LAW ENFORCEMENT USE OF FORCE: A NARRATIVE REVIEW ON THE UTILITY OF MARTIAL ARTS IN AMERICAN POLICING

LAW ENFORCEMENT USE OF FORCE: A NARRATIVE REVIEW ON THE UTILITY OF MARTIAL ARTS IN AMERICAN POLICING

ABSTRACT 

Problem: The lack of real-life fight training can yield inappropriate physical and psychological stress responses that result in unreasonable use of force by law enforcement officers. Purpose: This narrative review synthesizes the peer-reviewed literature on police assaults, use of force, law enforcement training, and martial arts in law enforcement with some focus on Brazilian jiu-jitsu (BJJ) training and the literature’s methodological issues to provide evidence on the potential utility of martial arts training as a critical force options component mitigator of risk and liability. Method: A qualitative narrative review was appropriate and implemented for this study. Results: This narrative review examines Brizin and Kernspecht’s general theory of combat, which is principally concerned with utilizing various strategies and tactics to achieve desired outcomes, and analyzes law enforcement training, martial arts in law enforcement, and methodological issues found in the literature. In addition, assaults on law enforcement officers and unreasonable use of force are discussed in detail, including culturally relevant examples from recent police use of force encounters. Conclusion: Robust and rigorous force options training, particularly martial arts training, can play a significant role in giving officers confidence when dealing with high-stress situations and could reduce the amount of inappropriate application of force by a police officer, which often results in injury or death of a suspect, or severe liability to the officer’s employer. Application in Sport: For coaches and those who train police officers in the philosophical and physical benefits of martial arts, integrating martial arts, such as Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu as a force option, may improve their defense and restraint skills and decision-making involving force use.  

Key Words: Brazilian jiu-jitsu, police officer training, general theory of combat, feedback, dialogue  

OVERVIEW 

This narrative review explores the potential utility of martial arts, specifically Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu (BJJ), as a force option for law enforcement officers. Law enforcement agencies face increasing pressure to reduce excessive use of force, particularly in encounters with violent subjects. Previous studies have shown that officers often lack the necessary hand-to-hand combat skills to safely de-escalate situations without resorting to lethal methods (Torres, 2020; Renden et al., 2015). In these high-stress and violent encounters, effective conflict-resolution skills are critical for protecting both officers and suspects. 

Despite the increasing incorporation of martial arts into police training programs, gaps remain in the literature regarding its long-term benefits. Research indicates that martial arts training can build confidence and improve decision-making under pressure. Yet, the full potential of such training is still underexplored in the context of law enforcement (Renden et al., 2015). This review aims to bridge that gap by analyzing the role martial arts, particularly BJJ, can play in improving officer safety, restraint techniques, and decision-making processes. 

The general theory of combat logic suggests that successful conflict resolution occurs when there is alignment between the engagement’s purpose and the combatant’s resources or characteristics (Brizin & Kernspecht, 2014). This principle underpins martial arts training, which equips officers with the necessary physical and mental skills to navigate confrontations swiftly and effectively. By synthesizing the existing literature, this review provides an overview of key areas, including: 

1. Assaults on Police Officers and Unreasonable Uses of Force: Examining notable cases and the impact of inadequate training. 

2. Combat Training and the Use of Force Continuum: Discussing current practices and historical evolution. 

3. Martial Arts Training in Law Enforcement: Assessing police officer preparation and development  

4. Current Status of Martial Arts Training in Law Enforcement: Assessing the current status and impact  

5. Research Involving Martial Arts Training in Law Enforcement: Current studies related to the topic 

6. Martial Arts Training Specifically for Police Officers: Analysis of current police officer training  

7. Recommendations for Future Research: Identifying gaps and challenges in the existing literature. 

The database searches were conducted using Google Scholar, Criminal Justice Database (ProQuest), and Criminal Justice Abstracts, selected for their relevance to criminal justice, education, and law enforcement. This review provides evidence-based recommendations for integrating martial arts into law enforcement training to enhance safety and minimize the unnecessary use of force. 

Methods 

A narrative review was selected as the appropriate methodology for this study, which aims to address the research question: How does martial arts training impact law enforcement officers in terms of use-of-force decision-making, officer safety, and overall effectiveness in American policing? 

The initial search was conducted using three electronic databases: Google Scholar, Criminal Justice Database (ProQuest), and Criminal Justice Abstracts. A total of 193 articles and books were identified through this search, which included the key terms: “Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu,” “law enforcement training,” “use of force,” “force options,” and “martial arts.” After removing duplicates and screening for relevance, the pool of sources was narrowed to 88 studies that specifically addressed martial arts training in law enforcement. These studies were retrieved and reviewed in detail, and their reference lists were further screened for additional relevant sources, though no new sources were identified. 

Full-text access was obtained for all 73 records that met the inclusion criteria, and after a comprehensive screening of titles and abstracts, these studies were included in the final review. The studies examined in this review cover general martial arts training for law enforcement, with many focusing on applying BJJ in the field. Key topics included the regulation of chokeholds, improvements in officer mental health, training, conditioning, and psychological and cognitive benefits for law enforcement officers. 

This study’s protocol followed a structured methodological framework, which consisted of the following stages: 

1. Identifying and Collecting Relevant Studies: Literature searches were performed using three databases: Google Scholar, Criminal Justice Database (ProQuest), and Criminal Justice Abstracts. The initial search terms, such as “Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu,” “law enforcement training,” and “use of force,” were established to conduct further searches across the databases. The collected studies were then screened for relevance to the research question, focusing specifically on martial arts training in law enforcement. After duplicates were removed, studies were assessed based on their eligibility criteria. Reference lists were further examined for additional sources, although no new studies were added. 

