Before the 2004 summer Olympic Games began, organizers contracted to
Contemporary Services Corporation (CSC), an American company, for crowd
management services. During the opening and closing ceremonies, personnel
helped spectators find their seats, gave general information on the stadium
and its features and helped exit the crowds when the ceremonies and events
ended.
Why do crowds need to be managed? The best reasons are the following:
Firstly, big gatherings of people raise the odds of a dangerous occurrence
happening. Secondly, individuals within a crowd always take for granted
that others have the responsibility. Thirdly, big crowds or gatherings
of people make changes in action slower and more complicated. Fourthly,
big crowds or gatherings of people make communications slower and more
complicated. And most importantly, big crowds of people raise the possible
number of victims (Marsden, A. W, 1998).
The definition of crowd management is every component of the game or
event from the design of the stadium or arena to the game itself and the
protection of the patrons from unforeseeable risk of harm from other individuals
or the actual facility itself. The main criteria for deciding if crowd
control procedures are sufficient and proper depend on the type of event,
threats of aggression, existence and sufficiency of the emergency plan,
expectation of crowd size and seating arrangement, known rivalries among
teams and schools, and the use of a security workforce and ushers (Facilities
and Event Management, n.d.). A competent crowd management plan has appropriate
signage, an effectual communication structure, services for various disabled
individuals, a properly trained and capable staff, and procedures and
policies for all possible instances (Facilities and Event Management,
n.d.).
This paper investigates crowd management issues in sports settings and
instances of failures. Crowd management has been an area of concern in
the sports domain ever since the Olympic Games began in Ancient Olympia
around 776 B.C., up until today with the NBA, Soccer games, Football,
games, etc. Facility management has the obligation to protect their patrons
and these managers must also have an effective crowd management plan in
order to protect the character and image of the team and facility. Historically,
managing and assisting crowds has been much more effective than trying
to control them. While this area of sport is often overlooked, it is a
top priority for facility managers and for the sport itself.
The author’s interest in the topic of crowd management grew from witnessing
the aggressive fans of an NBA game during the 2004 season when fans at
Auburn Hills, Michigan fought with several players of the Indiana Pacers.
Every year throughout the world in stadiums, arenas, and other sports
related areas, crowd rushes, fires, bombs, crowd crushes, heat exhaustion,
stage collapsing, overcrowding, and rioting result in thousands of deaths.
Facility managers face many difficulties when managing crowds of 10,000
or 100,000 people.
Some research points out how the individual regresses socially, behaviorally,
and psychologically when he or she is in a large crowd. A civilized person
may emerge into behavior bordering barbarous when in a crowd and some
theories propose that aggressiveness in individuals is an innate characteristic,
which we are born with and this makes aggressive behavior inevitable at
certain times. This is where proper crowd management techniques are involved.
By having a properly trained staff, sufficient signage, an effective and
efficient communication system, an effective ejection policy and a proper
alcohol management policy in place, the risk of aggression, injuries and
death can be reduced. Information on crowd management can be gathered
through various journals, Internet sites, and the EBSCO database.
Review of Literature
Historical Examples of Crowd Management Issues
Crowd management issues can be seen from the days of ancient Greece.
In Ancient Olympia, where the Olympic Games began, women were forbidden
to watch the Games or be in the general vicinity.
Pausanias recounts there is a mountain with high precipitous cliffs,
Typeum, from which any woman caught at the Olympic Games or even on
the other side of the Alpheius would have been cast down. No woman was
caught, except Callipateira, a widow disguised as a trainer. She brought
her son to compete at Olympia (Powell, John. T, 1994, p. 11).
Her son was victorious and Callipateira “jumped over the enclosure
in which trainers had to stay, revealing herself as a woman” (Powell,
John. T, 1994, p. 11). Olympic organizers realized that she was a woman,
however; they let her go without any fines because of the respect everyone
had for her son, her brothers, and her father, all of whom had won before
at the Olympics. “A law was then passed that for future celebrations
all trainers must strip before entering the arena” (Powell, John.
T, 1994, p. 11).
Sports facilities of the ancient world did not have the same problems
of modern days. Callipateira presented a problem for facility managers
of Ancient Olympia. Although keeping women out of Olympic sites may seem
absurd today, in Ancient Greece these Olympic sites were highly sacred
and only men were allowed in these holy areas. Having seen a woman in
an Olympic arena would have upset the large crowds in the ancient stadia
and arenas, from spectators to athletes. One problem for Ancient Olympic
facility managers was how to keep women out of Olympic sites. The solution
was to have a law passed that future Games must have all trainers strip
prior to entering the arena to verify their gender.
The Olympic Games lasted from 776 B.C. till the 4th century A.D. They
did not begin again until 1896 A.D. as organized sport was not as important
during the middle ages in Europe. Today’s facility managers must
also provide proactive solutions for different contemporary problems such
as refusing entry to drunk patrons, checking patrons for weapons and other
modern day problems.
In what has traditionally been a white male-dominated industry,
there are a growing number of females and minorities assuming the position
of sport manager. This trend is attributed to increasing opportunities
for female and minority participation in sport organizations at various
levels. Such levels include recreational, interscholastic, collegiate,
and professional athletic involvement. It should be noted that coaching
and management opportunities are also increasing. The purpose of this
study was to determine which, if any, demographic variables of age, gender,
or race could significantly predict the frequency of viewing behaviors
of sport-related media for undergraduate sport management students. Based
upon the literature, credibility in a sport management role can be increased
through sport-related media consumption. Fifty-five students in the undergraduate
sport management program at a research extensive university in the Southeastern
United States participated in the study. The instrument, constructed by
the researchers, was a sixteen question survey. Using multiple linear
regression analyses, only one predictor, gender, was found to have a statistically
significant impact upon the frequency of viewing sport-related media (sport
networks). The predictors of age and race were not found to be significant.
Introduction
“Print, radio, television, the Internet: When
it comes to Americans’ media consumption, it seems just about anything
goes.”
Pamela Paul, Targeting Boomers
Due to changes in education as well as the ever-changing ethnic demographic
of America, entertainment interests have changed, particularly with sport
programming (Paul, 2003). The latest U.S. Census Report indicates there
are 38.8 million Hispanics living in America and have replaced African-Americans
as America’s largest racial minority. Numerous studies have been
conducted to address the parallel between demographics and media viewing
behaviors, however research results are still inconclusive (Jack, 1999).
Where much of the media in the past was consumed by males, the trend
is changing. In fact, women have significantly higher levels of television
exposure than their male counterparts (Besley & Shanahan, 2003). In
regard to sport programming, the number of female viewers (who watch television)
is substantial. Recent studies have indicated that women have an increasing
interest in sport events (Shachar & Emerson, 2000).
Women place more importance on personal gratification exemplified by
such things as a comfortable life, pleasure, and happiness, which in turn
is conducive to an increase in their television viewing habits. According
to McCarty & Shrum (1993), “females may perceive a certain amount
of fulfillment of personal gratification through television viewing”
(p. 92). Men on the other hand, do not find fulfillment of such values
as a comfortable life, etc. in watching television (McCarty & Shrum,
1993). Men tend to be more regular readers of newspapers than women (Besley
and Shanahan, 2003). Men have a tendency to obtain information (including
sports) from newspapers as it is a medium that is seen to produce the
most reliable information (Hudson, 2001).
In regard to age and media, research and surveys conducted by Neilsen
Media Research reveal that households headed by people between the ages
of thirty-five and fifty-four comprise 40 percent of all households (Paul,
2003). Furthermore, while much television is targeted to the youth market,
adults between the ages of thirty-five and sixty-four spend an average
of 248 minutes a day watching television. This is 22 minutes more a day,
on average, than adults eighteen to thirty-four (Paul, 2003). “In
general, television viewership increases with age” (p. 25).
The Baby Boomer generation is comprised of 78 million Americans (Paul,
2003). Considering this, many media outlets are consumed by them. “Radio
is more common to the Baby Boomer generation” (p. 26). For the younger
generation, “radio may seem old-school” (p. 26) and therefore
is not considered a substantial outlet for information.
Regarding the Internet, “adults ages 35 – 54 spend more time
online than any other demographic group” (Paul, 2003, p. 26). In
addition to this group being online, many go on the Internet more than
one time a day, with an average of 22.2 days per month versus an average
of 15.2 days per month for 18-24 year olds (Paul, 2003). Fifty-seven percent
of Baby Boomers have access at work, compared with 45 percent of all adults;
69 percent of Baby Boomers have access at home compared with 64 percent
of adults overall (Paul, 2003). Nevertheless, according to the DDB Life
Style Study, 74 percent of adults younger than Baby Boomers believe that
“the Internet is the best place to get information” (p. 26)
and sports is included in this mix.
