 2010, at the 10th Joint International Session, the presenters basked in the historic power of Ancient Olympia and added their words and hopes to the distinguished voices of the ages. You are invited to share the information and join the international dialogue on the spread of Olympism through education. Authorized by the IOC, the presentations are offered for public study in this unique edition of _The Sport Journal_.

### IOA History

Officially inaugurated on 14 June 1961, the IOA initially limited its function to organizing the International Session for Young Participants. In 1967, an IOC commission was created to coordinate relations among the IOA, the Olympic Movement, and Olympic Solidarity. This same year, the first permanent premises for the IOA were constructed at the site of Ancient Olympia.

The Temple of Hera is one of the oldest monumental temples in Ancient Greece. The modern day Olympic torch is lit just as it was in ancient times, at the Temple of Hera.

By 1970, the educational programs of the IOA had expanded to cover all aspects of the Olympic Movement. Special sessions for institutions involved with Olympism were established, including National Olympic Committees (NOC), National Olympic Academies (NOA), International Sport Federations (FIEP), Sport Medical Societies, Unions of Coaches, Sports Administrators, and Teachers.

Growing out of ancient Greek civilization, Olympism is a philosophy of life that blends sport, culture, and education to produce a balanced character strong in body, mind, and will. Convening at Ancient Olympia infused with this dramatic lineage is important to the spirit of the conferences, and the campus exerts a profound effect on all who visit and study there.

> “We are in a haven of peace and balance, where centuries remain engraved on the stones… the beauty of the vegetation, and the serenity which pervades this unique place, Olympia, where sport started on its most glorious and finest course.”
> Juan Antonio Samaranch, Former Honorary President of the IOC and IOA; International Olympic Academy, 2009; p. 52

Many of these ancient traditions continue today. Two of the most powerful ceremonies are the laying of wreaths at the monument where Pierre de Coubertin’s heart is buried to honor the man who revived the Ancient Games, and the Lighting of the Olympic Flame to inaugurate the official Olympic Games.

In Ancient Greece, a person needed well-rounded training to be considered cultured. Sport was part of man’s education that aimed at cultivating harmonious intellectual, mental, and physical faculties. Young students were taught art, philosophy, and music, as well as sports, based on the spirit of fair competition and high ethics.

An actress dressed as a ceremonial priestess, in the robes of the ancient Greeks, lights the Olympic torch via the same technique used in the original Games.

Held every four years, the Ancient Olympic Games were an integral part of the balanced way of life. With its origins in the mists of Greek mythological tales of gods and goddesses, the honor of victory at the Olympic Games carried sacred blessings and immense prestige. The Olympic Games went through many reversals of fortune due to political changes over the long history. From circa 400 AD to the late 1800s, no organized Olympic Games existed. Then in 1896, Pierre de Coubertin succeeded in reviving the tradition, and the first modern Olympic Games were held in Athens.

In 1927, Coubertin originated the idea for adding an international Olympic academy in his efforts to spread Olympic values. In the IOA, the realization of his vision continues to grow as a result of the dedicated contributions of many people over decades. Now overseen by the IOC, the International Olympic Movement (IOM) has been formed to functionally implement Olympic ideals through a conglomeration of organizations and individuals. Recognizing education as the backbone of the Olympic Movement, the IOC supports the IOA and other institutions devoted to Olympic education.

The current IOA houses many priceless resources, such as an archeological museum, a modern Olympic Games museum, a research library, the Coubertin Grove, and the excavated ruins of Ancient Olympia’s temples, gymnasium, and Sanctuary constructed by Alexander the Great in 338 B.C. These exalted settings, sacred to the Greek god, Zeus, offer a cornucopia of contemporary sports media conferences, research studies, special sessions for dignitaries, gatherings of Olympic medalists, the Olympic Studies Master’s Degree Program, and other courses for international students of the IOA.

> “The Olympic Games are… the only competition in the world… transcending cultural, religious, and political differences, an Image of fraternity and universality.”
> Jacques Rogge, President of the IOC; International Olympic Academy, 2009; p. 68

From left: Professor Konstantino Georgiadis, IOA Honorary Dean; Dr. Thomas P. Rosandich, United States Sports Academy President; Mr. Isidoros Kouvelos, IOA President; and Professor Dionyssis Gangas, IOA Director, were among the many Olympic experts who attended the 10th Joint International Session for Presidents or Directors of National Olympic Academies and Officials of National Olympic Committees.

U.S. Sports Academy2020-06-02T13:33:14-05:00August 10th, 2010|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Management|Comments Off

How to Spread and Develop Joint International Programs about Olympic Education: Cultural and Communication Problems

Henry Tandau, Director of the Tanzania Olympic Academy, the Republic of Tanzania

### Introduction

From its inception, the Modern Olympic Movement has fused education with sport and culture to improve both the body and mind. Pierre de Coubertin, the father of the Modern Olympic Games, crafted a vision of universal education through Olympism, spreading such ideals as discipline, focus, vision, commitment, and persistence.

The Olympic Charter (OC) is the codification of the Fundamental Principles of Olympism, Rules and Bye-Laws adopted by the International Olympic Committee (IOC). It governs the organisation, action, and operation of the Olympic Movement and sets forth the conditions for the celebration of the Olympic Games. In essence, the Olympic Charter serves three main purposes (IOC, 2007).

