Effect of dynamic versus static stretching in the warm-up on hamstring flexibility

Gayle Silveira, Mark Sayers, Gordon Waddington – Department of Health, Design and Science, University of Canberra

### Abstract

Recent studies have questioned the benefits of static stretching in the sports warm-up. The purpose of our research was to examine the acute effect of static and dynamic stretching in the warm-up, on hamstring flexibility using an intervention study design. Hamstring flexibility was measured using modifications of the Straight Leg Raise test to measure hip flexion range of motion in degrees. The reliability of the test setup was determined in a separate study (n=33), the results of which were also utilised to establish the relationship between static and dynamic SLR tests. There was a significant difference between flexibility measured by the Static-passive and the Dynamic-supine SLR test (p < .05); hence, these were utilised to assess static and dynamic flexibility, respectively, in the intervention study.

Twelve participants were randomly assigned to three interventions of 225 secs. stretch treatment on separate days: No stretching (Treatment 1), Static stretching (Treatment 2) and Dynamic stretching (Treatment 3) in a cross-over study design. When static stretching was included in the warm-up, there were statistically significant differences in pre and post static flexibility (t (11) = 4.19, p < .05). However, there was no significant difference in pre and post dynamic flexibility (t (11) = 0.72, p >.05). Following dynamic stretching there was a statistically significant improvement in both static (t (11) = 2.62, p <. 05) and dynamic (t (11) = 5.69, p < .05) flexibility. Non-parametric tests carried out on the data to corroborate the aforementioned findings.

Static stretching did not improve dynamic hamstring flexibility; however, dynamic stretching improved both dynamic and static flexibility. This has implications for the specificity of stretching in sport.

**Key words:* Range of Motion, hamstring, joint flexibility, Lower extremity, resting tension, stretching

### Abbreviations

ROM
range of motion
SPH
static passive hamstring flexibility test
DSUH
dynamic supine hamstring flexibility test
DSHWB
dynamic standing hamstring flexibility test with knee brace
DSHNB
dynamic standing hamstring flexibility test without knee brace (no brace)
SAID
Specific adaptation to imposed demands

### Introduction

Dynamic stretching consists of simulating movements that are representative of those frequently used in a particular sport (22). Examples of dynamic stretching include the toe walk, heel-walk, hand-toe hamstring stretch, military-walk, sumo groin stretch, and quadriceps kicks (31). In 1996, Alter (2) described a principle put forward by Wallis and Logan in 1964 for strength, endurance and flexibility training, called specific adaptation to imposed demands (SAID). “One should stretch at not less than 75 percent of maximum velocity through the exact plane of motion, through the exact range of motion, and at the precise joint angles used while performing skills in a specific activity” (2). The aforementioned principle lends support to the concept of dynamic flexibility training. There is a lack of studies that examine the effect of dynamic stretching on static as well as dynamic flexibility in the period preceding competition i.e. in the warm-up phase.

Numerous studies in recent literature examine the effects of static stretching on various performance variables (29, 37). In their 2006 study, Behm et al. (6) found decrements in knee extension, knee flexion, drop-jump contact time and counter movement jump height following an acute bout of static stretching. The analysis of the relationship between static stretching and performance focuses mainly on the variables of strength and power (30). Their study demonstrates that static stretching lowers the maximal strength of the knee flexors and extensors and may even hamper performance of activities involving maximal force output. If increased musculotendinous stiffness enables more efficient transmission of force, stretching just prior to activity might also decrease force output in skills such as jumping to attain maximum height and forceful throwing (12). Even a moderate duration of static stretching could result in quadriceps isometric force and activation decrements (33). Furthermore, it is theorised that this impairment of isometric force production could last for a period of up to 120 minutes.

The purpose of our research was to examine the acute effect of static and dynamic stretching in the warm-up, on hamstring flexibility using an intervention study design. The reliability of the experimental setup was established in a separate study (n=33) that was used to determine the relationship between the tests that measured static and dynamic hamstring flexibility. Analyses of variance and correlation analyses were computed on the collated data. An intervention design was used to determine how an acute bout of static or dynamic stretching affected hamstring flexibility as measured by a modified SLR test. Parametric (t-test) and non-parametric tests (Wilcoxon Matched-Pairs Ranks) were carried out to analyse the raw data.

### Method

#### Participants

Sixteen university students (n = 16) were recruited for the intervention study to examine the effects of dynamic and static stretching on hamstring flexibility. The final sample consisted of 12 students of which five females and seven males served as participants. Two potential participants did not complete all testing sessions and two participants’ data was excluded from the study due to measurement error. The average age of the participants was 24.8 ± 6.8 yrs. (mean ± SD). The average height and weight was 174.5 ± 4.5 cm. and 73.0 ± 15.7 kg. respectively (mean ± SD).

Participants were drawn from a variety of sporting backgrounds which predominantly involved the lower body (42). Most were actively training for a sport. All trained lightly a minimum of three times a week. A condition of entry to the study was that the subjects did not concurrently use any stretch or flexibility training in their regular training program (41). Screening questionnaires were provided to identify subjects with neurological or musculoskeletal abnormalities of the spine and lower limbs. Subjects were examined to determine hip, knee and ankle ROM and a brief examination of the lumbar spine was performed. The final participants were free of any bony or soft tissue injury to the spine and lower limbs. The participants were asked to carry out routine activities and not to exercise strenuously (10). They were also advised not to stretch the hamstrings and avoid initiating or changing any exercise program during the study (35).

All participants provided their written informed consent to participate in the study. Hamstring flexibility was measured in the dominant leg (19), identified by kicking a football towards a wall five times (11). This study received approval from the human ethics committee of the University of Canberra.

#### Materials and Procedure

Reflective markers attached to specific bony prominences utilised for biomechanical analysis (Figure 1). The functional orthopaedic knee brace, Knee Ranger II Universal (dj Orthopaedics, LLC, California, USA) helped to maintain 15º of knee flexion during pre and post-testing. Participants wore the knee brace only during testing and not whilst performing the intervention stretches. The Velcro strapping on the brace eased the removal and fastening process considerably. A warm-up consisting of five minutes of cycling on a stationary cycle ergometer (Exertech, Australia) at 60-70 W (6, 42) was employed. Testing was carried out at around the same time of the day for each participant involved in the intervention study (41). There was no stretching incorporated in the warm-up.

#### Modified SLR test for measuring hamstring flexibility

Previous studies examining stretch and contraction specific changes in ROM utilise the hamstring muscle group most frequently in humans and the SLR test is the most commonly used test (17). The contralateral or non-testing leg was partially flexed at the hip and knee, with a pillow rolled underneath the knee to stabilise the pelvis (11). A Velcro strap fastened around the pelvis and secured beneath the exercise bench to minimise pelvic rotation. In 1982, Bohannon (7) suggested that the pelvis and the contralateral thigh should be maintained in neutral position to decrease contribution to SLR-ROM. During testing, the participant was advised not to lift the upper body off the bench, and the arms were folded across the chest or placed beneath the head. This minimised the contribution from the trunk towards the effort of hip flexion.

The experimental setup included a camcorder placed perpendicular to the plane of motion. The camcorder was mounted on a tripod and placed at a distance of 10 metres from the test area (Figure 1). A PAL digital video camera (Canon MVX3i, Canon Inc., Japan) operating at 50Hz was used to video the participants performing the various flexibility tests. Dartfish ProSuite (Dartfish Connect 4.0, Dartfish Ltd., Fribourg, Switzerland) was used to capture the video data from the camera to a computer for two-dimensional analysis.

#### Measuring Flexibility

After the warm-up period, participants (n=12) undertook static passive (SPH) and dynamic supine hamstring flexibility (DSUH) tests to measure static and dynamic flexibility respectively. The reliability of this experimental setup and correlation between modifications of the SLR test was established in an earlier study involving 33 subjects.

##### Static Passive Hamstring Flexibility test

This test was performed in the supine position on an exercise bench. The functional knee brace was worn for testing. Passive stretching utilises an external agent to assist with the stretch. The participant used a Velcro strap around the ankle to assist with pulling the limb into hip flexion (Figure 1). The dominant leg was flexed to the terminal ROM or until a mild discomfort/tightness was felt in the back of thigh (5). This position was maintained for five seconds following which the limb was slowly lowered to the resting position.

##### Dynamic Supine Hamstring Flexibility test

The test was performed in the supine position on an exercise bench. Dynamic flexibility measures the ability to move a joint quickly through a non-restricted ROM. The participants were instructed to move the dominant limb into hip flexion using maximal effort and as quickly as possible or until a mild discomfort was felt in the back of the thigh. Dartfish analysis of the video frame that captured the terminal phase of movement was used to determine the angle of hip flexion.

Supine stretching is thought to better isolate the hamstrings, allowing for improved relaxation and is generally believed to be safer and more comfortable for people with a history of low back pain (15). Hence, the SPH test was used to measure static hamstring flexibility and the DSUH test was used to measure dynamic flexibility. Reliability testing demonstrated that there is a significant difference between flexibility measured by the SPH and DSUH hamstring flexibility tests (p<.001). There was also a significant difference between DSHWB (with knee brace) and DSHNB (without knee brace) tests (p = .003) and this result supported the use of the knee brace (dj Orthopaedics, LLC, California, USA) to maintain a fixed knee angle during flexibility testing.

An average hip flexion ROM was calculated for both and served as the final measure of hamstring flexibility (4). Post-testing was commenced immediately after the completion of the stretching intervention assigned for the day. In 2002, Klee et al. (26) suggested that participants should be retested as quickly as possible after the intervention stretches because resting tension started to increase after a three minute rest pause.

#### Stretching Program

##### Warm-up only/ No stretching: Treatment 1

No stretches were included in the warm-up, serving as a control. Participants cycled for 75 seconds on a stationary ergometer (Exertech, Australia) at 60-70 W with a 10 seconds rest pause between each of the five 75-second cycle periods. Total duration of cycling was 225 secs.

##### Static stretching: Treatment 2

Participants performed stretches for a total duration of 225 seconds (52). They performed three types of static stretches with a stretch time of 75 seconds for each (Table 1). This time equated to five stretches held for 15 seconds each (9, 29, 30, 34, 47,). A rest pause of ten seconds was allowed between stretches. Each static stretch was performed to the terminal range, defined as the point where the subject felt a mild discomfort or tightness in the back of the thigh (5). The static and dynamic stretching routines were appropriately timed so that the amount of time spent stretching was the same for each group, enabling comparison between the two groups (41).

##### Standing toe-touch

This stretch routine involved bending forward to touch toes whilst making sure that the knees remained fully extended. Participants held the stretched position for 15 seconds until a slight sense of discomfort or tightness felt in the back of the thigh. Ten seconds rest pauses were allowed after each stretch and when switching to a different stretch type.

##### Forward swing static stretch

The heel of the extremity to be stretched was supported on a treatment table to perform this particular stretch (35). The knee remained fully extended and the foot was positioned in relaxed plantar flexion. The pelvis was tilted anteriorly whilst bending forward at the waist avoiding flexion of the spine (15, 35), until the terminal range was reached or discomfort felt in the back of the thigh. This stretch position was held for 15 seconds and repeated five times on the dominant extremity.

##### Passive supine-sling stretch

This stretch was performed in the supine position whilst lying on an exercise treatment bench. A Velcro sling was passed around the ankle to flex the hip and consequently stretch the hamstring group of muscle. The stretch was held for 15 seconds to the terminal range of discomfort or tightness felt in the back of the thigh.

##### Dynamic stretching treatment

Five sets of seven to eight dynamic stretches equalled the amount of time spent (Table 1) on the aforementioned static stretching regimens. The aim was to allot the same amount of stretching time to the static and dynamic stretching interventions enabling comparison among the groups. The 15 seconds hold period for each static stretch equated to around seven to eight dynamic stretches. Five sets of dynamic stretches amounted to 225 seconds of total stretching time. There was a pause of 10 seconds between each set and another 10 seconds when changing over from one type of stretch to another.

Stretches were begun at low velocity and momentum was gradually built up to achieve at least 75% of maximum height and speed while performing the dynamic stretches. The SAID principle of specific adaptation to imposed demands formed the basis of the dynamic stretching routine. Participants stretched at 75% of the maximum velocity through a particular ROM whilst performing a sport-specific movement.

##### Dynamic leg swings

The dominant leg was flexed at the hip in a forward kicking action. The aforementioned SAID principle was applied during performance of all stretches (controlled stretching). Five sets of seven or eight forward leg swings or kicks (9) were carried out to a timed 225 seconds of stretching.

##### Crossed-body leg swings

Dominant leg swung across the midline of the body towards the opposite shoulder. This stretched the biceps femoris which is the lateral muscle of the hamstring group (40).

##### Standing bicycle-kicks

The dominant limb was put through a circumduction-like movement in a rhythmic cyclical manner incorporating the SAID principle (controlled stretching). Total time spent on this stretch was also 225 seconds.

#### Biomechanical analyses

The hip ROM in the dominant leg was used as an indirect measure of hamstring flexibility (44) and served as the only investigated parameter (Fully extended hip = 0°). Dartfish ProSuite (Dartfish Connect 4.0, Dartfish Ltd., Fribourg, Switzerland) is a complete video analysis software package, which includes all necessary functionality to analyse technical performance during and after training. Dartfish motion analysis software was used to quantify the degree of hip flexion. This system enables access to every video frame so that the terminal ROM of hip flexion can be accurately identified. Once the appropriate frame was identified, Dartfish was used to measure hip flexion accurately to the nearest degree. Intra-tester and operator reliability were tested by a repeat analysis of 15 participant performances.

#### Statistical Analysis

The principal dependent variable of interest was the change in hamstring flexibility measured by hip flexion ROM between pre and post-stretch measurements. The paired sample t-test compared the effect of the two treatments on static and dynamic hamstring flexibility. Non- parametric tests conducted on the collected data corroborate the aforementioned findings. Furthermore, Tukey’s Honestly Significant Difference (HSD) test explored the degree of change in static and dynamic flexibility. The data was analysed with the statistical package SPSS for Windows (version 12.1.0; SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL).

### Results & Disscussion

Various modifications of the SLR test were used to measure and compare hamstring flexibility in an earlier study that also tested for reliability (n=33). Static passive hamstring flexibility (SPH), dynamic supine hamstring flexibility (DSUH), dynamic standing hamstring flexibility with knee brace worn (DSHWB), and dynamic standing hamstring flexibility without knee brace (DSHNB). Subjects were tested on two separate occasions one week apart. Each subject had three trials for each tests for the two separate testing times resulting in a total of 30 scores. Test-retest was appropriate as subjects were tested at two points in time a week apart and a Cronbach alpha was used to test for internal consistency and reliability for the three trials of each week’s testing. The tests used in this study evidenced a very high degree of internal consistency for each trial by Occasion 1 and Occasion 2 as well as a high coefficient of reliability or stability as measured by the test-retest procedure (Table 3, Table 4).

Participants were randomly assigned to one of three interventions for each of three testing occasions:

1. No stretching (Treatment 1)
2. Static stretching (Treatment 2)
3. Dynamic stretching (Treatment 3)

A Paired-samples T-test was used to test for differences in static and dynamic flexibility from pre/post-test after each stretch intervention (Table 5).

Intervention Treatment 1, where the subjects did no stretching served as the control. Static and dynamic stretching (Treatment 2, Treatment 3) were the experimental treatments. Following Treatment 1 we expected measures of hamstring flexibility to remain unchanged from pre to post-test. However, our analysis revealed significant differences between pre and post score for static flexibility (t (11) = 2.76, p < .05). There was no significant difference between pre and post hip ROM measured by the dynamic flexibility test (t (11) = 0.315, p >.05). The mean value of difference between pre and post score for static flexibility (mean = 2.13, SD = 2.68) indicates that there is a substantial change.

When static stretching was included in the warm-up, there were statistically significant differences in pre and post static flexibility measurements (t (11) = 4.19, p < .05). However, there was no significant difference in pre and post dynamic flexibility measurements (t (11) = 0.72, p >.05). When dynamic stretches were included in the warm-up instead of static stretches, it was expected that there would be changes, at least, in dynamic flexibility of the hamstrings. The analysis shows that there were statistically significant differences in both static (t (11) = 2.62, p <. 05) and dynamic (t (11) = 5.69, p < .05) flexibility. This suggests that participants improved both their static and dynamic hamstring flexibility after dynamic stretching was included in the warm-up.

Non-parametric tests were carried out on the collected data to corroborate the aforementioned findings. Wilcoxon Matched-Pairs Ranks test was performed. The results were similar to those obtained following the Paired samples t-test. Following Treatment 1 (No stretching) there were resultant differences in the static hamstring flexibility (Wilcoxon, Z = -2.41, p < .05). Static stretching only influenced static flexibility (Wilcoxon, Z = -2.67, p < .05) of the hamstrings, while dynamic stretching produced changes in both static (Wilcoxon, Z = -2.39, p < .05) and dynamic flexibility (Wilcoxon, Z = -2.98, p < .05).

Furthermore, the differences in the degree of change in static and dynamic flexibility following dynamic stretching were explored using Tukey’s Honestly Significant Difference (HSD) test. The difference between the degree of improvement in static and dynamic hamstring flexibility following dynamic stretching were not statistically significant (Table 6). To corroborate these findings a Wilcoxon Matched-Pairs Ranks test was performed on pre-post differences of static and dynamic flexibility following dynamic stretching. The analysis failed to identify a significant difference in the changes demonstrated in both static and dynamic flexibility (Wilcoxon, Z = -0.178, p > .05).