In the case of print, a study conducted by the National Opinion Research
Center found that 75 percent of those who are aged 65 to 74 read the newspaper
on a daily basis, compared with 42 percent of the total population (Polyak,
2000). As far as television viewing is concerned, the same study found
that 33 percent of those 75 and older watch five or more hours of television
a day on a regular basis, which is more than any other age group (Polyak,
2000).
Much of the media is targeted toward youth. A study that analyzed surveys
and interviews from 8-17 year olds found that at least 61 percent of children
now have a television in their bedroom (Yin, 2004). Seventeen percent
of these children have their own personal computer (Yin, 2004). Regarding
sports and youth, extreme sports have produced the greatest gains in children’s
sport consumption. (American Demographics, 2001).
Young girls tend to favor sports in which other females participate.
Girls are twice as likely as boys to watch women’s basketball (American
Demographics, 2001). Eighty-eight percent of girls like watching the Olympics
with gymnastics and ice skating comprising 78 percent of girls’
interest (American Demographics, 2001). Interestingly, football and basketball
made the list of interest among girls with 68 percent and 67 percent respectively
(American Demographics, 2001).
In contrast, 89 percent of boys tend to be interested in football (American
Demographics, 2001). Twice as many boys as girls enjoy watching boxing
(American Demographics, 2001). Soccer is the one sport that appeared to
be relatively equal among boys and girls (American Demographics, 2001).
In regard to race and media, “people may work together during the
day, but at night they’re immersed in their own culture” (Weissman,
1999, p. 16). The different television habits among blacks and whites
continue to be vastly different. However, although differences in viewing
patterns continue among blacks and whites, the gap is closing. Sports
viewing appears to be a vehicle for closing this gap. Programs such as
Monday Night Football are shown to have similarities in viewing patterns
among racial groups (Weisman, 1996). In regard to television, blacks watch
40 percent more than whites, although this gap too is narrowing (Weisman,
1996).
As the Hispanic population in America is growing, it is particularly
important to note their media viewing patterns. Marketers have recently
taken interest in this ethnic group and the question remains whether English-or
Spanish-language programming provides the best vehicle for reaching Hispanics.
Studies indicate that many Hispanics prefer programs that reflect the
first language in which they learned to speak (Mogelonsky, 1995). Print
media are used less frequently by Hispanics. On average, they (Hispanics)
spend 36 minutes a day reading newspapers, while bilingual Hispanics only
devote about 12 minutes a day reading newspapers (Mogelonsky, 1995).
“The average Latino watches 58.6 hours of television per week,
which is 4.4 hours more than the typical non-Hispanic viewer” (Fetto,
2002, p. 14). It has been noted, according to research studies, that “Hispanics
are passionately devoted to their Spanish-language television networks”
(p. 14). However, Hispanics turn to English-language television for what
they cannot get in Spanish (Fetto, 2002). Many sports attract the greatest
number of Hispanic viewers to the six major English networks, “perhaps
because these programs are virtually nonexistent in the Spanish-language
stations” (p. 15).
While television continues to be the media of choice for Hispanics, newsmagazines
are becoming increasingly popular among this group (Fetto, 2002); however,
print has been traditionally viewed as a challenging medium (Hudson, 2001).
This is due, in part to the splintered audience of the American population,
and no single form of print media can reach everyone (Fetto, 2002).
The country of origin and media usage varies for Latinos. For example,
Cubans read, listen, and watch about 7.4 hours of media a day. Dominicans
spend 10.7 hours a day with media, followed by Central and South Americans
at 10.4 hours a day. Puerto Ricans spend 10.3 hours a day with media,
while Mexicans spend 9.2 hours (Mogelonsky, 1995). Interestingly, Central-American
Hispanics watch the most television, while Cubans spend the most time
reading print materials (Mogelonsky, 1995). Listening to the radio and
reading newspapers are the media of choice for Dominicans (Mogelonsky,
1995).
This study considers which, if any, demographic variables of age, gender,
and race significantly predict the frequency of viewing behaviors of sport-related
media among undergraduate sport management students. It is hypothesized
that the demographic variables are significant in predicting viewing behaviors.
Method
Participants
Fifty-five students in the undergraduate sport management program at a
research extensive university in the Southeastern United States participated
in the study. The sample was made up of 15 females (27.3%) and 37 males
(67.3%). 83.6% were between the ages of 21-25. 30.9% were black, 65.5%
were white, and 3.6% were classified as other. 66.7% earned less than
$15,000 a year. Students were selected by the researchers as they were
representative of the sport management undergraduate program population.
Materials
The instrument, constructed by the researchers, was a sixteen question
survey. It was reviewed by a panel of experts for face validity. The approximate
time given to complete the survey was between 10 to 15 minutes. The content
questions addressed the students’ perceptions on: the importance
of reading and viewing sport-related media in obtaining future job roles
as sport administrators, whether prior or current knowledge of a sport
issue has enhanced academic performance, whether credibility is increased
among peers if they engage in consistent viewing or reading of sports
media, whether current knowledge of the athletic industry will assist
in making future business decisions, whether staying current on athletic
trends can potentially enhance business relationships, whether sports
media outlets are able to contribute to overall professionalism, and the
importance for peers to be knowledgeable on current athletic trends. In
addition, the survey was divided into two categories: 1. reading behaviors
of sport media, which addressed the amount of time spent on Internet resources,
journal articles, magazine articles, newspaper articles, and books. 2.
viewing behaviors of sport media, which addressed the amount of time spent
watching sport movies, sport networks, local sport coverage, and national
sport coverage.
The answers to these content questions were based on a five-point
Likert type scale, with a rating of one indicating strongly agree and
a rating of five indicating strongly disagree. The frequency of viewing
and reading behaviors were also based on a five-point Likert type scale,
with a rating of one indicating never and a rating of five indicating
always.
The researchers assessed the internal reliability of the
survey. The resulting Cronbach’s alpha of .626 (after the variable “journal
article” was deleted from the survey) demonstrates that the survey
was acceptably reliable.
Procedures
The researchers obtained approval from the university’s Institutional
Review Board. Students signed forms stating that their participation in
the study was voluntary. Permission from the students’ instructors
was also obtained. Students were given a survey to complete at the beginning
of class, after a brief description of the study. Ten to fifteen minutes
was given to complete the survey. No students required any type of accommodation
in completing the survey.
Prior to running the statistical analyses, the researchers
determined that the predictors of age, race, and gender should be recoded
as effect-coded variables since they are categorical.
Results
Standard multiple linear regression analyses were conducted
to see which, if any, of the demographic variables could significantly
predict the frequency of viewing behaviors of sport-related media.
Thirty-six usable surveys were included in the statistical
analyses. The mean indicates that the participants on average view sport
networks approximately 4 times a week (Table 1).
Table 1
Sport Network Viewing
Mean
Standard Deviation
Sample Size
Sport Networks
4.41
.84
36
It was indicated that there was a significant correlation among gender
and sport networks with a p<.05. The Pearson Correlation is r=-.624.
The direction of this relationship indicates that females on average,
view fewer sport networks per week than males. Furthermore this r value
indicates a strong relationship between the two variables. No other variables
were significant with a p< .05 (Table 2).
Table 2
Correlations between demographics
Subscale
1
2
3
4
1. Sport Networks
—
.000*
.271
.073
2. Gender
—
.297
.233
3. Age
—
.451
4. Race
—
* p<.05
The multiple correlation coefficient (R) is .65 and the multiple coefficient
of determination (R squared) is .35. This indicates that 35.2% of the
variance is accounted for in the summary. The Durbin Watson statistic
is between 1.5 and 2.5, which suggest normality. The linear combination
of predictors are significant: F(4,35)=5.758, p<.05 (Table 3)
Table 3
Analysis of Variance for Gender
Source
df
F
p
Gender
4
5.758
.001*
Within
31
.458
Total
35
* p<.05
Discussion
The researchers investigated which, if any, of the demographic variables
of age, race, and gender significantly predicted the frequency of viewing
behaviors of sport-related media. The dependant variable, “frequency
of viewing behaviors” was comprised of six behaviors that were representative
of both reading and viewing behaviors of sport media. The behaviors included
sport networks, sport movies, Internet resources, books, newspaper articles,
and magazine articles. Only one behavior, “sport networks”
was found to have any statistical significance. As stated earlier, the
analysis found that only one predictor, “gender” was statistically
significant in predicting the frequency of viewing sport networks among
the sample.
