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Experimental and Numerical Study of the Flow Past the Olympic Class K-1 Flat Water Racing Kayak at Steady Speed

U.S. Sports Academy2015-11-08T07:40:30-06:00October 4th, 2010|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Management|

### Abstract

The present work is concerned with the study of the hydrodynamic performance of an Olympic class “K-1” flat water racing Kayak. The evaluation of the hydrodynamic resistance of the vessel is of major importance since it is directly related to the human power required to sustain a specific speed. In this respect, experiments in calm water and regular waves were conducted at various speeds past the particular boat at the towing tank of the Laboratory for Ship and Marine Hydrodynamics (LSMH) of the National Technical University of Athens (NTUA). The calm water tests were performed in the range of speeds from 0.25 to 5m/s and useful conclusions were drawn concerning the influence of the wave formation on the non-dimensional resistance coefficients. Experiments in regular waves were carried out for two characteristic speeds and showed an increase of the hydrodynamic resistance of about 11%. Furthermore, systematic numerical tests using advanced computer codes developed at LSMHE have been performed in order to investigate whether Computational Fluid Dynamics (C_FD) tools can be applied with confidence for predicting the calm water resistance of similar vessels. The scope of this part of the investigation is related to a rapid and cost-effective optimization of the shape of the boat. The computed results for the total resistance were in satisfactory agreement with the measurements, thus forming a basis for further investigation and deeper understanding of the athlete-boat interaction, especially for high performance and competition boats.

Under this study, every coach may form the way his athlete paddles, taking into consideration the hydrodynamic resistance during a canoe – kayak race with or without head waves. Additionally, this investigation is important for the canoe – kayak boat manufacturers since they can improve the boat shapes using existing C_FD tools and taking into account the resistance increase due to waves.

**Key words:** racing-kayak, resistance, experiments, potential, RANS

### Introduction

The scope of the present work is to investigate the hydrodynamic behavior of an Olympic class K-1 Flat Water Racing Kayak boat at steady forward speed. In a first approximation, the complicated roll and yaw motion of the boat caused by the rower is simplified by regarding only the forward component including free heave and trim. The athlete is in any case replaced by a constant weight about his/her mean centre of gravity. The study includes both experimental and numerical tests. Basically, the aim of the experimental program was to measure the total resistance of the Kayak, covering a speed range of 0.25 to 5.15 m/s, at the towing tank of the Laboratory for Ship and Marine Hydrodynamics (LSMH) of the National Technical University of Athens (NTUA). The tests took place during the last week of January 2009. First, experiments were carried out in calm water at various speeds. Similar tests have also been performed by towing tanks past other types of vessels, e.g. (3). Next, the particular boat was tested at two characteristic speeds in low regular waves which were produced by the wave generator of the tank. These tests were made in order to assess the increase of the hydrodynamic resistance and the corresponding power which is required to sustain the particular speeds.

On the other hand, the dramatic development of Computational Fluid Dynamics (C_FD) provides a valuable alternative for evaluating the hydrodynamic behavior of floating bodies. Many research groups have developed advanced computer codes which numerically solve the flow field around complicated geometries. So far, most of the applications are concerned with flows about ships and try to overcome the problem of extrapolating the towing tank measurements to full scale. However, this is not the case in the particular study because the real vessel is tested in the towing tank and, therefore, the experiments predict accurately its hydrodynamic behavior. The main reason for performing C_FD tests is to evaluate the codes that have been developed at the LSMH in order to use them in a future optimization procedure regarding the shape of the boat. The application of reliable C_FD tools requires substantially less cost than constructing various models and testing them in a towing tank, since the most favorable shapes can be detected numerically and then a limited number of experiments has to be carried out. In the present investigation two methods have been examined to calculate the boat resistance at steady forward speed; a non-linear potential flow solver as well as a Reynold’s Averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) solver. Both of them are applied for the first time past the Kayak boat and useful conclusions are drawn.

### Methods

#### Experimental Procedures

All the experiments were performed in the towing tank of the LMSH. The dimensions of the towing tank are 91 m (effective length), 4.56 m (width), and 3.00 m (depth). The towing tank is equipped with a running carriage that can achieve a maximum speed of 5.2 m/s. The tank is also equipped with a wave generating paddle (wave maker), located at one end of the flume. At the opposite end there is a properly shaped inclined shore, for the absorption of the waves. The wave making facilities can produce both harmonic and pseudorandom waves, in the frequency range from 0.3 to 1.4 Hz. The corresponding significant wave height can reach the level of 25 cm.

The hull provided by Pan-Hellenic Kayak and Canoe Trainers Association (PA.SY.P.K-C) was an Olympic class flat water racing Kayak, K-1 category, which refers to a single-seat boat, having the athlete paddling in a seated position. The weight category of the boat is M (medium), corresponding to an athlete’s weight in the range of 70 to 80 kg.

Minor alterations on the internal structure of the model were applied prior to the measurements, in order to accommodate the measuring equipment. This work was supervised by the personnel of PA.SY.P.K-C.

Both experimental and numerical tests were carried out with the boat having a displacement of Δ=86.8 kg (condition A). This is the sum of the bare hull weight with the added fixtures (11.8 kg) and the mean athlete’s weight, the last taken as 75 kg for the present study. The longitudinal position of the center of gravity (LCG) was chosen at the middle of the athlete’s seat. For the experiments, the rod of the resistance dynamometer was mounted on the hull at this location. The mounting was done using a heave rod – pitch bearing assembly, which allows for the vertical motions and trim angles (heave and pitch responses) of the boat.

The resistance measurements were performed for speeds in the range from 0.25 to 5.15 m/s, for the case of calm water and for two speeds (2.5 and 5.0 m/s) for the case of harmonic waves, (5). All the tests were performed in fresh water, at a temperature of 15 oC.

The boat resistance, the rise of the center of gravity (c.g.), the dynamic trim and the towing speed of the model were recorded during the runs on calm water. In this investigation, trim is defined as the signed rotation about the transverse axis passing through the c.g. and is considered positive when the bow of the kayak sinks. In addition, for the case of harmonic waves, the wave elevation was measured using wave probes.

#### Data Analysis

In order to investigate whether C_FD tools can be applied with confidence to predict the calm water resistance of similar vessels under the scope of hull optimization, systematic numerical tests were carried out by applying the non-linear potential flow solver (7,8), as well as the RANS solver (6,8), both developed at LSMH.

The potential method is based on constant source quadrilateral panels that cover the wetted surface of the boat and the real free-surface (Figure 1). The latter is found by an iterative procedure which, after convergence, leads to the satisfaction of both the well known free surface conditions: the kinematic and the dynamic. The potential flow predicts the wave making component C_W, whereas the total resistance coefficient C_T is calculated by adding the corresponding 1957 International Towing Tank Conference (ITTC’57) value for the skin friction coefficient C_F.

**Figure 1** Quadrilateral panels on the hull and water surface for the potential calculations.

Naturally, this procedure suffers from the potential flow drawbacks, i.e. the predicted wave pattern near and after the stern does not include any viscous effects. Besides, the so called form-resistance component including the skin friction alteration due to the shape of the hull and the viscous pressure component cannot be taken into account. These shortcomings disappear when the RANS equations are solved numerically. The latter, however, requires substantially higher computing power and time since a three-dimensional grid discretisation is required, Figure 2.

The employed method uses an H-O type numerical grid which is adjusted to the free-surface as the solution proceeds (6). To account for turbulence effects, the well known k-ε model with wall functions (2) is adopted.

**Figure 2** Numerical H-O type grid for the RANS calculations.

### Results

#### Calm water experiments

Calm water resistance tests were done for the speed range of 0.25 to 5.15 m/s. The experimental results concerning the calm water resistance, the CG rise, the dynamic trim and the towing speed of the kayak are presented in Table 1. The corresponding graphs for the resistance, dynamic trim and CG rise are presented in Figs. 3 to 5, respectively.

As observed in Fig. 4, the dynamic trim is negligible in the range of speeds 0-2.5 m/s while it increases rapidly after it, resulting in an increase of the draft at the stern and a raise of the bow. The CG –rise, Fig. 5, is always negative resulting in an increase of the mean vessel’s draft which presents a peak about the speed of 3.5 m/s. This behavior could be associated with the dynamic trim change and shows that the behavior of the boat is very sensitive with respect to the speed.

**Figure 3** Total Resistance

**Figure 4** Dynamic Trim

**Figure 5** C.G. Rise

In order to study the usual Froude decomposition of the total resistance coefficient versus speed, the relation between the total resistance coefficient (CT) and the Froude number (Fn) is, firstly, depicted in Figure 6. These parameters are defined by the following relations:



where V_S stands for the speed, g is the gravitational acceleration, L the waterline length, R_T the total resistance, ρ the water density and WS the wetted surface.