The availability of state of the art software and improved video analysis techniques has changed the way flexibility is measured. The methods commonly being used have focussed on the measurement of static flexibility. With the growing trend towards using dynamic stretching and sport-specific drills in the warm-up, there is a need for measuring devices to adapt to these changes. We have provided a simple, reliable setup to measure flexibility. The inadequately defined relationship between flexibility and muscular performance or an athlete’s susceptibility to injury may be attributable to the lack of valid and reliable measures of flexibility (20). The drawback of flexibility assessment tools is the need for testing to be carried out within the confines of a laboratory. Although this study was carried out in a laboratory, the set-up could be used outdoors with the participant performing functional dynamic sporting movements.

Dynamic flexibility has been defined as a measure of the resistance throughout the ROM of a joint or a measure of joint stiffness (3). Dynamic flexibility is important in sport because it measures the ability of an extremity to move through a non-restricted ROM (36). The main findings suggest that static stretching improves static flexibility (p < .05) but may have no impact on dynamic flexibility (p > .05). Increasing ROM achieved through static stretching does not necessarily translate to improvements in dynamic flexibility. In 2004, Behm et al. (6) supported the concept that static stretching improved flexibility and ROM, however, it was believed that the relevance and specificity of the gains remained questionable.

In 1988, Alter (1) argued in support of the specificity of stretching: “ROM is a combination of active and passive ranges of motion and if passive stretching exercises are used to develop flexibility, then one should expect changes largely in passive flexibility” (p.179). Even a moderate duration of static stretching could result in quadriceps isometric force and activation decrements lasting for up to 120 minutes (33). The increase in static flexibility may not have translated into expected improvements in dynamic flexibility because of dampened hamstring activation following an acute bout of static stretching.

Static flexibility improved when no stretches were included in the warm-up as well as when the participants underwent a static stretching routine. Similar results were obtained in a other studies (44, 53). The 2003 study by Zakas et al. (53) indicates that flexibility improves significantly even when stretching is not included in the warm-up, however, any comparisons should be made with caution because of differences in methodology. The stationary cycling group in the study in 1997 by Wiemann and Knut (44) cycled for 15 minutes and demonstrated a significant improvement in hip ROM thereafter. They explain that this occurrence may be due to the decreased resting tension and a reduced stretch resistance following stationary cycling. However, other studies have shown that warming up before stretching does not complement the effectiveness of stretching (14, 45).

Following the inclusion of dynamic stretches in the warm-up, dynamic flexibility as well as static flexibility scores improved from pre-test to post-test. However, Tukey’s HSD test did not reveal significant differences between the degree of improvement of static and dynamic flexibility. Muscles have two types of receptors: the primary or annulospiral endings which measure changes in both muscle length and velocity, and the secondary or flower spray endings that measured changes in muscle length alone (2). Thus, Alter (2) reasons that dynamic stretching may be used to condition primary endings for a desired response, and sport-specific drills could be used in warm-up. Dynamic stretching may have caused activation of the primary annulospiral endings resulting in an increase in both static and dynamic flexibility. The dynamic stretching routine may have had a warming up effect, causing an increase in static flexibility.

There may be a need to consider the appropriate time for static stretching in the daily training schedule. There have been suggestions that static stretching may be useful in the cooling down period after a workout (18, 27, 31-32). Evidence remains in support of static stretching for long-term gains in flexibility (31, 39).

### Conclusion

The intervention study comparing the effects of static and dynamic stretching routines in the warm-up on hamstring flexibility demonstrated that dynamic stretching enhanced static as well as dynamic flexibility. Static stretching on the other hand did not have an impact on dynamic flexibility. This has implications for the use of static stretching in the warm-up for dynamic sport. The role of static stretching for injury prevention in dynamic sport is also being questioned.

### Application in Sport

The simplicity of the experimental set-up is the highlight of this research. Coaches can use our method of video analysis to monitor the effectiveness of stretching routines. A single person can carry out testing with ease and accuracy.

Dynamic stretching is synonymous with functional, sport-specific stretching and this research has demonstrated that dynamic stretching improves both static and dynamic hamstring flexibility. Static stretching has no impact on dynamic flexibility and should not be used in the warm-up; however, static stretches may be useful in the cooling down period of training for long term gains in flexibility.

Although our research has demonstrated the effectiveness of dynamic stretching in the warm-up, it is important to follow the training guidelines set aside in 2001 by Mann and Whedon (31) whilst implementing a stretching routine. Dynamic stretching may be most effective if performed according to the training principles discussed earlier, always making sure the needs and the capacities of the individual athlete receive precedence over general training goals.

### Acknowledgements

I would like to acknowledge my supervisors Dr. Mark Sayers and Dr. Gordon Waddington for their invaluable guidance. Their understanding and patience helped me overcome numerous hurdles en route to the completion of this thesis. I would also like to thank the sports studies staff for their help and advice.

I am thankful to the students of the University of Canberra (Sports Studies) for volunteering to participate in this research project. It was wonderful working with such cheerful and enthusiastic young people. Their willingness to participate and report at similar times for each testing session is much appreciated.

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45. Williford, H. N., East, J. B., Smith, F. H., & Burry, L. A. (1986). Evaluation of warm-up for improvement in flexibility. American Journal of Sports Medicine, 14(4), 316-319.
46. Wilson, G. J., Elliott, B. C., & Wood, G. A. (1992). Stretch shorten cycle performance enhancement through flexibility training. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 24(1), 116-123.
47. Worrell, T. W. (1994). Factors associated with hamstring injuries. An approach to treatment and preventative measures. Sports Medicine, 17(5), 338-345.
48. Worrell, T. W., Smith, T. L., & Winegardner, J. (1994). Effect of hamstring stretching on hamstring muscle performance. Journal of the Sports Physical Therapy, 20(3), 154-160.
49. Young, W. B., & Behm, D. G. (2002). Should static stretching be used during a warm-up for strength and power activities? Strength & Conditioning Journal, 24(6), 33-37.
50. Young, W. B., & Elliot, S. (2001). Acute effects of static stretching, proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation stretching and maximum voluntary contractions on explosive force production and jumping performance. Research Quarterly for Exercise & Sport, 72(3), 273-279.
51. Young, W. B., & Behm, D. G. (2003). Effects of running, static stretching and practice jumps on explosive force production and jumping performance. Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 43(1), 21-27.
52. Young, W. B., Clothier, P., Otago, L., Bruce, L., & Liddell, D. (2004). Acute effects of static stretching on hip flexor and quadriceps flexibility range of motion and foot speed in kicking a football. Journal of Science & Medicine in Sport, 7(1), 23-31.
53. Zakas, A., Vergou, A., Grammatikopoulou, M. G., Zakas, N., Sentelidis, T., & Vamvakoudis, S. (2003). The effect of stretching during warming-up on the flexibility of junior handball players. Journal of Sports Medicine & Physical Fitness, 43(2), 145-149.

### Tables

#### Table 1
Time spent on each stretch

Stretch Type Stretch Time (seconds)
Static stretching*
Toe-toucha 75c
Forward swinga 75c
Surpine slinga 75c
Dynamic stretching*
Forward leg swingb 75d
Crossed-body leg swingb 75d
Bicycle kicksb 75d

(*) 10 seconds rest pause after each repetition and 10 seconds before switching over to the next type of stretch.
(a) 5 Stretches
(b) 5 Sets
(c) 15 seconds hold for each static stretch
(d) 7-8 swings/ kicks equivalent to around 15 seconds of stretching time for each set.

#### Table 2
Comparison of Dynamic and Static Hamstring flexibility measures in reliability study

Test 1b Test 2a Test 1
Mean (SD)
Test 2
Mean (SD)
F df P Part Eta2
SPH DSUH 91.90 (18.02) 88.61 (16.97) 18.20 1.000 < .001 .363
SPH DSHNB 91.90 (18.02) 89.96 (15.91) 1.28 1.000 .267 .038
DSUH DSHWB 88.61 (16.97) 91.66 (15.65) 4.46 1.000 .043 .122
DSUH DSHNB 88.61 (16.97) 89.96 (15.91) .835 1.000 .368 .025
DSHWB DSHNB 91.66 (15.65) 89.96 (15.91) 10.44 1.000 .003 .246

Significant at p < .05
(a) All measurements are in degrees
(b) Number of participants performing each test = 33

#### Table 3
Cronbach alpha measure of reliability for each test repetition for two test sessions

Flexibility Test Alpha Occasion
(SEM)*
Alpha Occasion 2
(SEM)*
Static-passive hamstring .9950 (1.28) .9946 (1.32)
Dynamic-supine hamstring .9908 (1.71) .9891 (1.77)
Dynamic-standing hamstring with brace .9915 (1.45) .9917 (1.42)
Dynamic-standing hamstring no brace .9905 (1.51) .9897 (1.61)

(*) SEM – Standard Error of Measurement.

#### Table 4
Test – retest reliability

Flexibility Test Coefficient of Stability / Reliability (SEM)
Static-passive hamstring .992 (1.61)
Dynamic-supine hamstring .993 (1.45)
Dynamic-standing hamstring with brace .989 (1.66)
Dynamic-standing hamstring no brace .983 (2.04)

#### Table 5
Paired samples T test comparing the effect of the intervention treatments on dynamic and static hamstring flexibility

Treatmentb Pairs (Pre-Post Test Scores) Mean (SD) Std. Error Mean 95% Conf. Int. of the Difference ta Sig. (2-tailed)
Lower Upper
No stretch Static flexibility 2.13 (2.68) 0.77 0.43 3.84 2.758* 0.019
Dynamic flexibility 0.23 (2.57) 0.74 -1.40 1.87 0.315 0.759
Static stretching Static flexibility 4.04 (3.34) 0.96 1.92 6.16 4.191* 0.002
Dynamic flexibility 1.35 (6.51) 1.88 -2.78 5.48 0.719 0.487
Dynamic stretching Static flexibility 1.86 (2.46) 0.71 0.30 3.42 2.622* 0.024
Dynamic flexibility 1.75 (1.06) 0.31 1.07 2.43 5.694* 0.000

(*) Significant at p < .05
(a) Degrees of freedom = 11
(b) Number of participants undergoing each treatment = 12

#### Table 6
Tukey’s Honestly Significant Difference (HSD) test exploring differences in the degree of change in static and dynamic flexibility following dynamic stretching

Experimental Group Dependent Variable (I) Intervention (J) Mean Difference (I-J) Std. Error Sig.
Dynamic Stretching Post Static Flexibility No Stretching -0.006 4.14 1.00
Static stretching 1.08 4.14 0.96
Post Dynamic flexibility No stretching -1.24 4.60 0.97
Static stretching -1.13 4.60 0.97

### Corresponding Author
Gayle Silveira, MBBS
Modbury Hospital
Smart Road
Modbury, SA 5092
Australia
<gaylerebello@yahoo.com>
+6 (143) 172-1469

2013-11-25T16:34:15-06:00March 3rd, 2011|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Coaching, Sports Exercise Science, Sports Management|Comments Off on Effect of dynamic versus static stretching in the warm-up on hamstring flexibility

A Coach’s Responsibility: Learning How to Prepare Athletes for Peak Performance

### Abstract

The coaching profession is ever-changing and coaches at each level of sport competition need to know more than just the Xs and Os in order to be successful. As the primary individuals tasked with developing athletes and helping them achieve their goals, coaches should acquire a working knowledge of all areas affiliated with performance enhancement. Specifically, the disciplines of sports administration, sports medicine, strength and conditioning, and sports psychology can assist coaches while physically and mentally training their athletes. This article illustrates six primary components of these disciplines: risk management, injury prevention, communication, nutrition, goal setting, and athlete development. It is imperative coaches gain a familiarity with these aforementioned components in order to teach athletes about skill development and prepare them to achieve peak performance.
(more…)

2018-10-22T15:29:44-05:00February 14th, 2011|Sports Coaching, Sports Exercise Science, Sports Management|Comments Off on A Coach’s Responsibility: Learning How to Prepare Athletes for Peak Performance

Olympic Values Education Programme (OVEP) Progress Report: 2005-2010

### Introduction

In the process of organizing the Beijing Games, the Organizing Committee launched an Olympic education programme which touched such a number of young people that the record threatens to out-live generations of today’s youth. With schools across the nation participating, 400,000,000 young people partook of this programme to complete a daunting task that began just six years earlier, one year after Beijing was awarded the Games. While these numbers are staggering and the Olympic education programme was solely a national production, be it with great similarities to the IOC’s Olympic Values Education Programme (OVEP), it remains a fact that it has inspired a number of National Olympic Committees to dream of such a reach. Pro-rated, the percentages are achievable. Rwanda, with a population of just over 120,000,000 would, under this assumption, need to reach a youth population of around 3.5 million. The Indian Olympic Association is hoping its own start-up programme will touch around 20,000,000 young people through the inaugural Indian National Club Games and the ever popular Indian National Games.

This truncated progress report is meant to give some direction to the first-ever meeting of OVEP animators in Durban preceding the 7th World Conference on Sport, Education and Culture. The meeting is intended to generate discussion on the overall review and progress of the OVEP project. In view of the President of the IOC signing off to a four year extension of the programme, the participants to the meeting will be asked to contribute their thoughts and experiences in regard to the way forward. OVEP is not a Youth Olympic Games Culture and Education Programme (CEP). It is supposed to be a pre and post YOG supporting system for all youth, whether or not participants in the youth games.

The coming on board of United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) is an exciting dimension to OVEP. The organization’s idea of promoting the programme in its 9,000 Associated Schools Network (ASPnet) around the world to buttress values-based education bodes well for Olympism. UNESCO representatives are expected to share their experiences with participants during the meeting. Some developing countries are yet to establish ASPnet schools in their own countries.

In this report, three continents – Africa, Asia and Oceania – feature prominently as having been the successful test beds for the programme. Hopes are high that The Americans will have the programme up and running in 2011. Under the authority of the Pan-American Sports Organization (PASO) and the leadership of the Spanish Olympic Committee, OVEP is being launched in a large-scale way and will immediately be available as a standalone subject on the Spanish NOC’s virtual university. The project will also encompass Portuguese-speaking countries such as Brazil, Portugal and a number of developing countries in Africa.

The European charge is expected to be led by the International Pierre de Coubertin Committee (IPCC) which has done an impressive job of bringing together school children to a youth forum once every two years to dedicate their time to Olympic education. With the urging and material support of the IOC, IPCC has been widening its reach to include young people from other continents. Lately, young people from Asia, Africa and the Americas have participated in the biennial gatherings. OVEP will be an integral element in the established forum programme; however, OVEP as an undertaking in Europe will be driven by IPCC.

### Project Environment

#### Olympic Values Education

Taking into account the IOC’s social responsibility and with the focus on sport as a vehicle to deliver the message, OVEP was developed as a tool to further the IOC’s global youth strategy. The use of Olympic sport traditions and their inherent values is used as the backdrop for the IOC’s values-based teaching and learning opportunities. OVEP integrates sport and physical activity within a cultural and educational framework, and is in line with the United Nations General Assembly declaration of the Decade of Education for Sustainable Development (DESD – 2005-2014).

Safeguarding the needs of future generations, OVEP is a key component to the activities of the IOC and the Olympic Movement at large. In view of the fact, that in today’s world, the practice of sport has changed and with the objective to get the “Now Generation” back onto the field of play, this donor-supported project was launched in 2005 with the key objective as stated by the IOC President and approved by the Executive Board, “to develop an Olympic educational programme targeted primarily at young people and youth”.

The unique potential originating from the practice of sport has been repeatedly recognized. Progressive solutions to use the power of sport, its ability to initiate intercultural dialogue, its global reach, its effect on the sporting community and beyond represent an area to enhance equality, obtain personal freedom and a means for development.

However, as has been expressed by the IOC President, the delivery of a values-based education will depend on the joint efforts of all concerned; the sporting movement being a small part but a driving force within the larger playing field. In its contributions to the global platform of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), sport has a key role to play. Specifically, MDG objective Goal 2 (Achieve universal primary education) can be addressed in the framework of OVEP as the essential value of sport lends itself to quality education. That is to say that integration of sports activities can make school more appealing and increase learning motivation in youth.

The link between the IOC’s educational strategy in support of the DESD can be translated to:

– Making education more relevant and meaningful
– Building partnerships in support of sustainable development
– Developing skills both inside and outside the classroom
– Making teaching as well as learning a fun process

#### The Olympic Values Education Toolkit Resource

According to the Olympic Charter, “Olympism is a philosophy of life, exalting and combining in a balanced whole the qualities of body, will and mind. Blending sport with culture and education, Olympism seeks to create a way of life based on the joy of effort, the educational value of good examples and respect for universal fundamental ethical principles.”

Sport and the broader base of physical education provide a boundless arena from which to learn life skills such as tolerance, solidarity, fair play, non-discrimination, inclusivity, friendship, respect, excellence, dedication, loyalty and courage. Fundamental or universal virtues such as the value of effort and how to face life’s challenges such as victory or defeat are part and parcel of participation through and in sport.