* The Olympic Charter, as a basic instrument of a constitutional nature, sets forth and recalls the fundamental principles and essential values of Olympism.
* The Olympic Charter also serves as statutes for the International Olympic Committee.
* In addition, the Olympic Charter defines the main reciprocal rights and obligations of the three main constituents of the Olympic Movement, namely the International Olympic Committee, the International Federations, and the National Olympic Committees, as well as the Organising Committees for the Olympic Games, all of which are required to comply with the Olympic Charter (IOC, 2007).

Fundamental to the understanding of Olympism is its emphasis on an educational mandate. In fact, the “Olympic idea cannot be understood without an understanding of its educational mission” (Gessman, 1992:33). This educational mandate is outlined in several of the Fundamental Principles of the Olympic Charter (Binder, 2005).

The Olympic Charter (2007) states simply the relationship among Olympic philosophy, ethics, and education:

Fundamental Principle 1 and 2 (p11):

1. Olympism is a philosophy of life, exalting and combining in a balanced whole the qualities of body, will, and mind. Blending sport with culture and education, Olympism seeks to create a way of life based on the joy of effort, the educational value of good example, and respect for universal fundamental ethical principles.
2. The goal of Olympism is to place sport at the service of the harmonious development of man, with a view to promoting a peaceful society concerned with the preservation of human dignity.

This is a values education mandate. Some of the specific, positive values referred to in these principles include a respect for balance in the human character between aspects of mind, body, and spirit, an understanding of the joy found in effort, an emphasis on peaceful behaviour, and respect for others (here described as preservation of human dignity). The principles, while somewhat awkward in their English wording, also include direction for an Olympic pedagogy. That is, the fundamental principles seem to suggest components of a possible teaching and learning strategy. Note the references to such strategies as, “blending sport with culture and education,” setting “good examples,” and encouraging participation in sport as an educational situation in which these values can be developed (Binder, 2005).

### National Olympic Committees

Chapter 4 of the Olympic Charter deals with National Olympic Committees, stating very clearly important duties of NOCs with regard to Olympic education (IOC, 2007, p. 61).

Mission and Role of the NOCs:

1. The mission of the NOCs is to develop, promote, and protect the Olympic Movement in their respective countries, in accordance with the Olympic Charter (IOC, 2007).
2. The NOCs’ role is:

1. to promote the fundamental principles and values of Olympism in their countries, in particular, in the fields of sport and education, by promoting Olympic educational programmes in all levels of schools, sports and physical education institutions and Universities, as well as by encouraging the creation of institutions dedicated to Olympic education, such as National Olympic Academies, Olympic Museums, and other programmes, including cultural, related to the Olympic Movement (IOC, 2007);
2. to ensure the observance of the Olympic Charter in their countries (IOC, 2007).

### National Olympic Academies

National Olympic Academies are an integral part of the International Olympic Academy and the Olympic Movement (Georgiadis, 2008). Georgiadis further elaborates that, once the IOA had begun its activities, a number of important and substantial issues related to its operation and linked to the attainment of its goals came to light. It became obvious that IOA needed support of other organizations in order to respond to the educational requirements of the Olympic Movement.

> Attending lectures during the IOA’s sessions was not considered sufficient to make participants aware of the academy’s mission and their own contribution to it.
>
> The selection of the participants, their preliminary training, their stay at the International Olympic Academy, and the need to draw upon their knowledge and experience, led to the creation of national centres for Olympic studies in other countries.

Georgiadis goes on to explain that participants in the IOA sessions and seminars now had a point of reference in their own respective countries around which they could rally in order to develop their Olympic education activities in cooperation with IOA.

Georgiadis notes that, in the discussion groups at the IOA’s sessions, the idea of a “National Olympic Academy” is considered as a popular topic. In the same observation, Georgiadis further recounts that, as many Olympic Committees do not comply with their educational obligations in a consistent manner, participants at the sessions have demanded the creation of National Olympic Academies (NOAs) to allow those who attend the sessions of the IOA once they return to their country to become involved in their core activities and operate as the ambassadors of Olympism in their homelands.

Today, 32 years after the establishment of the first National Olympic Academies, the aim of each Olympic Academy is, through Olympic Education programs, to cultivate and disseminate the Olympic Ideal, study and apply the universal education and social principles of the Olympic Movement, in conformity with the Olympic Charter, within the national and cultural boundaries of each National Olympic Committee, in cooperation with the IOA and the IOC.

These aims are achieved by NOAs by the means of programs which they develop themselves in collaboration with the NOC and other sports and educational entities in their country. National Olympic Academies are the IOA’s extensions and operate as transmitters and receivers for the promotion of the Olympic Charter’s ideals through the national Olympic education programs. Each national Olympic Academy must also encourage the practice of sport among all social and age groups and promote the idea of sport as a fundamental human right.

Georgiadis elaborates that “National Olympic Academies operate within the framework of their respective National Olympic Committees and their aims are in harmony with those of the NOCs.” The NOAs are the educational institutions of the NOCs. Even when there are differences in their structures and modes of operation, they must always be placed under the patronage of the NOC within the framework of a single Olympic Movement. It would be very difficult today to define a single system for the operation of NOAs, as there are huge administrative, cultural, and political differences from country to country.

The goal of education – of Olympism – may is summarized in a quote from 2000 by then IOC President, Juan Antonio Samaranch: “Every act of support for the Olympic Movement promotes peace, friendship, and solidarity throughout the world.”