In the calculation of the total resistance coefficient, the wetted surface used was the one calculated by means of the potential method. The variation total resistance coefficient vs. Fn, presented in Fig.6, shows that it is influenced strongly by the wave formation. The main hump is located in the region of Fn 0.4÷0.45, i.e. it is moved to the left with respect to the predicted one by the linear wave theory (about 0.5) (4). However, the prismatic hump is missing while a “hollow” appears about Fn=0.3 which is moved to the right with respect to the predicted one by the linear wave theory (about 0.24), while the higher values at the low Fn show a dominant effect of skin friction.

**Figure 6** Total resistance coefficient.

According to the standard Froude approach, the total resistance coefficient can be decomposed into the friction (CF) and the residual (CR) components as:


The friction coefficient (CF) can be calculated by the ITTC’57 formula as:


where


represents the corresponding Reynolds number, L is the immersed waterline length and ν the kinematic viscosity.

Furthermore, the residual resistance may be regarded as equal to the so-called wave-making resistance CW, i.e. CR ≈ CW. The three coefficients with respect to the Froude number are presented in Table 2. The negative or very low values of CR at the lower Froude numbers show that the skin friction formula rather over-predicts CF and, therefore, an extended laminar region may cover the front part of the vessel. It should be noted here that no turbulence stimulators were applied since the real hull was tested. The slender form of this hull should result in a thin boundary layer region over the major part of the wetted surface, thus permitting the existence of a laminar zone especially at low speeds, which in any case is favorable because it leads to a reduction of the total resistance.

The residual resistance coefficient, plotted vs. Fn in Fig. 7, shows similar trends with Fig. 6 and influences accordingly the total coefficient. CR is comparable to CF after Fn=0.3, but in any case is lower than that, implying that skin friction plays an important role for the total resistance. This trend is due to the very slender form of the particular boat which was designed to produce low waves, as far as possible.

**Figure 7** Wave, Pressure and Residual resistance coefficients.

#### Potential results

In order to validate the use of the non-linear potential solver (7) for the examined type of vessel, systematic numerical tests were conducted for the same speed range as the experiments.

The solver has been developed at the LSMH and solves the wave problem by covering the hull and the free-surface with quadrilateral panels. The hull geometry is represented by the conformal mapping approach which exhibits the advantage of a fast and effective reconstruction of panels as the free-surface changes. A special feature of the code is the calculation of the free-surface by combining an integral with a differential method. The total number of panels used was 12,000 while the trim angle as well as the dynamic rise of the c.g., were calculated numerically. The potential results of the examined cases are shown in Table 3. Essentially the method predicts only the wave resistance component CW, while CF is derived under the ITTC’57 skin friction approximation. The predicted CW is compared to the measured one in Fig. 7. Evidently it exhibits the same variations, but it is lower than the experimental in the whole range of Fn. This is an expected behavior according to the aforementioned shortcomings. The potential theory predicts higher waves at the stern region, resulting in increased pressures underneath the stern that in turn lead to a reduction of the total wave resistance. However, the total resistance coefficient appears closer to the experimental in Fig. 6 where the skin friction was added. This is reflected also to the calculation of the total resistance (which is the meaningful quantity) in Fig. 3, where the calculated results are in satisfactory agreement with the measurements up to the speed of 3.5 m/s (~7%) while deviations increase at higher speeds.

#### RANS results

In order to explore the possibility of obtaining better results at high speeds with RANS computations, three test cases were examined, corresponding to the speeds of 3, 4 and 5m/s. The relevant code has also been developed at the LSMH and, unlike other methods, uses the concept of orthogonal curvilinear co-ordinates to solve the viscous flow equations. This feature is beneficial for obtaining effectively converged solutions. The free-surface is calculated iteratively by applying a surface-tracking method that has been developed for the first time in (6).

In any case the grid size had 2.65 million grid points. To reduce the computation cost as well as the uncertainties related with the longitudinal position of the center of gravity, the trim angle of the vessel was taken from the experiments while it was assumed free to heave. The results acquired via the RANS solver are shown in Table 4. First, it is important to notice that the calculated skin friction coefficient CF is in very good agreement with the empirical ITTC’57 formula in Table 2, which justifies the relevant assumption when the potential method is adopted. The calculated values of the total resistance coefficients are presented in Table 4. Evidently, the total resistance is predicted with satisfactory agreement with respect to the experimental values for the examined speeds. The larger deviation at the highest speed may be a result of the extended wave breaking which was observed during the experiments in this case, which cannot be simulated numerically. The deviations percent of the calculated vs. the experimental total resistance is depicted in Table 5 for both methods, where the superiority of the RANS approach is obvious at high speeds.

The calculated wave patterns about the boat by the RANS computations are plotted in Figs. 8 to 10 for the speeds of 3.0 m/s, 4.0 m/s and 5.0 m/s, respectively. The full lines represent wave crests while the dashed lines correspond to wave troughs. These plots show a regular formation which is similar to the real one observed during the experiments.

**Figure 8** Water surface elevation contour, RANS solver, VS =2.995 m/s.

(Full lines: wave crests, dashed lines: wave troughs)

**Figure 9** Water surface elevation contour, RANS solver, VS =3.989 m/s.

(Full lines: wave crests, dashed lines: wave troughs)

**Figure 10** Water surface elevation contour, RANS solver, VS=5.153 m/s.

(Full lines: wave crests, dashed lines: wave troughs)

#### Experimental tests in regular waves

The tests in regular waves were done at the speed of 2.5 m/s for wave frequencies of 0.3 Hz, 0.5 Hz, 0.7 Hz, and 0.9 Hz and at the speed of 5.0 m/s for wave frequencies of 0.3 Hz and 0.5 Hz (5).

During the tests, the following responses were measured:

– C.G. rise
– Pitch
– Added resistance
– Wave Height

The experimental results for these tests are presented in Table 6. Based on the recorded time histories of the boat responses, the Response Amplitude Operators (RAOs) in heave (at the CG position) and in pitch motion were calculated and presented also in this Table, together with the measured values of wave amplitude and mean added resistance.

The non-dimensional RAO values were calculated using the following formulae:

– RAOHEAVE = ξ0 / ζ0
– RAOPITCH = θ / (k ξ0)

Where:

– ξ0 : heave response amplitude
– ζ0 : wave amplitude
– θ : pitch amplitude [rad]
– k : wave number (k=2π/λ)
– λ : wave length

The most important result is the resistance increase presented in the last column of Table 6. It can be concluded that the added resistance is negligible for wave lengths much larger than the boat length (low frequency range, examined frequency 0.3 Hz) and can reach values from 7 to 12% for faster waves (examined frequencies 0.5, 0.7, and 0.9 Hz) and for both wave heights. This resistance increase reflects directly on the power required by the athlete.

### Discussion

The measured total resistance coefficient shows a minimum about the vessel speed of 1.5m/s and a maximum at 3.0 m/s. These values appear as a result of the interactions of the generated wave systems about the boat. In addition, the Froude decomposition of the total resistance coefficient demonstrates that skin friction is higher than the residuary component at all speeds, while at low speeds the appearance of laminar flow regions about the bow is rather possible. Wave breaking was also observed at speeds above 3.5 m/s.

The performance of the boat subjected to low amplitude heading harmonic waves was also investigated. The main conclusion is that short waves (high frequencies) may increase the boat resistance and, therefore, the required human power by almost 10%.

The applications of the employed CFD approaches have shown that the computation of the total resistance by applying a non-linear potential flow code in conjunction with the ITTC’57 skin friction formula is in good agreement with the measured one for speeds up to 3.5 m/s. Above this level, viscous effects are dominant and RANS methods have to be employed to obtain accurate results. However, in the usual range of speeds of the particular vessel, the potential approach may produce reliable results and, therefore, can be involved in optimization procedures concerning the hull geometry.

The current investigation has been based on the fruitful collaboration of three research groups, i.e. the Laboratory for Ship and Marine hydrodynamics of NTUA, the Pan-Hellenic Canoe – Kayak Trainers Association, and the Department of Physical Education and Sport Science of the University of Athens. The groups combined their efforts for the first time, and the data acquired can form a basis for further investigation and deeper understanding of the athlete-boat interaction, especially for high performance and high competitive boats, like the case at hand. The research will be continued toward the hull optimization of the boat as well as the experimental study of the effect of the yaw and roll motions by designing the proper experimental apparatus. The numerical tools will be further developed to simulate these motions as well as to take into account the unsteady influence of waves.

### Conclusions

The systematic numerical experiments have shown that both potential and RANS methods can be applied in order to calculate the calm water resistance of a flat water racing kayak. The potential solver provided results in good qualitative agreement with the experiments and, therefore, can be involved in optimization procedures concerning the hull geometry. The RANS solver gave very accurate predictions for the total resistance and therefore can be used with confidence for predicting the resistance of vessels of similar geometry.