The catalytic power of sport in uniting people for a common goal as well as the positive example it can provide to youth is the foundation from which the IOC embarked on the OVEP project. The resource, “Teaching Values, an Olympic Education Toolkit”, conceptualizes education and promotes the development of a values-based, life-long learning paradigm. The focus is on development of life skills and learning, that spreads beyond the sporting field or the four walls of the classroom encapsulated into the fabric of daily lives.

The OVEP project was built on the three pillars of: a teaching manual (a reference tool), an interactive database (network platform) and a label to encourage take-up (promoter of new initiatives). This report does not encompass the latter two components of the project, but strictly adheres to communicating information on the teaching manual and the implementation thereof.

#### The Five Educational Olympic Values

In November 2005, an IOC Education Expert Workshop reached a consensus on the objectives of OVEP, its constraints, deliverables and possible implementation strategies. During this ‘think tank’ event, it was agreed that the five educational values of the toolkit would be the pedagogical cornerstone and basis of the teaching resource:

Joy of effort – Young people develop and practice physical, behavioral and intellectual skills by challenging themselves and each other in physical activities, movement, games and sport.

Fair play – is a sports concept, but it is applied worldwide today in many different ways. Learning fair play behavior in sport can lead to the development and reinforcement of fair play behavior in the community and in life.

Respect for others – When young people who live in a multicultural world learn to accept and respect diversity and practice personal peaceful behavior, they promote peace and international understanding.

Pursuit of excellence – A focus on excellence can help young people to make positive, healthy choices, and strive to become the best that they can be in whatever they do.

Balance between body, will and mind – Learning takes place in the whole body, not just in the mind. Physical literacy and learning through movement contributes to the development of both moral and intellectual learning. This concept became the foundation of Pierre de Coubertin’s interest in a revival of the Olympic Games.

#### Summary of the OVEP Project Timeline

Year Action
2005 Decision by the IOC to develop a global youth strategy and address social responsibility through an educational values programme. IOC Education Expert Workshop reached a consensus on the objectives of OVEP, its constraints, deliverables and possible implementation strategies (Nov-Dec 2005). Sponsor-generated donation running over a 4 year period was presented to the IOC by ISM (2005).
2006 IOC President and EB approve OVEP project (Jan 2006). Teaching Values: An Olympic Education Toolkit was penned. The toolkit was presented at the 5th World Forum for Sport, Education and Culture (October 2006), was subsequently reviewed by the Culture and Education Working Group for Olympic Education and approved by the IOC Culture and Education Commission.
2007 Field testing started with the World Scout Jamboree Event in Chelmsford, UK (July-August 2007). Some 28,000 young people between the ages of 14 and 17 and 12,000 adults were present at this event.
Since 2008 Running of pilot phase, having successfully concluded 10 Train the Trainer Workshops with a geographical reach in 3 continents (Africa, Oceania and Asia).

### Projective Objectives

Having recognized the social and educational significance of sport, Olympic education reinforces the cultural DNA of individuals in a globalized world and further promotes the well-being of all using, among others, the tool of sport. With this fundamental principle in mind, it was agreed that the OVEP project would be initially established in developing countries in order to promote the application of Olympic values through sport.

To this effect, the following objectives were defined:

– **Objective 1:** Education – To design and implement an Olympic Education programme for children and young people in developing and developed countries in order to promote the application of Olympic values through sport.
– **Objective 2:** Multi-application – Heterogeneous applicability (e.g. multi-lingual, multi-cultural, actualization within different geo-political environments).
– **Objective 3:** Internal Collaboration – Compatible with IOC development programme policy in collaboration with other IOC departments (e.g. Olympic Solidarity, Olympic Museum, Sports Department).
– **Objective 4:** Global implementation – Evaluate the possibilities of extending OVEP into a global and general public promotional campaign following the pilot phase.

### Project Implementation

The pilot phase was built under the aegis of the “Train the Trainer” (TtT) model. The working concept underpinning the methodology was the “ripple or multiplier effect” in which the effective transfer of learning extends outward. That is to say that one person is trained in a group setting after which s/he takes that knowledge, skills and materials and confidently trains other groups. This formula was successfully implemented through 10 TtT workshops in 3 continents (Africa, Oceania and Asia) with a reach of approximately 45 countries. The latter does not take into account the integration of OVEP within Organizing Committees education programmes, national educational start-up initiatives, the OlympAfrica network and International Federations, to name a few.

### Review of Implementation from a Continental Perspective

A few outstanding facts to date:

– The OVEP project has trained over 300 delegates from approx. 45 countries so far.
– Relevant to Olympic Games special Olympic education programmes and OVEP reach was extended to 40,000 schools (Beijing 2008) and 2,100 British Columbia schools with 200,000 resource hits on the VANOC website platform (Vancouver 2010). The London Organizing Committee of the Olympic Games and Paralympic Games (LOCOG) is also in full swing with their official launch of the London 2012 education programme, “Get Set”.

Following the inaugural launch of the programme in Dar-es-Salaam, Tanzania in 2008, the following highlights per continent can be reported.

#### Africa

– More than 155 countries have been targeted and subsequently activated.
– Over 100 trainers have been prepared to roll out the programme on a national level.
– Two regional workshops organized by the Department of International Cooperation and Development (DICD) in collaboration with OlympAfrica and hosted by the NOCs of Mali and Gambia have taken place. As a result, some NOCs have established a culture and Education Commission to further the activities on a national level.
– OlympAfrica Foundation is a valuable and key partner in disseminating and rolling-out OVEP. More than 250 activities are carried out in OlympicAfrica centres and OVEP is part of their offerings.
– The National Olympic Committee of Kenya has taken a lead interest in Olympic Values dissemination for the region and on a national level.
– The opening of the Olympic Youth Development Center in Zambia is a great boost to the programme. A cross cutting project in conjunction with United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) offers the perfect venue for the running of a Global Sports for Youth International Camp wherein OVEP modules have been integrated into the five day established programme. Six country delegations from Botswana, Malawi, Mozambique, South Africa, Zimbabwe and Zambia (host) with a total of 80 participating youths are scheduled to attend the camp in November 2010.
– Cross border implementation is a reality. This has been encouraged between the neighboring countries of Zambia and Zimbabwe between Tanzania and Kenya.
– Inroads at the policy decision making level (Ministries of Education) and the building of a sound national foundation have been made for example in Tanzania, Zimbabwe, and Uganda. Burundi will follow the same patter.
– Sensitization workshops (i.e. key to establishing a solid and sustainable foundation for programme roll-out) have been organized and incorporated in the framework for implementation in countries such as Zimbabwe, Kenya, Burundi and Egypt.

#### Asia

– The 5th World Forum on Sport, Education and Culture (Beijing, 2006) identified a network of 70 contacts in China to play a role in the outreach programme for OVEP. As illustrated during the 2008 Beijing Games, host countries of Olympic Games can and have played important roles as a channel of distribution for Olympic education.
– In view of the inaugural 2010 Youth Olympic Games a TtT Workshop was initiated by the Singapore National Olympic Council in collaboration with the Singapore Olympic Academy (SOA). Thirteen countries were targeted and have been activated through the session. Since last December 2009, 116 trainers have been trained and are rolling out the programme on a national regional level.
– Large scale dissemination in highly populated countries such as India can be very effective from a case study and learning point-of-view. For example, the Delhi Public Schools (DPS) with a student intake of 10,000 students has been utilized for the “hands-on” practicum availed to the workshop participants during the IOC and Indian Olympic Association (IOA) TtT workshop which took place in March 2010. A key outcome has been smaller-scale initiatives on a rural grass roots level which have been conducted in regional provinces such as Raipur Chhattisgarh with the assistance of the provincial government. Also an integral approach led by an academic team from the Delhi university system with 8 adjoining states in the pipeline.
– A transversal project approach has been the result within the framework of activities by the Jordan Olympic Committee. The Higher Council for Youth Summer Camps along with the Amman Greater Municipality have concluded a series of peer-engaged clinics in June/July 2009. Moreover, the Education Division of the National Olympic Committee has been instrumental in securing the interest of the two principal universities of Jordan, the University of Jordan and the Hashemite University, with a view in mind to integrate Olympic values education into the institutions’ physical education curriculum.
– Malaysia has expressed an interest in taking on board the dissemination of OVEP. The results of a graduate student project conducted for the International Academy of Sports Science and Technology in Lausanne (AISTS) illustrated that in collaboration with the NOC and NOA, implementation of OVEP would be a welcome addition within the national educational system.
– The Olympic Council of Asia (OCA) has motioned their interest to take on a lead continental role for the OVEP project in the region in 2011-2012.

#### Oceania

– Fourteen countries were targeted and subsequently activated through the OVEP Continental Seminar (Fiji, July 2009). Thirty-two trainers were trained and prepared to roll out the programme on a national level.
– A legacy of the IOC promoted Continental seminar in 2009 was also the pending MOU between the IOC and the National Universities of South Pacific and the Fiji Institute of Technology to include OVEP within their curriculum.
– Key NOCs in this region such as Australia and New Zealand have a long tradition and inclusive approach as it relates to OV education within their classroom based activities and in the physical education curriculum. Both National Olympic Committees of Australia and New Zealand widely disperse resources and materials through web-based and interactive social media platforms, programmes that are designed to encourage youth to lead active, healthy and values based lifestyles. The New Zealand “Living the Olympic Values” is a popular series of digital and interactive teaching resource with a particular focus on general subjects such as English, Social Sciences and Physical Education. These resources are available for a global audience and for free download.
– Small island projects such as that initiated by the National Olympic Committee of the Federated States of Micronesia (FSM) resulted in a stellar example of a promising practice with the Young Educator Promoting Olympic Values (YEPOV) workshop following the Continental Seminar in Fiji. Key to the success of this project was the support of Olympic Solidarity (OS) Programmes in collaboration with the Department, and transfer of knowledge from a larger experienced NOC. Extended roll-out in other nearby islands has been achieved.
– The National Olympic Committee of Vanuatu has made progress in its efforts to ensure the inclusion of sport and physical education in the national school curriculum. The NOC has also been proactive in linking into opportunities such as the development of rowing in the region and from a coaching perspective investigating how OVEP would fit into an overall education project.

### Reflective findings

In general, OVEP has made great strides since its inception. There needs to be a continued focus on the explicit teaching of values, together with a continuation of embedding Olympic values principles combined with sports in the classroom, as well as in all out-reach areas and activities. This will result in the development and implementation of creative and innovative programmes that will add to the overall resources in the context of education for sustainable development.

#### Summary

Some general findings which have emerged are as follows:

##### Relevance and strategic fit:

– OVEP goes beyond geo-political and artificial boundaries and is a sustainable platform which can help to address gender inequality, social exclusion, economic challenges, risky behaviors, physical handicaps, among others.
– Notable respect for cultural diversity and educational systems is an integral driver of the programme. To allow regional efficacy OVEP should be prepared to adapt and allow for decision making in the specific region.
– This transfer of knowledge and sharing experiences and good practices among animators of the programme should be the cornerstone for the future of the programme.

##### Validity of programme design and methodology:

– The toolkit does provide a sound basis for implementation and roll-out. However, as identified in the manual, caution needs to be taken in respect to tailoring the activities and TtT workshops to the local and social contexts.

### Lessons Learned

– Availability of financial resources does not guarantee uptake of the programme. What does?
– Need to diversity channels of dissemination of OVEP. Programme must be available in a controlled environment on electronic platforms.
– Derivatives of the programme should be encouraged, for social, political and cultural reasons.
– Many NOCs are taking a passive interest in the programme, leaving the initiative to “others”. There is need for NOCs to take ownership of the programme at national level but still be able to work with other entities. The Olympic brand can only be protected in a given country by the NOC who have the absolute authority to control the Olympic symbols’ use by third parties.
– Mentoring the programme by which experienced trainers coach ‘rookies’ for feedback, problem-solving and strategic modeling needs to be established.
– The need to expand on key entry points (e.g. endorsement of ministries of sport and education, involvement of International Federations, relevant UN agencies).
– The partnership with UNESCO is crucial to the introduction of OVEP in the school curriculum. NOCs need to develop relationships with UNESCO National Commissions in their own countries. This relationship does not currently exist.
– OVEP does not have to be a stand-alone subject. Elements of OVEP can and should be integrated into other educational programmes in truncated forms. The IOA sessions are a perfect platform for delivering unbundled OVEP.
– The language barrier appears to be a strong deterrent in widening the reach of OVEP. Currently, it exists only in English and French. However, the World Taekwondo Federation and a few enterprising NOCs have translated the toolkit into locally-popular languages. This should be encouraged. While NOCs in developing countries might not have the resources for such undertakings, Olympic Solidarity and the Department of International Cooperation and Development have always been sympathetic to requests for resources to advance Olympic education in general and can be counted upon to help.

### Going Forward

In the period of 2005-2010, the OVEP project was launched, tested for its global applicability and fine-tuned where necessary. The report clearly shows that the activities undertaken thus far have brought the project objectives within reach. The pilot phase has successfully rolled out over three regions, while the number and variety of follow-up activities in these regions show that the seed has fallen on fertile ground.

By definition a pilot phase of a project looks at a defined concept on a limited scale. Upon completion, the concept is being evaluated, and budget parameters are being studied. The concept of “teaching life skills through interactive play” (i.e. OVEP) and using sport as a tool is a success story. Simultaneously, in order to reliably measure the progress and impact of the OVEP project, a standardized and repeatable monitoring and reporting system should be in place. This measuring system should be applicable from a central reference point such as the IOC, but also by local authorities.

To this effect, a concept feedback mechanism has been integrated during the IOC-UNESCO Associated Schools (ASPnet) Joint Initiative, “Teaching Olympic Values”. A draft proposal for discussion on further collaboration was brought to the table during a meeting of IOC and UNESCO in September 2010. UNESCO ASPnet tallies more than 9,000 schools in 180 countries.

At the moment, a future strategic outlook or orientation to extend the reach through new partnerships and alliances is being pursued.

In addition, the collaboration with international partner organizations has shown to be of key supplementary value to the programme. Now that the immediate future of the project has been secured from a budgetary perspective with an extension of the donor-generated support, the programme will be continued in existing areas, while new activity regions can and will be added.

Like all large projects in a pilot phase, the period 2005-2010 has highlighted some areas in which the successful programme can perform even better. The fact that all activities require a regional fine-tuning to increase the efficacy (from a socio-economic and political perspective) will bring an added value to the next project phase.

**Department of International Cooperation and Development**
4 December 2010
Durban, South Africa

### Acknowledgements

The compilation of this report would not have been possible without the knowledge base, support and contribution of our global network of OVEP trainers and educators in the broadest sense of the definition.

On behalf of the IOC, the Department of International Cooperation and Development applauds and thank you for your tireless efforts and continuing passion for Olympism.

### Annex A: OVEP Geographical Reach

The bold countries in the table below reflect TtT workshops. The remaining countries in the table were either present as participants or otherwise exposed to OVEP. The table is limited to OVEP related activities and does not take into account wider Olympic education initiatives carried out by the NOCs, Ifs or Recognized Organizations, to name a few.

Africa Asia Ocenia The Americas Europe
B. Faso
Ivory Coast
Egypt
Gambia
G. Bissau
Guinee
Libya
Mali
Niger Nigeria
Senegal
Sierra Leone
Tanzania
Zambia
Zimbabwe
Brunei
Cambodia
China
Chinese Tapei
India
Indonesia
Japan
Jordan
Mongolia
Myanmar
Oman
Phillippines
Singapore
South Korea
Thailand
American Samoa
Australia
Cook Islands
Fiji
FS Micronesia
Guam
Kiribati
Marshall Islands
Nauru
New Zealand
P. New Guinea
Palau
Samoa
Tonga
Canada (Vancouver 2010)
Carribbean (ASPnet Schools)
Great Britain (London 2012)

### Annex B: OVEP Country Implementation

#### Australia

##### Background

Olympic education and the Olympics have always stolen the hearts of the Australian population. The NOC education programmes and aims are implemented by using the Olympic sport traditions and values as the context for teaching life values and life skills. The promotion of the Olympic spirit and values to the wider community is performed through established education programs: (i) Live Clean Play Clean – delivered by young Olympians; (ii) Pierre de Coubertin Awards – open to all senior secondary school students across Australia and (iii) the A.S.P.I.R.E. school network.

##### OVEP project objectives:

1. Using the Olympic sport traditions and values as the context for teaching life values and skills.
2. Educating young athletes on the moral, ethical and physical reasons for not taking performance-enhancing drugs.
3. Through the Coubertin Awards, select students who demonstrate attributes of fair play and respect for others.
4. Involve the community and stakeholders (NOC, Ministry of Education, Universities, Youth Council, IOC and IFs).
5. A.S.P.I.R.E. School Network (ASN) founded on the Australian Olympic Team’s set of values, namely: attitude, sportsmanship, pride, individual responsibility, respect and express yourself, which is the Australian Olympic Committee’s national education program for primary educators designed to instill in young Australians an appreciation for the values, spirit and philosophy of the Olympic Movement. This comprehensive programme organizes Olympic related activities such as on-line video conferencing providing the opportunity for primary school children to talk with Olympians, Olympic Day Celebration, BK Zone – website for primary students containing fun, interactive educational activities themed around the Olympic Games and Olympic Village Art. Primary students are invited to decorate the Australian section of the Olympic Village (AOC) received over 2,000 pieces of artwork from 100 schools for the Beijing Games).