The field of Olympic education has been studied in-depth by numerous international scholars. They have endeavoured to analyze the core of Olympic education so as to avoid the concept of Olympic education being regarded merely as a pool of all highly social and moral values. It is more or less commonly agreed that the idea of Olympic education first and foremost encompasses the long-ranging striving for individual achievement with due respect for the principles of fair play and an increase in a better transnational mutual understanding by supporting processes of intercultural learning.

In the course of the last decades, some scholars have successfully endeavoured to spread the main ideas of Olympic education. The main target groups have been students and pupils. At the International Olympic Academy in Olympia, as well as at conferences organized by various National Olympic Committees, Olympic Academies, and institutes of learning, students are offered the possibility of examining basic ideas of Olympic education.

Frequently the students bring their experience and knowledge back to their home universities in order to integrate them into classes or tutorials. Without doubt, this is a fruitful way to disseminate the central values of Olympic education.

According to Binder, Olympic education in its broadest sense encompasses the workshops and leadership training of Olympic Solidarity, the research and scholarly study of sport historians and sociologists, the public relations efforts of the International Olympic Committee (IOC), its sponsors and its affiliates, as well as the school curricula, handbooks and projects of Olympic Games organizing committees, National Olympic Committees (NOCs), and National Olympic Academies (NOAs). It also encompasses a large variety of initiatives for children and youth (Binder D., 1995).

### International Olympic Academy

The International Olympic Academy functions as a multicultural interdisciplinary centre that aims at studying, enriching, and promoting Olympism. The foundation of such an institution was inspired by the ancient Gymnasium, which shaped the Olympic Ideal by harmoniously cultivating body, will, and mind. On the eve of the 21st century, the centennial anniversary of the revival of the Olympic Games coincides with the global scale changes that are affecting every aspect of human thought and activity.

We, our cultures, and our civilisations have already entered a greater transitional period in which the images of the world that we were used to taking for granted are being altered. The interrelated scientific, technological, economic, political, and social developments that characterise the course of humanity towards the third millennium are influencing each and every idea, norm, and institution of our international community.

This dynamic wave is also opening up new forms of dialogue for the future of Olympism. Moreover, as can be seen through the study of its age-long history, the Olympic Ideal has always been conceived and formed according to the wider conditions prevailing during different periods in time.

The birth, the prosperity, the decline, and the revival of the Olympic Games have all been the reflection of the wider cultural conditions that shaped each era.

The speculations and potentials still evolving out of the Olympic Movement are naturally arising in the realisation process of such an Ideal.

“Olympism,” in the words of Pierre de Coubertin, “is not a system; it is a state of mind. It can permeate a wide variety of modes of expression, and no single race or era can claim to have the monopoly of it.”

The International Olympic Academy provides a unique opportunity for students, academics, athletes, artists, and officials from all over the world to exchange ideas and share this “state of mind” in Ancient Olympia.

The wide variety of educational sessions, academic programmes, and in depth research studies that are offered all aim towards serving the vision of the International Olympic Academy for the new century: to explore and enhance the contribution of Olympism to humanity.

The mission of the IOA is:

1. to function as an International Academic Centre for Olympic Studies, Education, and Research;
2. to act as an International Forum for free expression and exchange of ideas among the Olympic Family, intellectuals, scientists, athletes, sport administrators, educators, artists, and the youth of the world;
3. to bring together people from all over the world, in a spirit of friendship and cooperation;
4. to motivate people to use the experiences and knowledge gained in the IOA productively, in promoting the Olympic Ideals in their respective countries;
5. to serve and promote the Ideals and principles of the Olympic Movement;
6. to cooperate with and assist the National Olympic Academies and any other institutions devoted to Olympic Education;
7. to further explore and enhance the contribution of Olympism to humanity.

### Educational Programmes of the International Olympic Academy

* International Session for Young Participants
* International Post Graduate Seminar on Olympic Studies
* Joint International Session for Directors of NOAs, Members, and Staff of NOCs and IFs
* Joint International Session for Educationists and Staff of Higher Institutes of Physical Education
* International Session for Sports Journalists
* Special Sessions for institutions related with Olympism: National Olympic Committees, National Olympic Academies, International Sport Federations, Sport Medical Societies, Unions of Coaches, Referees, Sports Administrators, etc.
* Special Sessions for Institutions indirectly related with Olympism (C.I.S.M., Teachers, etc.) aiming to promote the Olympic Ideal
* Educational visits of groups from various institutions (universities, graduate schools, schools, sports clubs)
* Visits of Researchers of Olympic subjects
* Conferences on Sports

All the IOA Sessions are held in Ancient Olympia, and participants are accommodated in the guestrooms located on the Academy grounds.

The IOA has three official languages, English, French and Greek, and participants must be fluent in at least one in order to participate in the educational programmes. The Joint Session for Presidents or Directors of NOAs and Officials of NOCs, is perhaps the most important of all the sessions for the success of almost all the other sessions. This biannual Session aims to bring together Senior Administrators from organizations engaged in creating Olympic Education programmes and involved in educational and social activities aiming to promote the Olympic Movement.

The IOA’s role is to coordinate and assist the NOAs in their work, and this Session provides a forum for the exchange of ideas and educational programmes and the presentation of the activities of the NOAs and NOCs in different countries. Communication and the working culture of the NOCs and NOAs is of paramount importance in the success of these sessions. The choice of participants, preparation, and commitment of the participants is key to the realization of the intended objective.