### Applications in Sport

In the last several years we have seen a tremendous rise in new technologies (construction materials, e.g. carbon fiber) (1) which in their way affect the increasing improvement of results in canoe – kayak. The main factor for the accomplishment of better times in canoeing is the hydrodynamic resistance of the boat’s hull. With this study, every coach may develop the way his athlete paddles, taking into consideration the hydrodynamic resistance which is observed depending on the waves appearing during a canoe – kayak race.

Additionally, this study is very important for the canoe – kayak boat manufacturers, since they can achieve the making of more improved boat hulls, taking into account the hydrodynamic resistance appearing under different types of waves.

### Acknowledgments

The authors wish to thank the personnel of LSMH and particularly Mr. I. Trachanas who has carried out the measurements in the Towing Tank as well as Mr. D. Triperinas, Ms. D. Damala and Mr. G Katsaounis for designing the experiments and interpreting the results.

The authors would also like to thank Lloyd’s Register Educational Trust (LRET), since Mr. Polyzos’ Phd studies are supported by LRET.

The Lloyd’s Register Educational Trust (LRET) is an independent charity working to achieve advances in transportation, science, engineering and technology education, training and research worldwide for the benefit of all.

### Tables

#### Table 1
Experimental results for the calm water resistance tests, condition: Δ=86.8 Κp.

#### Table 2
Experimental results for the calm water resistance tests.

#### Table 3
Numerical results for the calm water resistance tests, potential method.

#### Table 4
Numerical results for the calm water resistance tests, RANS method.

#### Table 5
Experimental results for the calm water resistance tests.

#### Table 6
Experimental results for the tests in regular waves.

### References

Diafas, V. (2007). The sport of Canoe-Kayak and its Olympic categories: vol.1Flatwater Canoe-Kayak, University of Athens

Launder, B. E., Spalding, D. B. (1974). The numerical computation of turbulent flows. Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics and Engineering, 3, 269-289.

Lazauskas, L., Winters, J., Tuck, E. O. (1997) Hydrodynamic Drag of Small Sea Kayaks. Retrieved from <http://www.cyberiad.net/library/kayaks/skmag/skmag.htm>

Newman, J. N. (1997). Marine Hydrodynamics. Cambridge, Massachusetts and London England: The MIT press, ISBN 0-262-14026-8.

Triperinas, D. V., Damala, D., Katsaounis, G. (2009) Report No. NAL 303 F 2009, Laboratory for Ship and Marine Hydrodynamics, NTUA.

Tzabiras, G. D. (2004). Resistance and Self-propulsion simulations for a Series-60, CB=0.6 hull at model and full scale. Ship Technology Research, 51, 21-34.

Tzabiras, G. D. (2008). A method for predicting the influence of an additive bulb on ship resistance. Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Hydrodynamics, 53-60.

Tzabiras, G. D., Kontogiannis, K. (2010). An integrated method for predicting the hydrodynamic resistance of low-Cb ships. Computer-Aided Design Journal, Accepted for publication.

### Corresponding Author
Mr. Stylianos Polyzos
Laboratory for Ship and Marine Hydrodynamics
9 Heroon Polytechniou str. NTUA Campus, Zografos 15773, Greece
<spolyzos@mail.ntua.gr>
0030-2107721104

### Author Bios

George Tzabiras is a Professor and Head of the Laboratory for Ship and Marine Hydrodynamics at the National Technical University of Athens (NTUA).

Stylianos Polyzos and Konstantina Sfakianaki are Phd Candidates at the Laboratory for Ship and Marine Hydrodynamics.

Athanasios D. Villiotis and Konstantinos Chrisikopoulos are members of the Pan-Hellenic Canoe – Kayak Trainers Association

Vassilios Diafas and Sokratis Kaloupsis are Professors at the University of Athens, Department of Physical Education and Sport Science, Faculty of water sports

Preparation for an International Sport Event: The Promotional Strategies of 2009 Kaohsiung World Games

U.S. Sports Academy2015-10-02T23:25:11-05:00October 4th, 2010|Sports Facilities, Sports Management|

### Abstract
This investigation presented administrative and marketing-related information on Kaohsiung City’s preparation for the 2009 World Games. The presented information was allocated through an extensive literature review on secondary sources, personal interviews, and observations from fall of 2008 to summer of 2009. Promotional strategies and activities, projected financial and sales data, reports on constructions, and issues and challenges related to the Games were further analyzed. The study further discussed the “not-for-profit” approach that was practiced by many East Asian Countries to gain international recognition and promote patriotism while hosting a major sport event.

### Introduction
The International World Games Association (IWGA), which currently includes 33 international sports federations, has been holding its competitions every four years since 1981 (24). The World Games is considered one of the largest sport competitions, other than the Olympic Games (7). The City of Kaohsiung was fortunate to be awarded the opportunity to host the World Games after a competitive bidding process (11,25). The 2009 World Games were held in the largest port city of Taiwan, Kaohsiung, from July 16 to July 26, 2009. Past literature has shown that hosting a gigantic international sport competition has provided a golden opportunity for the hosting country to demonstrate power and wealth, to boost economics and tourism, to increase publicity and media exposure, and to improve the hosting cities’ infrastructure (10,12-14,33). In addition, an enormous amount of national pride is often associated with the host countries when they host mega-events such as the Olympic Games or Federation Internationale de Football Association (FIFA) World Cup (1,14,29,39). For the aforementioned reasons, the administrators and citizens of Kaohsiung City sincerely hoped that the city could realize economic benefits from the 2009 World Games.

The Mayor and citizens of Kaohsiung City believed the 2009 World Games was a main event that would launch Kaohsiung to the center of the world stage (21). According to Tsai’s comments on the city government’s approach (37), the World Games was a perfect opportunity for the Kaohsiung residents to reaffirm their identity and loyalty toward the city. The potential economic profits and benefits brought by the events could also help the central government reevaluate the importance and development of the city. With the support of Kaohsiung citizens and volunteers, the Kaohsiung Games was described as the most successful World Games by the IWGA President, Ron Froehlich (16,18). In this investigation, the researchers went beyond the scope of a case study by presenting administrative and marketing-related information on how Kaohsiung City prepared for its first-ever major international sport event. The collected information and analyzed results may serve two specific purposes. First, the collected information can be valuable for the city to plan its bidding proposal for 2012 University Games. Second, the information may also provide great insights for other Taiwanese cities in preparing for any future international major sport events (i.e., the 2009 Deaflympic Games in Taipei and bidding for the 2010 World University Games).

#### Background History and Facts about the World Games
When the IWGA was formed in 1980, it had 12 international sport federations as charter members (7). The 2009 Kaohsiung World Games was the IWGA’s 8th competition and included 31 different sports. Since 1981, the number of participants in the World Games has increased from approximately 1500 to approximately 3400 in 2005 (7,24). Prior to the 2009 Kaohsiung World Games, it was estimated that the city would host more than 4,500 athletes, coaches, and staff. Athletes competed in 31 different sports which were divided into six categories, artistic and dance, ball sports, martial arts, precision sports, strength sports, and trend sports (24). In general, the seven previous World Games were all financed through a virtual company or foundation established by the government of the hosting countries (35). The hosting city was also responsible for covering the lodging, transportation, and dinner costs for all of the participants (34).

Building the venues for competitions was considered the most difficult challenge in preparing for the World Games. Kaohsiung City started two major constructions as early as 2004 (9). The Main Stadium of the Kaohsiung World Games was designed by the famous Japanese architect, Toyo Ito. It has a capacity of 40,000 seats and 15,000 standing spaces (9). The total construction cost of the stadium was estimated around $150-million USDs (31). The construction of the Kaohsiung Arena costs about $20-million USDs. The central government supported about 10% of the total construction cost (7). The arena has a 16,000-person seating capacity. The DC Construction company holds the right of business operation for the next 50 years. The Kaohsiung City Government will retain the operational right thereafter. For the infrastructural preparation, the Kaohsiung City planned to complete two tracks of the Metro Rapid Transit System (MRTS), both Red and Orange Lines, in 2009 prior to the opening ceremony of the World Games (11). Apparently, both systems were completed on time.

#### Preparations Completed by the National and Local Government
As soon as Kaohsiung City was awarded the opportunity to host the 2009 World Games, the former Mayor Hsieh Chang-ting announced three programs to transform Kaohsiung into a “City of Health” (25). It was Mr. Hsieh’s most lofty ambition to utilize the World Games to further develop the city and promote its competitiveness by becoming the largest trading seaport in Southeast Asia.

The information on organization of the Kaohsiung Organizing Committee (KOC) was obtained through personal conversation with Ms. Hus, the CEO of KOC. KOC was commissioned by the Kaohsiung City Government to plan and organize the 2009 World Games. In order to complete the required tasks for the game operation, the KOC formed nine divisions to handle the businesses. They were: (1) Administration, (2) Treasury, (3) Sport Competition, (4) City Development, (5) Supportive Division, (6) Marketing and Public Relations, (7) Culture and Tourism, (8) Information Technology, and (9) Safety (27). There were 26 full-time employees in the KOC. The leadership positions of the KOC include a President, a Sport Director, three Deputy CEOs, an Assistant Coordinator, two Executive Secretaries and a Chair of Divisions. In addition, the Kaohsiung City Government further assigned 43 people (including the CEO) and 14 non-committee staff members to support the KOC. Several visiting teams were also sent to Beijing to observe the practices of the Chinese Government in preparing for the 2008 Olympic Games (22).