##### Project implementation:

1. Coubertin Awards: open to all senior students, 779 awarded in 2008.
2. Village Art – Students are invited to deliver a literature or artistic piece of work for the Olympic Games.
3. More than 24,500 ASPIRE teachers registered since 2006.
4. A.S.P.I.R.E. activities: Learn from a Champ, Chat to a Champ, Olympic Day and Village Art, BK Zone and Medallion.
5. Fit OVEP in with Higher Council for Youth activities.
6. Cross-curriculum lectures for primary teachers with focus on the upcoming Olympic Games.
7. On-line Olympic Resources emphasizing Olympic values, literacy and numeracy skills, information and communication technology, active lifestyles and community links.

##### Project follow-up:

As part of the AOC OVEP implementation plan, the toolkit will be distributed to schools participating in the Pierre de Coubertin Awards, State and Federal Departments of Education (8,000 schools and 14,850 teachers registered) and State Olympic Councils (7 SOCs in total).

One of the key challenges pinpointed by the AOC for OVEP implementation is that there is no established uniform national curriculum in the country.

#### Federated States of Micronesia

##### Background

Keeping in mind the agreed commitment of the Regional Seminar in Fiji to prioritize youth empowerment and participation, the Young Educator Promoting Olympic Values (YEPOV) initiative was brought forward by the NOC. The objectives of the project are to: promote OV to Micronesia schools through the Junior Sport Program, increase the number of Micronesia youth interested in participating in sport, to train Micronesia youth and have them share the Olympic Movement with their peers, improve the quality of life of the youth of Micronesia.

Nineteen schools were targeted for this initiative and the project was launched in January 2010. Funding was obtained through the Olympic Solidarity World Programmes. This project is an example of good practices and joint collaboration of a larger experienced NOC lending a hand to one of her smaller counterparts.

##### OVEP workshop objectives:

1. Mentoring of young people, Education and Healthy Lifestyles.
2. Sharing experiences of the Youth Olympic Games.
3. The Role of the Olympic Movement.
4. A positive reinforcement of the Olympic Values and the value of sport.

##### Project implementation:

1. A selection of best students and teachers took place.
2. Endorsement by the participating schools.
3. OVEP objectives shared and incorporated with physical exercise.
4. Financial support received from Olympic Solidarity; material resource support received from the IOC Department of International Cooperation and Development.

##### Project outcomes:

1. Excellent teamwork in the organization of the workshop.
2. Students of Youth Camps and YOG gave presentations.
3. High level of satisfaction in participant evaluation.
4. Exposed schools are already implementing OVs in their programme.
5. Involved NOCs will assist students to follow-up on school activities.

##### Project recommendations:

1. Project will be continued at 2010 High School Track & Field Championships
2. Concept of Youth promoting OVs should be extended through other seminars.
3. The Women & Sport Committees in Oceania could organize such workshops.
4. ONOC to be involved in proposal for OV workshops with senior students.

#### India

##### Background

The introduction of the OVEP programme augured well with the Presidential launch in Pune (October 2008). In the early part of 2010, an IOC National “Train the Trainers” workshop comprised of 35 State Olympic Associations (28 states and 7 union territories) took place. The Delhi Public Schools (DPS) with a student intake of 10,000 was utilized for the “hands-on” practicum availed to the participants during the course of the workshop.

The NOC is committed to the OVEP programme and developing sport diversity at the grassroots level. It was agreed that OVEP would be part of the activities of the Indian National Club Games that will target 800,000 clubs in the country. Roll-out post workshop on a grassroots level is being implemented via the respective State Olympic Associations (SOAs).

##### OVEP project objectives:

1. Update participants on OVEP and the Education Toolkit.
2. To offer the OVEP learning and teaching theories.
3. Discuss implementation of OVEP in schools, universities and sport organizations.
4. Create a platform of leaders in schools and communities.
5. Select coaches to instruct OVEP leaders.
6. Involve rural children by providing an opportunity for participation.

##### Project implementation:

1. Creation of a master list of students’ expectations for feedback purposes.
2. Curriculum theory and toolkit analysis.
3. Learning as an active and interactive process (English and Hindi).
4. Learning in group discussions, creative activities, simulations, writing skills.
5. OVEP implementation and concept given to teaching coaches.
6. Motivate coaches to spread the concept to a ‘second’ layer of teachers.
7. Motivate these teachers to involve youth in the learning concept.
8. Nine target areas have been selected for the project.
9. One year of preparation, three years of OVEP implementation.
10. Core OVEP group; Project Directors & Coordinator, (Master) Trainers, Teachers & School Administrators, Performing Artists, Film Makers, University Students & Sportspersons, NGO Volunteers.

##### Project outcomes:

1. Olympic Values: Theory, content and methodology comprehended by students.
2. Toolkit: structure and content comprehended by students.
3. Participation 28 students (teachers 4, professors 5, Parent Advisory Committee 1, NOC officials 4, Sport organizations 14).
4. Implementation of OVEP in educational, sport and youth groups settings.
5. Feedback on resources.
6. Extend OVEP to other countries.

##### Project recommendations:

1. To adapt lecture-oriented, textbook teachers to a programme of physical activity.
2. Practicality of the toolkit in a multi-faceted setting.
3. Establish networking with other global similar projects.
4. University involvement required now to increase the impact.

##### Project assessment:

1. Endless support of staff, IOC and NOC very valuable.
2. Engagement of participants in activities and exercises positive.
3. Flexibility in regard to programme required.
4. Transparency in ideas between participants very helpful.

#### New Zealand

##### Background

For a number of years, the New Zealand Olympic Committee (NZOC) in collaboration with the New Zealand Olympic Academy (NZOA) have been very active in producing educational resources targeted at primary/secondary school levels and inclusion of Olympic education as a classroom-based activity in physical education training curriculum. The Ministry of Education and other key agencies on a country level are involved in this educational context.

The NOC has recently put in place dedicated staff in the form of a full-time Olympic Educator (participant to OVEP Fiji Workshop). The NZOC and NZOA have started to incorporate OVEP into digital education resources for primary schools and at university level. Academic courses on Olympism are now available. IT resources are accessible for free, together with the OVEP manual; this educational process is being channeled through Lift Education, an educational publishing company. This approach is in line with the NZOC Strategic Plan 2010-2013.

##### OVEP project objectives 1 (OVEP incorporation in schools and universities):

1. To promote awareness, engagement and modeling of the educational values of Olympism in the NZL educational system.
2. Develop the Olympism education knowledge base in physical education, sport education and sport coaching.
3. Offer OVEP to the Oceania region as opportunities for teachers.
4. Set up a research culture on Olympism (integrating OVEP) at university level.

##### Project implementation:

1. Olympism and OVEP have been included into the university curriculum of physical education students (University of Canterbury).
2. The above-mentioned University has also integrated OVEP into the education programme for sport coaching.
3. Specific courses on Olympism, Education and Sport and PhD courses in Olympic Studies are in the picture.

##### Project outcomes:

1. The Regional Seminar held in Fiji has exposed many participants to OVEP.
2. Resources and lack of curriculum time form barriers for dissemination.
3. Recommendations were sent to relevant Ministries of Education.
4. Other regional universities have been contacted. At least 3 professional development sessions for physical education teachers took place with an exposure of 200 delegates.
5. University staff have participated in a number of conferences.
6. Platforms created with other academic institutions, funding still a bottleneck.
7. Centre for Olympic studies developed at university level in NZL.

##### Project Recommendations:

1. The initiatives developed in NZL need to spread further in Oceania.
2. ONOC solidarity funding yet not available.
3. For funding beyond NZL university budgets required.
4. Strong, well-resourced leadership for Oceania is required.

##### Project follow-up:

1. Refresher courses for trainers must be organized.
2. Duplication must be avoided by a standardized monitoring and evaluation system.
3. Resources must be secured by initiating corporate partnerships.
4. Majority of trainers follow up with conducting workshops.
5. Trainers must improve their coordination and expand networking.

##### OVEP project objectives 2 (Living the Olympic Values):

1. Target group: primary school students, age 8 – 12 years.
2. Offer interactive digital education resources to primary schools.
3. Tone and technology must be engaging to youth, with a link to English, Social Sciences, Health and Physical Education.
4. Development of a promotional web development plan, focus on awareness of and demand for OV based educational resources.

##### Project implementation:

1. IT Texts are available for free with accompanying teaching notes.
2. Information on Olympism, the NZL curriculum and Resources.
3. Available texts: Olympic Values, Olympic Games, Giving it Everything, Determined to Succeed.
4. Funding was secured through NZOC, NZOA and Olympic Solidarity.
5. Corporate sponsorship currently being sought.
6. A new Board of NZOA is being formed.

#### Singapore

##### Background

In view of the inaugural 2010 Youth Olympic Games the Singapore National Olympic Council (SNOC) in collaboration with the National Olympic Academy (SOA) launched a training workshop directed to the theme of equipping and training educators for the Olympic Values Education Programme.

Under the banner of the 2009 SOA 16th Annual International Session for Young Participants, the Academy built a core group of Olympic Education champions in the Asian continent and Singapore. The Continental Association was on board and collaborated with the NOC in this initiative.

##### OVEP project objectives:

1. To promote OVEP to NOCs and NOAs in the region.
2. To equip Olympic educators with knowledge and skills to deliver OVEP in their respective countries.
3. To develop a core group of Olympic Education Leaders, in view of the 2010 YOG in Singapore.

##### Project implementation:

1. Prior to Opening Ceremony a dialogue with 12 SIN Olympians was organized.
2. Olympic history and toolkit analysis.
3. Discussion in working groups on values such as peace, excellence, respect, teamwork, environment, etc.
4. Design of flags and the concept behind flag and ceremony symbolism.
5. Cultural presentations, local as well as international.
6. Simulations of the OG Opening Ceremony
7. An interactive Meet the Olympians’ session.
8. Sharing of national experiences on Olympic Education.

##### Project outcomes:

1. Very positive interaction between participants during workshop days.
2. Successful workshop as judged by the responding participants.
3. A total number of 116 participants with diverse representations.
4. Implementation of OVEP for children and youth appreciated by participants.

#### Tanzania

##### Background

Negotiations with the Ministry of Education to integrate OVEP on a national scale within the context of the school curriculum is hoped to be realized in the upcoming 2009/2010 academic year. The capital (Dar-es-Salaam) has a population of 4 million with a national population of 40+ million. Two workshops per year comprising 30 participants per session would have a high project impact taking into consideration the ripple effect. In order to empower youth, an OVEP Youth Ambassadors programme and the organization of a youth Olympic Festival is being developed by the OVEP Regional Coordinator.

##### OVEP project objectives:

1. Train 30 physical education leaders from Tanzania.
2. Train 30 physical education leaders from Zanzibar.
3. Create an Olympic Education and Leadership Youth Camp.

##### Project implementation:

1. OVEP presentations were given in schools and school revisits are underway.
2. Workshop on Olympic Values Education held for 30 Women Sports leaders.
3. OVEP presentation held during East African Women Sports Journalists Forum.
4. OVEP presentation given during IOA in Olympia (117 Directors of NOAs).
5. Two day session on volunteerism for 30 young students at TOC headquarters.
6. Training of 150 students on providing Volunteer services during the Queen’s Baton Relay.

##### Project outcomes:

1. Trained students will act as coordinators during Youth Camps.
2. Report author took part in IOA Masters Course.

##### Project follow-up:

1. A proposal was submitted and approved for OVEP training 30 Physical Education Teachers (Sep 2010).
2. A proposal was submitted and approved for the training of 30 Physical Education Teachers in Zanzibar (Nov 2010).
3. A proposal has been submitted to Olympic Solidarity for funding for an International Olympic Education and Leadership Youth Camp (Nov 2010).

#### Zambia

The programme has support from the Ministry of Education, UNICEP (London 2012 International Inspirational project), NOC of Zambia, Sport for Youth and Sport in Action. Plans to expand the program involve integration into sport federations’ junior nationals. Discussions to this effect with the Zambia Schools Sport Association have been successful and it is projected that in the proposed roll-out phase more than 1,000 teachers in 72 district sport associations and that all national (inter-provincial and inter-schools nationals) will benefit from Olympic Values education.

The first Olympic Youth Development Centre (OYDC) under the IOC’s Sport for Hope Programme was officially opened in May 2010. The multi-purpose sports complex is a great addition to the local population and will also enrich multi-cultural dialogue through the running of international youth camps such as the IOC-UNODC Global Sports Fund Youth Camp.

##### OVEP project objectives:

1. Develop an implementation structure for OVEP programs.
2. Integrate OVEP into Olympic and other national sport structures
3. Training of OVEP activity leaders.
4. Monitoring, evaluation and dissemination of good practices.

##### Project implementation 1 (Sensitization/engagement of stakeholders in OVEP):

To disseminate OVEP to 10 districts, 10,000 Youth & 100,000 Adults in 2010 by integration of OVEP into NOA, schools, sports clubs, NGOs.

##### Project outcomes 1:

Reach:

1. The NOA, 22 schools, 3 NGOs and 94 community youth teams have integrated OVEP into their educational programmes.
2. Implementation: 39 schools have made an OVEP implementation plan for 2010.

##### Project implementation 2 (training for sports teachers/coaches, peer leaders/coaches):

1. To equip 120 Teachers, 70 Coaches and 200 Peer Leaders with knowledge on integration of OVEP by training participants in 3 different levels of trainer skills.
2. To influence parents and teachers at targeted schools on their role in changing thought processes towards Olympic Values by holding quarterly forums in all selected schools on OVEP, the benefits for children, the role of parents and teachers, and the eventual conflict between OV versus cultural values.

##### Project outcomes 2:

1. 350 OVEP leaders have been trained to integrate life skills into games and sport and are conducting OVEP sessions now.
2. 400 Parents and Teachers were involved and provide a supportive environment; the children exposed testify positive changes in family environment.

##### Project implementation 3 (provide an OV platform through fun, learning and interaction):

1. To hold weekly OV sessions at schools and sport training sessions by OVEP leaders.
2. Organize group discussions/quizzes, also including children not-in-sport.
3. Organize OV skills ‘Challenge’ events for 400 children in 6 disciplines (football, basketball, traditional games, volleyball, netball, education quiz).

##### Project outcomes 3.

1. Children are enjoying the sport and experience a supportive environment, make friends, became healthier and active.
2. Children cope better with everyday life challenges, interact better with other communities.
3. Teachers are better motivated and have more interaction.
4. School managers encourage OVEP and the use of sport with a positive attitude.

##### Project implementation 4 (monitoring):

Progression of OVEP project and the response by target audience.

1. Response of children 6-18 years; involved vs. not involved.
2. Parent and Teacher involvement in implementation.
3. Policymaker involvement (school managers).

##### Project outcomes:

Results by observation and questionnaire:

1. Verbal expression improved in sport and day-to-day life.
2. Teachers state that OV input is easy to incorporate through sport, thereby building confidence in children.
3. Children more respectful in family situations and better motivated when tasks are asked from them.

#### Zimbabwe

##### Background

Much work at the policy decision making level and the building of a sound national foundation in respect to OVEP has been achieved. An environment conducive to OVEP implementation has been developed through joint collaboration with the NOC and Zimbabwe Olympic Academy (ZOA) via sensitization workshops. Proposals for further implementation involving cross border activities with Zimbabwe are also being looked into. In the planning it has been proposed that a series of Train the Trainer workshops be run with a projected outcome of 80 trainers trained.

The spreading of Olympism and Olympic Education through the teaching of Olympic Values is set to increase, as implementing agents are being identified in other Provinces for ZOA activities.

##### OVEP Project objectives:

1. Teaching Olympic Values in a socially acceptable manner.
2. Identify trainers from all provinces and institutional strategic leaders.
3. Trained participants to execute knowledge in their home provinces.
4. Monitoring, evaluation and dissemination of good practices.

##### Project implementation:

1. Train the Trainer Workshop:
a. With budgetary help of Olympic Solidarity, identification of participants in a national perspective.
b. Thirty participants selected in schools, communities and national associations, with help of provincial educators, local governments, Sport & Recreation Commission.
c. Workshop participants: 20 from provinces via Ministry (♂ & ♀), 4: welfare & sport officers, 4: National Sports Associations, 2: NOC & Sport & Recreation Commission.
d. Workshop took place on July 10-12, 2009, with interactive theory and practice lectures.

2. Enforcing the ZOA capacities:
a. A new ZOA Director was hired to incorporate the OVEP program and a new Board of ZOA is being formed.
b. Implementation of OVEP methodology in the school programme has been initiated.
c. Identification of corporate partners is required to cover budgetary gaps.

##### Project follow-up (Post Workshop):

1. Most Trainers trained conduct workshops, securing a roll-out
2. Resources remain a problem for further progress.
3. Trainers must improve their coordination and networking levels.
4. A continuing education after initial training is required.
5. Evaluation underlined the need to improve trainers’ knowledge on OVEP, to customize OVEP literature and to ensure monitoring and evaluation.
6. Timely submission of work plans needs to be enforced.

