Sports Management – Page 45 – The Sport Journal

The Professional Bull Riders Tour: Growth and Development of a Niche Sport

Submitted by: Peter A. Maresco and Joshua A. Shuart – Sacred Heart University

Abstract

The Professional Bull Riders Tour (PBR) presents an opportunity to study a niche sport in transition. After its days as simply a part of the rodeo, the tour has seen tremendous growth as a separate, independent activity. This paper highlights the beginnings of the PBR and its eventual development into one of the highest earning and most watched non-prime-time spectator sports. It also focuses on the development of the marketing behind the PBR and includes an analysis of sponsors and ancillary marketing activities.

The Professional Bull Riders Tour: Growth and Development of a Niche Sport

The Professional Bull Riders Tour (PBR) was formed in 1992, when 20 professional bull riders—previously members of the Professional Rodeo Cowboys Association—each invested $1,000 to form their own incorporated bull riding association. Membership in the PBR now stands at over 1,200 bull riders from four countries (the United States, Canada, Australia, and Brazil) and three continents (North America, South America, and Australia). Before the advent of the PBR, bull riding was one component of the traditional rodeo (the other events were bareback riding, steer wrestling, roping, and barrel racing). Bull riding had long been considered the premier rodeo event. Specifically because of bull riding’s fan appeal, the founders of the PBR bet their $1,000 that the sport could stand on its own as an independent entity outside the rodeo format.

Each year more than 104 million viewers tune in to the PBR on NBC, Versus, FOX, and a host of other networks across the globe (Wheatley, 2006). More than 1.5 million fans annually attend the PBR’s multitiered events, which include the marquee Built Ford Tough Series (presented by Wrangler), the U.S. Smokeless Tobacco Company Challenger Tour, the Enterprise Rent-A-Car Tour, and the Discovery Tour, which is designed specifically for entry-level competitors (Wheatley, 2006).

In 2006, the 13-year-old PBR conducted events in over 70 cities, offering successful riders a total purse of over $6.2 million. To collect a check, a 150-lb rider must stay on a bull weighing as much as 2,000 lb for a time of 8 seconds. The PBR today is a $46 million business, revenue having grown 150% over the past 5 years. From 2003 to 2005, the tour’s adult fan base soared 48%, to 18 million, far outpacing the growth of NASCAR or any other major sport, according to Scarborough Research (Gregory, 2006).

PBR Demographics and Sponsors

When the PBR’s leadership looks to the future, what they see in terms of growth and sponsorship is, clearly, NASCAR. “If you lay the NASCAR demos [demographics] over our demos, they’re almost identical,” said Randy Bernard, the tour’s CEO. “We look at everything they do. What NASCAR has done, most obviously, is to turn a sport perceived as having only regional appeal into the country’s second-biggest sport on television, now just behind the NFL” (Halpern, 2006). The Bud Light brand is one of the PBR’s sponsors. A typical Bud Light drinker is male, white, 25 to 34 years old, married, with a high school or college diploma, and earns $20,000–$70,000 annually in one of a wide variety of occupations. This demographic profile echoes that of the PBR fan. Official sponsors of the PBR in addition to Bud Light have included the following:

B&W Trailer Hitches
Big Texas Trailer
BowTech Archery
Branson Tractors
Bud Light
Cabela’s
Cripple Creek
Daisy
Dickies

Enterprise Rent-A-Car
Express Personnel Svcs
Ford Trucks
Frito-Lay
Jack Daniels
Johnsonville Brats
Mandalay Bay
Mossy Oak
Oberto Beef Jerky

Pennington Seed
Priefert
Rocky Outdoor Gear
Stetson
City of Las Vegas
U.S. Army
U.S. Smokeless Tobacco
Wrangler Jeans
Yamaha

Well-paying sponsors are a necessity for many if not most rodeo competitors, but at least one competitor’s spouse has noted that “A cowboy’s wife needs to be a cowboy’s biggest sponsor” (Galayda, 2007).