#### Economic Benefits and Profits for Hosting Major International Sport Events
Past literature has documented how host cities of major sport events (i.e., Super Bowl, National Basketball Association (NBA) All-Stars Games, and Olympic Games) reaped direct and indirect profits from gate receipts, tourism, and television (TV) fees. To name a few examples: (1) visitors of the 2006 Super Bowl spent as much as $180 million during their trips and the total economic impact of the event was estimated to exceed $300 million (32); (2) the 2007 NBA All-Stars Game drew more than 25,000 out-of-town visitors, generating non-gaming revenue of $26.7 million (32); and (3) $400 million in TV rights and $200 million sponsorship fees were at stake in the 2002 Salt Lake City Winter Games (4). The National Broadcast Company paid broadcasting rights fees of $793 million and $894 million for the 2004 and 2008 Summer Olympic Games (14). The Chinese government announced its operating profit for the 2008 Summer Olympic Games at $146 million(5).

To the contrary, there were reports and studies that rejected the notion of international sport events, such as the Olympic Games, generating any profit at all. It is extremely difficult to calculate the financial merits of any particular Olympic Games, due to expensive construction and many, varying costs(15). It is estimated that costs for hosting the 2012 event could run more than $3 billion USDs. Sydney and Athens spent $3.4 billion and13 billion, respectively, on the Summer Games. With these huge costs, it is hard to perceive how profits can be made(15). In fact, host countries did not make money at all prior to the 1984 Los Angeles Olympic Games (3,4). The Los Angeles Games were able to turn the Olympics into a gold mine, netting $200 million, by introducing aggressive commercializing strategies and minimizing the construction costs (3). Cities such as Barcelona, Athens, Beijing and London would spend far more money than the U.S. host cities to build new facilities and develop their community, so the profits severely dwindle (2). Local residents seldom benefit from the profits. According to Sports economist Philip Porter, who studies the effect of large sporting events on communities, it’s not unusual for cities to make less than has been projected (4).

Most economists agree that economic impact of major sport events are often calculated from three areas (5). They are direct financial impacts, indirect financial impacts and intangible. Although most of the host cities may not prosper from the profit gains, cities such as Lillehammer, Norway, and Nagano, Japan have enjoyed worldwide attention by hosting the winter Olympics. Mayors of hosting cities clearly understand that the spectacle will promote national pride and justify local development (15). Burton and O’Reilly (5) warned against focusing solely on cost and profits as the criteria for evaluating the impact of the events. They want people to consider the intangible benefits of the Atlanta Games. Although the Atlanta Games only broke even financially, Atlanta has subsequently become a bigger, better, and more respected global city.

The Kaohsiung City Government is standing on a crossroads facing an uncertain future. Based on the aforementioned paragraphs, the city has clearly spent a huge amount of money to prepare for the World Games, and anticipates huge economic profits and intangible benefits. Will the city’s investment turn out to be a prosperous return? The researchers sincerely hope the results of this study will provide preliminary findings to this difficult question.

### Methods
The information on construction costs and spending on community development was gathered through a series of reviews of secondary sources and online articles prior to March of 2009. The findings related to this topic have mainly been presented in the Introduction. In order to obtain the marketing related information, promotional strategies, and projected financial data of the 2009 World Games, the researchers conducted interviews with the Chief Executive Officer, Marketing Director of the KOC, and two city councilmen. Seven specific questions given to the interviewees to obtain qualitative and statistical information are listed in Table 1.

The interviewees received the questions at the beginning of 2009. The researchers received all of the interviewees’ responses in early March of 2009. Answers were received via e-mail and phone calls. Information on stadium construction and promotional strategies released by the city government and press from 2005 to 2008 was extensively reviewed and analyzed in the month of February, 2009. The researchers categorized the collected information into two aspects: (1) public relations and promotional activities associated with the game, and (2) sales and other marketing related data.

### Results
Based on the results of interviews and search on the secondary sources, the researchers obtained the following marketing and public relations related information. The information was analyzed and categorized based on their two aspects.

#### Promotional Strategies and Public Relations Activities
To promote the World Games to Kaohsiung residents and countrymen of Taiwan, both local and national governments put great effort into creating many, varied activities. Special design competitions were held to solicit ideas for the official logo and mascot. Mr. Lin Hung-he won the (approximately) $13,000 USDs grand-prize as his design was chosen as the official logo (35). The former interim Mayor, Yeh Chu-lian also revealed the official mascot, Water Spirit, during her short tenure (35,38). Nearly $20,000 USDs was spent to reward the winners for naming the official mascot (38). To educate the fans and residents about the World Games the Kaohsiung Education Bureau established the World Games Education Program which involved all of the elementary and secondary schools. Students at each school were assigned to study a specific sport. They became familiar with the rules, history, and star athletes of their assigned sport. These students also received complimentary tickets to the games to cheer for the athletes (20). Other promotional activities for the World Games included: (1) a special float for the Independence Parade on October 13, 2003, (2) the announcement of national sport heroes, Chi-Cheng and baseball star of the Yankees, Wang Chien-ming to be the event spokespersons, (3) a poster contest, and (4) sport movie festivals (24,26,40).

The Taiwanese government publicized the news of hosting the World Games to many of its treaty nations. Delegates traveled more than half a world away to South America to express appreciation for the support and friendship provided by treaty nations (25). Former President Chen Shui-bian also promised to invite the Army parachute troopers to perform during the opening ceremony of the World Games(19).

On May 20, 2009 with the inauguration of the Main Stadium, a special concert was held in the Main Stadium of the World Games. The Pittsburgh Symphony Orchestra, the Vienna State Opera Choir, the National Experimental Chorus, the National Sun Yat-sen University Music Department Women’s Chorus and the Kaohsiung Medical University Singers worked together to perform Tchaikovsky’s ‘1812 Overture’ and Beethoven’s ‘Ode to Joy’. More than 40,000 people attended the concert (6). The Kaohsiung Metro Rapid Transit System also proved its capability to handle a high volume of passengers during the peak hours. During the competition period, fireworks shows, expositions, and food fairs were held every night at the True Love Harbor, one of the most popular tourist attractions in the city (6).

#### Sales and Marketing-Related Data

Table 2 lists the major sponsors of the 2009 World Games. A total of 40 sponsors and partners are further classified into three levels. About 80% of the total sponsors and partners were domestic business organizations. The amount of contribution from each level of sponsors and partners was not available for disclosure.

Public Television Service of Taiwan televised selected events. However, no fee amount for the TV rights has been disclosed. Most media coverage and exposure came mainly relied from the Internet. The KOC also collaborated with AllGenki.net to sell event tickets. Spectators purchased the tickets in one of the 4,800 7-11 stores in Taiwan by using the I-bon system, or at the event sites. The information on ticket prices was released in March 2009, and tickets were available for sale in April 2009. According to the news report, revenues for the gate receipts exceeded $2-million USDs (8).

For the sale of licensing merchandise, the official mascot, “Water Spirit”, was used as the main icon to create a series of subsidiary products.  These products were produced by Cheerful Fashion Goods CO., LTD., a company devoted to cultivating young Taiwanese designers who design products based on traditional Taiwanese culture.  The World Games licensing merchandise included polo shirts and t-shirts with color choices, recyclable chopsticks, flip-flops, key chains, passport holders, purses, shopping bags, coffee mugs, caps, and poker cards. The price of these souvenirs generally ranged from $4 to $30 USDs.

Prior to the event, an optimistic estimation (over 5,000) was given regarding the number of potential participants. According to the news report, the total number of participants from 131 countries indeed exceeded 5,000 (8). Because the Kaohsiung World Games was held during the summer time, which is the “hot” season for the city’s tourism, it was difficult to estimate the actual number of foreign visitors who arrived strictly due to the World Games. However, some economists estimated the number of the foreign visitors would reach between 30,000 and 50,000 people (31). The World Games was also predicted to bring in business worth $30 million USDs to Kaohsiung City. It was thought that the event could have a great impact on the price of real estate, estimating that the price of a house near the Main Stadium could expect a 30% increase in value (31). Based on the researchers’ personal observations, this prediction has been realized in some areas near the MRT stations adjacent to the stadium.