#### UNESCO

Associated Schools (ASPnet)

##### Background

An IOC-UNESCO Associated Schools (ASPnet) Joint Initiative was launched within the framework of “Teaching Olympic Values”. The sub-regional training workshop for ASPnet National Coordinators, teachers, youth leaders and curriculum specialists was hosted by the Trinidad and Tobago National Commission for UNESCO. ASPnet National Coordinators and teachers from six Caribbean countries of: Barbados, Grenada, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Guyana and Trinidad and Tobago were present.

The National Olympic Committee of Trinidad and Tobago also co-organized and participated to this pilot project event. The NOC’s Olympic education programme “Shape the Community” Sport Development Project underlining Olympic values education has been well underway since 2008 and has a reach of over 3,000 children within three surrounding communities.

##### OVEP project objectives:

1. To promote Values Education at school level, with a focus on the 5 values presented in the OVEP toolkit.
2. To process the implementation of the OVEP toolkit through the ASPnet laboratory by conducting a school experiment in the Caribbean.
3. Organize ASPnet Teacher and Coordinator workshops with presentation of the toolkit and elaboration of impact assessment tools.
4. Presentation of an evaluation survey to assess the impact of values education in primary and secondary schools.

##### Workshop objectives:

1. Provide participants with the necessary knowledge on the structure and content of the OVEP toolkit.
2. Elaborate assessment tools for primary and secondary schools on the integration of Olympic values in the education programme.
3. To plan school experiments over the 2010-2011 school year.
4. Draft recommendations for adaptation of the OVEP kit in the Caribbean context.
5. Complete survey data to be conducted at the end of the experimentation phase.

##### Project implementation:

1. Participants: 30 from 6 Caribbean countries, 6 ASPnet coordinators, 19 ASPnet teachers and sport coaches, 1 curriculum planner, 1 university teacher coach, 2 UNESCO staff, 1 IOC staff, 1 NOC staff, 5 national UNESCO Commission.
2. Presentation of OVEP toolkit, with a focus on (i) Joy of effort, (ii) Respect, (iii) Fair Play, (iv) Pursuit of Excellence, (v) Balance between body, will and mind.
3. Elaboration of assessment tools for (i) practicing the activities proposed in the toolkit, (ii) suggesting new activities, (iii) monitoring by questionnaire.
4. Preparation of monitoring and planning.
5. Creating commitment for participation in 2010-2011 school experimentation.
6. Joint declaration of commitment.

##### Project outcomes:

1. Participants trained on structure and content of toolkit.
2. A final report was drafted by participants.
3. Joint declaration of commitment signed by all participants.
4. Global planning for OVEP experimentation 2010-2011 has been detailed.
5. First generation of assessment tools decided upon.
6. Suggestions made for roll-out in other Caribbean countries.
7. Data collection instruments have been fine-tuned.
8. Video material is ready.

##### Project recommendations:

1. To finalize assessment tools for pre- and post-experimentation with education planners, statisticians and elected teachers and ASPnet coordinators.
2. Carry out applied research on the current vales education in the 6 participating countries.
3. To pursue research on basic socio-economic facts in the region.
4. To post workshop outcomes on the ASPnet website.
5. To collect from participants data to establish a working and monitoring platform for the school experimentation.
6. To identify a valid study sample, in terms of participating classes and students.

### Annex B: OVEP Country Implementation

#### Australia

##### Background

Olympic education and the Olympics have always stolen the hearts of the Australian population. The NOC education programmes and aims are implemented by using the Olympic sport traditions and values as the context for teaching life values and life skills. The promotion of the Olympic spirit and values to the wider community is performed through established education programs: (i) Live Clean Play Clean – delivered by young Olympians; (ii) Pierre de Coubertin Awards – open to all senior secondary school students across Australia and (iii) the A.S.P.I.R.E. school network.

##### OVEP project objectives:

1. Using the Olympic sport traditions and values as the context for teaching life values and skills.
2. Educating young athletes on the moral, ethical and physical reasons for not taking performance-enhancing drugs.
3. Through the Coubertin Awards, select students who demonstrate attributes of fair play and respect for others.
4. Involve the community and stakeholders (NOC, Ministry of Education, Universities, Youth Council, IOC and IFs).
5. A.S.P.I.R.E. School Network (ASN) founded on the Australian Olympic Team’s set of values, namely: attitude, sportsmanship, pride, individual responsibility, respect and express yourself, which is the Australian Olympic Committee’s national education program for primary educators designed to instill in young Australians an appreciation for the values, spirit and philosophy of the Olympic Movement. This comprehensive programme organizes Olympic related activities such as on-line video conferencing providing the opportunity for primary school children to talk with Olympians, Olympic Day Celebration, BK Zone – website for primary students containing fun, interactive educational activities themed around the Olympic Games and Olympic Village Art. Primary students are invited to decorate the Australian section of the Olympic Village (AOC) received over 2,000 pieces of artwork from 100 schools for the Beijing Games).

##### Project implementation:

1. Coubertin Awards: open to all senior students, 779 awarded in 2008.
2. Village Art – Students are invited to deliver a literature or artistic piece of work for the Olympic Games.
3. More than 24,500 ASPIRE teachers registered since 2006.
4. A.S.P.I.R.E. activities: Learn from a Champ, Chat to a Champ, Olympic Day and Village Art, BK Zone and Medallion.
5. Fit OVEP in with Higher Council for Youth activities.
6. Cross-curriculum lectures for primary teachers with focus on the upcoming Olympic Games.
7. On-line Olympic Resources emphasizing Olympic values, literacy and numeracy skills, information and communication technology, active lifestyles and community links.

##### Project follow-up:

As part of the AOC OVEP implementation plan, the toolkit will be distributed to schools participating in the Pierre de Coubertin Awards, State and Federal Departments of Education (8,000 schools and 14,850 teachers registered) and State Olympic Councils (7 SOCs in total).

One of the key challenges pinpointed by the AOC for OVEP implementation is that there is no established uniform national curriculum in the country.

#### Federated States of Micronesia

##### Background

Keeping in mind the agreed commitment of the Regional Seminar in Fiji to prioritize youth empowerment and participation, the Young Educator Promoting Olympic Values (YEPOV) initiative was brought forward by the NOC. The objectives of the project are to: promote OV to Micronesia schools through the Junior Sport Program, increase the number of Micronesia youth interested in participating in sport, to train Micronesia youth and have them share the Olympic Movement with their peers, improve the quality of life of the youth of Micronesia.

Nineteen schools were targeted for this initiative and the project was launched in January 2010. Funding was obtained through the Olympic Solidarity World Programmes. This project is an example of good practices and joint collaboration of a larger experienced NOC lending a hand to one of her smaller counterparts.

##### OVEP workshop objectives:

1. Mentoring of young people, Education and Healthy Lifestyles.
2. Sharing experiences of the Youth Olympic Games.
3. The Role of the Olympic Movement.
4. A positive reinforcement of the Olympic Values and the value of sport.

##### Project implementation:

1. A selection of best students and teachers took place.
2. Endorsement by the participating schools.
3. OVEP objectives shared and incorporated with physical exercise.
4. Financial support received from Olympic Solidarity; material resource support received from the IOC Department of International Cooperation and Development.

##### Project outcomes:

1. Excellent teamwork in the organization of the workshop.
2. Students of Youth Camps and YOG gave presentations.
3. High level of satisfaction in participant evaluation.
4. Exposed schools are already implementing OVs in their programme.
5. Involved NOCs will assist students to follow-up on school activities.

##### Project recommendations:

1. Project will be continued at 2010 High School Track & Field Championships
2. Concept of Youth promoting OVs should be extended through other seminars.
3. The Women & Sport Committees in Oceania could organize such workshops.
4. ONOC to be involved in proposal for OV workshops with senior students.

#### India

##### Background

The introduction of the OVEP programme augured well with the Presidential launch in Pune (October 2008). In the early part of 2010, an IOC National “Train the Trainers” workshop comprised of 35 State Olympic Associations (28 states and 7 union territories) took place. The Delhi Public Schools (DPS) with a student intake of 10,000 was utilized for the “hands-on” practicum availed to the participants during the course of the workshop.

The NOC is committed to the OVEP programme and developing sport diversity at the grassroots level. It was agreed that OVEP would be part of the activities of the Indian National Club Games that will target 800,000 clubs in the country. Roll-out post workshop on a grassroots level is being implemented via the respective State Olympic Associations (SOAs).

##### OVEP project objectives:

1. Update participants on OVEP and the Education Toolkit.
2. To offer the OVEP learning and teaching theories.
3. Discuss implementation of OVEP in schools, universities and sport organizations.
4. Create a platform of leaders in schools and communities.
5. Select coaches to instruct OVEP leaders.
6. Involve rural children by providing an opportunity for participation.

##### Project implementation:

1. Creation of a master list of students’ expectations for feedback purposes.
2. Curriculum theory and toolkit analysis.
3. Learning as an active and interactive process (English and Hindi).
4. Learning in group discussions, creative activities, simulations, writing skills.
5. OVEP implementation and concept given to teaching coaches.
6. Motivate coaches to spread the concept to a ‘second’ layer of teachers.
7. Motivate these teachers to involve youth in the learning concept.
8. Nine target areas have been selected for the project.
9. One year of preparation, three years of OVEP implementation.
10. Core OVEP group; Project Directors & Coordinator, (Master) Trainers, Teachers & School Administrators, Performing Artists, Film Makers, University Students & Sportspersons, NGO Volunteers.

##### Project outcomes:

1. Olympic Values: Theory, content and methodology comprehended by students.
2. Toolkit: structure and content comprehended by students.
3. Participation 28 students (teachers 4, professors 5, Parent Advisory Committee 1, NOC officials 4, Sport organizations 14).
4. Implementation of OVEP in educational, sport and youth groups settings.
5. Feedback on resources.
6. Extend OVEP to other countries.

##### Project recommendations:

1. To adapt lecture-oriented, textbook teachers to a programme of physical activity.
2. Practicality of the toolkit in a multi-faceted setting.
3. Establish networking with other global similar projects.
4. University involvement required now to increase the impact.

##### Project assessment:

1. Endless support of staff, IOC and NOC very valuable.
2. Engagement of participants in activities and exercises positive.
3. Flexibility in regard to programme required.
4. Transparency in ideas between participants very helpful.

#### New Zealand

##### Background

For a number of years, the New Zealand Olympic Committee (NZOC) in collaboration with the New Zealand Olympic Academy (NZOA) have been very active in producing educational resources targeted at primary/secondary school levels and inclusion of Olympic education as a classroom-based activity in physical education training curriculum. The Ministry of Education and other key agencies on a country level are involved in this educational context.

The NOC has recently put in place dedicated staff in the form of a full-time Olympic Educator (participant to OVEP Fiji Workshop). The NZOC and NZOA have started to incorporate OVEP into digital education resources for primary schools and at university level. Academic courses on Olympism are now available. IT resources are accessible for free, together with the OVEP manual; this educational process is being channeled through Lift Education, an educational publishing company. This approach is in line with the NZOC Strategic Plan 2010-2013.

##### OVEP project objectives 1 (OVEP incorporation in schools and universities):

1. To promote awareness, engagement and modeling of the educational values of Olympism in the NZL educational system.
2. Develop the Olympism education knowledge base in physical education, sport education and sport coaching.
3. Offer OVEP to the Oceania region as opportunities for teachers.
4. Set up a research culture on Olympism (integrating OVEP) at university level.

##### Project implementation:

1. Olympism and OVEP have been included into the university curriculum of physical education students (University of Canterbury).
2. The above-mentioned University has also integrated OVEP into the education programme for sport coaching.
3. Specific courses on Olympism, Education and Sport and PhD courses in Olympic Studies are in the picture.

##### Project outcomes:

1. The Regional Seminar held in Fiji has exposed many participants to OVEP.
2. Resources and lack of curriculum time form barriers for dissemination.
3. Recommendations were sent to relevant Ministries of Education.
4. Other regional universities have been contacted. At least 3 professional development sessions for physical education teachers took place with an exposure of 200 delegates.
5. University staff have participated in a number of conferences.
6. Platforms created with other academic institutions, funding still a bottleneck.
7. Centre for Olympic studies developed at university level in NZL.

##### Project Recommendations:

1. The initiatives developed in NZL need to spread further in Oceania.
2. ONOC solidarity funding yet not available.
3. For funding beyond NZL university budgets required.
4. Strong, well-resourced leadership for Oceania is required.

##### Project follow-up:

1. Refresher courses for trainers must be organized.
2. Duplication must be avoided by a standardized monitoring and evaluation system.
3. Resources must be secured by initiating corporate partnerships.
4. Majority of trainers follow up with conducting workshops.
5. Trainers must improve their coordination and expand networking.

##### OVEP project objectives 2 (Living the Olympic Values):

1. Target group: primary school students, age 8 – 12 years.
2. Offer interactive digital education resources to primary schools.
3. Tone and technology must be engaging to youth, with a link to English, Social Sciences, Health and Physical Education.
4. Development of a promotional web development plan, focus on awareness of and demand for OV based educational resources.

##### Project implementation:

1. IT Texts are available for free with accompanying teaching notes.
2. Information on Olympism, the NZL curriculum and Resources.
3. Available texts: Olympic Values, Olympic Games, Giving it Everything, Determined to Succeed.
4. Funding was secured through NZOC, NZOA and Olympic Solidarity.
5. Corporate sponsorship currently being sought.
6. A new Board of NZOA is being formed.

#### Singapore

##### Background

In view of the inaugural 2010 Youth Olympic Games the Singapore National Olympic Council (SNOC) in collaboration with the National Olympic Academy (SOA) launched a training workshop directed to the theme of equipping and training educators for the Olympic Values Education Programme.

Under the banner of the 2009 SOA 16th Annual International Session for Young Participants, the Academy built a core group of Olympic Education champions in the Asian continent and Singapore. The Continental Association was on board and collaborated with the NOC in this initiative.

##### OVEP project objectives:

1. To promote OVEP to NOCs and NOAs in the region.
2. To equip Olympic educators with knowledge and skills to deliver OVEP in their respective countries.
3. To develop a core group of Olympic Education Leaders, in view of the 2010 YOG in Singapore.

##### Project implementation:

1. Prior to Opening Ceremony a dialogue with 12 SIN Olympians was organized.
2. Olympic history and toolkit analysis.
3. Discussion in working groups on values such as peace, excellence, respect, teamwork, environment, etc.
4. Design of flags and the concept behind flag and ceremony symbolism.
5. Cultural presentations, local as well as international.
6. Simulations of the OG Opening Ceremony
7. An interactive Meet the Olympians’ session.
8. Sharing of national experiences on Olympic Education.

##### Project outcomes:

1. Very positive interaction between participants during workshop days.
2. Successful workshop as judged by the responding participants.
3. A total number of 116 participants with diverse representations.
4. Implementation of OVEP for children and youth appreciated by participants.

#### Tanzania

##### Background

Negotiations with the Ministry of Education to integrate OVEP on a national scale within the context of the school curriculum is hoped to be realized in the upcoming 2009/2010 academic year. The capital (Dar-es-Salaam) has a population of 4 million with a national population of 40+ million. Two workshops per year comprising 30 participants per session would have a high project impact taking into consideration the ripple effect. In order to empower youth, an OVEP Youth Ambassadors programme and the organization of a youth Olympic Festival is being developed by the OVEP Regional Coordinator.

##### OVEP project objectives:

1. Train 30 physical education leaders from Tanzania.
2. Train 30 physical education leaders from Zanzibar.
3. Create an Olympic Education and Leadership Youth Camp.

##### Project implementation:

1. OVEP presentations were given in schools and school revisits are underway.
2. Workshop on Olympic Values Education held for 30 Women Sports leaders.
3. OVEP presentation held during East African Women Sports Journalists Forum.
4. OVEP presentation given during IOA in Olympia (117 Directors of NOAs).
5. Two day session on volunteerism for 30 young students at TOC headquarters.
6. Training of 150 students on providing Volunteer services during the Queen’s Baton Relay.

##### Project outcomes:

1. Trained students will act as coordinators during Youth Camps.
2. Report author took part in IOA Masters Course.

##### Project follow-up:

1. A proposal was submitted and approved for OVEP training 30 Physical Education Teachers (Sep 2010).
2. A proposal was submitted and approved for the training of 30 Physical Education Teachers in Zanzibar (Nov 2010).
3. A proposal has been submitted to Olympic Solidarity for funding for an International Olympic Education and Leadership Youth Camp (Nov 2010).

#### Zambia

The programme has support from the Ministry of Education, UNICEP (London 2012 International Inspirational project), NOC of Zambia, Sport for Youth and Sport in Action. Plans to expand the program involve integration into sport federations’ junior nationals. Discussions to this effect with the Zambia Schools Sport Association have been successful and it is projected that in the proposed roll-out phase more than 1,000 teachers in 72 district sport associations and that all national (inter-provincial and inter-schools nationals) will benefit from Olympic Values education.

The first Olympic Youth Development Centre (OYDC) under the IOC’s Sport for Hope Programme was officially opened in May 2010. The multi-purpose sports complex is a great addition to the local population and will also enrich multi-cultural dialogue through the running of international youth camps such as the IOC-UNODC Global Sports Fund Youth Camp.

##### OVEP project objectives:

1. Develop an implementation structure for OVEP programs.
2. Integrate OVEP into Olympic and other national sport structures
3. Training of OVEP activity leaders.
4. Monitoring, evaluation and dissemination of good practices.