2. Study Selection: Inclusion and exclusion criteria were defined to filter relevant literature. To qualify, studies had to: (i) be from a peer-reviewed journal, a conference presentation, or a published thesis; (ii) be published in English; (iii) include documented analysis related to police use of force, officer lived experiences, martial arts training, law enforcement practices, stress mitigation, and sports performance; and (iv) be either quantitative or qualitative in nature. No restrictions were placed on the time frame, geographical location within the United States, or study population. Conflicting literature was analyzed by a colleague to reach a consensus for inclusion. After the initial title and abstract screening, a more in-depth selection occurred through full-text screening. 

3. Charting the Data: Once selected, data were extracted and charted according to various categories such as author, title, journal, publication year, geographical location, purpose, sample size, methodology, intervention type, outcomes, key findings, and barriers. These data points were organized, grouped into subtopics, and validated for accuracy. The studies were categorized based on the following subtopics: (i) assaults on police officers and unreasonable uses of force, (ii) combat training and the use of force continuum, (iii) martial arts training in law enforcement, (iv) current status of martial arts training in law enforcement, (v) research involving martial arts training in law enforcement, and (vi) martial arts training specifically for police officers. 

4. Summarizing and Synthesizing the Results: A thematic analysis was conducted to describe the reviewed literature and identify areas that have been well-researched and areas that require further exploration. Patterns and trends were analyzed across geographic locations within the United States and decades of publication. Results were categorized into themes to identify similarities, and barriers and gaps in the literature were highlighted. Based on these findings, recommendations for future research were provided. 

Narrative Review 

The historical beginning points of police departments’ preparation in the utilization of less lethal force can be followed to the 19th century, precisely when the London city police launched the practice of outfitting their law enforcement officers with truncheons, commonly known as “Billy clubs” (Clede & Parson, 1987). The club served as a customary implement utilized by law enforcement officers in both the United Kingdom and the United States during the 19th and 20th centuries. During the 1960s, the civil rights movement in the United States witnessed extensive demonstrations that were frequently met with resistance from local law enforcement agencies, resulting in the dissemination of graphic depictions of police excessive force (Kaminski & Martin, 2000). In the early 1970s, there was an increase in preference for employing nonviolent methods of subject control instead of relying on physical force like clubbing to subdue suspects (Torres, 2020). Policymakers held the perspective that this particular approach would serve as a more favorable means of enhancing the rapport between the community and law enforcement, with a focus on public perception.  

The new programs caused enhancements in several crucial domains. The policing landscape in the United States is characterized by a wide range of agencies, including many municipal, county, and state entities and federal organizations like the FBI, DEA, ATF, and Secret Service. The decentralized structure of policing in the United States has several consequences, including overlapping responsibilities, diverse funding sources, and varied training programs (Kaminski & Martin, 2000). Police departments exhibit various needs and possess varying financial resources to address these requirements. Consequently, there was a need to enhance the scope, funding, and duration of the physical defense training programs initiated during the 1970s. It should be noted that the initial programs suffered from a notable deficiency in the level of proficiency exhibited by the trainers. These trainers derived from martial arts backgrounds founded on Aikido, Karate, or Judo philosophies. According to Kaminski and Martin (2000), although these systems showed efficacy within gymnasiums and dojos, their effectiveness in real-world scenarios was frequently lacking. In addition, the growing accessibility of non-lethal resources such as pepper spray, tasers, and batons has led to a tendency among officers to rely on these tools instead of prioritizing comprehensive hand-to-hand combat training (Bowen, 2018). Ultimately, the initial fervor surrounding martial arts training frequently diminished, leading to the discontinuation of programs that necessitated consistent practice for optimal results, primarily due to financial limitations. 

During the 1990s, martial arts training saw a remarkable spike in interest. According to Reaves (2013), during the decade’s initial years, 2% to 20% of police academies incorporated unarmed martial arts training into their curriculum for cadets. According to Reaves (2013), as of 2013, the percentage stood at 99%, with individuals dedicating an average of 60 hours to training. Torres (2020) reported that nearly all individuals, 94%, have learned ground fighting, while approximately half, 49%, have been schooled in pressure point techniques. In addition to receiving hand-to-hand defensive training in police academies, it is common for officers to engage in ongoing training either through department-provided programs or personal initiatives. According to a study conducted by Morin et al. (2017), nearly half of employed law enforcement officers underwent training within the previous 12-month period. 

Inadequate defensive and offensive combat training has historically posed significant physical risks for officers and suspects. This issue began to be addressed more systematically in the mid-1970s with the development of the use of force continuum, which aimed to mitigate these risks (Desmedt & Marsh, 1990; Graves & Connor, 1992). This section synthesizes the literature on this issue. Key themes from the literature include use of force decision-making, officer safety, mental health and well-being, and community relations. 