Marketing the PBR

“A niche sport trying to go mainstream” is how Josh Peter described professional bull riding in his book Fried Twinkies, Buckle Bunnies and Bull Riders: A Year Inside the Professional Bull Riders Tour (2006). After splitting from the Professional Rodeo Cowboy Association, the Professional Bull Riders Tour set out to make bull riding the next must-watch sport. The PBR is not alone in trying to move from a niche to the larger sporting world. Organizations with similar aims include World Wrestling Entertainment, Total Nonstop Action Wrestling, the Professional Bowlers Association, and the Pro Bass Fishing Tour, to name only a few. All have in common a desire to use the niche markets they occupy to develop and grow their brands. The PBR uses its core demographic—rodeo fans, specifically those interested in bull riding—to pursue this. Its marketing challenge resembles, according to Josh Peter, a political candidate’s task:

In effect, much of the PBR’s sophisticated marketing resembles a political campaign; it needs to make sure to energize its base while at the same time trying to attract new voters without alienating either group. It’s a careful balance. . . . In order to expand without losing its core fans, the PBR provides both the glitz of big market sports and a dedicated attention to heartland values. (Peter, 2006)

Numerous competitive outlets are available to the modern-day cowboy: There are saddle bronc riding, bareback riding, steer wrestling, tie-down roping, team roping, and barrel racing along with bull riding. But the PBR is a true phenomenon, of which Richard H. Patterson, chairman of the PBR, has said, “This is media in the new age. It’s a large audience that’s very passionate about this content that they can receive in a whole variety of fashions. They can go to events, they can see it on television, online and in print, and that’s what we’re looking for” (Bortstein, 2007).

An hour or two of viewing a PBR event on television’s new Versus network, or perhaps in person, suggests how perfectly the PBR promotes its sponsors’ products to bull riding fans. The rodeo ring is surrounded by sponsor advertising; so are the pens from which the bulls emerge—fronts and backs of the pen gates as well as tops of railings, angles picked up clearly by various overhead cameras. The riders themselves are walking billboards, and in this they resemble tennis professionals of the 1970s. Björn Borg was called the “bouncing billboard” by tennis announcer Bud Collins, remarking on the variety of advertising messages Borg displayed on his clothing. (Eventually, the professional tennis tour would limit the number and size of endorsement patches players could wear on their clothing.) Today’s golfers are not much different, with sponsors’ names on their golf bags, shirts, and caps, and NASCAR racers cover their own and their cars’ bodies with sponsorship messages. Bull riders wear protective vests covered with sponsor names and logos. Their protective chaps and even their cowboy hats are similarly trimmed. The PBR well understands who constitutes its core market and has proven its ability to land sponsors suited to the PBR demographic.

The PBR Magazine, 8 Seconds!

Like many sports, bull riding has a dedicated magazine, published under license with the PBR each November, February, and June by FanCorp Publishing of Costa Mesa, California. Its title is 8 Seconds! reflecting how long the bull rider must ride the bull in order to receive points. The magazine presents a great deal of pictorial content, along with feature articles, PBR event schedules, standings and biographies of the top bull riders, information on top bulls, cowboy apparel guides, and automotive showcases. The magazine has a 3-month shelf life; 20,000 copies are supplied to PBR World Finals events, with an additional 13,000 copies sent to newsstand displays in the United States and Canada. It is distributed at all events of the PBR Built Ford Tough Series in the United States, Canada, Mexico, Brazil, and Australia. Reader surveys and newsstand polls have indicated that, on average, about 3 people read each copy of 8 Seconds! Thus there are some 99,000 total readers per issue. Moreover, issues of 8 Seconds! remain in a reader’s possession for an average of 3 years.

The magazine sells advertising to 28 official PBR sponsors, 14 of whom maintain full-page ads. Some represent national brands with broad consumer bases, for instance Ford Trucks, Wrangler, Bud Light, and the U.S. Army. Others suggest a fairly rural demographic: Mossy Oak, BowTech Archery, Cabela’s, Cripple Creek, B&W Trailer Hitches, Branson Tractors, Stetson, and Priefert. Sponsors who are not official PBR sponsors can participate in the PBR bonus programs, including the Bud Light Short Go Top Qualifier Award, Cabela’s World’s Foremost Ride, Dickies American Worker of the Year award, Enterprise Rent-A-Car “Ride With The Best” sweepstakes, Ford Super Duty Challenge, Ford Truck Moment of Truth, Mossy Oak Shoot Out, Salem NationaLease Invitational, and Built Ford Tough Battle for the Bull. Each of these programs provides advertisers with further opportunities to present brands to PBR fans.