##### Project implementation 1 (Sensitization/engagement of stakeholders in OVEP):

To disseminate OVEP to 10 districts, 10,000 Youth & 100,000 Adults in 2010 by integration of OVEP into NOA, schools, sports clubs, NGOs.

##### Project outcomes 1:

Reach:

1. The NOA, 22 schools, 3 NGOs and 94 community youth teams have integrated OVEP into their educational programmes.
2. Implementation: 39 schools have made an OVEP implementation plan for 2010.

##### Project implementation 2 (training for sports teachers/coaches, peer leaders/coaches):

1. To equip 120 Teachers, 70 Coaches and 200 Peer Leaders with knowledge on integration of OVEP by training participants in 3 different levels of trainer skills.
2. To influence parents and teachers at targeted schools on their role in changing thought processes towards Olympic Values by holding quarterly forums in all selected schools on OVEP, the benefits for children, the role of parents and teachers, and the eventual conflict between OV versus cultural values.

##### Project outcomes 2:

1. 350 OVEP leaders have been trained to integrate life skills into games and sport and are conducting OVEP sessions now.
2. 400 Parents and Teachers were involved and provide a supportive environment; the children exposed testify positive changes in family environment.

##### Project implementation 3 (provide an OV platform through fun, learning and interaction):

1. To hold weekly OV sessions at schools and sport training sessions by OVEP leaders.
2. Organize group discussions/quizzes, also including children not-in-sport.
3. Organize OV skills ‘Challenge’ events for 400 children in 6 disciplines (football, basketball, traditional games, volleyball, netball, education quiz).

##### Project outcomes 3.

1. Children are enjoying the sport and experience a supportive environment, make friends, became healthier and active.
2. Children cope better with everyday life challenges, interact better with other communities.
3. Teachers are better motivated and have more interaction.
4. School managers encourage OVEP and the use of sport with a positive attitude.

##### Project implementation 4 (monitoring):

Progression of OVEP project and the response by target audience.

1. Response of children 6-18 years; involved vs. not involved.
2. Parent and Teacher involvement in implementation.
3. Policymaker involvement (school managers).

##### Project outcomes:

Results by observation and questionnaire:

1. Verbal expression improved in sport and day-to-day life.
2. Teachers state that OV input is easy to incorporate through sport, thereby building confidence in children.
3. Children more respectful in family situations and better motivated when tasks are asked from them.

#### Zimbabwe

##### Background

Much work at the policy decision making level and the building of a sound national foundation in respect to OVEP has been achieved. An environment conducive to OVEP implementation has been developed through joint collaboration with the NOC and Zimbabwe Olympic Academy (ZOA) via sensitization workshops. Proposals for further implementation involving cross border activities with Zimbabwe are also being looked into. In the planning it has been proposed that a series of Train the Trainer workshops be run with a projected outcome of 80 trainers trained.

The spreading of Olympism and Olympic Education through the teaching of Olympic Values is set to increase, as implementing agents are being identified in other Provinces for ZOA activities.

##### OVEP Project objectives:

1. Teaching Olympic Values in a socially acceptable manner.
2. Identify trainers from all provinces and institutional strategic leaders.
3. Trained participants to execute knowledge in their home provinces.
4. Monitoring, evaluation and dissemination of good practices.

##### Project implementation:

1. Train the Trainer Workshop:
a. With budgetary help of Olympic Solidarity, identification of participants in a national perspective.
b. Thirty participants selected in schools, communities and national associations, with help of provincial educators, local governments, Sport & Recreation Commission.
c. Workshop participants: 20 from provinces via Ministry (♂ & ♀), 4: welfare & sport officers, 4: National Sports Associations, 2: NOC & Sport & Recreation Commission.
d. Workshop took place on July 10-12, 2009, with interactive theory and practice lectures.

2. Enforcing the ZOA capacities:
a. A new ZOA Director was hired to incorporate the OVEP program and a new Board of ZOA is being formed.
b. Implementation of OVEP methodology in the school programme has been initiated.
c. Identification of corporate partners is required to cover budgetary gaps.

##### Project follow-up (Post Workshop):

1. Most Trainers trained conduct workshops, securing a roll-out
2. Resources remain a problem for further progress.
3. Trainers must improve their coordination and networking levels.
4. A continuing education after initial training is required.
5. Evaluation underlined the need to improve trainers’ knowledge on OVEP, to customize OVEP literature and to ensure monitoring and evaluation.
6. Timely submission of work plans needs to be enforced.

#### UNESCO

Associated Schools (ASPnet)

##### Background

An IOC-UNESCO Associated Schools (ASPnet) Joint Initiative was launched within the framework of “Teaching Olympic Values”. The sub-regional training workshop for ASPnet National Coordinators, teachers, youth leaders and curriculum specialists was hosted by the Trinidad and Tobago National Commission for UNESCO. ASPnet National Coordinators and teachers from six Caribbean countries of: Barbados, Grenada, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Guyana and Trinidad and Tobago were present.

The National Olympic Committee of Trinidad and Tobago also co-organized and participated to this pilot project event. The NOC’s Olympic education programme “Shape the Community” Sport Development Project underlining Olympic values education has been well underway since 2008 and has a reach of over 3,000 children within three surrounding communities.

##### OVEP project objectives:

1. To promote Values Education at school level, with a focus on the 5 values presented in the OVEP toolkit.
2. To process the implementation of the OVEP toolkit through the ASPnet laboratory by conducting a school experiment in the Caribbean.
3. Organize ASPnet Teacher and Coordinator workshops with presentation of the toolkit and elaboration of impact assessment tools.
4. Presentation of an evaluation survey to assess the impact of values education in primary and secondary schools.

##### Workshop objectives:

1. Provide participants with the necessary knowledge on the structure and content of the OVEP toolkit.
2. Elaborate assessment tools for primary and secondary schools on the integration of Olympic values in the education programme.
3. To plan school experiments over the 2010-2011 school year.
4. Draft recommendations for adaptation of the OVEP kit in the Caribbean context.
5. Complete survey data to be conducted at the end of the experimentation phase.

##### Project implementation:

1. Participants: 30 from 6 Caribbean countries, 6 ASPnet coordinators, 19 ASPnet teachers and sport coaches, 1 curriculum planner, 1 university teacher coach, 2 UNESCO staff, 1 IOC staff, 1 NOC staff, 5 national UNESCO Commission.
2. Presentation of OVEP toolkit, with a focus on (i) Joy of effort, (ii) Respect, (iii) Fair Play, (iv) Pursuit of Excellence, (v) Balance between body, will and mind.
3. Elaboration of assessment tools for (i) practicing the activities proposed in the toolkit, (ii) suggesting new activities, (iii) monitoring by questionnaire.
4. Preparation of monitoring and planning.
5. Creating commitment for participation in 2010-2011 school experimentation.
6. Joint declaration of commitment.

##### Project outcomes:

1. Participants trained on structure and content of toolkit.
2. A final report was drafted by participants.
3. Joint declaration of commitment signed by all participants.
4. Global planning for OVEP experimentation 2010-2011 has been detailed.
5. First generation of assessment tools decided upon.
6. Suggestions made for roll-out in other Caribbean countries.
7. Data collection instruments have been fine-tuned.
8. Video material is ready.

##### Project recommendations:

1. To finalize assessment tools for pre- and post-experimentation with education planners, statisticians and elected teachers and ASPnet coordinators.
2. Carry out applied research on the current vales education in the 6 participating countries.
3. To pursue research on basic socio-economic facts in the region.
4. To post workshop outcomes on the ASPnet website.
5. To collect from participants data to establish a working and monitoring platform for the school experimentation.
6. To identify a valid study sample, in terms of participating classes and students.

2015-10-22T23:43:49-05:00February 7th, 2011|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Facilities, Sports Management|Comments Off on Olympic Values Education Programme (OVEP) Progress Report: 2005-2010

Is Controlling the Rushing or Passing Game the Key to NFL Victories?

### Abstract

#### Purpose

To evaluate whether controlling the running game or the passing game contributes more to winning in the NFL.

#### Methods

This analysis uses regression analysis to dispel the myth that controlling the rushing game wins NFL games. Final-game rushing and passing statistics are endogenous because teams that are ahead will rush more in order to protect the ball and run the clock down. To address this issue, I use first-half statistics (essentially stripping the endogenous component from the statistics), with the justification that the halftime leader wins 78 percent of the time. The data are the 256 regular season games for 2005. I use logistic models to model the probability of winning a game based on differences in rushing success and passing success in the first half.

#### Results

I find that having a first-half passing-yard advantage increases the probability of winning, but having a first-half rushing-yard advantage has no significant effect.

#### Conclusions and Applications

The results suggest that the common belief that controlling the running game is the key to winning in the NFL may be a misguided belief. Coaches and teams may have greater success by focusing on the passing games, both offensively and defensively.

**Keywords:** Football, NFL, passing, rushing, coaching

### Introduction

A common assessment of the key to winning professional football games is to control the running game. And a very common statistic used to support this claim is that teams are much more likely to win if they have a 100-yard rusher. This is often used in recapping games and when analysts describe the keys to victory. For example, the recap of a 2005 victory for the St. Louis Rams over the Houston Texans indicated: “[Steven] Jackson finished with 25 carries for 110 yards, improving the Rams’ record when having a 100-yard rusher to 38-0 since moving to St. Louis in 1995” (1). This implies that rushing 100 yards was the catalyst for the victory. Likewise, many analysts say that establishing the running game is a key to victory. For example, one analyst argued that a key to winning for the Tampa Bay Buccaneers over the Oakland Raiders in Superbowl XXXVII was to “contain Raiders’ [running back] Charlie Garner,” citing evidence that: “In the past five seasons, the Bucs are 1-12 when opponents have a 100-yard rusher” (11). In a closely tied statistic to rushing dominance, analysts also argue that teams that control the time of possession are more likely to win. These assessments imply that controlling the passing game is of much less importance.

A set of articles on espn.com using data from the NFL’s 2003 and 2004 regular season games supports these contentions by arguing that preventing an opposing runner from gaining 100 yards and winning the time-of-possession battle increased a team’s chances of winning (5, 6). At the same time, these articles imply that the passing game is insignificant, citing as evidence:

1. Teams having a 100-yard rusher win 75 percent of games;
2. Teams winning the time of possession battles win 67 percent of games;
3. Having a 300-yard passer has no advantage, as those teams only win 46 percent of games.

A problem with these simple assessments is that teams that are winning will rush the ball more to run out the clock and reduce the chance of turnovers and will often wait until the clock runs down before starting a play. So, if a team is heading towards victory, they are likely to increase their rushing yards while boosting their time of possession. Likewise, a team that is behind will pass more for potentially higher-gaining plays and to preserve the clock. Thus, in statistical terms, we could say that rushing yards, passing yards, and time of possession are endogenous, or partly a product of the outcome rather than just a contributor to the outcome. This makes it difficult to attribute any advantages in rushing yards or time of possession to the winner as causal impacts. In fact, what happens in the first half or even the first quarter can dictate the outcome of the game, as teams leading after just the first quarter (in 2003 and 2004 games) won 75 percent of the time (5).

This paper presents an empirical test of these issues with econometric analysis. Primarily, this analysis tests whether controlling the rushing or passing game was more likely to contribute to a victory in NFL games in the 2005 season. Rushing and passing advantages represent efficiency both on offense and defense. In addition, the model examines the relative contribution of turnovers, penalties, and sacks allowed to the probability of winning. These models could represent a more accurate picture of the effects of certain factors on winning, as they hold other factors constant.

The twist in this analysis is that the model corrects for endogeneity by using the first-half statistics. This essentially strips a large portion of the endogenous component from these statistics, as teams are not likely to change strategies to “ball preservation” or “speedy catch up” until the second half. Given that 78.5 percent of teams leading at halftime in 2005 games ended up winning the game, having a halftime advantage in many of these statistics should contribute to a higher probability of winning.

Determining the key contributions to winning in the NFL is important as teams, subject to the college draft and salary caps, attempt to obtain the best allocation of talent among various positions. If it does turn out that big passing games are the keys to victory, then investing relatively more on players in passing-related offensive and defensive positions than on players in rushing-related positions may be wiser.

Research on football issues has been very limited in the academic literature. There have been some interesting analyses on optimal 4th-down strategies (8, 9). Some research has attempted to predict the outcome of a game based on betting markets or power scores (4, 10). Other research has examined the success of teams over the course of a season (2, 3, 12). However, to my knowledge, this is the first analysis attempting to predict outcomes of games in a multivariate framework based on in-game statistics.

The most similar prior research examined how certain factors contributed to the number of wins NFL teams had (7). This article examined how first downs, average rushing yards per carry and passing yards per completion, interceptions, fumbles, and other factors affected the number of wins a team had, and then used the results to judge coaching efficiency. The models use full-game statistics so the results are subject to the biases mentioned above.

In this study, I first present a simple breakdown of the descriptive statistics for the first and second half, which clearly demonstrates the likely existence of endogeneity using the full-game statistics, as the eventual winner or the half-time leader clearly changes strategy in run-pass mix in the second half. The stark contrast found between the models using full-game vs. first-half statistics further corroborates how endogeneity affects the models using the full-game statistics. In particular, while the models using full-game statistics show a connection between controlling the rushing game and the probability of winning and no connection for controlling the passing game, the models using first-half statistics show the opposite: that controlling the passing game matters, but controlling the running game does not. Given that the analyses based on the first-half statistics should be free of biases from endogeneity, it appears that controlling the passing game is the key to winning. In addition, both full-game and first-half models show that the time of possession has no effect on the probability of winning, after controlling for other factors.

### Methods

#### Data

The sample includes all 256 regular season games from the 2005 NFL season. Each of the 32 teams has 16 games in the sample. The data come from the “Gamebooks” that are available on the NFL’s website (nfl.com). These data were used with permission granted from the National Football League’s Licensing Office. The advantage of these data is that they provide both final and first-half statistics, while a disadvantage is that the relevant statistics need to be manually extracted from each game report, which is roughly 10 pages long for each game. The descriptive statistics are presented in the Appendix. Table A1 shows the average team-level first-half and full-game statistics for the 512 team-game observations. Table A2 shows the average game-level statistics used in the econometric models for the 256 regular season games, with the key variables being “moderate” and “great” control of the rushing and passing games.

What is useful to show here are the differences that exist between first-half and second-half statistics for the eventual winners versus the losers and for the first-half leaders versus the trailers. These demonstrate how the second-half strategies can be dictated by first-half success, which is the basis for the argument that full-game statistics are endogenous to the outcome. Table 1 shows these results for the 243 games that did not go into overtime, as the second-half statistics cannot be calculated for the 13 games going into overtime because of how the NFL Gamebooks are set up. The first two columns, based on which team wins the game, show that, whereas the winner had an average of a 22-passing-yard advantage in the first half (119 versus 97), it had 26 fewer yards passing than the loser in the second half.

The next set of columns makes the comparison based on which team had the lead at halftime. There were 227 games in which one team led at halftime and the game did not go into overtime. Table 1 shows that there was little difference between the first half and second half in the rushing advantage for the halftime leader. However, that difference for the passing advantage is much greater. The halftime leader had a 34-yard passing advantage (126 vs. 92) in the first half and a 39-yard passing disadvantage (85 vs. 124) in second-half passing yards. Furthermore, the advantage for the leader in terms of fewer sacks allowed increased from 0.43 to 0.76. The differences are even starker in the final two columns for the 141 games that had a team leading by 7 or more at halftime. The 49-yard first-half passing advantage for the leader turned to a 50-yard disadvantage in the second half. And the 0.49 first-half advantage for the leader in fewer sacks allowed turned to a 0.90 second-half advantage. Note that the lack of much difference between the leader and trailer in first-half versus second-half rushing yards does not indicate that strategy does not shift, as the ratio of passing-to-rushing yards does increase for the trailer and decrease for the leader.

These results offer strong statistical evidence that the halftime leader passes less (probably to help protect the ball and run the clock down) and is more careful with the ball (with fewer turnovers). In addition, the results indicate that the halftime trailer passes more. The implication for statistical analysis is that many full-game statistics are likely endogenous to the eventual outcome. This includes rushing yards, passing yards, turnovers, and the number of sacks allowed. Thus, any comparison of full-game or final statistics for the winner versus the loser would be biased indicators of a causal effect.

#### Econometric Models

Given the likely bias that would come from using full-game statistics, the primary model will use first-half statistics, while still basing the outcome on the eventual game winner. As mentioned above, the justification for this is that 78.5 percent of the teams that led at halftime ended up winning the game. In order to provide a comparison so that readers can gauge the level of bias in using full-game statistics, an initial set of models will show the results from models using the full-game statistics.

The econometric model is the following:

![Formula 1](/files/volume-14/5/formula.png “Formula 1”)

where Yi, the dependent variable, is a dichotomous indicator for whether the home team won game i, Ri and Pi represent measures of the rushing and passing advantages of the home team relative to the visiting team, Xi is a vector of three other statistics for the home team relative to the visiting team, including penalty yards, turnovers, and sacks allowed, and Hi and Ai are vectors of 31 indicator variables for which team is the home team and away team in game i, with one team excluded. Thus, all statistical variables are created in terms of the home-team statistic minus the visiting-team’s statistic or, in a few cases, the advantage of the home team over the away team. For example, the variable for rushing-yards advantage would be the number of rushing yards for the home team minus the number of rushing yards for the visiting team. The results would be the same regardless of whether the model predicts the probability of the home team or the visiting team winning.