Cases of Assaults on Police Officers and Unreasonable Use of Force 

The evolution of the problem associated with the physical risks that can occur stemming from a lack of effective combat training is perhaps best reflected in notable cases of police being injured or killed in the line of duty while amid a physical altercation, as well as those involving suspects being victimized by poor restraint and combat skills on the part of officers that led to their injury or death. Not all such cases reach national recognition, though several examples have emerged in the past several decades that highlight gaps in the tactical training of law enforcement officers (Aborisade & Oni, 2021; Akinyetun, 2021; O’Brien et al., 2019). Lyons (2017) systematically reviewed the literature on injury profiles of law enforcement officers involved in such physical altercations in North America. The authors were particularly concerned with high-risk areas in the body where officers sustained injuries, which could be used to understand better how to train them to defend themselves during conflicts effectively. Results from a synthesis of 16 studies demonstrated that the most injured areas occurred in the upper extremities and involved soft-tissue strains and sprains. 

Cases involving the unreasonable use of force by police officers also reflect gaps in current approaches to the defensive tactics training of law enforcement officers in the United States. While these cases are numerous and exhaustive and often are either not reported or do not gain national media attention, some have been more culturally relevant in recent years and illustrate the negative outcomes that can occur when police are either not equipped to defend themselves without harming a suspect or are assaulted due to a lack of defensive tactics training skills (Akinyetun, 2021; Bowleg et al., 2022; Sosoo et al., 2022). The cases of Rodney King, Edward Bronstein, and George Floyd each represent some deficit in the training of a law enforcement officer when faced with a less-than-compliant individual (Bowleg et al., 2022; Maltsev et al., 2020; Sosoo et al., 2022). Though such cases also contain racial and sociocultural connotations, they reveal areas in which martial arts training might have potentially protected the person police were dealing with.   

Combat Training and Use of Force Decision-Making 

How police officers were trained to approach and manage physical altercations on duty has also evolved since the mid-1970s (Desmedt & Marsh, 1990; Graves & Connor, 1992). During their attendance in a police academy, cadets are trained in the use of force and de-escalation tactics (Torres, 2020). Concerning the latter, officers are provided with psychological and communicative skills and tools to help reduce the severity or tension of a conflict without using physical force (Akinyetun, 2021). In most circumstances, de-escalation is a preliminary step to prevent a physical altercation and protect the officer and the suspect (Ivanovski & Nedev, 2022). When de-escalation is ineffective, officers are trained to use an appropriate amount and mode of force (Ivanovski & Nedev, 2022). In police training, force is considered to be the amount of effort necessary to warrant compliance on the part of a subject (Heusler & Sutter, 2020). The subjectivity of the concept of force and what constitutes an appropriate amount is one factor that has led to physical injury and police excessive force in many cases.  

Some concepts involving force and tactical training among police cadets are similar to Eastern martial arts principles. For example, officers are taught to balance the needs of security with the ethical rights and well-being of a suspect and to avoid inflicting physical harm unless necessary (Vera Jimenez et al., 2019). Additionally, officers are taught to use physical force as a means of self-defense primarily and as a means of restraint secondarily (Ivanovski & Nedev, 2022). The history of using force dates back to the emergence of established law enforcement in the United States, which has essentially existed since its conception (Aborisade & Oni, 2021). However, the use of force and the physical training of officers did not stem from the aim of protecting officers but, instead, from the fear that officers would abuse their power (Vera Jimenez et al., 2019). Therefore, the history and evolution of the tactical training of officers have been grounded in the ethical use of force, self-defense, and de-escalation.  

The use of force continuum dates back to the late 19th century to help officers determine the amount of force to apply based on the level of risk present in a given situation. Over time, this continuum has evolved considerably due to the development of new threats and risks to officers and civilians, such as the more widespread availability of firearms and the emergence of modern technologies and weapons that can potentially cause harm or death (Staller et al., 2019; Torres, 2020). There is no universal or standard model of the use of force continuum, and debates have existed in the literature regarding the effectiveness of policies surrounding this concept (Terrill & Paoline III, 2013). For example, Terrill and Paoline III examined the less lethal use of force policy that emerged following the high-profile Graham v. Connor case that reached the Supreme Court and involved the reasonableness of using force during an arrest. Terrill and Paoline III (2013) revealed that one in five law enforcement agencies do not have or implement a use-of-force continuum or a robust policy, and there is considerable variance in force tactics that are used between different agencies and what is considered to be an appropriate amount of force based on the level of risk that is present. This lack of consistency is one factor that may lead to cases of unreasonable use of force by police officers and also represents the necessity for implementing a tactical force model that protects both officers and suspects.  

Researchers have recently been concerned with re-examining the use of force continuum following numerous nationally relevant cases in which either suspects or police officers have been severely injured or died during a physical altercation (Staller et al., 2019; Torres, 2020). McLean et al. (2022) conducted a recent investigation on this topic, in which they presented a historical and conceptual analysis of the use of force continuum and its connection to cases of police assaults or excessive force. The authors concluded that, contradictory to previous research, resistance on the part of the suspect is not the only driver of decisions involving the use of force (McLean et al., 2022; O’Brien et al., 2019; Staller et al., 2019). Instead, the perception of threat is also a significant factor that influences such decisions and one that has been neglected in both police defensive tactics training and the peer-reviewed literature. The implementation of martial arts training, such as BJJ, may help to address this limitation based on its psychological and philosophical principles that can help officers potentially identify and perceive a threat more accurately and then appropriately use force to restrain a suspect while safely defending themselves (Facinek & Kosc, 2021). 