The sample size was relatively small, thus increasing the likelihood
of a Type II error in determining that most predictors did not have a
significant effect on the frequency of viewing sport-related media. The
study targeted undergraduate sport management students at one southeastern
university, thus reducing the pool of participants. Future recommendations
would include expanding the sample size by targeting multiple universities
with similar undergraduate programs. Also, the sample size could be expanded
by targeting graduate students in sport management programs at other universities.
Furthermore, the sample was relatively homogeneous in nature; most participants
were between the ages of 21-25. Another consideration is that homogeneity
existed in regard to all of the participants being enrolled in a sport
management program; it can be assumed that an interest in sports is the
norm. The study could again be expanded by targeting other students in
programs that are non-sport related. Perhaps a comparative analysis could
be conducted to determine the differences in viewing behaviors of sport
management students and non-sport management students.
Regarding the survey, the breadth of questions could be expanded to increase
reliability as well as provide more meaningful insight to the study. The
use of focus groups could also be helpful in determining the researchers’
interest in the factors that contribute to viewing sport media.
The survey questionnaire also revealed that the juxtaposition of reading
and viewing sports-related media is conducive to credibility in the sports
industry. Research studies indicate that education is a factor in determining
the frequency of viewing media in general; it can be surmised that sport
managers are well-educated, thus increasing their engagement in consuming
sport-related media. Future studies could focus on the perceived credibility
of sport administrators who engage regularly in sport media consumption.
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Many social critics have suggested that our heavily mediated sports heroes no longer embody the ideal for adoring adolescents. This study attempts to better understand how American adolescents view these star athletes through statistical comparisons between the images of sports heroes and real and ideal self-concepts. Distances between self-concept and images of sports heroes suggest that sports heroes still embody the ideal in most areas, although not in academics and behavioral conduct.
Introduction
Throughout American history, the sports hero has been a frequently discussed, widely adored, and, particularly in recent years, heavily criticized component of society. Thanks to the invasive nature of modern media, American adolescents are now privileged to an unprecedented amount of information about their favorite star athletes. In addition to spectacular play and positive behaviors, sports fans also learn of various negative characteristics of these stars. Because of this, it has been assumed by many cultural critics that sports heroes no longer epitomize the American ideal as they did for previous generations.
Given the potential influence of today’s sports heroes, particularly with adolescents who admire these glamorized sports stars, gaining a clearer understanding of this construct is an important area of study. Therefore, this research project will address the following research questions:
How do American adolescents view their mediated sports heroes?
Do American adolescents view their sports heroes as ideal in certain areas, such as athleticism, and less ideal in others?
Literature Review
The Sports Hero
Sports has become a popular and vital area in which Americans now find their heroes, a trend that has been propelled through media since before the turn of the 20th century (“Heroes of”, 1990; Ryan, 1995; Nixon, 1984; Oriard, 1982; Simons, 1997; “Role models”, 1989; Andrews & Jackson, 2001; Windfield, 2003). One reason for this is that sports remains one area where true greatness and superior beauty can be found in a complex society (Goodman, 1993). A star athlete, unlike other mediated figures, will have rare moments when they appear to surpass mortal limitations through spectacular, seemingly impossible athletic feats (Nixon, 1984; Oriard, 1982).
The rapid growth of sports television in America has continuously increased emphasis on the American sports hero (McPherson, 1989; Davies, 1994; Harris, 1994; Harris, 1994b; Nixon, 1984; Katz, 1996). In addition to publicizing the modern sports hero, sports programs are presented to emphasize heroic actions, emotions, and personalities of star athletes, creating a strong and unique relationship between viewers and individual star athletes. (Kinkema & Harris, 1992; Coakley, 1994; Hargreaves, 1986; Hilliard, 1984; Sabo & Jensen, 1992). Americans now know more about popular sports figures than ever before, including both their on-the-field and off-the-field activities. The popular sports hero has been demystified, and fans now see greatness as well as imperfection, ranging from spousal abuse to drug use to gambling on sports (Hargreaves, 1986; Harris, 1994a; Hoagland, 1974; Coakley, 1994; McPherson et al., 1989; Messner & Solomon, 1994; Long, 1991; Nack & Munson, 1995; Starr & Samuels, 1997; Wilson & Sparks, 1996).
Despite these imperfections, many theorists still believe the modern, mass-mediated sports figure can be a hero. They have identified several characteristics that are commonly associated with this modern sports hero, including supreme athleticism on the field or court, high winning percentages, the potential to win championships, statistical records, greatness throughout a career, flair and charisma, sportsmanship, and confidence in one’s abilities (Nixon, 1984; Harris, 1994a; Harris, 1994b; Crepeau, 1985; Goodman, 1993; Smith, 1973; Porter, 1983; Starr & Samuels, 1997). Financial success and lucrative commercial endorsement deals are commonly identified qualities of the sports hero, particularly to adolescent boys who aspire to reach similar financial heights through professional athletics (“Michael Jordan’s”, 1991; Weisman, 1993; McDonald & Andrews, 2001; Wilson & Sparks, 1996; Simons, 1997). Theorists also have identified several non-performance-related characteristics of the modern hero, including civic and community involvement, academic accomplishment, strong family ties, and avoiding illegal and immoral behaviors (Walden, 1986; Smith, 1973; Harris, 1994a; Harris, 1994b; Hoagland, 1974; Nixon, 1984; Coakley, 1994).
Off-the-court actions of sports stars may have some impact on heroic classification, but on-the-court excellence has been identified as more instrumental. Nixon explained this, writing, “Wayward athletes may be excused by fans. . . in their lifestyle off the field as long as they work hard and produce on the field and. . . their behavior on or off the field does not depart too much from conventional standards” (1984, p. 174). Additionally, Archetti (2001) noted that sporting heroes can embody different qualities based on the contexts of their accomplishments. Therefore, the individualization of heroes is critical in understanding this social construct.
This study does not further attempt to summarize the universal qualities of the American sports hero, as individuals generally choose their own heroes based on personal needs and wants. This study examines whether the modern American sports hero is still viewed by individual American adolescents as meeting their personal ideal, or, as has been suggested by many, if sports heroes no longer meet this criteria. One potential means of addressing such individual characteristics and values of a sports hero to American adolescents in a standardized and measurable method is to examine self-concept, a foundation for this study.
Self-Concept
Although self-concept has been defined with several slight variations, for this study, this construct will be defined as “myself as I see myself” (Loundon & Bitta, 1979, p. 373; Dolich, 1969; Landon, 1974; Delozier & Tillman, 1972).
Two constructs of self-concept are used in this study, as follows:
The Real Self: An individual’s perception of how he/she actually is (Dolich,
1969; Birdwell, 1964; Ross, 1971; Runyon, 1977; Loundon & Bitta, 1979).
The Ideal Self: An individual’s perception of how he/she would like to be
(Delozier & Tillman, 1972; Loundon & Bitta, 1979; Runyon, 1977; Baughman & Welsh, 1962; Ross, 1971).
The construct “self-concept,” whether real or ideal, includes measures of several distinct domains. Susan Harter’s Self-Perception Profile for Adolescents, a self-concept measure for adolescents, assesses the following eight domains: scholastic competence, social acceptance, athletic competence, physical appearance, job competence, romantic appeal, behavioral conduct, and close friendship (Harter, 1988). These domains are used as the subscales of self-concept for this research.
The use of domains for research on self-concept and sports heroes is crucial because star athletes can display contradictory behaviors in different areas of their life (Starr & Samuels, 1997; Farrey, 1997; Malone, 1993; King, 2005). While no known studies have examined self-concept in reference to the selection of a sports hero, several studies have found consumers to choose products consistent with their self-concepts (Landon, 1974; Sirgy, 1983; Loundon & Bitta, 1979; Runyon, 1977; Hattie, 1992; Delozier & Tillman, 1972; Birdwell, 1964; Ross, 1971; Felker, 1974; Dolich, 1969; Krech et al., 1962). Loundon and Bitta (1979) explained, “Products and brands are considered as objects that consumers purchase either to maintain or to enhance their self-images. The choice of which brand to buy depends on how similar (or consistent) the consumer perceives the brand to be with his or her self-image” (p. 376).
Self-Concept and Mass Media Figures
Little research has addressed the selection of mass media figures with respect to self-concept or other related constructs. Caughley (1984) addressed the perceived relationship between a viewer and an admired media figure, writing, “The appeal is often complex, but the admired figure is typically felt to have qualities that the person senses in himself but desires to develop further. The admired figure represents an ideal self-image” (p. 54). Several authors have suggested that fans may choose favorite sports figures based on their perceived similarities between themselves and the athlete (Wilson & Sparks, 1996; Cole, 1996; Kellner, 1996; Harris, 1994a; Simons, 1997; “Role models”, 1989; Browne et al, 2003).