For both sets of models with final statistics and first-half statistics, three sets of rushing and passing variables are created. The first set has the raw difference in rushing and passing yards, measured as the advantages the home team has over the visiting team. The second set has a variable indicating whether one of the teams had “moderate” control of the rushing or passing yards, with the threshold being 25 yards for the models with first-half statistics and 50 yards for models with full-game statistics. For the models with first-half statistics, this variable is coded as “1” if the home team had at least 25 more rushing (or passing) yards than the visiting team at halftime, “-1” if the visiting team had at least 25 more yards than the home team, and “0” if the absolute difference in yards between the two teams was less than 25. The third set of variables, constructed similarly to the second set, has variables indicating whether one of the teams had “great” control of the rushing or passing game. The thresholds are 50 yards for the models with first-half statistics and 100 yards for models with full-game statistics. Note that these variables taking on the values of (-1, 0, 1) essentially constrains the absolute values of the following two effects to be the same: (a) the effect of home-team control of the rushing/passing game on the probability of the home team winning and (b) the negative of the effect of visiting-team control of the rushing/passing game on the probability of the home team winning. This helps to give greater power to the model.

The models include three other statistical variables: the difference in penalty yards, the difference in turnovers, and the difference in the number of times the team is sacked. Including the number of penalties had a very small effect, so it was excluded so that the full effect of penalty yards could be estimated.

Finally, the model includes team fixed effects for both being the home team and being the visitor. That is, it includes 31 dummy variables for the home team and 31 dummy variables for the away team, excluding one team as the reference category. They account for differences in team-specific factors, such as the quality of coaching and the strength of home-field advantage (e.g., from fan enthusiasm and weather conditions). In addition, the team fixed effects account for differences in the strength and weakness of the passing vs. rushing games for teams and for opponents.

These team fixed effects are included to help avoid unobserved team heterogeneity affecting the results. For example, one of the better teams in 2005 was the Indianapolis Colts, which had a very strong passing game. Thus, without team fixed effects, the general success of the Colts could contribute to a positive correlation between passing yards and winning that could be due to other unobserved factors. By including team fixed effects, the estimates represent within-team variation across games in winning attributable to within-team variation across games in control of the rushing and passing game. The coefficients on these (not reported) generally reflect differences across teams in both home and away winning percentages, after taking into account the other variables included in the model.

Equation (1) is estimated with logit models. The models have a final sample of 212 games because 44 games were dropped by the model due to perfect prediction of the outcome—e.g., 8 observations were dropped for Seattle home games because they won all those games. In estimation, it turned out that that the marginal effects were highly dependent on the home and visiting teams used for the prediction. Some teams that won (or lost) nearly all their home or away games were too close to a predicted probability of winning of one (or zero), so that the marginal effect of the variables would be close to zero for them. To correct for this, the reported marginal effects are calculated as the averages for all team combinations that played in the 2005 season.

The model presented here is fairly simple. One reason for this is that the home- and away-team fixed effects account for a wide set of team-specific factors (some unobservable and some observable), such as the quality of coaching, having artificial turf, and generally favoring either passing or rushing. The other reason why the model is kept simple is that it is designed to estimate the full effects of having advantages in the rushing game and the passing game. As it turns out, this simple model tells an interesting story.

The model could be made more complex by including such factors as the run-pass mix, time-of-possession, and return yards off of kick-offs and punts. These other factors are excluded because they could themselves be products of running and passing success in the game. For example, having a higher time-of-possession is an indicator of rushing the ball successfully. And, having a rush-pass mix favoring passing may be an indicator of success in the passing game. Controlling for these variables would cause the model to factor out part of why having rushing or passing advantages helps win games, so that the coefficient estimates on the rushing and passing advantages would represent partial effects rather than the full effects the model aims to estimate. Separate analyses below do test whether time-of-possession matters, after controlling for rushing and passing yards, as well as the other factors that are in our primary set of models.

Another factor excluded from the model for similar reasons is the number of return yards from kick-offs and punts. Return-yard success (or more generally, special-teams success) could be representative of other factors. Indeed, one of the ESPN articles notes that teams returning a punt or kick-off for a TD win only 42 percent of the time (6). One confounding factor is that teams have a greater chance of return success on kick-offs than on punts, but having more kick-off returns is an indication that the other team has scored more often. Given these complexities, we exclude return-yardage indications. Given that we use team fixed effects, this should not be a problem to our analysis, as within-team variation in special-teams success relative to the other team (holding constant special-teams’ opportunities) should be mostly uncorrelated with the within-team variation in rushing and passing success relative to the other team.

### Results and Discussion

#### Is controlling the rushing or passing game more important to winning?

Table 2 presents the results of the econometric models that examine the relationship between full-game statistics and the probability of winning. These results are subject to biases created by the endogeneity described above, so they are meant to be compared to the results of the preferred model, in Table 3, which is based on the relationship between first-half statistics and the probability of winning.

The results in Table 2 are consistent with the widely held belief that controlling the rushing game is the key to winning and that great passing success is not important. The coefficient estimate on the rushing-yard difference is positive and significant at the one-percent level. The corresponding marginal effect, in brackets, indicates that each 10-yard advantage in rushing yards is associated with a 2.3-percentage-points higher probability of winning (p < 0.01). The coefficient estimate on passing-yards advantage is small and insignificant. Considering the indicators for “moderate” control of the rushing and passing game, having a 50-yard advantage in rushing yards is associated with an estimated 17.2-percentage-points higher probability of winning (p < 0.01). The estimate on having a 50-yard advantage in passing yards is again insignificant. Having “great” control of the rushing game (100-yard advantage) is associated with an estimated 31.4-percentage-points higher probability of winning (p < 0.01). Having “great” control of the passing game is still statistically insignificant.

As for other results, each turnover is associated with a decrease in the probability of winning of about 16 percentage points (p < 0.01), while each sack is associated with an 11-percentage-points decrease in the probability of winning (p < 0.01). These seemingly large effects could be indicative of the extra chances that teams take when they are behind late in the game. Penalty yards do not appear to make a difference, after controlling for other factors.

The main point from the models using full-game statistics is that total rushing yards or controlling the rushing game is positively correlated with the probability of winning, while passing yards and controlling the passing game has little correlation with the probability of winning.

The results from models using first-half statistics give the opposite conclusion. The estimates indicate that controlling the passing game is the key to winning, not controlling the rushing game. In contrast to the results in Table 2, those in Table 3, for the coefficient estimates on first-half statistics, arguably represent causal effects because most teams probably do not start the strategy of protecting the ball and running out the clock to end the game while still in the first half.

All three of the coefficient estimates on the passing yard advantage are positive and significant (p < 0.01). The estimates on rushing yard advantage are still positive, but smaller than those for the passing-yard advantage and statistically insignificant. The estimated marginal effects indicate that each 10 yards of passing gained increase the probability of winning by 2.6 percentage points, while having a 25- or 50-yard-passing advantage in the first half increases the probability of winning by about 21 percentage points. Thus, these estimates indicate that controlling the passing game in the first half increases a team’s probability of winning the game by about 12 percentage points, while controlling the rushing game in the first half has no significant effect on the probability of winning.

Among the other factors, first-half penalty yards again do not affect the probability of winning. Each turnover is estimated to reduce the chance of winning by about 10 percentage points (p < 0.01), while each sack allowed reduced the probability of winning by about 5 percentage points (p < 0.10). The estimated marginal effects of turnovers and sacks allowed are smaller for the first-half model than for the full-game model. This could indicate that, like rushing and passing yards, the full-game statistics on the number of turnovers and sacks allowed are endogenous and reflective of the outcome of the game, as the teams that are behind will be susceptible to more turnovers and sacks as they pass more and take more chances to try to catch up.

#### Does time of possession matter?

Another commonly-held belief is that having a greater time-of-possession is a major key to winning, as 67 percent of the teams that won the time-of-possession battle in 2003 and 2004 had won their games(5). This suggests that winning the time-of-possession battle increases a team’s chances of winning by about one-third. However, this statistic is also a product of a team’s success (or endogenous) and thus subject to biases. For example, teams that are ahead will let the clock run down further between plays.

Table 4 presents the coefficient estimates on variables representing time of possession from models similar to column (1) in Tables 2 and 3—i.e., models that use the rushing- and passing-yard advantage. It includes estimates using the full-game and first-half statistics. The first row has the estimates on the actual time-of-possession advantage; the second row has the estimates on indicators for whether the team had a higher time-of-possession, and the last two rows have estimates on indicators for having advantages of 7 minutes (for the full game) and 5 minutes (for the first half), which are roughly the average mean absolute differences. For the full-game statistics, none of the time-of-possession variables is statistically significant. For the models based on first-half statistics, all of the coefficient estimates on time of possession are negative, with the first one being statistically significant (p < 0.10). These results suggest that time-of-possession is not important to winning, holding constant other factors.

### Conclusions

This paper is the first analysis to model a production function for winning an NFL game based on in-game statistics. This carefully constructed framework, which models victories based on home-team over away-team statistics, can be used for other models for winning games in the NFL or in other sports leagues.

The results of this analysis cast doubt on the contention that the key to winning games in the NFL is to control the rushing game. The results do indicate that having a rushing advantage for the full game is positively correlated with the probability of winning and having a passing advantage for the full game is not correlated with winning, holding other factors constant. However, these correlations are likely due to endogeneity, in that full-game rushing and passing yards are partly products of a team’s success during the game. In other words, as demonstrated in this paper, the strategy for second-half rushing-passing mix depends on where a team stands at halftime. This means that we cannot label these correlations as causal influences.

The econometric strategy in this analysis is to identify a causal effect of various factors by using first-half statistics. These first-half statistics should be exogenous because strategies to run the clock down and to take extra precautions of preserving the ball (and to play catch-up by passing the ball so that incompletions stop the clock) arguably do not start until sometime in the second half. Of course, there could be cases in which teams build such a huge lead early in the first half that they start such a strategy at some point in the second quarter. But, typically teams that are ahead would want to build on their momentum in the first half before shifting strategy at some point in the second half.

One other key result is that having a time-of-possession advantage does not matter, after controlling for other factors (e.g., rushing and passing yards). However, the major findings from models using first-half statistics are that, on average, controlling the passing game contributes significantly to the probability of winning and controlling the rushing game has little impact. Having some level of control over the passing game in the first half is estimated to increase a team’s chance of winning by 21 percentage points. It is not that rushing success does not matter, as many would argue that having the threat of a potent running attack is key to a successful passing game. In addition, a strong running game may help with ball preservation for holding a second-half lead. But, in contrast to conventional thought, holding other things constant, it appears that a big passing day is more important to victory than a big running game. It is important to keep in mind here that passing advantage and control incorporates both how strong a team’s passing game is and how strong its pass defense is.

### Applications in Sport

The results in this analysis suggest that NFL coaches may be more successful if they were to place more emphasis on the passing game than on the running game. This result may translate to lower levels of football (e.g., high school and college). In this case, for professional football or something lower, obtaining and developing premier players for passing-related offensive and defensive positions may be more important than obtaining and developing premier players in rushing-related positions.

### Tables

#### Table 1
A comparison of first-half and second-half statistics for the eventual winner versus the loser and the halftime leader versus the trailer.

Based on eventual outcome (N=243) Based on which team leads at halftime (N=227) Based on which team had 7+ point lead at halftime (N=141)
Winner Loser Led at halftime Trailed at halftime Led by 7+ points at halftime Trailed by 7+ points at halftime
1st-half rushing yards 64 50 66 47 70 42
2nd-half rushing yards 71 39 67 42 71 40
1st-half passing yards 120 98 126 92 136 87
2nd-half passing yards 92 118 85 124 76 126
1st-half penalty yards 28 32 27 32 27 32
2nd-half penalty yards 27 29 28 28 28 28
1st-half turnovers yards 0.65 0.99 0.56 1.04 0.55 1.20
2nd-half turnovers yards 0.49 1.38 0.68 1.22 0.62 1.26
1st-half sacks allowed 0.88 1.26 0.85 1.28 0.87 1.36
2nd-half sacks allowed 0.72 1.68 0.81 1.57 0.73 1.63

**NOTE:** These statistics exclude the 13 games that go into overtime because second-half
statistics cannot be determined.

#### Table 2
Logistic regression model for the relationship between full-game statistics and the probability of winning (N=212)

(1) Using rushing and passing yards difference (2) Using “moderate” control of rushing and passing game (3) Using “great” control of rushing and passing game
Rushing yards difference 0.0266***
(0.0078)
[0.0023]
Passing yards difference 0.0064
(0.0065)
[0.0006]
Had 50-yard rushing advantage 2.081***
(0.690)
[0.172]
Had 50-yard passing advantage 0.485
(0.743)
[0.040]
Had 100-yard rushing advantage 3.918***
(1.290)
[0.314]
Had 100-yard passing advantage 1.375
(0.018)
[0.110]
Penalty yards difference -0.023
(0.019)
[-0.002]
-0.025
(0.020)
[-0.002]
-0.020
(0.018)
[-0.002]
Turnover difference -1.790***
(0.440)
[-0.158]
-1.860***
(0.440)
[-0.153]
-2.045***
(0.495)
[-0.164]
# sacks allowed difference -1.268***
(0.375)
[-0.112]
-1.313***
(0.381)
[-0.108]
-1.211***
(0.366)
[-0.097]

**NOTE:** *, **, and *** indicate statistical significance at the five- and one-percent level. The models also include dummy variables for each visiting team and home team. Standard errors are in parentheses and marginal effects are in brackets.

#### Table 3
Logistic regression model for the relationship between first-half statistics and the probability of winning (N=212)

(1) Using rushing and passing yards difference (2) Using “moderate” control of rushing and passing game (3) Using “great” control of rushing and passing game
Rushing yards difference 0.0090
(0.0060)
[0.0013]
Passing yards difference 0.0177***
(0.0049)
[0.0026]
Had 25-yard rushing advantage 0.155
(0.366)
[0.209]
Had 25-yard passing advantage 1.628***
(0.394)
[0.020]
Had 50-yard rushing advantage 0.781
(0.495)
[0.103]
Had 50-yard passing advantage 1.648***
(0.449)
[0.216]
Penalty yards difference -0.010
(0.007)
[-0.001]
-0.010
(0.007)
[-0.001]
-0.007
(0.007)
[-0.001]
Turnover difference -0.724***
(0.251)
[0.105]
-0.841***
(0.254)
[-0.108]
-0.739***
(0.252)
[0.097]
# sacks allowed difference -0.352*
(0.183)
[-0.051]
-0.357*
(0.184)
[-0.046]
-0.416**
(0.183)
[-0.055]

**NOTE:** *, **, and *** indicate statistical significance at the five- and one-percent level. The models also include dummy variables for each visiting team and home team. Standard errors are in parentheses and marginal effects are in brackets.

#### Table 4
Logistic regression model for coefficient estimates on time-of-possession variables

Full-game First-half
Time-of-possession difference 0.052
(0.107)
[0.002]
-0.126*
(0.073)
[0.017]
Had any advantage in time-of-possession 0.288
(0.670)
[0.024]
-0.427
(0.350)
[-0.057]
Had 5+ minute advantage in time-of-possession -0.698
(0.583)
[-0.039]
Had 7+ minute advantage in time-of-possession 0.448
(1.132)
[0.037]

NOTE: *, **, and *** indicate statistical significance at the ten-, five- and one-percent level. The models also include dummy variables for each visiting team and home team. Each coefficient estimate is based on a separate regression. These regressions include, for either full-game and first-half statistics, the same regressors represented in column (1) of Tables 2 and 3. Standard errors are in parentheses and marginal effects are in brackets.

#### Table A.1.
Average team statistics in key categories for 2005 regular season games (N=512)

Full half Final game
Rushing yards 56.8 (30.3) 112.5 (51.1)
Passing yards 108.1 (51.0) 219.9 (73.7)
Penalty yards 30.2 (22.8) 58.2 (26.0)
Number of turnovers 0.81 (0.88) 1.76 (1.45)
Number of sacks allowed 1.08 (1.06) 2.30 (1.73)

NOTE: Standard deviations are in parentheses. The final-game statistics include 13 overtimes (or 26 observations), all of which lasted less than the full 15 minutes allowed. Thus, the differences do not exactly represent second half statistics.

#### Table A.2.
Average game statistics in key categories for 2005 regular season games (N=256)

Percent of games with one team having indicated advantage in yards Mean absolute value of difference (with standard deviation in parentheses)
First-half Full-game
Moderate Control of rushing and passing game
First-half advantage of 25 rushing yards 54.7%
First-half advantage of 25 passing yards 71.1%
Full-game advantage of 50 rushing yards 53.1%
Full-game advantage of 50 passing yards 62.5%
Great Control of rushing and passing game
First-half advantage of 50 rushing yards 29.3%
First-half advantage of 50 passing yards 49.2%
Full-game advantage of 100 rushing yards 20.3%
Full-game advantage of 100 passing yards 33.6%
Mean (standard deviation) of absolute value of differences
Rushing yards 37.0 (30.3) 65.5 (50.1)
Passing yards 58.8 (46.8) 80.3 (58.5)
Penalty yards 19.8 (24.3) 27.3 (21.4)
Turnovers 0.86 (0.80) 1.59 (1.42)
# sacks allowed 1.20 (1.06) 2.08 (1.70)

### References

Associated Press (2005). Rams Rally to Down Texans in Overtime. <http://www.tsn.ca/nfl/teams/news_story/?ID=144796&hubname=nfl-rams>, accessed August 28, 2006.