Martial Arts and Officer Safety 

While tactical training has been a component of law enforcement training throughout its history, martial arts training has only recently been considered a viable element of the preparation and development of police officers. One of the major developments in the integration of martial arts and general law enforcement training occurred in 2009, when Canada’s constable, Al Arsenault, first introduced the fusion of arrest and control tactics that are standard in the training of police officers with various aspects of martial arts, such as Judo (Arsenault & Hinton, 2014). This officer had been training in the martial arts since the 1980s but first developed a formal model of integrated martial arts and standard police tactical training when he began to train police officers in Judo in the early 21st century and developed several training centers throughout Western Canada for officers seeking specialized skill development (Arsenault & Hinton, 2014). Judo is a martial art that emphasized throws and disabling suspects without harming them, as well as using maximum efficiency for the mutual welfare and benefit of both the attacker and defender (Heusler & Sutter, 2020). The training centers quickly became popular and have become a staple in Canadian law enforcement.  

While martial arts training in law enforcement has become more popularized in recent years, there have been limited peer-reviewed studies examining its impact on outcomes like the safety of police officers, the safety of suspects, and the impact such training has on deterring physical altercations between the two. However, some studies have indirectly evaluated the utility and feasibility of martial arts training for police officers (Renden et al., 2015; Staller et al., 2019; Vera Jimenez et al., 2019). For example, Renden et al. (2015) sought to determine whether officers who had training in martial arts performed more effectively in self-defense and arrest scenarios when experiencing low and high anxiety levels than those who did not. A sample of officers who were and were not trained in martial arts took part in a weekly intervention in which they were taught self-defense and arrest skills based on Karate, BJJ, and Krav Maga principles. Results demonstrated that officers who had additional experience beyond the training program demonstrated the highest levels of performance under high anxiety conditions. However, the intervention significantly improved the self-defense and arrest skills of both groups. These findings illustrate the effectiveness of holistic interventions that combine principles of multiple martial arts in officers’ self-defense and arrest skills and the potential applicability of such a training program to applied scenarios involving actual suspects.  

While these findings demonstrate the benefits of martial arts training for police officers, including interventions that contain elements of BJJ, there have been some limitations of such interventions in the literature. For example, results from the Renden et al. (2015) study demonstrated that their martial arts intervention did not significantly prevent participants from performing worse under high anxiety conditions compared to low anxiety conditions. The presence of anxiety within a potential physical altercation or circumstance that has escalated appears to have a universally negative impact on police officers, regardless of their martial arts experience (O’Brien et al., 2019). The negative impact of anxiety on performance has been documented widely in the literature across numerous disciplines and contexts (Khatsaiuk et al., 2021; O’Neill et al., 2019; Staller et al., 2019). This impact reflects the need to prepare officers more effectively to negotiate high-tension situations in the line of duty, and the integration of principles of martial arts within standard police training may help address this limitation (Staller et al., 2019).  

Interplay Between Martial Arts and Improved Community Relations 

Implementing widespread and standardized martial arts training can potentially improve the strained relationship between the public and law enforcement (Parks, 2022). The implementation of enhanced training programs has been found to have a positive impact on the likelihood of reducing fatal encounters between law enforcement officers and suspects, consequently resulting in a decrease in mortality rates and an improvement in the overall sense of safety and self-confidence among police personnel (Parks, 2022; Renden et al., 2015). According to Parks (2022), enhancing the efficacy, accountability, and self-assurance of the police force can contribute to a greater level of public confidence, thereby reinforcing the prevailing perception of law enforcement. 

Considering some of the altercations with racial subtext that have gained national attention in recent years, researchers have also sought to investigate the extent to which martial arts training may effectively remedy police interactions involving people of color that occur in the field. Parks (2022) presented a review and conceptual paper documenting the need and potential advantages of martial arts training to mitigate violence caused by perceived or actual racial bias by or toward law enforcement personnel. The author noted the disproportionate number of cases that involve White officers and African-American suspects, which appears to be indicative of at least one of two factors, including racial bias in the perception of a threat on the part of law enforcement personnel and/or an increased real threat of violence on the part of African-American suspects (Parks, 2022). Due to the ability of martial arts to integrate psychosocial training and reduce stress and anxiety during physical altercations, martial arts training may help improve decision-making on the part of officers and more accurately perceive the threat level. 

Current Status of Martial Arts Training in Law Enforcement 

Based on the accumulation of evidence associated with martial arts training in law enforcement, researchers have synthesized the existing literature through systematic reviews and meta-analyses to draw broader and generalized conclusions about the utility of such interventions. Duarte and Ferraz (2022) conducted one of the most recent systematic reviews on martial arts and combat sports training among law enforcement officers. The authors found just five studies across five academic databases that met the inclusion criteria. However, despite the small body of evidence on this topic, the authors found that martial arts and combat sports training were associated with significant and consistent improvements in tactical performance and reductions in injury rates, anxiety, and stress. These findings confirm studies showing the positive effects that martial arts training can have on physical performance, mental health, and the ability to manage stress and anxiety (Duarte & Ferraz, 2022; Kukić et al., 2019; Staller et al., 2019). Whether or not such training significantly enhances these outcomes among law enforcement in applied situations and outside of simulated environments warrants further investigation in the literature.   

Literature from outside the United States has revealed the positive impacts of martial arts training on law enforcement personnel’s general health and well-being, irrespective of its influence on actual performance during arrest and control scenarios in the field. For example, martial arts training has been a key component of the training of police officers in many Eastern countries for centuries and has also been widely adopted throughout central European countries like Serbia (Kukić et al., 2019). Facinek and Košč (2021) documented the impacts of martial arts training on the general fitness and mental health/well-being of police officers in Slovakia, where such training has been implemented for multiple decades. According to these authors, martial arts training involving Taekwondo, Judo, and Aikido has been linked with Slovakian officers’ increased fitness and mental health (Facinek & Košč, 2021). Thus, it is probable that martial arts training is also associated with improved performance in applied circumstances, though further research is needed to understand these impacts.  