From the review of literature, the following research hypothesis predicts the place of mediated sports heroes in relation to adolescent self-concept.
Hypothesis
Adolescents choose mediated sports heroes that are closer to their ideal self-concept than to their real self-concept in various domains. This is particularly true for domains that are integral to athletic excellence. Therefore, American mediated sports heroes still epitomize the ideal more than the real self.
Methods
Subjects for Study
Subjects for this study were male high school students in grades nine and ten, approximately aged 14-16. This gender restriction prevents gender from being a confounding variable in data analysis. Additionally, researchers have suggested that male adolescents are more likely to look to mass media figures, including athletic heroes, as role models than are their female counterparts (McEvoy & Erikson, 1981).
Of the 172 valid subjects used for data analysis in this study, 120 subjects were students in a suburban private school, all participants in school athletics. The students from this school were predominantly white, with a small percentage of minorities (Asian, Hispanic, African-American). The remaining 52 subjects were participants in a sports tournament in Houston run through a local community center. These subjects, of the same grade and age parameters as the first 120 subjects, also were participants in school athletics. These subjects share similar demographics traits with the first 120 students, and the data collected from the two groups were virtually identical.
One criticism of this study may be that the students do not represent a diverse sample, decreasing external validity. However, like most studies, this study will not claim to be generalizable to all scenarios, nor is it able to address issues of race, socioeconomic status, and family/home environment.
Procedure
For this study, the image of the sports hero is compared to both one’s ideal image of one’s self, measured as ideal self-concept, and one’s real image of one’s self, or real self-concept. This will be measured across eight domains of self-concept. Therefore, three separate measures must be made. First, subjects must rate their own real self-concept (who I am). Second, subject must rate their ideal self-concept (who I want to be). Finally, subjects must rate the image of their own individually selected sports hero.
The proximity between the image of the sports hero and both the real and ideal self-concepts will be calculated, across all domains, and these distances will be examined. Statistical analysis of these distances will determine whether the image of the sports hero is closer to the ideal or to the real self.
For the measurement of real self-concept, the Adolescent Self-Perception Profile, created by Susan Harter (1988), was used. Five questions address each domain of self-concept (40 questions overall). The reliability of Harter’s test of self-concept has been determined through repeated use and examination of this instrument.
Altered versions of Harter’s test were also used to measure ideal self-concept and perceived image of the sports hero. To measure ideal self-concept, the phrase “how I am” was replaced with “how I would like to be.” Similarly, to measure the image of the sports hero, “who I am” was replaced with “what my sports hero is like.” Such a procedure for altering an existing test in this manner is derived from marketing studies that examine self-concept, product image, and purchase intentions (Dolich, 1969; Delozier & Tillman, 1972; Ross, 1971; Landon, 1974).
Test Administration
Tests were administered to small groups of approximately 10-20 students for each session. After an instructional session, subjects were instructed to pick the one athlete they most considered to be their sports hero. The athlete must be or must have been covered heavily by mass media, and the athlete could not be a personal acquaintance of the subject. Subjects were then instructed to use their individual choice of sports hero as replacement for the generic “sports hero” of the questionnaires.
The three tests were given (real self-concept, ideal self-concept, and image of the sports hero) using one questionnaire and one answer packet, in which students would place their answers for each question of real self-concept next to the counterpart answers for the same question on each of the other two constructs (ideal self, sport hero). The sequence of test administration was identical for all subjects.
Data Analysis
The following analysis was completed with the collected data for this study.
Self-Concept, Image of the Sports Hero, and Distance Scores
For each of the three constructs (real self-concept, ideal self-concept, and image of the sports hero), a mean score was calculated in each of the eight domains of self-concept. Next, distance scores were calculated to measure the distance between self-concept, both real and ideal, and the image of the sports hero. These distance scores indicate the similarity between self-concept (real and ideal) and the image of the sports hero. These two separate sets of distance scores were calculated for each of the eight domains. The distance scores between real self-concept and the image of the sports hero (for all eight domains) are referred to as “real distance scores,” while the distance scores between ideal self-concept and the image of the sports hero are referred to as “ideal distance scores.”
The difference squared model, which squares the difference between each paired set of questions and sums these differences, has been used to measure distance scores (Sirgy, 1983; Osgood et al., 1957). The formula is represented as follows:
Qn, Sp Hero = Question n from the test of the image of the sports hero.
Qn, SC = Question n from the test of self-concept.
The lower the distance score for each domain, the closer the particular domain of self-concept is to the image of the sports hero in that domain.
To determine whether the image of the sports hero fell closer to the ideal self than the real self, t-tests were used to look for a significant difference between ideal distance scores and real distance scores in each of the eight domains. These t-tests would determine whether the sports hero fell significantly closer to the ideal self than the real self in each of the eight domains, as hypothesized in this study.
Results
Chosen Sports Heroes
Ninety-nine different athletes were chosen as sports heroes for the 172 subjects, demonstrating a diversity of heroes. Broken down by sport, baseball players were chosen by the largest number of subjects (57), followed by basketball (43) and football (21). Because many of the subjects for this study were participants in a baseball tournament, the large number of subjects selecting baseball players is not surprising. Only one of the 172 male subjects chose a female sports hero, stressing both the importance of perceived similarity and of media coverage in the selection of a sports hero.
The sheer number of different athletes chosen (99) is notable. This suggests a large number of available sports heroes for adolescents and refutes the idea that only a small group of popular athletes are chosen as heroes. This also suggests that adolescents still play an active part in the selection of their sports heroes.
Self-Concept and Image of the Sports Hero
The results for the tests of self-concept, both real and ideal, are detailed in Tables 1 and 2. T-Tests confirmed a significant difference between real and ideal self-concept in each domain.
The results for the tests of the image of the sports hero are detailed in Table 3. For the image of the sports hero, the athletic domain had the highest mean score, followed by job competence, clearly also related to athletics. As with both types of self-concept, the behavior domain received the lowest mean score. Such results suggest a view of sports heroes which place a premium on supreme athletic competence, yet allow for lower levels of competence in non-athletic areas, particularly in the ability to behave in the right way.
The image of the sports hero fell in-between the real and ideal self-concepts for seven of the eight domains. The only domain for which this was not true was the behavior domain, where the mean score of the sports hero fell below both the ideal and the real self-concepts. Therefore, these subjects felt their sports hero typically falls somewhere between who they are and who they would like to be for all areas except for the behavioral domain. Subsequent analysis will determine whether the hero is significantly closer to the ideal self than the real self, as hypothesized.
Distance Scores
The 16 distance scores (eight real and eight ideal) are reported in Table 4. The lower the distance score for each domain, the closer the particular domain of self-concept is to the image of the sports hero in that domain.
Of the 16 distance scores, the six domain scores with the lowest mean scores were ideal distance scores. Additionally, eight of the ten distance scores with the highest mean scores were real distance scores, the exception being Ideal Scholastic Distance, which had the highest mean score of all. In all but one domain, Scholastic Achievement, the ideal distance score was smaller than the real distance score, meaning the sports hero was closer to the ideal self than the real self for that domain. Cronbach’s Alpha coefficients of reliability ranged from .5263 for Real Job Distance to .7655 for Real Friend Distance and from .5753 for Ideal Athletic Distance to .7320 for Ideal Friend Distance. This and average item-to-total correlations greater than .3 except for Real Job Distance (.2966) indicate that these 16 distance scores were reliable measures of the distance between self-concept and the image of the sports hero.
Comparison of Real Distance Scores to Ideal Distance Scores
The hypothesis predicted that the ideal self-concept would be closer than the real self-concept to the image of the sports hero, or that these subjects would perceive their heroes as closer to their ideal than their real self. T-Tests were done with distance scores for each of the eight domains. The results are detailed Table 5.
The hypothesis was supported for six of the eight domains of self-concept. These subjects perceived their sports heroes as closer to their ideal self than their real self in the following six domains: athletic competence, close friendship, job competence, physical appearance, romantic appeal, and social acceptance. The only two domains for which this is not true are the behavior domain and the scholastic domain. In fact, the scholastic domain is the only one of the eight domains where the image of the sports hero is actually closer to the real self-concept than the ideal self-concept, reflecting both a high ideal academic self-concept and a correspondingly low image of the sports hero’s competence in academic areas. For six of the areas of self-concept, however, it can be stated that the sports hero more closely approximates the ideal self, or who these subjects want to be, than the real self, or who these subjects currently perceive themselves to be.