Berri, D. (2007). Back to back evaluations on the gridiron. In Statistical Thinking in Sports. Albert, J., and Konig, R.H. eds. CRC Press, Ann Arbor, MI. pp. 235-56.

Berri, D., Schmidt, M., and Brook, S. (2006). The Wages of Wins. Stanford University Press, Stanford, MI.

Boulier, B. L., and Stekler, H.O. (2003). Predicting the outcomes of National Football League games International Journal of Forecasting, 19, 257−70.

Garber, G. (2005a). Turnovers, early deficits lead to losses. <http://sports.espn.go.com/nfl/news/story?id=2241121>, 2005a, accessed December 2, 2005.

Garber, G. (2005b). Penalties hurt but aren’t indicator of failure. <http://sports.espn.go.com/nfl/news/story?id=2241159>, 2005b, accessed December 2, 2005.

Hadley, L., Poitras, M., Ruggiero, J., and Knowles, S. (2000). Performance Evaluation of National Football League Teams. Managerial and Decision Economics, 2000, 21, 63-70.

Kreider, B. (2006). To Punt or Not to Punt. The UMAP Journal, 17, 353-63.

Romer, D. (2006). Do Firms Maximize? Evidence from Professional Football. The Journal of Political Economy, 114, 340-65.

Song, C, Boulier, B. L., and Stekler, H. O. (2007). The comparative accuracy of judgmental and model forecasts of American football games. International Journal of Forecasting, 23, 405–13.

Stroud, R. (2003). Keys to Victory, St. Petersburg Times, January 26, 2003, <http://www.sptimes.com/2003/01/26/Bucs/Keys_to_victory.2.shtml>, accessed August 25, 2006.

Terry, N. (2007). Investing in NFL Prospects: Factors Influencing Team Winning Percentage. International Advances in Economic Research 13, 117.

### Corresponding Author

**Jeremy Arkes**
Associate Professor of Economics
Graduate School of Business and Public Policy
Naval Postgraduate School
555 Dyer Rd.
Monterey, CA 93943
<arkes@nps.edu>
831-656-2646

### Author Biography

Dr. Jeremy Arkes is an Associate Professor of Economics in the Graduate School of Business and Public Policy at the Naval Postgraduate School.

2013-11-25T16:35:43-06:00February 2nd, 2011|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Coaching, Sports Management, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|Comments Off on Is Controlling the Rushing or Passing Game the Key to NFL Victories?

Factors that Influence African-American Millennials to Purchase Athletic Shoes

### Abstract

The purpose of the study was to determine which factors greatly influenced African-American millennials to purchase athletic shoes. A sample of (n=101) African-American millennials participated in the study. The participants rated the following seven purchasing factors in order of importance using a Likert scale from one (“strongly disagree”) to five (“strongly agree”). The seven factors were athlete endorsement, brand name, color of shoe, comfort level, cost, style of shoe, and quality. The results indicated that athletic shoe style, color and cost were determining factors among the participants when purchasing athletic shoes. T-test for unequal sample sizes indicated that there were significant differences as it related to males’ and females’ purchasing preferences. This study supports previous research findings on African-American youth purchasing behavior. Moreover, athletic shoe marketers should use this information as a means to understand the purchasing behavior of African-American millenials and to design marketing strategies to better reach this target audience.

### Introduction

African-American buying power has increased by 187 percent since 1990 (5). African-American buying power rose from $318 billion in 1990 to $590 billion in 2000, to $845 billion in 2007, and it is projected to increase to $1.1 trillion by 2012 (18). The buying power increase has been a result of African-American upward mobility (3). This increased buying power has afforded African-Americans from all generations the opportunity to purchase more goods and services, particularly African-American millennials. In general, millennials are those individuals born from 1980 to 1995, they are technologically savvy, very tolerant when it comes to sexual orientation, religion, and politics to name a few. Moreover, millennials are characterized by their independent nature, optimism, propensity to question the status quo, self-expression, and financial acumen (2,13,19). In contrast, generation x individuals (generally those born between 1964 and 1980) are characterized as pragmatic, self-reliant, less accepting of other viewpoints, and multi-taskers (17). Again, African-American millennial purchasing clout and influence is unparalleled, as witnessed by the following statement in the African-American/Black Market Profile report(8):

> Today’s African-American teen market (12- to 19-year-olds) are consumers and creators of trends, strong influencers of household purchases and a valuable target for advertisers. The same holds true for African-American/Black teens, who have a major impact on today’s mainstream culture—especially in music, sports and fashion. African-American/Black teens spend an average of $96 dollars monthly, 20% more per month than the average U.S. teen. In addition, when compared to all U.S. teens, male and female African-American/Black teens spend more yearly on items such as apparel and technology-related products and athletic shoes. (p. 11)

What’s more, the African-American/Black Market Profile report indicated that African-

American millennials have more brand loyalty to a variety of goods, including personal

products, food and footwear. Specifically, African-American millennial males exert more influence on household athletic shoe purchasing decisions and they are more brand loyal than other racial segments of millennials when it comes to purchasing athletic shoes (10). This trend in purchasing visible goods (such as athletic shoes) will continue as the African-American millennials continue to exert more influence on household purchases and as they continue to enter the workforce and earn wages (4).

In regard to the sport industry, athletic footwear is a thriving and lucrative business. According to the National Sporting Goods Association (2009), athletic shoe sales reached $17.1 billion for 2009 (12). Furthermore, of the 2.3 billion pairs of footwear purchased in the United States in 2007, Americans purchased 334 million pairs of athletic (1). African-Americans spent $391 per consumer unit on athletic footwear in 2006. This was more than any other race that year (5). Thus, the propensity that African-Americans have toward purchasing athletic shoes along with their loyalty to brands makes this population one worth investigating to determine their athletic shoe purchasing preferences.

There have been very few empirical studies dedicated to understanding the athletic shoe purchasing behaviors of youth and there is a dearth of information on the factors that influence African-American millennials to purchase athletic shoes. It is the intent of this study to add to the existing body of knowledge. The purpose of this study was to determine and identify the most important factors that influence African-American millennials to purchase athletic shoes.

### Methods

#### Procedures

The study was carried out in the summer of 2009 at a small historically black university in the southeastern United States. The researchers randomly selected a course time block to disseminate the questionnaire. This practice was initiated to prevent the same student from completing the questionnaire at one course time period and then attempting to complete during another course time period. The 11:30 am course time block was randomly selected. The researchers contacted all of the professors that taught a class during the time block via email to ask permission to disseminate the questionnaire. Professors were also informed that the researchers had received permission from the university’s institutional review board to conduct the study utilizing responses from university students, and that the questionnaire would take their students approximately ten minutes to complete. Thirteen professors offered courses at the 11:30 am time period. Of the thirteen, eight professors agreed to have their students complete the questionnaire.

#### Instrument

The researchers utilized a modified version of the Lyons and Jackson Athletic Shoe Survey. A ten item questionnaire was used to elicit responses from the participants. The questionnaire contained three demographic questions pertaining to the participant’s age, gender and race. In addition, seven questions addressing athletic shoe purchasing factors were included. The participants were asked to rate each factor on a Likert scale from one to five with one being strongly disagree and five being strongly agree.

#### Participants

Participants for this study were African-American millennials (n=101) between the ages of 18 and 24. All of the participants attended a historically black university in the southeastern United States. Of the participants, 52 (46.8%) were male and 59 (53.2%) were female.

#### Statistical Analysis

Descriptive statistics such as percentages, frequencies, and means were utilized to analyze data. Moreover, the researchers employed inferential statistics to further analyze data. The researchers used the t-test for independent unequal sample sizes. Specifically, the t-test for independent unequal sample sizes was employed to determine if there were significant differences between the purchasing factor mean scores of males and females.

### Results

Results from the study produced the following information regarding athletic shoe purchasing factors of African-American millennials. Group mean scores for both males and females revealed that style of shoe, comfort, color and quality were the most influential purchasing factors (Table 1).

For females style (M = 4.31), comfort (M = 4.14) and color (M = 4.03) were the most important factors (Table 2).

Style (M=4.63), quality (M=4.19), color (4.10) and brand (4.08) were the most influential factors for African-American males (Table 3).

T-test results revealed that there were no significant differences between males and females on each of the factors at the .05 level. To this end, there is indication that African-American males and females (in this study) have similar buying behaviors in that they valued each of the study factors somewhat equally (Table 4).

In terms of mean scores, athlete endorsement was the least influential factor for both males and females. Moreover, the cost factor did not rank highly for either group. In addition, the researchers considered the number of strongly agree and agree responses for each factor. Ninety-one percent of the participants indicated that they either strongly agreed or agreed that style was a crucial factor in purchasing athletic shoes. This factor was followed by comfort (76%), color (75%), quality (75%), brand (72%), cost (61%) and athlete endorsement (36%).

### Discussion

It became very apparent that style of shoe was the most dominating factor when deciding whether to purchase athletic shoes. The style factor mean score for males in this study was 4.63 and 4.31 for females. This finding is consistent with the findings from previous athletic shoe purchasing studies (16,20). It confirms to an extent that when African American youth are purchasing athletic shoes they focus primarily on the look of the shoe. Perhaps, as has been suggested, wearing a shoe that looks good makes one feel good. Better yet, the style of shoe may convey a form of status. Lyons and Jackson’s (2001) study on factors that influence African-American gen Xers to purchase athletic shoes also found that style was the most influential factor(7). This finding mirrored the responses of African-American millennials studied in this investigation, suggesting that the style phenomenon may be passed from generation to generation via cultural communication methods within the African-American community. It could also suggest that athletic shoe companies should continue to effectively communicate style as an influential feature among the African-American community.

Even though style was the predominant factor, other factors were influential as well. In regard to females, color and comfort ranked high, with mean scores of 4.14 and 4.03 respectively. For males, quality, color and brand name received mean scores of 4.19, 4.10 and 4.08 respectively, suggesting that African-American millennials are considering a specific set of factors that influence their purchasing decisions, based on their knowledge and experience with the athletic shoe. This knowledge and experience may be derived from the fact that African-American millennials may have purchased athletic shoes before and or they may have received information about the shoe via commercials, friends or other sources.

Athlete endorsement was rated the least influential purchasing factor in this study. Again, this finding is consistent with Lyons and Jackson’s 2001 study on African-American generation Xers(7). Both males and females rated athlete endorsement the least influential purchasing factor. This is surprising when one considers the enormous amount of money that athletic shoe companies spend to have athletes endorse their shoes. Nike spent close to three billion dollars in endorsements and sponsorship deals in 2007 with players like Michael Jordan and Tiger Woods receiving over twenty million dollars each (6). Perhaps athlete endorsement creates awareness for the shoe and even evokes some sort of emotion that causes a person to become loyal, curious and attached to the shoe brand. However, Martin stated that “the image of sport, independent of the athlete, can contribute significantly to the consumer’s response to an endorsement. The image of the sport can enhance, or detract from, the effects of the personality and appearance of the athlete making the endorsement” (9). In light of this statement, perhaps the respondents in this study held negative views of athlete endorsers and or their particular sport. Still, based on findings from this study, when an African-American millennial decides to make a purchase the athlete endorser does not figure prominently into the purchasing equation.

### Sport Marketing Implications

Based on the results of this study, athletic shoe sport marketers should be cognizant in crafting media messages that focus on style, color, and comfort. Moreover, athletic shoe retailers should develop in-store sales techniques that sales people can use to highlight shoe comfort, style and the importance of shoe color scheme when encountering African-American millennial customers. Marketing products and services are extremely important to the survival of many sport companies and franchises (11). Effectively marketing sport products and services can translate in to increased revenue for sport entities if they understand the needs and wants of their target audience (15).

### Recommendations

Based on the findings of this study, the researchers recommend the following:

– that a larger sample size be utilized to solidify and strengthen results;
– that studies comparing the purchasing behaviors of African-American and non-African-Americans should be conducted to determine if there are cultural and racial differences; and
– that athletic shoe studies comparing the purchasing behaviors of African-American generation-Xers and millennials be conducted to determine generational differences.

### Tables

#### Table 1
Factor Group Mean Scores

Factor Group Means
Athlete Endorsement 2.83
Brand 3.98
Color 4.06
Comfort 4.06
Cost 3.50
Quality 4.01
Style 4.46

#### Table 2
Mean scores for African-American Millennial Females

Factor Means
Athlete Endorsement 2.92
Brand 3.88
Color 4.03
Comfort 4.14
Cost 3.63
Quality 3.85
Style 4.31
Style 4.31

#### Table 3

Factor Means
Athlete Endorsement 2.73
Brand 4.08
Color 4.10
Comfort 3.98
Cost 3.41
Quality 4.19
Style 4.63

#### Table 4

Factor Males Females p-values (p > 0.05)
Athlete Endorsement 2.73 2.92 0.167
Brand 4.08 3.88 0.423
Color 4.10 4.03 0.252
Comfort 3.98 4.14 0.102
Cost 3.41 3.63 0.251
Quality 4.19 3.85 0.256
Style 4.63 4.31 0.256

### References

1. American Apparel and Footwear Association, (2008). Shoe stats 2008. Retrieved May 22, 2009 from <http://www.apparelandfootwear.org/UserFiles/File/Statistics/ShoeStats2008_0808.pdf>.
2. Armour, S. (2005, November 6). Generation Y: They’ve arrived at work with a new attitude.USA Today. Retrieved May 20, 2009, from <http://www.usatoday.com/money/workplace 2005-11-06-geny_x.htm>.
3. Buford, H (2005) Getting serious about winning the African American market. The SourceBook of Multicultural experts 2004/2005. Retrieved May 20, 2009, from <http://www.primeaccess.net/downloads/news/Sourcebook_AA_04-05.pdf>.
4. Charles, K. K., E. Hurst, & N. Rousannov (2008, May 14). Conspicuous consumption and race: Who spends more on what. Retrieved May 23, 2009 from <http://knowledge.wharton.upenn.edu/article.cfm?articleid=1963>.
5. Humphreys, J. (2009). The multicultural economy 2009. Georgia business and economic conditions, 69 (3), 1-16. Retreived August 17, 2009 from <http://www.terry.uga.edu/selig/docs/GBEC0903q.pdf>.
6. Kaplan, D. & Lefton, T. (2008, January 28). Nike to keep federer with a 10-year deal. The SportBusiness Journal. Retrieved May 22, 2009 from <http://www.sportbusinessjournal.com/index.cfm?fuseaction=article.main&articleId=57885&requestTimeout=900>.
7. Lyons, R., & Jackson, E. N. (2001). Factors that influence African American Gen-Xers to purchase Nikes. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 10 (2), 96-101.
8. Magazine Publishers of America (2008). African-American/Black market profile: Drawing on diversity for successful marketing. New York, NY.
9. Martin, J. A. (1996). Is the athlete’s sport important when picking an athlete to endorse a nonsport product? Journal of Consumer Marketing, 13 (6), 28 – 43.Mediamark Research & Intelligence (2007). Teenmark New York, NY.
10. Mullin, B., Hardy, S. and Sutton, W. (2008). Sport marketing (4th ed.). Human Kinetics: Champaign, IL.
11. National Sporting Goods Association (2009). Athletic footwear sales by month 2009. Retrieved May 23, 2009 from <http://www.nsga.org/i4a/pages/index.cfm?pageid=3513>.
12. Neuborne, K. (1999, February 15). Generation Y. BusinessWeek. Retrieved May 20, 2009, from <http://www.businessweek.com/1999/99_07/b3616001.htm>.
13. Shani, D. (1997). A framework for implementing relationship marketing in the sport industry. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 6 (2), 9-15.
14. Shank, M. (2008). Sports marketing: A strategic perspective (4th ed.). Prentice Hall: New York.
15. Stevens, J., Lathrop, A., & Bradish, C. (2005). Tracking Generation Y: A contemporary sport consumer profile. Journal of Sport Management, 19 (3), 254-277.
16. Turco, D. M. (1996). The X factor: Marketing sport to Generation X. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 5(1), 21-23, 26.
17. University of Georgia, Selig Center for Economic Growth (2008). The multicultural economy 2008. Retrieved May 22, 2009, from the Terry College of Business Web site: <http://www.terry.uga.edu/selig/docs/buying_power_2008.pdf>.
18. Yan, S. (2006, December 8). Understanding generation Y. The Oberlin Review. Retrieved May 22, 2009 from <http://www.oberlin.edu/stupub/ocreview/2006/12/08/features/>
19. Yoh. T., Mohr, M. S., & Gordon, B. (2006).  The effect of gender on Korean teens’ athletic footwear purchasing. The Sport Journal, 9(1), 14-28.
20. Yoh. T., & Pitts, B.  (2005). Information sources for college students athletic shoe purchasing. Sport Management and Related Topics, 1(2), 28-34.

2013-11-25T16:36:38-06:00January 25th, 2011|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Facilities, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|Comments Off on Factors that Influence African-American Millennials to Purchase Athletic Shoes
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