### Discussion and Conclusions
Past literature has in-depth discussions of economic impact and financial gains for international sport events. The data of sponsorship deals, TV rights fees, and gate receipts for past events such as FIFA Tournament or Olympic Games are available for the public to browse (1-2,17,30,36,41-42). It seems logical that scholars in Western societies, with the strong influence of capitalism, would focus more on financial (or economic) related information of the events. Clearly, there was a series of pre-game promotional and cultural activities sponsored by the KOC to increase the residents’ awareness of the World Games. However, all of the interviewees failed to provide valuable financial data on TV rights fee and sponsorship incomes. They seemed to have a vague idea or no interest at all regarding the topics of potential economic impact or projected revenues of the Kaohsiung World Games. There was also no available data on revenue generation through merchandise sales. More attention was devoted to issues related to the possible boycott by the Chinese team, the potential outbreak of H1N1 influenza, and cultural festivals sponsored by the city.

Financial information related to the Kaohsiung World Games, other than the spending in promotional activities and construction costs, was difficult to retrieve. A report had indicated the revenues in ticket sales exceeded $2 million USDs (8), but this is a small amount compared to the construction costs of nearly $170 million USDs. Based on the KOC CEO Ms. Hsu’s explanation, Kaohsiung City has taken a “not-for-profit” approach to recruiting volunteers and sponsors. This seems to be a common approach used by many of the East Asian countries to host major sport events. This implies that the local government is willing to absorb the operational cost, even if revenues fail to cover expenses. As long as the country receives recognition and media attention, it is seen as worthwhile to spend a huge amount of money for hosting the event. Thus, it is not difficult to understand why the Taipei city would promise to offer free admission to all spectators of the Deaflympic Games. Although the KOC outsources the ticket and merchandise sales to AllGenki.net and Cheerful Fashion Goods CO respectively, potential revenues through TV rights and ticket sales are not clearly discussed and emphasized. Apparently the previous seven World Games were all financed by a virtual company established by the governments of the hosting countries; however, none of the previous hosts has spent so much money in trying to advertise their country and the events.

In Kaohsiung’s case, the researchers would actually like to see a more commercialized approach to allocating funding. This would mean less spending of tax dollars for the games (35), and more involvement of the private sectors in advertising, donations, and sponsorships. There is no advantage to putting the city in debt in hosting an event that shows no promise in bringing profits.

Prior to the opening ceremony of the World Games, the Taiwanese government had monitored politically-related issues closely.

The patriotic acts of the Taiwanese residents and the Chinese government’s unfriendly political actions were considered to be critical issues during the competition period (28). Although it is common to witness political activists taking actions during a gigantic international sport event (i.e., Olympic Games) to express their ideologies (14), for a new event host such as Taiwan, any unexpected political activity during the event would negatively affect the reputation and image of the nation and future business opportunities brought by foreign enterprise. The Chinese team eventually boycotted the Opening Ceremony, but the KOC adhered strictly to the Olympic operational model to prevent any further political disruption (23,34). From the political perspective, the Kaohsiung World Games can be considered a great success. From the economic standpoint, it seems the city is not clearly standing on the “winning” side.

### Practical Applications in Sport
Based on the aforementioned discussions, the researchers would recommend the following to the City of Kaohsiung and other sport organizing committees for planning the future events:

1. Future sport organizing committees should develop a strategic plan to solicit more well-known international and domestic business franchises/industries to sponsor the event. In this case, the KOC had done a great job in recruiting a variety of sponsors according to their nature of business and functionality to satisfy the needs of the events. However, the KOC did not provide enough onsite opportunities for the sponsors to actively interact with the spectators. A future strategic plan for targeting sponsors should cover how to execute “activation” activities effectively and utilize complimentary tickets for hospitality. The committees need to provide clear incentives and business opportunities for the sponsors, so the sponsors can be convinced to invest their capitals and manpower. More complimentary tickets could be offered to the sponsors to enhance the level of hospitality.
2. The sport organizing committees should closely collaborate with the governmental agencies (i.e., city government, Sport Affairs Council, and Bureau of Tourism) to aggregate accurate financial reports (especially on the revenues of broadcasting rights and ticket sales and costs of construction) of the events. The collected information will be beneficial to the planning and bidding of future events. It also acts to show accountability to the public, by making the figures of total spending transparent. Without a clear income figure on broadcasting rights and sponsorship deals, it is hard to imagine how the organizing committee could make any profits.
3. For any developing countries wishing to achieve political stardom rapidly, bidding to host a mega-international sport event seems to be a good alternative. Evidently, China and South Africa both greatly increased their political visibility by hosting the 2008 Olympic Games and 2010 FIFA World Cup. The City of Kaohsiung should be actively involved in bidding on a moderate-scale for continental and international sport competitions, such as East-Asian Games, Asian Games, World University Games and special track-and-field invitationals. This will help Taiwan increase its political visibility and learn to handle its political conflict with China peacefully. Having these events in Kaohsiung will also maximize the opportunities for the use of existing facilities and boost potential tourism.

### Tables

#### Table 1. The List of Interview Questions
Q1. Who are the primary sponsors of the World Games? (If the numbers are available, please specify the amounts of contributions for each level of sponsors.)

Q2. Which television network will televise the World Games? What is the estimated amount of the TV right fee?

Q3. How are tickets sold to the general public? How many types of tickets are available? What are the prices of all different types of tickets?

Q4. What are the major types of the World Games licensed merchandise along with their prices?

Q5. What are the projected revenues that the World Games may bring to the city?

Q6. What is the estimated number of the visitors during the period of World Games competitions?

Q7. How many full-time staff members are recruited by the city to prepare for the World Games?

#### Table 2. Major Sponsors of the 2009 World Games

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### Corresponding Author
Steve Chen
208C Combs Business Building, Morehead State University, Morehead, KY 40351
<s.chen@morehead-st.edu>
606-783-2433 (office)
606-780-8173

The price of NFL fandom: An exploratory study of the past, present, and future purchasing power of NFL fans

U.S. Sports Academy2017-08-03T10:21:27-05:00October 4th, 2010|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Facilities, Sports Management, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|

### Abstract

Concerns regarding gentrification of sports and the loss of middle-income fans have increased throughout the years, as ticket prices have continued to increase well beyond the rate of inflation for professional sports. This research focused on the changes in purchasing power for fans wishing to attend live games in the National Football League from 1991 to 2009 and then made subsequent forecasts for purchasing power 10 years into the future, should current pricing trends continue unabated. The Fan Cost Index (FCI) was utilized to compare purchasing power over time. Results showed that average FCI price for the league increased by 75% beyond inflation from 1991 to 2009. Purchasing power for fans from all the teams in the study diminished in some fashion from 1991 to 2009. However, eight of the 24 teams in the study severely reduced fan purchasing power, including a 50% or more reduction in the number of tickets alone. If pricing trends continue, the league could experience decreased attendance, particularly from fans in the lower income brackets.

**Key words:** purchasing power, FCI, gentrification, NFL, ticket prices
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Relationship of Arm Span to the Effects of Prefatigue on Performance in the Bench Press

U.S. Sports Academy2013-11-25T16:46:57-06:00October 4th, 2010|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Exercise Science, Sports Facilities|

### Abstract
The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of arm span on the acute effects of fatigue caused by maximum voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC) on performance in the bench press. Eight female collegiate track and field athletes involved in the throws events (shot put, discus, hammer, and javelin) volunteered for this investigation. Initial assessments included one-repetition maximums in the bench press (Pre Max 59.5±19.8kg) for each volunteer as well as basic anthropometric data including arm span. Volunteers reported twice for two treatments that included three maximal bench press attempts. The standard (STAND) treatment consisted only of the maximal attempts. The MVIC treatment consisted of a 30-second maximal voluntary isometric contraction prior to maximal attempts. General Linear Model analysis was performed to evaluate fixed effects (Treatment, Arm span) on maximum weight lifted. The model was significant (Likelihood Ratio Chi-Square 3507.525, p<0.001) and revealed main effects for treatment (STAND 59.78±18.8kg vs. MVIC 52.32±11.5kg, p<0.001) and arm span (p<0.001), as well as a significant two-way interaction treatment*arm span (p<0.001). Post-Hoc analysis revealed that under the STAND treatment arm span was not a predictor of change in bench press performance; however under the MVIC treatment (F=16.255, p=0.007) arm span was a significant negative predictor of change in bench press performance (Beta = -0.855, p<0.001). Arm span is a simple measure that can quickly and easily be assessed; yet also a variable that can provide valuable information for coaches to consider before planning weight training for track and field throws athletes.

**Key Words:** Anthropometry, Strength, Athlete

### Introduction
Muscular strength is one essential component contributing to optimal athletic performance (4). The development of upper body strength typically involves high-resistance, low-repetition exercises using larger muscle masses to increase the maximal force generation by a muscle or muscle group. The ability of individuals to adapt positively to increasing training loads requires careful consideration of the volume and intensity of the exercises (1). Regardless of precise planning by the coach, an athlete’s physical limitations may prevent optimal adaptation, or physical gifts may instead promote adaptation (4).