Conclusions
In contrast to the opinions of many cultural theorists, the results from this research indicate that the sports hero does approach our ideal in most areas. Obviously, this might be expected for areas such as athletic competence, job competence, and physical appearance. The subjects in this study also viewed their sports heroes as closer to their ideal self in areas of romantic appeal, friendship, and social acceptance. Therefore, the modern American mediated sports hero, at least from the perspective of these adolescents, approaches the ideal in several areas that are not athletic or physical.
Conversely, in the domains of scholastic competence and behavioral conduct, these adolescents did not significantly find their sports heroes to approximate their ideal self more than their real self. Media coverage of the frequent negative behaviors of star athletes has likely contributed to this result. Further, with an increasing number of star athletes leaving school early and frequent reports of academic scandal involving athletes, adolescents may be increasingly less likely to view their sports heroes as ideal scholars who exhibit ideal behavior.
From these results, several general conclusions can be made. First, these adolescents view the mediated sports hero not a singular construct, but rather a complex entity. Athletes who are stars on the court yet less noteworthy off it can still be viewed as heroic, as fans seem capable of discerning the complexity and incongruity of their characters. Second, individuals have their own individual heroic choices and their own perspectives on what is truly ideal. Because of this, it is less important to examine whether the mediated sports hero measures up to a singular, societal measure of the ideal than it is to examine how individual sports heroes measure up to individual perceptions of the ideal. In a fragmented society with endless media outlets, this design allows for a more accurate assessment of the true social position of this figure.
Third, because mediated sports heroes do not measure up to the ideal in the scholastic and behavioral domains, questions should be raised over the possible influence of American sports heroes. Given the potential for these heroes to serve as role models for adolescents, it would be hoped that sports heroes would serve as ideal role models in these critical areas. While it is expected that the hero would serve as an ideal model in athletic and social areas, it is the scholastic and behavioral domains that provide a critical need for superior role models. For these popular figures to fall short in these two important domains is worrisome. Future research into the area of mediated sports heroes should examine the potential role modeling influence of the modern American sports hero, particularly as it relates to the ideal and less-than-ideal components of this popular figure.
Finally, researchers should pay attention to the function of media to translate meaning about popular sports figures. Clearly, the subjects for this study developed ideas about many areas of their favorite athletes, and these ideas were largely driven by media images and messages. With the increasing availability of information about popular athletes through endless new media technologies, researchers should attempt to understand where adolescents find their information about popular athletes, the types of media they use, and the messages sent through those mediated sources.
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The leisure, recreation and sport industries in Canada, as has been the
case in most nations throughout the world, have been subject to globalization
and corporate influence. In recent years, the number of small sized leisure,
recreation and sport enterprises (i.e., family or individually owned sport
stores or health clubs) have drastically been reduced as large corporations
such as Play It Again Sports and Goodlife Fitness have cornered the Canadian
Market from coast to coast.
Although globalization and corporate influence may present some ease
to consumers, in the sense that standardization exists and there are no
surprises in respect to what you expect to purchase and what you actually
receive, the “quality of services” is subject to question.
When personal services such as leisure, recreation and sports become subject
to big corporations, focus on the individual consumer may become lost
in the shuffle as individual needs are often overlooked.
Despite recent globalization and corporate trends in Canada, the desire
to establish small enterprises continues to exist, particularly among
the young and immigrant populations. In 2000, David Foot reported that
the “millennium busters” are the largest cohort after baby
boomers in Canada, meaning that this population will enter the work force
in the next 10-15 years. Moreover, Statistics Canada reported in 2003
that immigration to Canada is the highest it has been in 70 years. What
does this growth in the number of young Canadians and immigrants mean
for the future of small sized leisure, recreation and sport enterprises
in Canada? Historically, many of Canada’s small enterprises have
been owned and operated by young Canadians and immigrants. If this continues
to be the case in the future, what will be the strengths, weaknesses,
opportunities and threats for the existence of such enterprises?
The purpose of this study is to present the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities
and threats for the future for small sized leisure, recreation and sports
enterprises in Canada. To fulfill this purpose, this paper is divided
into three parts: (1) social trends in Canada, (2) small sized leisure,
recreation and sport enterprises in Canada, and (3) a SWOT for small sized
leisure, recreation and sport enterprises in Canada.
Social Trends in Canada
Recent trends in Canada indicate that: (1) Canada is an aging society
with the largest cohort – baby boomers (born between 1946 and 1966) entering
senior years, (2) Canadians are experiencing a good quality of life and
have a sound health care system thus living longer as mortality rates
have declined, (3) immigration has reached the highest level it has been
in the past 70 years (The Daily, 2003), (4) low fertility rates continue,
(5) a consistent growth of the young adult population is taking place,
and (6) the Canadian work force is aging (Chui, 1996).
Education trends revealed by Statistics Canada (1996) indicate that the
education level of Canadians is increasing as the number of Canadians
having completed university is greater than the number of Canadians with
less than grade 9 education. Moreover, more than 10% of Canadians have
graduated a university (Statistics Canada, 1996).
The early 2000s, as did the early 1990s, were difficult time periods
for the Canadian economy as Canadians faced an economic recession. Cutbacks
in government social programs took place and unemployment rates were high.
However, despite less discretionary income Canadians continued to spend
more on consumer goods and services. In the past decade for instance,
spending by Canadians on consumer goods and services jumped from $14,801
to $16,533. Yet, a portion of this spending was financed by credit as
the volume of consumer debt continued to increase in the 1990s (Williams,
2000).
Research by Crompton (2000) reveals that the general overall level of
health of Canadians is increasing with each generation. “Advances
in public health measures and sanitary control, pharmaceuticals and medical
technology in the 20th century have had a dramatic effect on the overall
level of health in Canada” (Crompton, 2000: 17). In fact, the World
Health Organization forecasts that the average lifespan of Canadians will
increase to 81 years of age by the year 2025.
Urbanization has continued to increase in Canada as fewer people are
living in rural areas. Of note however, a recent trend in living patterns
shows that some Canadians have moved back to smaller cities and towns
in order to experience country living (Foot and Stoffman, 1998).
The number of young adults living at home is increasing (Boyd and Norris,
1999) as is the number of young people choosing to get married later in
life. Statistics Canada (1992) reveals that the average age of first marriage
for men is 29 whereas for women it is 27. Furthermore, the number of common-law
unions, divorces, remarriages and Canadians living alone has also increased
(Oderkirk, 2000: Clark, 2002).
The structure and nature of the work force in Canada has also changed
tremendously in the past 30 years both in size and structure as the number
of self-employed Canadians has increased. Technology has also impacted
changes in the work force as computers have taken the place of skilled
workers. Moreover, knowledge and skill to use the computer and the internet
have become a necessity in most jobs (Dickenson and Ellison, 1999).
Canadians appear to be working more hours and spending less time on leisure
and recreation (DeMont, 1999) as changes in the service sector continue
to take place. A growing trend in Canada that has occurred in the commercial
and public sectors is amalgamation. Another trend has been for two or
more service sectors to work together to provide a service or services.
A third prevalent trend is “contracting out” as many government
organizations have contracted out sites and services to the commercial
sector.
Small Sized Leisure, Recreation and Sport Enterprises
in Canada
In Canada, thousands of small sized leisure, recreation and sport enterprises
exist making it virtually impossible to list all. Furthermore, it would
be difficult to also provide an all-inclusive classification of all small
sized leisure, recreation and sport enterprises in Canada as the scope
of these enterprises is diverse and complex.
Nonetheless, research by Bullaro and Edginton (1986) attempts to provide
an all-inclusive classification system of enterprises that exist in the
leisure, recreation and sport industries. For Bullaro and Edginton (1986),
five classifications of leisure, recreation and sport enterprises exist.
These are: (1) travel and tourism, (2) entertainment services, (3) leisure
services in the natural environment, (4) hospitality/food services, and
(5) retail activities.
Travel and tourism enterprises refer to everything from tour operators
and animation to “sport tourism events.” Entertainment services
encompass the performing arts, theatre, and sports events such as baseball
and football games at all levels. Leisure services in the natural environment
refer to activities such as sport fishing, sailing and hiking. Hospitality/food
services is a classification that is used to refer to hotels, restaurants,
camp sites and the “cottage experience.” Whereas, retail services
refers to commercial, privately operated enterprises such as health clubs,
golf clubs and sport fitness and equipment shops.