This year’s session is the tenth in the series. As such, there is need to reflect on the organization and management of these joint sessions so as to improve the quality of the sessions and to realise the intended goal, that of developing and spreading Olympic Education. Communication is an important factor in the success of any humankind undertaking. Several factors contribute either positively or negatively on communication, such as timeliness, language, clarity, accuracy, medium, feedback or response, and ability to follow instruction, the working culture or policy of an organization in relation to communication issues.

This paper sets out to present the problems encountered in the quest of organizing such sessions, specifically focusing on cultural and communication problems.

### Methodology

The literature review method was the primary method used in developing this paper. Published and unpublished sources have been used. Correspondence between IOA, and NOAs, and NOCs, past session presentations and Conclusions were also reviewed. Personal experience from attending a number of sessions of IOA and discussions with IOA Masters students (2009 / 2010), have all been taken into consideration.

### Findings and discussion

* Often times there has been confusion between delegates of NOAs and NOCs to the extent that the IOA has had to request NOAs and NOCs to clearly state whether or not a delegate is a member of NOA or NOC. Sometimes delegates have been sent who are not involved in the Education functions of the NOAs or NOCs.
* Quite a number of delegates are sent to Olympia without prior preparation as to what to expect and what is expected of them. With some countries, there is a turn-over every year, where the policy is to award the trip to members of the NOC in turns. As such, there is no continuity; this has forced the IOA to insist that the President / Director of NOAs must attend the Directors and the joint sessions.
* Non adherence to Final Enrolment date: “We have noticed in the past that many NOAs or NOCs do not submit their application forms in due time. We hereby would like to bring to your attention that no application submitted after the expiry date will be considered.”
* Language: Participants must have an excellent knowledge of either English or French, since they are expected to take active part in the discussion groups which follow the lectures. This is the quintessence of the IOA’s activities, i.e., to get people from all over the world to know and contact one another. It has been repeatedly noticed in the past that quite a few participants cannot understand or speak either English or French and consequently, they are unable to participate fully in the discussion groups. Therefore, all NOCs and NOAs are kindly requested to avoid sending over delegates who do not speak fluently at least one of the above two languages.
* Working relationship between NOAs and NOCs is another challenge that features prominently in the conclusions of the group discussions of the sessions, especially as relates to accessibility to information and financial support. This problem is more pronounced in countries which rely solely on Olympic Solidarity funding. Rarely are any Olympic Education activities undertaken for want of funding. In most other NOCs, NOAs exist only on paper, and no activities take place apart from attending the sessions here in Olympia.
* In the conclusions of English Speaking Group 5, during the 9th International Session For Directors of National Olympic Academies (1- 8 June 2007), Ibrahim Abazid, et, al., considered the challenges, difficulties, and solutions to implementing Olympic Education Program and concluded that there are three key challenges that needed to be addressed. They named these as: relationship between NOA and NOC, communication, and financial difficulties.

### Conclusion

We observe from the above that there are communication problems within the key players involved in the development and dissemination of International Joint Sessions on Olympic Education, namely, the IOC (through OS), the IOA, the NOCs, and NOAs. The gap is more pronounced between NOCs and NOAs. This communication problem is both in terms of availability and timeliness, as well as response or feedback.

This is a result of poor working relationship between NOCs and NOAs; the main cause has been attributed to non-information sharing by the NOCs, even in instances where NOAs are directly under the NOC. NOAs are hardly ever made aware of the funding opportunities from Olympic Solidarity. Even the funds provided to NOCs under “Other Activities” are hardly ever communicated to NOAs; and the quadrennial plans which offer a number of opportunities are unknown to most NOA officials.

It is also noted that in some cases, the NOAs are only on paper, or spring up when it is time for a trip to Olympia; no initiatives are done to organize and spread Olympic education in the respective countries. The young participants who are sent to Olympia are not chosen on merit since there are no Olympic Education activities, in some countries.

Officials not involved in Olympic Education have been sent to these sessions, while being fully aware that they will not involve themselves in the dissemination of Olympic Education when they go back to their countries. NOCs should work together with NOAs to select the best candidates based on merit to attend such sessions. A system should be developed to ensure that those who attend these sessions have the knowledge, motivation, and commitment to embark on creation and spreading of Olympic Education.

A working guideline should be developed to ensure a smooth working relationships among the key players in the development and spread of Olympic Education, namely: the IOC (through Olympic Solidarity), the IOA, the NOCs, and the NOAs. This document should be made available to all and be posted on the IOC and IOA websites.

### References

Binder, D.L. (2005). Challenges and Models for successful Olympic Education Initiatives at Grassroots Level. Paper presented during Forum organized by the Centre for Olympic Studies – Olympic Perspectives.

Binder, D. L. (2007).Teaching Values: An Olympic Education Toolkit. International Olympic Committee, 2007.

Binder, D. L. (2005). Teaching Olympism in Schools: Olympic Education as a focus on Values Education. University of Barcelona – Olympic Studies Centre.

Georgiadis, K. (2008). National Olympic Academies. International Olympic Academy. 9th Joint International Session for Presidents or Directors of National Olympic Academies and Officials of National Olympic Committees 12 – 19 May 2008; Conclusions.

International Olympic Academy – circular Ref. No.: 1376 / KG /st Athens, 8th December 2009.