Researchers have recently increased efforts to understand how martial arts training can improve law enforcement officers’ self-defense and restrain skills, psychological outcomes, and general well-being. Fully embracing a specific martial art also generally warrants the adoption of a particular philosophy and set of values that can correspond to an enhanced sense of spiritual and mental health (Heusler & Sutter, 2020). Thus, martial arts training can have many advantages besides improving combat and defense skills (Maltsev et al., 2020). These benefits appear to align with the physical requirements of police work and law enforcement in general.  

Torres (2020) conducted a recent investigation of the psychological impacts of martial arts training on confidence, motivation, apprehensiveness, and use of force self-efficacy among more than 1,000 patrol officers in the United States. Results demonstrated that martial arts training significantly predicted high levels of perceived self-efficacy involving the use of force, motivation, and (low) apprehensiveness. These findings provide insight into the multidimensional benefits of martial arts training and the ability of martial arts to improve self-efficacy regarding the use of force decision-making and agree with previous research on this topic to illustrate the diverse benefits of martial arts and how they potentially are conducive to optimal police performance (Heusler & Sutter, 2020). Many of the most essential benefits are psychological.  

Martial arts may offer more complete and holistic training than that currently offered in police academies (Schaeffer, 2024). There are four sources of self-efficacy: past successful experiences, physical mastery of the task, verbal persuasion, and vicarious experience (Bandura & Walters, 1977). Through martial arts training and embracing the core principles and philosophies, each of these four sources is present (Xu et al., 2020).  

Recent studies have shown that teaching individual techniques within martial arts disciplines is associated with improved physical abilities needed to perform law enforcement duties effectively. For example, Khatsaiuk et al. (2021) conducted an intervention to examine the effects of a martial arts technique known as Katsumoto on the explosive force of 62 Ukrainian police officers. Results demonstrated that the technique significantly improved this outcome based on kinematic data generated from electrodes placed on officers’ bodies while they performed various defense and restrain maneuvers. These findings align with several other studies demonstrating the benefits of specialized martial arts technical training on law enforcement skills (Staller et al., 2021). Martial arts training can be integrated with typical police training at the academy level and through additional skill development opportunities throughout the career of law enforcement personnel.  

A trend in the literature associated with martial arts training among law enforcement is that most programs that incorporate such training offer relatively watered-down versions of an amalgam of disciplines, such as Karate, Kung-Fu, and Judo. These programs usually take the form of additional training opportunities for officers during overtime hours, in which basic movements are taught and practiced. Therefore, while martial arts training appears to offer improvements in many physical and psychological skills, such training could potentially be more effective if a single discipline was taught and mastered instead of just physical techniques from several different forms of martial arts.  

Another problem with the lack of emphasis on the psychological and philosophical aspects of martial arts training is that, in such cases, less emphasis is placed on the cognitive skills, such as awareness, how to perceive a threat, and how to manage anxiety, and this can still result in ineffective decision-making in tense and high-anxiety situations. This may be one of the reasons why studies have shown that officers with martial arts technical training implement significantly better use-of-force decisions in low anxiety conditions, but officers with and without such technical training demonstrate impaired performance in high anxiety conditions (Ermasova et al., 2020; Renden et al., 2015). A more comprehensive training focusing on just one discipline could theoretically improve officers’ physical and mental skills and more adequately prepare them for high-tension situations while on duty.  

Martial Arts and the Mental Health and Well-Being of Officers 

While martial arts training among American law enforcement began to emerge in the 1980s and 1990s, it was in the early 2000s that the first literature related to this topic was produced (Hect, 2016). This evidence primarily pertained to widely practiced martial arts such as karate and kung-fu techniques for self-defense or to restrain a suspect. With the emergence of BJJ in the law enforcement community, especially with the Gracie combatives program and Gracie University’s partnership with various law enforcement agencies, police seem to be shifting to grappling as their primary means of subduing a suspect. However, only recently have the first studies associated with BJJ training concepts such as neck restraints (choking) begun to appear in scholarly journals (Hickman et al., 2021).  

No recent studies have been published in scholarly, peer-reviewed journals that have exclusively examined the impacts of BJJ training on law enforcement personnel. Some dissertations associated with this topic have been produced but have not yet been published in peer-reviewed journals (Harmon, 2022; Rinderer, 2022). For example, Harmon (2022) conducted a qualitative, exploratory study investigating the perceptions of law enforcement personnel concerning the feasibility of BJJ training. The twelve participants unanimously agreed that BJJ training was likely to be effective and feasible as a supplement to traditional training efforts used within police academies. Additionally, Rinderer (2022) examined the perceived feasibility of BJJ training for rehabilitating from post-traumatic stress disorder for law enforcement personnel. Once again, there was general agreement that BJJ training was perceived to be both feasible and likely beneficial in addressing issues related to post-traumatic stress disorder, such as inhibitions in engaging in physical altercations with suspects resulting from past traumatic experiences. 

Several of the most essential effects of martial arts training, including BJJ, are psychological and cognitive. Based on the findings of recent studies, there is evidence showing that martial arts training is likely to be beneficial for law enforcement personnel in terms of physical and psychological outcomes. Context-specific evidence is needed based on the tendency for different areas across the United States, as well as different police departments within these areas, to have varying philosophies and policies regarding officer physical training and conditioning.  