A plethora of anecdotal evidence surrounds the effects of the length of the appendages of the human body on performance in the weight room. In particular in the bench press lift, many recreational lifters maintain that long arm length is detrimental to performance. The fact that lifters with longer arms must displace the bar further from the chest in order to complete the lift would seem to lend some credence to this anecdotal belief. However, recent work by Mayhew et al. (5) demonstrated that skeletal length was not a valid predictor for performance on the NFL-225 bench repetition test. In more recent work, Reynolds et al. (7) examined the relationship between more basic anthropometric measurements and performance in the bench press. In this study, Reynolds et al. recruited seventy subjects, 34 men and 36 women ranging in age from 18-69, and found that no anthropometric measurements were significant predictors on one repetition maximum (1-RM) performance.

Although previous results have not demonstrated a relationship between anthropometric measurements and 1-RM strength, results supporting differences in strength based on skeletal position have been witnessed. Murphy et al. (6) reported a significant correlation between isometric strength at 90 degrees of elbow flexion and 1-RM in the bench press exercise. Interestingly, the participants in this study demonstrated greater isometric strength at 120 degrees of elbow flexion, but this was not related to 1-RM strength. This angle (90 degrees) coincides to the ‘sticking point,’ the point of lowest force production, in the lift (3). It is intuitive that 1-RM strength in the bench press should correlate to the angle of lowest isometric force production. To complete a successful attempt, a lifter must move the weight through the ‘sticking point’ in order to achieve the elbow angle of 120 degrees, a point of greater isometric force production, and from there, finish the lift (3). Lifters who have longer arm spans will thus have a greater total distance to push the bar in order to reach the 120 degrees angle of elbow flexion. Thus, longer arm length could potentially be disadvantageous in the bench press lift.

Although previous research has not demonstrated this disadvantage (5), the Mayhew et al. investigation was descriptive in nature, predicting performance in one predetermined maximal set to failure. Past research evaluating the relationship between arm length and bench press strength has ignored how arm length may affect a total workout. Studies accounting for the potential effects of arm length during fatigue on the bench press are missing from the body of research. It is possible that effects of arm length do not manifest until the lifter is in a fatigued state. Thus, the purpose of the present investigation is to examine, in a very practical way, the effects of arm length on performance in the bench press while fatigued.

### Methods

#### Participants

The present investigation was presented to and approved by the local Institutional Review board for human subject usage. Eight apparently healthy college-aged (19.75yrs±1.2) female track and field athletes who compete in the throws events (shot put, hammer, javelin, discus) volunteered for this study (Table 1). The participants underwent a 1-RM test (Pre Max) for the bench press as prescribed by Baechle and Earle (2) as a normal part of practice and their coach reported their values (59.5kg±19.8).

Table 1. Descriptive Data of the Participants

*Descriptive data of the (n=8) female participants listed in mean±SD.*

#### Procedures

Participants recruited for the investigation underwent initial anthropometric testing including both height measurement via stadiometer (Health-o-Meter Inc., Bedford, OH.), weight via a balance beam scale (Health-o-Meter Inc., Bedford, OH.), and arm span measured from the farthest distance between finger tips with the arms held outstretched using a vinyl open reel tape measure. Arm span was determined in this manner because it was a simple and inexpensive method of performing an anthropometric assessment of the length of the arms that might also be assessed by a coach with relative ease. The experimental procedures were thoroughly explained to the participants prior the first session. Participants were also given a demonstration on the MVIC device. Grip width was also selected during the initial visit to limit the known effect of different grip widths on the bench press exercise (6). Following the initial visit, participants reported twice more for a total of 30 minutes per session.

##### MVIC induced fatigue

Fatigue was induced in the participants through a 30-second maximum voluntary contraction against a stationary bar set a height equal to 90 degrees of elbow flexion for the participant. The position of the bar was chosen to be approximately at the ‘sticking point’ in order to fatigue at a position critical to the successful completion of the lift. The MVIC device consisted of a standard power rack (York Barbell, York, PA.) with two sets of rails inserted, and a flat bench. A standard Olympic bar (York Barbell, York, PA.) was placed between the rails. The bar was supported from underneath by the lower rail and prevented from being lifted upward by the upper rail; the bar was thus held in a stationary position. The rails were adjustable in height, and the device was set to a point where the elbow of the participant was as close to 90 degrees as the adjustments on the device would allow. Participants were required to lay supine on the bench and press maximally against the Olympic bar for 30 seconds.

#### Experimental Design

The present investigation employed a within subjects design, with random assignment. The participants reported to the weight room on two separate occasions with 72 hours between visits. The sessions occurred at the same time as a normally scheduled team weightlifting session. Each participant was randomly assigned to one of two orders for treatment (STAND then MVIC, or MVIC then STAND).

##### Treatments

Each day began with a standard warm-up on the bench press. The first warm-up set consisted of 5 repetitions of a weight that represented 70% of the previously established one repetition maximum (1-RM). The second warm-up set of three repetitions was done with a weight that represented 80% of 1-RM. Following the warm-up on each day participants completed the protocol for one of two treatments. The first treatment was a standard (STAND) one repetition maximum determination on the bench press. The participants were instructed to attempt a total of three single repetition lifts to determine the maximum amount of weight that could be lifted on that day. The starting weight was set at a value that was approximately 2.25kg underneath the previously determined 1-RM. If the participant successfully completed the attempt they were allowed to increase the weight; if they failed at the attempt approximately 5kg was removed before the second attempt. The second treatment, pre-fatigue via maximum voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC), was identical to STAND except that immediately prior to each attempt the participants performed 30 seconds of MVIC against a stationary bar at approximately 90 degrees of elbow flexion. All participants completed all three attempts under both conditions. At least 3 minutes of recovery were allowed between attempts to reduce between lift fatigue effects (1,7).

#### Statistical Analyses

Prior to analysis all dependant variables were analyzed for normality. Paired samples t-tests were utilized to examine the differences between the two treatments so the degree of pre-fatigue can be determined. Generalized Estimation Equation analysis was utilized to examine the fixed effects of measured arm span on subsequent bench press performance. Any significant interaction effects were further explored via multiple regression analysis. Significance was set a priori at alpha ≥0.05.

### Results

Paired samples t-tests were used to determine the difference between treatments (MVIC vs. STAND). The MVIC treatment resulted in significantly lower performance on the 1-RM test (p=0.02, Table 2). General Linear Model analysis was performed to evaluate fixed effects (Treatment, Arm span) on maximum weight lifted in the bench press. The omnibus test for the model was significant (Likelihood Ratio Chi-Square 3507.525, p<0.001). The analysis revealed main effects for treatment (STAND 59.78±18.8kg vs. MVIC 52.32±11.5kg, p<0.001) and arm span (p<0.001), as well as a significant two-way interaction treatment * arm span (p<0.001). Post-Hoc analysis via linear regression revealed that under the STAND treatment arm span was not a predictor of change in bench press performance as the ANOVA for the model was not significant (F-0.806, p=0.404); however, under the MVIC treatment (F=16.255, p=0.007) arm span was a significant negative predictor of change in bench press performance (Beta = -0.855, p<0.001) (Figure 1).

Table 2. Changes in 1-RM Strength by Treatment

*All values are listed ±SD. 1RM post MVIC and STAND are significantly different p=0.02. Change between MVIC and STAND treatment are significantly different p=0.02.*

### Discussion

Based upon these data it would appear that in a state of induced pre-fatigue, arm span is a significant predictor of 1-RM performance in the bench press for female collegiate track and field throwers. Though previous research has not demonstrated similar findings(5), these findings did not represent data obtained from fatigued subjects. It would appear plausible that the effects of arm span on the bench press may only become manifest in situations of fatigue.

Understanding fatigue is an important consideration for coaches. First, a majority of an athlete’s bench press workouts is a series of sets resulting in muscular fatigue. Secondly, weight-training sessions may occur after a practice has already taken place, ensuring muscular fatigue before the bench press workout begins. Post-exercise fatigue may limit the effectiveness of the resistance-training program as an adaptive physiologic stimulus for strength gains. Understanding how each athlete reacts to fatigue in a workout is imperative to designing a training program in order to achieve maximal strength.

Track and field throws coaches in particular must specifically understand how arm span will affect bench press workouts. Throws coaches often target athletes with longer arms for recruiting purposes; longer levers are advantageous for the discus and hammer events. Coaches training athletes with a greater arm span may have to change bench press protocol to account for a greater fatigue.

The present investigation was not without limitations. Firstly, the choice of measurement of arm span versus actual determination of skeletal lengths was made to increase the applicability of the findings to coaches, but is also a limiting factor. Secondly, the simulated method of fatigue chosen for practicality for the current investigation may not be completely representative of fatigue that occurs as the result of a weight room training session. Though not without limitation, the finding remains that arm span was a significant negative predictor of performance in the pre-fatigued condition.

Future research needs to establish the relationship between arm span and differences in muscle fatigability, and exercise training and prescription in order to optimize strength development in males and females.