Research by McIntosh and Goeldner (1984) provides a different classification
of leisure, recreation and sport enterprises. For McIntosh and Goeldner
(1984) four classifications of leisure, recreation and sport enterprises
exist. These four areas are (1) transportation, (2) accommodations, (3)
shopping, and (4) activities. Transportation is the term used to refer
to all tourist oriented services that are movement-driven such as airlines
and trains, buses and automobile. “Accomodations” is a related
term to the aforementioned that concentrates once again on tourism services,
particularly those of hospitality, i.e., hotels, lodging, resorts, etc.
The third classification, shopping, refers to the sales industry of leisure,
recreation and sport – everything from gymnasiums and fitness centers
to fitness shops. Finally, “activities” reflects the actual
services provided by leisure, recreation and sport industries, i.e., bowling,
squash or weightlifting.
While reflecting on the research of Bollaro and Edginton (1984) and McIntosh
and Goeldner (1984), the following four classifications of small sized
leisure, recreation and sport enterprises have been put together. It is
important to note that these classifications have been put together in
attempt to categorize the broad magnitude of small sized enterprises,
meaning those that consist of less than fifty employees with an “owner-in-shop.”
Tourism:
Small sized leisure, recreation and sport enterprises that fall under
the “tourism” category are “travel-oriented” services
that are owned and operated by families or individuals and that consist
of less than fifty paid employees. These services refer to everything
from family operated inns and bed and breakfasts to “mini-van”
excursions and the operation of touristic souvenir shops. The focus of
“tourism” small sized enterprises is on providing a service
that caters to visitors, that is those who travel more than 100km from
their place of origin.
Outdoors:
The “outdoor” category engulfs all leisure, recreation and
sport activities that one experiences in the natural environment. The
“outdoor” small sized enterprises include the operation of
family-owned “mini-golf” parks, private hiking tours, and
bird-watching excursions. The focus of the “outdoor” classification
is on the provision of services that tend to be provided one-on-one or
to small groups of people with the ultimate intent of financial profit.
Entertainment:
Entertainment is a classification used to describe the “staging
of a show, activity or performance.” Although we tend to identify
“entertainment” in large scales (i.e., internet, mega stadiums
holding professional sport events, national arts centres, etc.), “entertainment”
experiences also take place on a much smaller scale. For example, small
sized entertainment industries include party clowns, street musicians,
artists, and musical bands operated by a group of friends.
Facilities and Equipment:
The “facilities and equipment” classification is broad and
diverse offering many different avenues for the existence of small sized
leisure, recreation and sport enterprises. Some examples of small sized
“facilities and equipment” services include the following:
(1) bicycle repair shops, (2) piano lessons at the private residence of
the instructor, (3) individually owned fitness clubs, (4) privately owned
pool halls, and (5) family owned “sports bars-restaurants”.
A SWOT for Small Sized Leisure, Recreation and Sport Enterprises
in Canada
Current social trends in Canada are used to predict what may unfold in
the future in Canada. Through an examination of current social trends
and an overview of demographic shifts a prediction of the strengths, weaknesses,
opportunities and threats that face the existence of small sized leisure,
recreation and sport enterprises in Canada for the future (up to 2020)
is put forth.
Strengths:
People will continue to desire personal service, particularly as
more and more people are choosing to live alone.
The need to be served coupled by the need to experience “social
activities” will provide an avenue for growth in small sized leisure,
recreation and sport organizations. We have an innate need to be with
others, and the social nature of leisure, recreation and sport experiences
helps us fulfill our social needs.
The coming of work age of the “millennium busters” will
once again crowd the work force enticing the expansion of small sized
enterprises.
The “baby boomers” are now aging and have started to exit
the work force. The “bust” and “echo” age cohorts
simply do not have the numbers of the “baby boomers” and
thus less people enter the work force. The “millennium busters”,
(1996-2010), although not expected to be quite as large as the “baby
boomers”, will be the first generation since the “baby boomers”
to congest the work force. More people will mean new opportunities for
small sized leisure, recreation and sport services.
The need to live in the suburbs will lead to the creation of small
sized enterprises.
The expansion of suburban communities is a growing phenomenon in Canada
as people are choosing to live outside of the urban centre. New communities
mean that new opportunities for growth and development will exist. The
development of small sized leisure, recreation and sport enterprises
has tremendous potential as new communities emerge.
The growth of immigration will enhance the number of small sized
enterprises as “new Canadians” have always pursued the entrepreneurial
dream.
Immigration in Canada is currently the highest it has been in the past
70 years. A large number of these immigrants are young and have aspiring
entrepreneurial dreams and innovative ideas that may lead to the creation
of new small sized leisure, recreation and sport enterprises.
The fact that society is more “technological” will aid
in the provision of small sized enterprises. One of the strengths for
expansion of small sized leisure, recreation and sport enterprises in
Canada stems from our exposure to novel ideas through the internet.
Today’s young are technological progressed and have managed to
shrink the world by learning more about the international community
through the internet. It is possible that many of these young Canadians
will bring international experiences acquired through the internet into
the Canadian business world through the establishment of small sized
leisure, recreation and sport enterprises.
Weaknesses:
The expansion of large corporations and “mega-stores”
will make it difficult for small enterprises to survive.
A number of chain businesses continue to crowd the Canadian market.
For example, “Goodlife Fitness”, a Canadian based franchise,
has opened a number of health clubs in just about every region in Canada.
The incentive for membership is that you can participate in any of there
gyms throughout Canada. In addition, its mega structure and diverse
scope of facilities make it difficult for small sized health clubs to
compete.
Lack of skill, knowledge and experience by young entrepreneurs may
lead to the closing of small sized enterprises.
Many who start small sized leisure, recreation or sport enterprises
often lack skill, knowledge and experience in the business world. Although
they may be experts in the nature of the leisure, recreation or sport
service that they offer, the lack of “real” business experience
may lead to the demise of their small sized enterprise.
Cutbacks in government social programs may lead to reduced public
sector support (i.e., grants) for the expansion of small sized enterprises.Since the 1980s a number of publicly subsidized social programs have
been reduced or eliminated in Canada. Many of these programs aided the
development of small sized leisure, recreation and sport enterprises
in Canada. It is unlikely that social programs eliminated or reduced
in Canada will once again be re-established by 2020.
The fact that the more senior sector of society may lack computer
skills may limit the magnitude of the type of small sized enterprises
created by the younger sector of society.
It is highly probable that the computer literate young population of
society will be hindered in its technological innovation of small sized
leisure, recreation and sport enterprises as a growing concern exists
to cater the needs of aging “baby boomers” (many whom are
not computer literate). The growth of small sized leisure, recreation
and sport enterprises may thus be restricted to a more basic nature
rather than an innovative one requiring the use of computer skills.
The diversity of experiences and services offered by large corporations
will entice society, particularly the “haves” to experience
the services of larger enterprises.
It usually is the case that organizations that have the capital tend
to also have the most up-to-date facilities, services and equipment.
The largest cohort of society, the “baby boomers” is not
only aging, they are also aging with more discretionary income and in
better health condition than previous generations. As a result, the
experiences and services of larger pricy corporations may be the preferred
choice of “baby boomers” when it comes time to fulfill leisure,
recreation and sport needs.
Opportunities:
The trend of “contracting out” by the public sector will
present some opportunities to small sized enterprises.
Although this may not be the case for larger more lucrative enterprises
such as ski resorts or golf clubs, it may be the case with smaller leisure,
recreation and sport enterprises such as wave pools and tennis clubs.
As government organizations continue to strive to balance deficits,
contracting out opportunities will likely continue to expand.
The fact that more and more Canadians are becoming higher educated
will aid in the creation of new, innovative small sized enterprises.The number of Canadians who have graduated a university continues to
growth. Canada as a nation is now more educated than ever before. This
expanded knowledge-base will lead to the creation of innovative ideas
and opportunities for small sized leisure, recreation and sport enterprises.
Cutbacks in government social programs will open a window of opportunities
for the creation of new small sized enterprises.
The elimination or reduction of publicly operated leisure, recreation
and sport services will lead to opportunities for the development of
such services, particularly in the private sector. The creation of small
sized leisure, recreation and sport enterprises that cater to the leisure,
recreation or sport needs of society that were once fulfilled through
public sector programs, poses an opportunity for growth.
The “desire to spend, be entertained and experience something
new” will pose new opportunities for small sized enterprises.Mass media bombards us with new ideas, new experiences and new knowledge.
In addition, a global emphasis has been placed on the pursuit of the
“good life” and “spending to experience,” particularly
when it comes to leisure, recreation and sport. A new opportunity is
thus presented to the private sector for the creation of innovative
small sized leisure, recreation and sport enterprises.