International Olympic Academy. 8th International Session for Directors of National Olympic Academies 18th – 25th April 2005; Conclusions.

International Olympic Academy. 8th Joint International Session for Presidents or Directors of National Olympic Academies and Officials of National Olympic Committees 23 – 30 May 2006; Conclusions.

International Olympic Academy. 9th International Session for Directors of National Olympic Academies 1 – 8 June 2007; Conclusions.

International Olympic Academy. 9th Joint International Session for Presidents or Directors of National Olympic Academies and Officials of National Olympic Committees 12 – 19 May 2008; Conclusions.

IOA Website. www.ioa.org.gr

IOC. (2007). Olympic Charter. Lausanne, Switzerland.

U.S. Sports Academy2013-11-25T17:21:05-06:00August 5th, 2010|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Management|Comments Off

The Place and Role of Olympism in Higher Education

Antonín Rychtecký, Charles University, Czech Olympic Academy, Prague, Czech Republic

### Introduction

Interpreting the place and role of Olympism in higher education is a necessary and pertinent issue. The close relationship between the Olympic Movement and universities dates back as far as 1894. The fact that the IOC was established at Sorbonne University – the “temple of science,” as Pierre de Coubertin called it – contributed to this, as did Coubertin himself. The development of sport, as well as the importance and social impact of the Olympic Games, later prompted interest among individual researchers and teams of scholars at universities. The general interest among universities in Olympism and the Olympic Games in the 1980s intensified their direct and indirect cooperation with the Olympic Movement, both in terms of education and research (c.f. Morgas, 2006). Another mediator in this process comprised the activities of the IOC and the IOA, as well as the establishment of a new Olympic Museum, which has been illustrating the connection between Olympism, sport, and culture since 1993, whilst also developing and supporting the concept of education and research projects at universities. Nonetheless, the educational and research leanings of universities, as well as the forms in which they cooperate with national Olympic Movements and the themes that have been dealt with, often differ. National specificity is important in this regard. Consequently, the starting point for our report is the Czech Republic, which makes no claims to represent the general situation.

### Why is Olympism taught and researched at universities in the Czech Republic?

* It is the Olympic Movement’s mission to cooperate with the academic community.
* The development of the Olympic Movement and the Olympic Games cannot do without academic reflections on their social impact.
* Apart from other things, the implementation of Olympic values in university curricula programmes has also been caused by a crisis in general concepts of education, which students find too theoretical, formal, and verbose.
* The autonomy of the Olympic Movement and universities, as well as their economic security and the coordination and harmonisation of research and education, are basic preconditions for their effective cooperation.
* Physical education and sports at primary and secondary schools, as well as at universities, should not only comprise sports training but should also have an Olympic and humanist dimension.
* The Olympic Movement needs experts and specialists. Universities can offer and arrange training for them, along with academic research and a specialist service.
* For the time being, we cannot be entirely satisfied with the role of primary and secondary schools as well as universities in disseminating the Olympic idea and Olympic culture.

### Implementing Olympism in the education programmes of Czech universities and faculties

Olympism, is a set of principles, ideas, visions, and challenges. Coubertin described it in not completely systematic terms as a philosophy of life with the principles of a cult of effort, eurhythmics, and a love of exercise, but also as a state of mind (c.f. Naul, 2009). Consequently, as far back as the end of the 19th century, in his philosophical, psychological, and educational musings, Coubertin already understood that sport and exercise were becoming important actors in culture as well as a means of educating and communicating across different civilisations.

Besides by the original ideas of Pierre de Coubertin, Olympism is enriched by other ideas and objectives in the Olympic Charter. These comprise reflections on the development of the Olympic Movement, sport, and culture as well as their mutual relationships (c.f. Georgiadis, 2003). Nonetheless, they also include reflections on applying the results of academic research.

As we shall illustrate below, two different approaches have been pursued in incorporating Olympism into curricula at Czech universities for training experts in physical education and sports. At other universities and faculties, the implementation of Olympism is not yet systematic and is influenced by specialists operating in the fields of philosophy, sociology, ethics, aesthetics, etc.

#### A) Implementing Olympic themes in social science curriculum subjects for training physical education specialists

Wherever Olympism cannot be applied as a separate study subject, Olympic themes are chosen and taught according to the graduates’ future work. They are primarily taught in social and sports subjects, but are also developed in courses for sports disciplines in both bachelor’s and master’s studies. As future teachers, trainers, instructors, etc., physical education students learn basic Olympic knowledge, skills and competences for their future activity in several study subjects.

Tables 1.
Implementing Olympic themes in curriculum subjects at physical education faculties in the Czech Republic

Man and the World — General Themes	Olympic Themes, Knowledge, Skills, and Competences of Students	Academic Disciplines and Study Subjects
The coexistence of people coming together; respecting ethical principles	knowing the importance of sport as a means of bringing people together. Understanding the Olympic Games as a means of mutual understanding, friendship, solidarity and honest competition	philosophy, sports philosophy, ethics, sports psychology
Human behaviour, national minorities, foreigners	understanding and assessing the importance of the Olympic Charter, the role of Olympic ideals in respecting people of different nations, races and cultures, rejecting any kind of discrimination	ethics, philosophy, sports philosophy, sports psychology, sports education
Building a peaceful and better wold	applying youth education through sports, obser-ving Olympic principles, and setting a personal example; knowing the importance of ekecheiria in historical and contemporary reflections	philosophy, sociology, sports sciences, sports activities
Personal safety, violence in society, socially undesirable behaviour	realising and distinguishing the differences between polite encouragement for sports teams and various forms of direct or transferred aggression at sports matches (football, hockey)	sports sociology, sports psychology, legislation, the law in sport
International and national institutions and organisations	knowing and distinguishing governmental and non-governmental international and national Olympic organisations, as well as the international and national sports federations	sports management, law, sports sociology