### Conclusions

Arm span is a practical measure that can easily be assessed by any coach with access to a tape measure. Fitness professionals and coaches should be aware that in a fatigued state arm span is a negative predictor of performance in the bench press in female track and field throwers. Therefore, it is important for the coach to understand the individual differences among the athletes who are involved in the program; the amount of required recovery time may differ among individuals (4). Considerations for this can be suggested to professionals working with similar athletes including limiting the number of sets performed and focusing on quality of the lifts performed in order to allow for the associated fatigue.

The professional may also want to consider the optimization of the training volume for these athletes based upon the finding that arm span may affect performance in a multiple set lifting scheme. The coach can reduce the number of sets based upon arm span in order to compensate for the increased impact of fatigue that will likely occur for athletes with longer arm spans. For optimizing strength gains, exercise training and prescription to females should be modulated based upon arm span and related to: (1) resistance training to failure versus not to failure; and (2) the effects of a single set versus multiple sets.

### Applications in Sport

Coaches involved in events or sports (i.e. basketball and volleyball) where arm length is a determinant of athletic potential must recognize that these athletes might fatigue to a different degree during weight training than shorter-armed teammates or counterparts. Therefore, it is essential for the coach to understand the individual anthropometric differences among the athletes who are involved in the resistance training program because the amount of required recovery time may differ among individuals. Coaches need to understand this concept in order to get the full strength potential out of their athletes.

### References

Ambdessemed, D. (1999). Effects of recovery duration on muscular power and blood lactate during the bench press exercise. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 20(6), 368-373.

Baechle, T.R., & Earle, R.W. (2008). Essentials of strength training and conditioning (3rd ed.). Champaign: Human Kinetics.

Elliot, B.C., Wilson, G.J., & Graham, K.K. (1989). A biomechanical analysis of the sticking region in the bench press. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 21(4), 450-462.

Judge, L.W., & Burke, J. (2010). The effect of recovery time on strength performance following a high intensity bench press workout in males and females. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance, 5, 184-196.

Mayhew, J.L., Jacques, J.A., Ware, J.S., Chapman, P.P., Bemben, M.G., Ward, T.E., & Slovack, J.P. (2004). Anthropometric dimensions do not enhance one repetition maximum prediction from the NFL-225 test in college football players. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 18(3), 572-582.

Murphy, A.J., Wilson, G.J., Pryor, J.F., Newton, R.U. (1995). Isometric assessment of muscular function: The effect of joint angle. Journal of Applied Biomechanics, 11, 205-215.

Reynolds, J.M., Gordon, T.J., Robergs, R.A. (2006). Predictions of one repetition maximum strength from multiple repetition maximum testing and anthropometry. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 20(3), 584-592.

Wagner, L.L., Evans, S.A., Weir, J.P., Housh, T.J., Johnson, G.O. (1992). The effects of grip width on bench press performance. Journal of Applied Biomechanics, 8(1), 1-10.

### Corresponding Author
Dr. David Bellar
Department of Kinesiology
University of Louisiana at Lafayette
225 Cajundome Blvd
Lafayette, LA 70506
<dmb1527@louisiana.edu>
(216) 374-2590

### Author Bios

David Bellar is an assistant professor and director of the human performance lab in the department of kinesiology at the University of Louisiana at Lafayette. Dr. Bellar has a background in coaching track and field athletes, and researching performance attributes within this population.

Lawrence Judge is an associate professor and coordinator of the graduate coaching program at Ball State University. Dr. Judge has a long-established background in coaching track and field athletes and an extensive research background in coaching behavior, moral issues, and competitiveness versus participation in athletics, specifically in youth sports.

Tiffany Patrick is an undergraduate student studying exercise science in the department of kinesiology at the University of Louisiana at Lafayette.

Erin Gilreath is a graduate assistant studying coaching/sports performance at Ball State University. Erin is the current American record holder in the hammer throw and a 2004 Olympian.

Duration of Pre-performance Routines of Divers and Performance Outcomes

U.S. Sports Academy2013-11-25T17:12:24-06:00October 4th, 2010|Sports Exercise Science, Sports Management, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|

### Abstract

Pre-performance routines are individualized tasks that are intended to prepare the athlete for correct execution. While the efficacy of pre-performance routines appears established, debate exists concerning temporal consistency. The current study examined pre-performance routine times and degree of difficulty of the top 16 state divers in the mid-western United States. Each of the 16 participants in the study performed 10 different dives with varying difficulty and scores. Significance was found between the top eight finishers and bottom eight finishers in mean pre-performance time. The top eight finishers had a mean pre-performance time of 6.18 seconds and the bottom eight finishers mean pre-performance time was 4.93 seconds. Significance was also revealed across the degree of difficulty of dives (easy, moderate, and hard) and their pre-performance times. Results support previous findings that suggest duration of pre-performance routines increase as difficulty increases, resulting in improved performance.

**Key Words:** Pre-performance routines, diving, duration

### Introduction

Pre-performance routines are intended to enhance performance by eliminating distractions and helping performers transfer thoughts from task-irrelevant to task-relevant cues (13). Pre-performance routines can occur in any type of sport; it appears to be most beneficial with self-paced tasks and closed-skill sports (e.g., tennis, bowling, and golf) (4). Pre-performance routines have been examined in a variety of fashions and across many sports. Two avenues of research that have emanated have examined the behavioral consistency and/or the temporal consistency of pre-performance routines.

The majority of pre-performance routine research has investigated behavioral consistencies that include specific movement patterns before and during execution of skills (e.g., dribbling a basketball, practice swings, etc.). Results of behavioral consistencies amongst pre-performance routines offer varying conclusions. For instance, Czech, Ploszay, and Burke (3) exmined the behavioral consistency of pre-shot routines in basketball free throw shooting. Results were not significant between routine or non-routine groups, however, the authors found a six percent increase in the free-throw percentage as the behavioral consistency of the pre-performance routine increased. In the most in-depth pre-performance routine research to date, Lonsdale and Tam (8) examined both temporal patterns and behavioral consistency of free-throw shooters of fifteen NBA players during the playoffs. Results revealed that players who adhered to behavioral routines were significantly (12.47%) more consistent free-throw shooters than those who were consistent with respect to duration alone.

The duration of pre-performance routines and performance outcomes also appears to be equiovical (1,5,7,8,14). Wrisberg & Pein (14) naturalistically observed the duration of collegiate basketball players pre-performance routines for free-throw shooting. They found a negative correlation (r = -0.41) between their free-throw percentage and routine duration. Similarly, Bell and colleagues (in-press) examined the temporal consistency of putting routines of collegiate golfers. The authors examined two separate NCAA Division I collegiate golf tournaments. The within-subject design across fifteen golfers revealed that deviation in pre-performance time resulted in a significant decrease in putting performance.

On the other hand, Jackson (5) examined 572 place kicks across 13 participants during the 1999 Rugby Union World Cup. The author examined difficulty of kicks, concentration times, and physical preparation times. Results revealed no differences amongst the best and worst kickers, but more importantly as situational pressure increased, players had longer concentration times (5). These results extended previous results suggesting that temporal consistency of pre-performance routines varies (6). In addition, research with elite tennis players and their pre-service routines showed a lack of temporal consistency amongst service routines with no significant difference in outcomes (4).

Varying results across behavioral and temporal consistencies of pre-performance routines may be due to the idiosyncratic tendencies across sports. For instance, examination of rugby kickers found that pre-performance routines were altered due to external factors such as time-outs and substitions (5). In addition, while no consistent service routines were found amongst elite tennis players, the authors only examined the first tennis serve (4). Tennis serving allows two service opportunties and within the professional ranks, first serves are intended for winning and/or establishing the point, which may cause more performance errors altogether. Delving further, Lonsdale & Tam (8) did not distnguish their analysis between type of free-throw attempts (e.g., one and one, two-shot, or one shot attempt) which may also have impacted results.

The sport of competitive diving is unique, and provides an excellent testbed for examining pre-performance routines. Each dive has a pre-determined degree of difficulty (DD) that increases with the number of twists and somersaults (10). Since difficulty and situational differences may account for increases in pre-performance times in other sports (5), analysis of pre-performance routine duration with specific difficulty ratings is warranted. The sport of diving actually operationally defines preparation time as any movement prior to take-off, which is the approach steps in a forward dive and the movement of the board for a reverse dive (10). Thus, due to the lack of any discernable behavioral measures, examining temporal patterns of pre-performance routines in divers is advantageous.

Research has yet to examine the pre-performance routines of a closed-skill, self-paced sport such as diving. The purpose of the current study was to examine the duration of pre-performance routines of high-school divers during a major competition to determine the extent of the significance, if any, with relation to the difficulty and outcome of the dive. Due to the lack of consistent findings across various sports, no formal hypothesis was formulated regarding the potential relationship between pre-performance routine and outcome. However, coinciding with results from Jackson (5) and Jackson and Baker (6), it was hypothsized that increased degree of difficulty dives would result in longer routine durations.