FanCorp Publishing also delivers over 9,000 copies of the official program to the PBR Built Ford Tough World Finals, held annually in Las Vegas, Nevada. PBR fans use the program during the 5-day competition; an additional 1,000 programs are distributed through direct mail, television, and website sales during the October–November distribution period. Reader surveys indicate that, on average, 4 people read each copy of the program, for a total readership of 40,000.

PBR-Themed Games, Action Figures, and Fantasy League

Ancillary products like PBR-themed games and video games, action figures, and even a fantasy league are serving the PBR’s effort to build its brand. Among games licensed by the PBR are a board game called “8 Second Madness”; a game that is a takeoff on traditional bluffing games, named “Bull Spit”; two dice games, “Bull Craps” and “Bullies”; as well as bull-riding-themed dominoes and PBR checkers that feature 24 bull-shaped markers and 12 bull riders taking the place of the traditional king.

Video Games

What a niche sport needs as much as anything is a representative whom viewers identify with and who boosts the sport by sheer force of personality. The PBR found such a representative in Ty Murray, first in rodeo history to win the world all-around championship and over $1 million in prize money. Murray figures prominently in “Professional Bull Rider,” the PBR-licensed video game introduced by Sierra Sports in 1999, for example joining fellow bull riding great Tuff Hedeman to produce tutorial narration for the video game. The game features 44 top cowboys from around the world (and 20 ranked bulls) and allows each player to “become” a bull rider. Action sequences are startlingly realistic, capturing even the snorts of the bull in the pen. “Professional Bull Rider” includes commentary from the PBR’s television announcer Justin McKee, as well as advertising to target rodeo fans generally and PBR fans specifically. “Professional Bull Rider 2” was introduced in 2000, updating the original version.

Licensed Action Figures

The PBR has licensed a line of action figures that includes not only popular bull riders but the bulls they have ridden. The figures are produced by Sota Toys of Los Angeles. Among the first were Adriano Moraes and the bull called Hotel California; Justin McBride and Mudslinger; and PBR founder Michael Gaffney and Little Yellow Jacket, one of the most popular bulls in the United States today (Wheatley, 2004).

PBR Fantasy League

Fantasy football and baseball leagues and similar offerings have been extremely successful, and now fans of bull riding have joined the fun with PBR Fantasy.com. Participating “team owners” select favorite riders and even favorite bulls each week, competing in four different games that offer $25,000 in cash prizes.

International Expansion

As the PBR continues to grow, international expansion of the brand will become an essential component of its marketing mix. Today the PBR hosts events in Mexico as well as the United States, an approach to international growth similar to that taken by World Wrestling Entertainment (Shuart & Maresco, 2006). PBR’s television audiences outside the United States have swelled to over 320 million households, quite a change from its initial 1994 telecasts (on the old TNN) to some 80 million homes (Santos, 2000, p. 147). Today PBR fans in Brazil, China, Russia, Norway, Poland, Germany, and France can view PBR broadcasts; in the United States, fans who speak Spanish can watch televised PBR events on Telemundo, the Spanish-language network, as well as on FOX, NBC, and Versus.

The PBR’s international strategy also extends to including bull riders from around the world in PBR competition. To date, international riders of note include 1998 PBR world champion Troy Dunn, of Mackay in New South Wales, Australia, and Bud Light–sponsored Brendon Clark, also from New South Wales (hometown: Morpeth). Among the best known of the international contestants is Adriano Moraes, one of six Brazilian riders on the tour and twice a PBR world champion. The first PBR event in Mexico took place in August 2006 in Chihuahua, where the top 45 riders and bulls competed. (The event had been formally announced in a press conference during the 2005 PBR World Finals in Las Vegas.) Its success required that certain logistical problems be surmounted, not least of which was transporting the bulls across the border, working with the U.S. Department of Agriculture and its Mexican counterpart.

The Chihuahua event marked the start of the PBR’s strategic expansion worldwide. The tour is planning future international events in the home countries of its riders from abroad. The past several months have seen the appointments of several directors of new PBR offices in a number of countries. For example, José Longoria will direct a PBR office in Chihuahua and lead expansion into Mexico, while Troy Dunn has been named the PBR’s director in Australia and Flavio Junquiera has been named the PBR’s director in Brazil. In Canada, former bull rider Austin Beasley has recently been appointed to direct PBR operations there.