“Downsizing and amalgamation” will cause loss of public
sector jobs and will lead individuals toward creating small sized enterprises.The amalgamation experience of cities and towns of the late 1990s and
early 2000s has led to job loss and unemployment. Many individuals who
have lost jobs possess a wealth of experience in the leisure, recreation
and sport industries. This wealth of experience has in some cases been
put to practice through the creation of small sized leisure, recreation
and sport enterprises. In the future, the limited number of public sector
employment opportunities in leisure, recreation and sport will lead
some of those trained in these areas to the establishment of small sized
leisure, recreation and sport enterprises.
Threats:
Inflation and rising costs may limit the spending power of society
and the potential to experience private sector small sized leisure,
recreation and sport enterprises.
When prices go up one of the first industries to suffer is leisure,
recreation and sport. When a purchasing choice has to be made, the necessities
of food, water, shelter and transportation take precedence over leisure,
recreation and sport. As prices for leisure, recreation and sport services
continue to increase so does the threat to the expansion of this industry,
including small sized leisure, recreation and sport enterprises.
The lack of discretionary income may limit the amount allotted to
spending on small sized leisure, recreation and sport enterprises.
The spending power of society determines to what extent we participate
in leisure, recreation and sport services. Although Canadians do value
leisure, recreation and sport, the fear to overextend and spend beyond
ones means may limit involvement in this industry. Unless more disposable
income becomes available to Canadians, a threat will continue to exist
for the expansion of small sized leisure, recreation and sport enterprises
as the Canadian public will be more restrictive in its spending patterns.
Since the 1970s, the start of each decade has experienced an economic
recession.
This trend may threaten parts of the next 20 years, possibly, the onset
of the 2010s and the 2020s. The mere fact that the economy is unstable
will without doubt impact the state of condition of society as a whole,
and the distribution of monies in all industries, including leisure,
recreation and sport.
The ongoing threat of terrorism has hindered the growth and existence
of many small sized tourism enterprises.
Since September 11, 2001, the threat of terrorist attacks has grown.
Industries such as tourism have largely been impacted by this threat
as people have become reluctant to travel. As a result, leisure, recreation
and sport services related to tourism have suffered and likely will
continue to suffer. This is the case not only for large enterprises
but for small sized ones as well.
The fear that Quebec may one day separate from Canada continues to
exist, meaning that growth in small sized enterprises may be limited.Those wishing to establishing small sized leisure, recreation and sport
enterprises may be reluctant to do so when hearing than one of the provinces
of the nation may decide to one day separate. In the case of Quebec,
some aspiring young entrepreneurs in or around Quebec may be reluctant
to establish small sized leisure, recreation and sport enterprises due
to fear of what may happen if Quebec indeed separates.
Conclusion
Although it is difficult to predict the future of the existence and
development of small sized leisure, recreation and sport enterprises in
Canada, this paper presents the possible strengths, weaknesses, opportunities
and threats that this area of the service sector may face based on current
social and demographic trends. Based on what is currently happening in
Canada, socially and demographically, it may be that the future will unfold
an expansion, at least to some degree in small sized leisure, recreation
and sport industries, particularly as the number of young, better educated
Canadians expands. However, one of the biggest weaknesses and threats
will continue to be instability in the economy. Lack of money and the
distribution of capital may hinder the development of small sized leisure,
recreation and sport enterprises in Canada.
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This paper explores the advent of a transactional leadership
paradigm in sports antiquity. Specifically, an athlete’s reaction
to means and types of intrinsic/extrinsic motivation is explored via relevant
leadership praxis. Resultant achievements on the athletic field of play
(stadion) are examined via review of an athlete’s reaction to: (a)
external influence, (b) preparation, (c) training, (d) coaching, and (e)
an established path to victory/defeat. The reactions are explored via
the dimensions of a contingent reward structure and the implications for
its adoption in order to succeed and become victorious at ancient Olympia.
The paper concludes with a summary discussion of the proffered transactional
paradigm existent in sport, and an athlete’s adherence to or subsequent
rejection of said paradigm to mediate his/her success.
Introduction
With some of the earliest accounts of sport beginning in
the fourth century; the history of sport has it’s underpinnings
in antiquity (Sansone, 1988; Valavanis, 2004; Woff, 1999). This paper
suggests a typology of “transactional leadership” as a forerunner
to the seminal theory offered later by James MacGregor Burns (Bass, 1985;
Burns, 1978). Utilizing ancient sources, this inquiry begins with the
exploration of contingent reward structure, active management by exception,
and a passive management by exception paradigm (Bass, 1985; Yukl, 2002).
In accordance with the constructs mentioned above, the advent of transactional
leadership begins via the emergence of professionalism in ancient sport
and a subsequent decline of competition simply for its benefit (Rigauer,
1981).
Summary lessons gleaned from this inquiry suggest: (a) An
athlete’s level of cognitive schema with regard to leader behavior
serves as a predictor of an athlete’s successful performance, (b)
an athlete’s successful performance is moderated by acceptance or
rejection of a transactional leadership paradigm, and (c) a certain modicum
of agreeableness must be present in order to thrive in sports specific
transactional relationships (Raglin, 2001). While this paper is conceptual
in nature; the study of transactional leadership upon athletes suggests
opportunities for future research.
Transactional Leadership
Burn’s (1978) seminal work served to promulgate two
types of leadership orientation theories, transformational and transactional
leadership. Transformational leadership is predicated on the leader’s
ability, “…to move those influenced to transcend their own
self-interests for the good of the group, organization, or country”
(Bass, 1985, p. 15). Complimentary to transformational leadership is the
theory of transactional leadership, which identifies the leader as the
catalyst for expectations, goals, and provision of recognition and rewards
when a task is completed (Bass, 1985). Transactional leadership serves
as the pathway to “contingent reinforcement”. Whereby, the
leader and follower agree on the necessary path to achieve the reward
or avert punishment (Bass, 1985; Bass & Avolio, 1994; Burns, 1978).
As a caveat, reinforcement usually portends a follower’s compliance;
however, a follower will not always act in their own best interests. For
example, in sport; transactional leadership offers a cognitive framework
which helps to explain an athlete’s willingness to subject their
body to serious injury and possibly death. Furthermore, athletes appear
to be able to call forth a level of conation that allows them to compete
even in pain. Otto Graham of the Cleveland Browns football team serves
as an example. “Hobbled by a cracked rib, he came off the bench
at his coach’s request and ran and passed his lethargic team to
victory” (Natali, 2001, p. 22). Obviously, a heightened level of
commitment to achieve the reward is paramount to an athlete’s success.
Passive management by exception
Passive management by exception suggests a hands-off leadership
approach until a subordinate or follower elicits a need for an intervention.
However, this management style creates only an opportunity for negative
feedback. Hall of fame coach Paul Brown frequently engaged in passive
management by exception. “…after an interception thrown by one
of his quarterbacks, Coach Brown walked up to him and whispered in his
ear “You’ll never, never, ever get a chance to throw that pass again”
(Bell, 1991, p. 91). This example illustrates the transactional agreement
which existed between Coach Brown (leader) and his players (followers),
whereby the followers received a reward based upon their performance or
alternatively they received a swift corrective action (The player mentioned
was traded the next day) based on their inability to perform.
Active management by exception
A leader’s willingness to intervene only when something
goes wrong is a shared construct in both active management by exception
and passive management by exception. However, the theory of “active
management by exception” did not appear until five years after Bass’s
1985 higher order construct of transformational leadership (Bass &
Avolio, 1990). In active management by exception there is a divergence
with regard to rule enforcement after a mistake is encountered. For example,
if an active plan of correction is in place prior to a mistake then the
infraction may be viewed differently by the leader. The final component
of leadership associated with transactional leadership is “Laissez-faire
Leadership” (Yukl, 2002, p. 254). This latent stage of the theory
suggests levels of passivity in the leader’s approach that are both
ineffective and border on indifference toward the follower.
Path goal theory
The effectiveness of contingent reward is predicated on
a follower’s anticipated value of the perceived reward. For this
reason, “path-goal theory” is appropriate when offering a
salient methodology associated with contingent reward (Bass, 1985; House,
1971). House (1971) intimates that path-goal theory is comprised of, “…increasing
personal payoffs to subordinates for work-goal attainment, and making
the path to these pay-offs easier to travel by clarifying it, reducing
roadblocks and pitfalls, and increasing the opportunities for personal
satisfaction en route” (p. 324). Furthermore, as the path to goal
attainment by the follower is illuminated and made accessible by the leader,
the opportunities for personal satisfaction are more accessible to the
follower (Bass, 1985).