Martial arts training offers a range of physical and mental benefits and a large body of evidence that supports its efficacy among law enforcement personnel (Figueiredo et al., 2020). For example, a study highlights the therapeutic value of BJJ, noting its ability to provide hard sparring sessions with minimal physical risk, thereby offering psychological benefits and stress relief (Bueno et al., 2022). This is particularly important for police officers, who often face high-stress situations and need effective outlets for managing stress. Furthermore, limitations in previous studies that applied a conglomerate of martial arts showed that a homogenized approach lacked psychological benefits. In contrast, BJJ’s singular and evidence-based training program is particularly conducive to the mental and physical needs of police work, making it a valuable discipline for law enforcement training (Rinderer, 2022). 

Martial Arts Training Specifically for Police Officers 

Differences exist among law enforcement agencies, such as the United States Secret Service and the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), that warrant different physical and cognitive skills (Kukić et al., 2019). Street-level patrol officers are more likely to be engaged in physical altercations daily in the line of duty than other law enforcement officers, and the physical conditioning, defensive tactics skills, and cognitive ability to make a split-second decision regarding the use of force must perpetually be at a high level (Baldwin et al., 2019). For this reason, being trained in martial arts, including BJJ, is potentially more conducive to the skills required for a street-level police officer than other specialized areas of law enforcement. 

Studies exist that have examined the impacts of martial arts training in various aspects of police work. However, many of these have combined different martial arts or have only used specific techniques taught within these arts rather than a comprehensive philosophical and psychological embracing of the martial art. For example, Gardner and Al-Shareffi (2022) examined the potential effectiveness of martial arts training to regulate decisions about chokeholds among police officers and the skill demonstrated in applying such holds. The authors discussed numerous recent cases of the incorrect application of chokeholds and other forms of restraint used by police officers, which led to the injury or death of suspects. According to Gardner and Al-Shareffi (2022), training police officers in martial arts may help improve decision-making regarding applying air and carotid chokes to subdue suspects safely while restricting their movement. However, the actual effectiveness of this training on this outcome was not tested. The authors recommended implementing a policy that requires police officers to be trained in martial arts to improve officers’ physical restraint skills and cognitive decision-making. 

One of the dilemmas presented in both anecdotal evidence and documented in the literature of law enforcement and criminology scholars is the time and resource constraints within many police departments, which can prevent the ability to implement additional training for officers beyond what is currently standard. Physical fitness and conditioning requirements and standards differ by state. There is currently no universal or standardized training program for police officers, and martial arts training may offer an affordable and time-efficient means to bridge this gap. Zhang (2022) highlighted the importance of consistent physical education among police officers but documented many of the barriers that currently exist to doing so, such as police understaffing and the increased stress that is placed on already overworked officers regarding additional physical conditioning requirements. According to Zhang (2022), online physical education courses that contain martial arts skills may potentially be an effective medium to address these barriers and provide police officers with the physical training they need to meet conditioning requirements, as well as to enhance their defense and restraint skills. Zhang (2022) developed an online police physical education system containing PHP language, a widely-used open-source scripting language suited for web development, and an InitPHP (initialization hypertext processor) framework, a lightweight PHP framework designed to streamline and enhance the efficiency of web application development. The author suggested this system could optimize police conditioning and improve the mode of physical education and the current teaching mechanism used in the field. However, while this program may have many potential benefits over current strategies to train police officers, it has yet to be tested empirically or applied in a real sample of law enforcement personnel. 

Researchers have recently documented the trend for theories and conceptual papers to be presented involving the use of force and the potential for techniques within martial arts to improve the physical conditioning and skills of police officers, but the lack of evidence demonstrating outcomes associated with these theories and concepts. McLean et al. (2022) examined police agencies, use of force regulations, training initiatives, approaches for disciplining problem officers, supervision, and dimensions and issues associated with potential solutions in the United States. Results showed that many promising ideas have been presented in the literature, though there have been few strategies that have been tested via empirical research or involving actual cases in the field (McLean et al., 2022). These findings align with other studies in which martial arts training has been promoted as a means of offering multidimensional physical and psychological benefits to officers, and these techniques have been researched using scientifically rigorous methodologies (Alispahic & Hadzikadunic, 2020; Bondarenko et al., 2020; Wang, 2020). Thus, the current need within the literature related to the physical training of police officers is to test the ideas and theories presented by researchers advocating for martial arts, including BJJ specifically. 

One of the reasons that research related to martial arts and their impacts on the physical and cognitive skills of police officers has stalled is that little remains known regarding the actual feasibility of implementing a martial arts training program in specific police departments, or the experiences of police officers who have been trained in these disciplines. Before implementing interventions involving martial arts or changing policies to incorporate these practices in the general physical training of officers, evidence is needed regarding the experiences of officers who have trained in these disciplines and their perceptions of the feasibility of implementing martial arts training across an entire department (Anh, 2022). The evidence that is obtained from such research may lead to increased insight into the likely impacts of martial arts training on a police officer’s psychological and physical skills and ways in which to address potential barriers that are documented (Moreno et al., 2024). Therefore, research must be conducted in police departments and settings to make evidence-based recommendations for decision-makers in law enforcement. 