Basic human rights and citizens’ obligations	understanding sport as a human right, knowing the International Charter of Physical Education and Sport as well as the European Charter of Sport and examples of their application	legislation and the law in sport, ethics, sports philosophy, sports sociology
Getting to know people	valuing the Olympic Movement and sport as a means of knowing and understanding other people; the Olympic Games as a meeting of young people from all over the world	sports philosophy, sports sociology, sports psychology
Self-knowledge	understanding Olympism as a state of mind and self-knowledge through sport, joy in efforts made; forming positive attitudes to sport	sports psychology, sports philosophy
Interpersonal relationships	managing to perceive manifestations of intole-rance in people’s behaviour, unfair and fair beha-viour in life and in sport; managing to shape a situation for the development fair-play behaviour	ethics, sports psychology, sociology, sports sociology
Interpersonal relationships	managing to perceive manifestations of intole-rance in people’s behaviour, unfair and fair beha-viour in life and in sport; managing to shape a situation for the development fair-play behaviour	ethics, sports psychology, sociology, sports sociology
Interpersonal communication	recognizes the importance of sport and sports “competitions” and overcome oneself in human communication. Managing to prepare and organise sports competitions in schools and in clubs in accordance with Olympic principles	active participation in sports competitions, Olympic days and festivals for young people, sports management
Human solidarity	knowing and being able to explain the role and importance of the Olympic and Paralympic Games	Olympic Charter, sports history, ethics
Value system	knowing and being able to interpret and evaluate the main Olympic values and the principles of their internalization	sports history, sports philosophy, axiology
Human activity, Work, Leisure Time	Olympic Themes, Knowledge, Skills and Competences of Students	Academic Disciplines and Study Subjects
Leisure time and the use of this time	understanding and evaluating sport as one of the most mass forms of leisure-time activities, identifying sport as a means of educating the young, health and delinquent prevention	sports philosophy, sports education, biomedicine
An active lifestyle	appreciating and understanding Olympism as an active life philosophy and style with sport and exercise playing an important role, adopting a positive attitude to it development	sports philosophy, ethics, sports education, sports sociology
Forms and manifestations of culture in society	understanding and valuing sport as one of the forms of physical culture; multiculturalism	aesthetics, sports philoso-phy, cultural anthropology, artistic competitions: literature, music, drama
Culture, art and sport	Being able to describe and explain the relationship between Olympism, sport, culture and art, the principle of kalokagathia, knowing important works of art as a cultural legacy	aesthetics, sports philoso-phy, cultural anthropolo-gy, artistic competitions – literature, art, music and drama

History	Olympic Themes, Knowledge, Skills and Competences of Students	Academic Disciplines and Study Subjects
Antiquity sport and games in antiquity	understanding ancient Olympic traditions, understanding the purpose and mission of the ancient Olympic Games, appreciating the importance of antiquity in modern Olympism	sports history, sports philosophy, aesthetics
The origin of international sport and the Olympic Games, Pierre de Coubertin	knowing the founder of the modern Olympic Games, Olympic symbolism. Understanding the important and mission of the Olympic Games, Olympic institutions and organisations	sports history, philosophy, sports philosophy, sports management

Man and Health	Olympic Themes, Knowledge, Skills and Competences of Students	Academic Disciplines and Study Subjects
The preventive importance of exercise and sport	understanding and being able to explain the health importance of active exercise and sport. Being able to shape a situation for overcome one-self, the importance of interpersonal competition	biomedicine, health physical education, sports physiology, sports sociology
Addictive drugs, health, doping	knowing the detrimental nature of stimulants, prohibited means of performance enhancement in sport, understanding the destructive signify-cance of doping in personal self-development	biomedicine, health physical education, sports physiology, hygiene, ethics, sports psychology
Doping and preventive anti-doping measures	understanding the essence of the fight and campaign against doping in sport, the causes for the fight against its misuse, knowing the main principles of preventive anti-doping measures	biomedicine, biochemistry, sports physiology, hygiene, ethics, sports psychology

Physical Education a Sport	Olympic Themes, Knowledge, Skills and Competences of Students	Academic Disciplines and Study Subjects
Olympic Charter, Olympic ideals, Olympic ceremonials, symbols	valuing the importance of Olympic ideas, their reaching beyond sport, fair competition even in extreme situations in games and contests, nature conservation in sport, assistance for the handicapped, etc.	sports philosophy, sports sociology, sports psychology, nature conservation, health physical education

#### B) Olympism as a separate instructional and educational subject in the curriculum

Universities together with Czech Olympic Academy are jointly taking part in formulating the content of the curriculum for Olympic education at primary and secondary schools (c.f. Rychtecký & Dovalil, 2009). Apart from this, private and public universities and sports faculties are also creating their own implied “Olympic” subjects, which they offer their students in a obligatory or elective form in bachelor’s, master’s and doctoral studies. The most frequent names given to mostly elective subjects taught at the sports and educational faculties of universities in the Czech Republic are, “Olympism” and “Olympic Education.” Their content is based on the themes in the table, but it is taught in a condensed form.