A key determinate in the path-goal theory of motivation is related to
the leader’s ability to intervene in the sequences of goal clarity,
and guidance. “…the leader creates a supportive environment of
logical support, warmth, friendliness, and helpfulness by doing such things
as being friendly and approachable and looking out for the welfare of
the group” (House, 1971, p. 321). In summary; path-goal theory helps
to explain how contingent reward works and establishes the next section
of inquiry.
Sport in Antiquity
The Isthmian games were recognized as one of the four Pan-Hellenic
(all Greek) festivals, second in importance only to the Olympic Games
which were inaugurated in 776 B.C. In contrast to the Olympic Games which
honored Zeus as the patron deity, the Isthmian games were instituted to
honor Poseidon in 580 B.C. (Steven G. Miller, 2004; Palaeologos, 1964).
Isthmia holds special significance due to its bi-annual competition and
its importance as a trade port situated directly on the eastern side of
the Peloponnesus. The sanctuary of Poseidon where the games took place
was situated on one of the most important crossroads of ancient Greece,
the Isthmos (Golden, 1998). It’s significance is related to the
brevity between festivals and the inclusion of events such as the pentathlon,
chariot races, and horseracing (Broneer, 1999). Midway through the second
century B.C., the Isthmian Games came under the control of Corinth due
to maritime trade benefits and overseas colonization. Corinth subsequently
became renowned throughout the world for its ability to offer trade and
ease of passage (Woff, 1999). However, this renowned status would lead
to Corinth’s destruction by the Romans in 146 B.C., due to jealousy
and a need for subjugation (Grant, 2005). It was not until 44 B.C. by
the proclamation of Julius Caesar that Corinth was able to host the games
once again (Kyle, 2004). Despite the turmoil and implications of war,
the Games continued to evolve with Isthmia crafting the first “hysplex”
(starting gate) and embracing sports as a paradigm commensurate with culture
(Swaddling, 1980).
Sadly, participation in the games merely for enjoyment quickly
became a relic with the advent of professionalism in sport and society.
“The winner of the boys stadion race at the Panathenaea at Athens
received fifty amphoras of olive oil worth the equivalent of $45,000 US
dollars today” (Golden, 1998, p. 142) . Furthermore, the athlete
that did not win in the games was subject to abject disgrace and possible
retribution by their coach and judges. “You who have worked hard
enough to qualify for Olympia, ridding from your lives whatever is idle
and cowardly-proceed. Those who have not trained themselves to this level-let
them wander where they please” (Spivey, 2004, p. 78). Perhaps the
most glaring evidence for the untenable pressure to receive the “contingent
reward” is found in Perrottet’s (2004) account of an athlete
at the games:
Arrhichion: in the final of 564 B.C., was caught in a
lethal ladder hold and was expiring from asphyxiation. Inspired by a
shout from his coach, Arrhichion managed to roll over and give his opponent’s
foot a savage twist. The opponent raised the finger of surrender just
as Arrhichion died (p. 172).
In the next section; the evolution of sport reveals the
coming foundation of transactional leadership and the resultant far reaching
implications for sport in modernity.
Sport and society
Why then is the evolution of sport via a transactional paradigm
important to society? Sport has the ability to transcend all social and
cultural constraints (Yurdadon, 2005). Furthermore, the structure, forms
of behavior and interaction found in sport settings are similar to those
found in other societal settings. In other words, sport is a microcosm
of society (Frey & Eitzen, 1991; Golden, 1998). However, in day-to-day
societal functioning it does not simply end there; there are eternal constructs
that imply a preferred path or a direct relationship between the very
nature of sport and biblical instructions for humanity (Connor, 2002).
For example, the apostle Paul alludes to this very premise as he exhorts
the Corinthians with the following timeless metaphor “Do you not
know that in a race all the runners run but only one gets the prize? Run
in such a way as to get the prize” 1 Cortihians 9:24 (NIV). Indeed,
sport as a product of social reality is capable of communicating at a
level which cannot be ignored.
Emerging from this social reality is the positive concept
of “arête” which denotes (a) skill, (b) prowess, (c)
pride, and (d) excellence (Miller, 2004b). The term does not merely convey
lofty adjectives, instead it reveals a level of influence that permeates
the very existence of sport and society (Golden, 1998). Furthermore, this
level of influence is revealed in the co-existence of sport and culture
in antiquity. “…education in antiquity was set in the gymnasium,
[where] the Akademy [sic] of Plato was first and foremost a place of exercise
for the body” (Miller, 2004a, p xi). The confluence of athletics
with education reveals the interwoven concept of sport and society, whereby
the two can no longer be mutually exclusive.
In direct contrast to the example “arête”
mentioned above, the evolution of negative influences in sport and society
provides the basis for an athlete’s willingness to ascribe to a
level risk taking that is both dangerous and suggestive of cognitive dissonance.
“Those athletes who chose death over defeat were always highly revered”
(Miller, 2004a, p. 29). The preceding example served to portend the gradual
loss of athletic innocence that would herald the adoption of succeed at
all costs mentality still present today.
Bill Romanowski typifies the very nature and resolve of
an athlete from antiquity and their willingness to attain the “contingent
reward” at all costs. “Despite the effects of my first NFL
concussion, I never before experienced an injury that would remove me
from a game. Each play meant so much to me that to miss even one was like
a death sentence” (Romanowski & Schefter, 2005, p. 59). Romanowski’s
account is not too different from my own personal schema during my tenure
in the NFL. As an athlete you want to achieve the desired goals as set
forth by your coach, and quite possibly you are willing to do anything
to achieve the desired result. For example, during a conversation with
Coach Bill Parcells his assertion that “Carthen, unless you get
out there and hit somebody your going to get sent home” (B. Parcells,
personal communication, April 1994) elicited such a need to disprove his
statement that I was willing to do anything for the contingent reward,
i.e., viciously hit someone. While it may not constitute definitive research;
my NFL playing experience provides anecdotal evidence that affirms the
presence of a transactional paradigm in sport.
Continuing with the discussion of influence; the ability
of an individual to influence another individual or a group’s behavior
at any given time, suggests far reaching implications for that individual’s
locus of control (Stuntz & Weiss, 2003; Yukl, 2002). For example,
in antiquity the level of influence that a “Hellanodikai”
(coach) was able to wield provided the extrinsic motivation, leadership,
and influence necessary for an athlete’s achievement of targeted
goals. During the Olympic festival “…they could impose fines or
order whippings, and all of their decisions were final; only an appeal
to the Olympic council could overturn them, a move no athlete would take
lightly” (Perrottet, 2004b, p. 42). I posit that Bass and Avolio’s
(1994) definition of “transactional operators” appropriately
provides a lucid definition of the Hellanodikai in antiquity and some
professional coaches in modernity. “Transactional operators exist
for their own personal agenda without concern for the welfare of the others.
He or she enters into an agreement to satisfy their own personal…initiatives
and goals” (p.13). Indeed, the concept of transactional operators
in antiquity is not that far removed from some coaches in modernity.
Mental Health and Sport Performance
The premise that an athlete’s mental health dictates
their performance is not a new concept. Furthermore, the subject continues
to receive extensive inquiry (Chelladurai & Riemer, 1997; Kenow &
Williams, 1999; Raglin, 2001). In sports antiquity; an athlete’s
success was predicated on several factors, including size, preparation,
coaching, and sheer will. However, their level of self-efficacy served
as the catalyst for burgeoning victory. “Olympic champion Melancomas
of Caria …was able to keep his guard up for two days at a time, forcing
his opponents to give up from exhaustion” (Perrottet, 2004, p. 168).
While the level of self-efficacy demonstrated by Melancomas is indicative
of the value placed on contingent reward, caution is needed to stave off
a level of cognitive dissonance. For example, in order to retain electrolytes
and hormones in his system; Bill Romanowski’s contemplation of ingesting
his own urine in order to achieve the reward necessary would be unacceptable
to many elite athletes (Romanowski & Schefter, 2005). Indeed, achieving
the contingent reward both in antiquity and modernity is worthy of contemplating
the risk vs. the reward.
Discussion and Conclusion
This paper set forth the existence of a transactional paradigm
in sports antiquity. At the macro level; this paper served to polarize
the interwoven aspects of ancient sport and transactional leadership (Burns,
1978). At the micro-level; this inquiry revealed that a follower’s
adherence or rejection of contingent reinforcement serves as a road map
to follower motivation and goal attainment (Bass, 1985). Furthermore,
lessons gleaned from the research suggest sport and society are inextricably
linked, with far reaching implications for what is social reality and
what are actual playing field developments. While parallels between organizations
and the work like behavior of top-level athletic teams exist, there will
remain fertile ground for opportunities to study the complexities of effective
leadership (Frey & Eitzen, 1991; Rigauer, 1981).
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