While there have been no recently published studies involving the potential feasibility and impacts of martial arts training for police officers in the United States, there have been investigations of the effects of these forms of martial arts in other countries and the territory of Guam. For example, Farrer (2019) investigated the therapeutic effects of BJJ training for police officers in Guam who had been exposed to traumatic incidents. The researchers found that a holistic BJJ intervention was associated with improvements in the mental health and well-being of officers who had been involved in traumatic conflict situations while on duty or who had otherwise witnessed traumas, such as homicides. These findings agree with other studies involving both the mental and physical benefits of martial arts and how fully embracing the mental and physical aspects of martial arts and not just the techniques themselves are necessary to maximize the benefits (Farrer, 2019). One of the problems with previous studies involving the effects of police combative training is that they have focused strictly on the physical aspect of training while ignoring philosophical concepts, such as the intersection of power with knowledge and the integration of mind and body (Ban et al., 2021; Dworzecki & Nowicka, 2019). More evidence is needed regarding the effects of more comprehensive martial arts training, particularly for supporting the mental health of police officers, especially those who have suffered from post-traumatic stress following observing or being a part of a highly stressful situation while on duty.  

Themes 

Multiple themes emerged from this narrative review. The themes were identified and categorized, and studies were grouped into key law enforcement and martial arts training categories. Most studies produced one specific theme within the context of martial arts training while acknowledging others to a lesser degree; however, some overlap of themes emerged in studies. Table 1 groups all studies by theme, variable, citation, and geographical region. 

Table 1. Summary of Themes, Variables Assessed, and Studies 

Theme	Variable(s) Assessed	Studies
Use of Force Decision-Making	Cognitive processes, restraint techniques	Renden et al. (2015); Hickman et al. (2021); Staller & Körner (2021); McLean et al. (2022)
Officer Safety	Injury reduction, physical preparedness	Torres (2020); Facinek & Kosc (2021); Lyons et al. (2017); Huesler & Sutter (2020)
Mental Health and Well-Being	Stress management, PTSD mitigation	Farrer (2019); Bueno et al. (2022); Zavala & Chan (2021); Parks (2022)
Community Relations	Trust, corporation, minority interactions	Parks (2022); Chanin et al. (2018); Vera Jimenez et al. (2019); Gardner & Al-Shareffi (2022)

Results 

This narrative review identified four main thematic areas in the literature on martial arts training for law enforcement: (i) use of force decision-making, (ii) officer safety, (iii) mental health and well-being, and (iv) community relations, (i) use of force decision-making, (ii) officer safety, (iii) mental health and well-being, and (iv) community relations. 

1. Use of Force Decision-Making: Studies showed that martial arts training, including BJJ, enhances officers’ decision-making processes regarding the use of force. For example, Renden et al. (2015) found that officers trained in BJJ demonstrated improved restraint techniques and a higher level of control in high-stress situations, potentially reducing the incidence of excessive force. Additionally, Hickman et al. (2021) suggested that martial arts training helps officers make more appropriate use-of-force decisions, leading to better outcomes during confrontations. Additional support from Staller & Körner (2021) and McLean et al. (2022) emphasized the importance of ongoing development in use-of-force training to refine decision-making capabilities in dynamic and challenging situations. 

2. Officer Safety: Research indicated that martial arts training contributes to enhanced officer safety. Torres (2020) showed a significant reduction in injuries among officers who received martial arts training, attributing this to improved defensive skills and physical preparedness. Similarly, Facinek & Kosc (2021) found that martial arts training increased officers’ ability to manage physical altercations, safely reducing the risk of injury. Lyons et al. (2017) and Heusler and Sutter (2020) further corroborate these findings by discussing physiological and training adaptations that mitigate risks and enhance defensive capabilities in policing contexts. 

3. Mental Health and Well-Being: Among the martial arts, BJJ training was particularly associated with positive mental health outcomes for law enforcement officers. For example, Farrer (2019) suggested that officers who participated in BJJ training reported lower levels of stress and anxiety, as well as improved overall well-being. Bueno et al. (2022) supported these findings, showing that BJJ training can serve as an effective stress management tool. Zavala & Chan (2021) and Parks (2022) provide further support that integrated training programs that include martial arts can significantly enhance psychological resilience and reduce occupational stress among police officers. 

4. Community Relations: The influence of martial arts training on community relations was also explored in the literature. Parks (2022) concluded that martial arts training promotes more controlled and less aggressive interactions with suspects, which can help build trust and cooperation between law enforcement and the community. Chanin et al. (2018) concluded that improved officer conduct resulting from control tactics training can enhance public perception of the police and foster stronger community partnerships. Vera Jiménez et al. (2019) and Gardner and Al-Shareffi (2022) add to this discussion by showing that tactical and mindful use of force can improve public perceptions of police and foster stronger community partnerships. 

The findings from this review highlight the significant impact BJJ training on law enforcement practices, particularly in terms of use of force decision-making, officer safety, mental health, and community relations. The studies reviewed indicate that martial arts training can enhance officers’ physical and cognitive skills, leading to better outcomes during confrontations and improved overall well-being. 

Discussion 

The findings from this narrative review highlight the potential benefits of martial arts training, especially BJJ training, in enhancing law enforcement practices across four key areas: use of force decision-making, officer safety, mental health and well-being, and community relations. This section interprets those results, discusses their implications, acknowledges limitations, and outlines directions for future research. 