### Methods

#### Participants

Participants were 16 female high-school level divers during a state championship meet. There were six seniors, four juniors, five sophomores, and one freshman. The authors used naturalistic observation in which the participants were unknowingly observed. Due to sensitive material for the demographics, no anthropometric data (e.g., height/weight) was made public, thus none was collected.

#### Setting

The research study took place at an indoor Division I collegiate aquatic facility. All dives took place on a one-meter springboard with 16 participants performing all 10 dives.

#### Design & Procedures

The current study involved direct observation by two researchers in which the participants were unknowingly being observed. The variable of pre-performance time (PPT) initiated when both feet of the participant were set in a fixed position on the diving board. The PPT ended when the participant took the first step towards the end of the board for a front approach or when the arms began to swing on a reverse dive. These two criteria were selected due to their consistency amongst all routines (10).

Degree of difficulty (DD) was recorded for each diver and was separated into three categories (easy, moderate, and hard). Degree of difficulty is the perceived difficulty in accordance with the local state high school association guidelines and is established prior to each competition year.

Easy Dives – Individual dives with a degree of difficulty ranging from 0-1.8.

Moderate Dives – Individual dives with a degree of difficulty ranging from 1.9-2.1.

Hard Dives – Individual dives with a degree of difficulty from 2.2 or higher.

Last, each diver compiled a Total Dive Score (TDS) for each dive. Each individual dive is given a score based upon 7 judges hired by the state high school athletic association. The highest two and the lowest two judge scores were dropped from the scoring. The remaining three scores were added together and multiplied by the degree of difficulty for that particular dive to form a total dive score.

(Judge score 1 + Judge score 2 + Judge score 3) x Degree of Difficulty = Total Dive Score

#### Data Collection Procedure

All ten rounds of dives were observed directly by two researchers. The researchers used a stopwatch to time the length of pre-performance routine to the tenth of a second. To help ensure reliability of measurement, the slower of the two times was used. Any times from the researchers that deviated from each other by over 5 tenths (.5) of a second were not used. The researchers also hand wrote the total dive score for each particular dive. Each measurement was put into a spreadsheet at the time of the study. Participants were given an identification label so that inferences could be made later in the study.

#### Data Analysis

The researchers used a median split strategy similar to Jackson (5) to identify the best and worst performers. In order to investigate differences in PPT for the highest and lowest scoring performers, the divers were separated into the top and bottom halves, using their total scores. The mean PPT values of the groups were then compared using an independent samples t-test to determine whether there were significant differences in time taken prior to dive for the highest and lowest scoring individuals.

In addition, a mixed effects analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was used to examine the relationship between PPT and total dive score (TDS), as well as to compare the mean total dive score across the three dive difficulty conditions (Easy, Moderate and Hard). Sidak’s pairwise multiple comparison procedure was used to follow up a statistically significant dive difficulty effect (11). As well as testing the major effects of interest in this study, the mixed effects model also accounted for the repeated measures (10 dives) for each competitor.

### Results

Sixteen participants completed 10 rounds of dives. Total PPT was (M= 5.53, SD = 2.76 seconds) across 160 total dives. Results revealed a significant difference between the top eight finishers and bottom eight finishers at p < 0.05The eight participants with the highest dive scores displayed PPT (M= 6.18, SD= 2.93 seconds) which was significantly longer than the PPT (M=4.93, SD=2.42 seconds) of eight participants with the lowest scores Means and standard deviations across all 10 dives for the two groups are presented in Table 1.

Results from the mixed effects model appear in Table 2. Both PPT and DD were treated as fixed effects, while the diver was treated as a random effect in this analysis. The slope relating PPT to the total score was statistically significant and positive, b= 0.089, SE= .028, df =155, p= .002, 95% CI [.033, .144] indicating that the longer the PPT the higher the total score on a given dive. This model also revealed a significant difference between levels of DD on the mean final score.

Table 3 shows the mean and standard deviation of total dive score (TDS) for each of the degree of difficulty (DD) groups. As described previously, in order to determine which means were significantly different across DD, Sidak’s (11) method for multiple comparisons was used. Statistically significant differences across levels of DD were found for all comparisons except between the hard-to-moderate groups. The easy to moderate and easy to hard DD groups had significantly different means (p<0.001), as did the moderate to easy and hard to easy DD groups (p<0.001).

### Discussion

Pre-performance routines have been noted across various sports and in different fashions (13). However, research is equivocal regarding duration and performance outcomes. To date, research has yet to examine pre-performance routines that account for specific degrees of difficulty. The purpose of this study was to examine possible relationships between the duration of diver’s pre-performance routine, degree of difficulty, and outcome.

Results revealed that the top eight finishers took significantly longer in the preparation time than the bottom eight finishers of the competition. There was over a one second difference (1.25 seconds) between the two groups, which is contrary to recent research suggesting no difference in preparation times between the best and worst performers (5).

In support of the hypothesis, results indicate that the degree of difficulty had a significant effect on pre-performance times, as dives increased in difficulty, pre-performance times also increased. These findings appear consistent with current research in that preparation times increased with regard to difficulty (5, 6).

Contrary to other pre-performance routine research (8), the sport of diving appears to distinquish pre-performance routines as cognitive rather than behavioral due to the lack of any movement prior to takeoff (10). Thus, it is safe to assume that the pre-performance routines by the divers consisted of strictly cognitive preparation (e.g., self-talk, imagery) as opposed to any observable behavioral tendancies (e.g., dribbling a basketball). Although speculative, due to the methodology and scores of the dives, more difficult dives seemed to require additional mental processing as opposed to easier dives with little thought (12).

Methodologically, one should consider the closed skill of competitive diving. Perhaps after the first several rounds, some divers could not significantly advance in the standings and merely “went through the motions” on the springboard. On the other hand, the top-positioned divers may have taken more preparation time as result of their scores and positions. Unfortunately, due to the lack of qualitative measurements of the divers themselves, this limitation should be acknowledged. In addition, the lack of insight into the athlete experience appears to be a major limitation of all recent pre-performance routine research (1,4,5,8,9).

Wrisberg and Pein (14) state that the skilled performer will demonstrate a more consistent routine than a less skilled performer despite individual differences. While Wrisberg and Pein (14) examined basketball players across an entire season, the current study only directly examained one major competition. The changes in pre-performance time in the current study may be attributed to the previous diving and competition experience. It may also be neccesary to suggest the small sample contributed to these findings.

Whereas the sport of diving lends credence to the temporal consistency of pre-performance routines, further research is needed. A triangulation of data collection may yield greater results. Specifically, a within-subject design that examines both the duration of routines and behavioral components, and obtains qualitative inquiries from divers appears to offer a concrete strategy of data collection. Most important is the data collection of repeated measures across an entire season (14).

### Conclusion

To date, the current study is the first to examine divers’ pre-performance routines. Consistent with previous research, as difficulty increased, performers had longer pre-performance routines (5). There was also a significant difference in pre-performance routines between the top eight finishers and the bottom eight finishers. In contradiction to past research results (1,8), longer preparation times may be indicative of improved performance. Lastly, examining the temporal consistency of pre-performance routines for a self-paced skill appears to provide insight into concentration times and, in turn, effective performance.

### Applications in Sport

Cohn (2) states that within any routine is the sport itself, along with actual nature of the required task. Whereas, it is difficult to transfer these findings across sports that incorporate behavioral tendencies (e.g., golf, rugby, basketball), athletes should nonetheless develop consistent pre-performance routines. Consistent with previous research, the most important aspect of pre-performance routines appears to be an appropriate attentional focus (8). Coaches across all sports should help athletes incorporate effective attentional cues (e.g., internal/external) within their routine depending on the skill level of the performer (for a review see Lindor & Singer, 7). As mentioned previously, future pre-performance routine research should incorporate a triangulation of data that encompasses temporal, behavioral, and qualitative data within applied sport settings.

### Tables

#### Table 1
Mean (standard deviation) PPT* of All Dives Examined from the Top 16 Finishers

* PPT=Pre-performance time

#### Table 2
Effects of PPT* and DD** Groups with Type III Tests of Fixed Effects with the Score as the Dependant Variable

**Note:** Dependent Variable is Score
* PPT=Pre-performance time
** DD=Degree of difficulty

#### Table 4
Total Dive Score means of DD* Groups

Note: Means that do not share subscripts (e.g., a, b) differ at p

#### Graph 1
Total Dive Score means of DD* Groups
Note: * Significance at 001.

### Corresponding Author
Robert J. Bell, Ph.D
HP 222-E
Ball State University
Muncie, In 47306
<robbell@bsu.edu>
765-285-3286

### Author Bios

Robert J. Bell, Ph.D
Ball State University

W. Holmes Finch, Ph.D
Ball State University

Zach Whitaker, M.A.
Santa Clara Diving