A common and unifying basis for an Olympism curriculum at universities is the textbook, _Olympism_ compiled by a team of authors from universities as well as specialists and experts from the Olympic Movement. It was published in 2004 with the support of the Czech Olympic Committee and contains the following chapter topics: Sport; Pierre de Coubertin, Philosophy of Olympism; Relations of Sport, Olympism and Culture; Antique Inspirations; Olympic Symbols and Ceremonies; Olympic Movement; Brief History of the Olympic Movement; Olympic Games; Czech Olympic Movement; Financing of the Olympic Movement; Sport for All in the Olympic Movement; Women and Sport in the Olympic Movement; the Ecological Dimension in Olympism; Olympism and Arts; Sport and Olympism in the Examination of Time; Future of Olympism; Olympic Education; Education in Sport. The textbook is used by university students, as well as by experts and interested persons of the Olympic Movement in the Czech Republic.

### Olympism as a subject of research at Czech universities

An analysis of contemporary Olympism indicates that its declaratory and concise expression in the Olympic Charter does not provide a sufficiently vivid picture or answers to questions such as, “What exactly is Olympism?” This brevity, due to the nature of the Charter, currently also poses a challenge for this unique social phenomenon to be more comprehensively analysed and interpreted in the broader context of social, sports, and natural sciences at universities. Moreover, the mission of the IOC and IOA, NOCs and NOAs (also cited at the 13th Olympic Congress in Copenhagen last year) is to develop, protect, and spread the principles of Olympism and Olympic values in physical education and sports programmes at schools and universities.

### Olympism in the context of academic research

![Figure. 1: Olympism and the Olympic Movement in the system of academic disciplines](http://thesportjournal.org/files/special-edition-olympism/rychtecky-figure-1.png)
Figure. 1: Olympism and the Olympic Movement in the system of academic disciplines

Olympism transcends sport, both as a set of preferred values and within a cultural framework. In many cases, it advocates sport (c.f. Parry, 1998; Jegorov, 2001). Consequently, incorporating Olympic themes into university research projects in social and sports sciences is of crucial significance, both for the academic and subsequent education activities of universities. In the next section, we shall recall selected methodological problems and stereotypes, which sometimes appear in basic and applied research on Olympism and the Olympic Games, and are transferred to education activities.

### Philosophy, sports philosophy, and Olympism

In historical and contemporary reflections, philosophy devotes itself to the anthropological and aretological characteristics of sports competitions, as well as to the socio-political, religious, aesthetic, and symbolic attributes of Olympism and the Olympic Games. The general goal is to create a consistent philosophy for the Olympic ideal. The aretological and anthropological dimensions of the Olympic Games are linked to the values of the body and mind, as well as the limits of educational values in sport. Stereotypes in the philosophical interpretation of the Olympic Games and the Olympic Movement include the fact that their transcendent wholes are underestimated. The Olympic Games contain virtues and a further disctintion of the attributes of perfection, glory, goodness, heroism, grace, etc. Some of these are particularly important because they involve crucial issues concerning human consciousness and existence. Olympism and the Olympic Games are no exception in this respect (c.f. Eyler, 1981). Besides by philosophy and sports philosophy, Olympism is also examined by other philosophical disciplines and sub-disciplines, i.e. the philosophy of art, comparative philosophy, ontology, phenomenology, the philosophy of gender, axiology, etc. (First World Olympic Congress of Philosophy, Athens, 2004).

### Sociology, sports sociology, and Olympism

In sociology and the sociology of sport, the following questions are posed in an analytical (sometimes not sufficiently defined) context and relationship to sport and Olympism:

* What is so specific in the Olympic Movement, which has been systematically extending its influence for more than a century despite counterarguments that Olympism is “running out of steam?”
* How has sport and Olympism changed over time and in the wider social context?
* What is the public image of sport, the Olympic Games, and the Olympic Movement, etc.?

Without answers to these and other questions, any examinations of sport, and Olympism will be reductive and restrictive in terms of their insights in sociological descriptions of modern societies (c.f. Pawłucki, 2009).

### Psychology, sports psychology, and Olympism

Research in sports psychology interprets the Olympic ideals, which facilitate an overlap of personal excellence and the development of performance (c.f. Cross & Jones, 2007; Gould, Collins, Lauer& Chung, 2006). Coubertin’s concept of Olympism as a “state of mind” is nothing other than an emotional, personality, and intra-individual overlap and means of overcoming oneself, as expressed in the motto, “Citius, Altius, Fortius.” It comprises the most important component of an individual’s motivation structure for sport and performance. Consequently, Coubertin’s cult of effort is always more important than external motivations – the stimulation of performance through external incentives. Therefore, competition in the spirit of Olympism primarily has a self-reconciling and self-improving significance while achieving maximum individual performance (c.f. Shields & Bredemeier, 1995; Müller, 2000). Sports psychology seeks adequate answers to the following frequently asked questions:

* How can one bridge the gap between Olympic ideals and the application of contemporary methods of operation used in sports training for youths (incentives, inappropriate awards)?
* Does sport always have a positive impact on personal development?