Use of Force Decision-Making 

The results consistently demonstrate that training improves officers’ decision-making processes regarding the use of force. In high-stress situations, officers trained in BJJ displayed enhanced restraint techniques and greater control, reducing the likelihood of excessive force (Renden et al., 2015; Hickman et al., 2021). These findings suggest that integrating martial arts into law enforcement training can address conflict resolution’s physical and cognitive demands, equipping officers to make better decisions under pressure. This aligns with the growing emphasis on de-escalation techniques in policing, where officers are encouraged to control confrontations without resorting to extreme measures. 

Officer Safety 

Officer safety emerged as a critical theme in the reviewed studies. The research indicates that martial arts training significantly reduces injury rates among law enforcement personnel. Officers who undergo regular training are better prepared to manage physical altercations, using defensive tactics that minimize harm to both themselves and suspects (Torres, 2020; Facinek & Kosc, 2021). This underscores the importance of martial arts training, particularly BJJ training, as part of comprehensive police training programs, as it improves physical fitness and defensive capabilities, leading to safer outcomes in confrontational scenarios. By reducing injuries, BJJ training can also lower medical and legal costs associated with police use of force. 

Mental Health and Well-Being 

It seems the mental health benefits of BJJ are quite notable. Officers frequently experience stress, anxiety, and burnout due to the nature of their work. BJJ training has been shown to alleviate these psychological burdens, providing a valuable outlet for stress relief and emotional resilience (Farrer, 2019; Bueno et al., 2022). By incorporating martial arts training into officer wellness programs, law enforcement agencies can address their personnel’s physical and mental health. The long-term effects of BJJ on mental health are particularly promising, as they contribute to reduced stress, better decision-making, and overall well-being in high-pressure environments. 

Community Relations 

Martial arts’ influence on community relations is perhaps the most significant finding. The literature suggests that martial arts training fosters more controlled and less aggressive interactions between law enforcement officers and the public, improving trust and cooperation (Parks, 2022; Chanin et al., 2018). This is crucial in today’s climate, where high-profile incidents of excessive force often shape public perception of law enforcement. By promoting restraint and respect, BJJ can serve as a bridge to rebuild trust between police and communities, contributing to more effective, community-centered policing. 

Implications of the Research Results 

The research findings strongly indicate that integrating BJJ into law enforcement training could significantly enhance officers’ decision-making skills, physical preparedness, and mental resilience. Studies consistently show that martial arts training improves control in high-stress situations, reducing the use of excessive force (Renden et al., 2015; Torres, 2020). Given the increasing public scrutiny of law enforcement, this training could be vital in preparing officers to handle complex encounters more effectively. Additionally, regular BJJ training could foster improved officer conduct, strengthen relationships with the communities they serve, and contribute to safer policing practices overall. 

Limitations of the Review 

This review has several limitations. Notably, the possibility of selection bias exists, as studies were identified through specific databases and may not encompass all relevant research. The methodologies of the reviewed studies also varied, making it difficult to compare findings directly. For example, some studies relied on self-reported data, which could introduce recall and response biases, potentially affecting the reliability of the results. Also, most studies focused on law enforcement practices in the United States and Europe, which limits the generalizability of the findings to other regions with different policing contexts. Future studies should address these limitations by conducting more rigorous, geographically diverse research on the long-term effects of martial arts training in law enforcement. 

Recommendations for Future Research 

Based on the gaps identified in the literature, future research should explore how law enforcement personnel describe their lived experiences with BJJ and other martial arts training. Qualitative studies that capture officers’ perspectives on the efficacy and feasibility of this type of training would provide valuable insights. Harmon (2022) conducted a qualitative exploratory study on the perceived efficacy of BJJ for law enforcement, but the findings are not yet published, and the study’s design limits its generalizability. Future research should focus on context-specific investigations to understand how officers perceive martial arts training as effective and logistically feasible within their units or communities (Facal, 2022). Additionally, the lack of recent phenomenological studies on this topic highlights a gap that future researchers could address. More research is needed to understand how martial arts training impacts officers’ long-term professional and personal development, particularly in regions outside of the U.S. and Europe. 

Conclusion 

This narrative review highlights the critical role that martial arts training can play in improving law enforcement practices. The findings suggest that integrating martial arts into training programs enhances officers’ decision-making, physical preparedness, and mental resilience, equipping them to handle high-stress situations more effectively. By reducing the likelihood of inappropriate use of force, martial arts training addresses a significant need within law enforcement, where incidents of excessive force continue to attract public scrutiny. While BJJ was frequently mentioned in the literature, the broader implications of martial arts training—including disciplines such as judo, karate, and other grappling arts—are equally relevant. These training programs not only improve officers’ physical skills but also instill the mental discipline necessary for managing violent encounters with minimal harm. This approach reduces the risk of injury to both officers and suspects while mitigating the liability law enforcement agencies face. In addition to physical benefits, martial arts training provides psychological advantages, such as reduced stress and anxiety, contributing to better decision-making and overall officer well-being. By promoting restraint, discipline, and control, martial arts can foster improved relationships between law enforcement and their communities. These findings suggest that martial arts training should be a fundamental component of law enforcement programs, potentially improving outcomes in both officer safety and public relations. 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 

The authors confirm that all the research in this work has met ethical guidelines and adhered to the legal requirements of the United States of America. In addition, the principal investigator is compliant with the Collaborative Institutional Training Initiative (CITI) Program on social and behavioral researchers and social and behavioral responsible conduct of research training. Furthermore, this work was not funded, the authors declare no conflict of interest, and it did not contain studies with human participants or animals performed by the principal investigator.