It is apparent, however, that motivation which emphasises victory at all costs may have a negative influence on the behaviour of sports people, and can lead to bribery or cheating (c.f. Miller & Kerr, 2002).

### Education, sports education, and Olympism

Coubertin understood sport as an educational instrument – a school of moral chivalry, purity, and physical force. The content, aim, and outcome of this education comprise attitudes and interiorised Olympic values. Current concepts of Olympic education have been updated through systematic research, just as the Olympism and Olympic education textbook have been. Research in education and sports education has also raised other questions:

* How, and by which means and methods, is it possible for an individual as a subject of education to identify with Olympic values through sport?
* Has contemporary sport lost its former values for young people?

Doubt is sometimes cast on sport as an edifying instrument with the assertions that the development of qualities and skills is not always linked to participation in sport. This is true because merely participating in sport does not automatically impact upon the personal development of a subject. Nevertheless, sport without ideals can increase one’s tolerance of cheating, both in terms of one’s competitors and the person themselves (c.f. Gould, Collins, Lauer & Chung, 2006).

### Ethics, Olympismus, and the Olympic Games

Fair play and respect for one’s competitors develop through active participation in sport and are preconditions for free competition without discrimination (Olympic Charter, 2004). The Olympic Movement aspires also to spread these values beyond the realm of sport (c.f. Dziubiński, 2008). “Sport is and should remain a forum where everyone has a chance to actively participate and develop in it. Consequently, sport is a human right, but it is not possible to separate it from the rest of the world” (c.f. Rogge, 2004).

### Culture, art, and Olympism

The original Greek ideal of _Kalokgathia_ became the model and moderator for the personal development of sports people. The stereotype in looking at the reality of the Olympic Movement is that, in our traditional education, we are strongly influenced by rational thinking adapted to the one truth. The Cartesian ideal of the one truth was the foundation stone of modern science and has been particularly successful in natural sciences. Sometimes, however, this ideal fails in the demanding and critical situations and problems of the Olympic Movement. Art, however, offers a grasp of reality which cannot be provided by modern rationalism. In the critical and difficult reality of its context, which is not focused on the one truth only, art can describe a given situation more precisely than science. Culture in Olympism and sport, however, does not mean abandoning rationalism and Europe’s cultural heritage.

### Conclusions

* The IOC and NOCs should systematically support research in universities focused on Olympism, the Olympic Movement, and the Olympic Games. The 13th Olympic Congress in Copenhagen last year confirmed the importance and prospects of cooperation among the Olympic family and educational institutions.
* In cooperation with NOAs and OSCs, universities should focus part of their research and educational capacities on current issues concerning the Olympic Movement.
* Olympism, the principles, values, and relationship of Olympism to sport and culture should be an integral part of professional training for future teachers, coaches, managers, etc.
* The results of research activities in Olympism should be subsequently a predicate of education programmes and systematically developed in university concepts of Olympic education programmes. They may be applied as a separate educational subject or as a set of selected Olympic themes included in the content of education for social sciences and sports subjects.
* Cooperation between Olympic institutions and universities is beneficial, not only for the development of a deeper and more comprehensive interpretation of Olympism in historical and contemporary reflections, but also for the development of sports and social sciences, as well as for sport itself and its relationship with culture. Today, without the ideas and principles of Olympism, it is not possible to assess sport in its complex and rapid development, or to assess the evolution of society in the 20th and 21st centuries.
* The master’s programme on Olympic Studies entitled “Olympic Studies, Olympic Education, Organisation and Management of Olympic Events,” which opened in 2009 at the University of Peloponnése (c.f. Dimopoulos, 2009), has been inspirational and beneficial whilst also increasing the professionalism of specialists in the Olympic Movement.

### References:

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Dimopoulos, K. A. (2009). The Master´s Programme on Olympic Studies: “Olympic studies, Olympic Education, Organization and Management of Olympic Events,” the University of Peloponnése, Ancient Olympia, Greece.

Dovalil, J. et al. (2004). Olympismus. Praha: Olympia 220 p.

Dziubiński, Z. (2008). Olympism in the Context of Modernity. Research yearbook, medsportpress, 14, (2), 2008, 115-124.

Eyler, M. H. (1981).”The Right Stuff.” In IOA Proceedings. 1981, pp. 159-168.

First World Olympic Congress of Philosophy on the topic of: Philosophy, Competition and Good Life. (Αthens-spetses, June 27th – July 4th, 2004).

Georgiadis, K. (2003). Olympic Revival. The Revival of the Olympic Games in Modern Times. Athens.

Gould, D., COLLINS, K., LAUER, L. & CHUNG, Y. (2006). Coaching life skills: A working model. Sport & Exercise Psychology Review, 2, 4 –12.

Miller, P. S. & KERR, G. A. (2002). Conceptualizing excellence: Past, present and future. Journal of Applied Psychology, 14, 140–153.

Morgas, M. (2006). Academic institutions and the Olympic Movement [online article]. Barcelona: Centre d’Estudis Olímpics UAB. [http://olympicstudies.uab.es/pdf/wp106_eng.pdf](http://olympicstudies.uab.es/pdf/wp106_eng.pdf)

Müller, N. (Ed.). (2000). Olympism: Selected writings – Pierre de Coubertin. Lausanne: IOC.

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U.S. Sports Academy2016-04-01T09:39:40-05:00August 5th, 2010|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Coaching, Sports Exercise Science, Sports Management|Comments Off