References

Bortstein, L. (2007, September). Rodeo ropes ‘em in. Sports Travel. 8(11).

Bull riding action figures to be produced by Los-Angeles based Soto Toys. (2004, July 8). Retrieved from http://www.pbrnow.com/release/?id=662&CFID=20527555&CFTOKEN=49005092

Galayda, J. (2007, April 29). Cowboys of the Constitution State. Connecticut Post. Retrieved October 7, 2008, from http://www.connpost.com//ci_4646880?IADID

Gregory, S. (2006, September 25). Bring on the bulls. Time, 168(13). Retrieved October 7, 2008, from http://www.time.com/time/searchresults?from_month=09&from_day=25&from_year=2006&to_month=09&to_day=25&to_year=2006&search_date_range=range&query=bulls&x=38&y=7

Halpern, D. (2006, February 12). Bull marketing. The New York Times Magazine, p. 56.

Peter, J. (2005). Fried twinkies, buckle bunnies and bull riders: A year inside the Professional Bull Riders Tour. Emmaus, PA: Rodale Press.

Peter, J. (2006, February 12). New York Times’ magazine spotlights PBR, rise of tour. Retrieved from www.friedtwinkies.com/blog/?p=97

The Professional Bull Riders add instant replay system. (2006, October 10). Retrieved from http://www.pbrnow.com/release/?id=3037&CFID=20527555&CFTOKEN=49005092

Santos, K. (2000). Ring of fire: The guts and glory of the Professional Bull Riders Tour. New York: Triumph Books.

Shuart, J., & Maresco, P. (2006). World Wrestling Entertainment: Achieving continued growth and market penetration through international expansion. The Sport Journal, 9(4). Retrieved October 3, 2008, from http://www.thesportjournal.org/article/world-wrestling-entertainment-achieving-continued-growth-and-market-penetration-through-inte

Stratton, W. K. (2005). Chasing the rodeo: Wild rides and big dreams, broken hearts and broken bones, and one man’s search for the West. New York: Harcourt.

U.S. Sports Academy2017-08-07T11:40:45-05:00October 7th, 2008|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Management|Comments Off

Trends in Collegiate Recreational Sports Facilities

Submitted by: Craig T. Bogar – United States Sports Academy

Abstract

This paper discusses trends in the construction and design of recreational sports facilities. Beginning in 1928, the Intramural Sports Building on the campus of the University of Michigan set the stage as a facility that was dedicated solely to recreational sports. While the number of gymnasia and physical education facilities grew following World War II and into the 1960s, social and cultural influences in the 1970s significantly shaped the landscape for recreational sports on college campuses. In the past 25 years, innovation and demand have driven the size and character of these facilities. Many new and renovated facilities have integrated important campus functions such as academics, health, wellness, and sport. These recreational sports facilities also contain unique features such as climbing walls, rooftop playing fields, food service, counseling centers, convenience stores, and campus police stations.

Trends in Collegiate Recreational Sports Facilities

Ever since Amherst College defeated Williams College in the first intercollegiate baseball game, in 1859, sports facilities on college campuses have been an integral part of the campus landscape (Greenberg, 2004). Ten years later, in 1869, the first intercollegiate football game was played between Rutgers and Princeton universities, on the Rutgers campus in New Brunswick, New Jersey (U. S. Census Bureau, 2006); 22 years later, in 1891, Dr. James Naismith invented the game of basketball, at the YMCA Training School (now Springfield College) in Springfield, Massachusetts (Cohn, 1991).

The earliest example of a facility dedicated to recreational sports is the construction of the Intramural Sports Building on the campus of the University of Michigan. The facility was completed in 1928 at a cost of $743,000, the brainchild of Elmer Mitchell, the “father of intramurals.” The original facility contained 13 squash courts and 14 handball courts. Arguably, Mitchell set the tone for the first trend in recreational sports facilities with such features as a moveable wall separating the swimming pool from the gymnastics area. It was Mitchell’s dream that the facility be one “where a thousand students can enter daily to congregate, and to mix their exercise with sociability” (Stevenson, Reznick, & Pitcher, 1978). Little did Mitchell know that his dream would come true, not only on the Michigan campus but on almost every other campus in the United States.

While the number of gymnasia and physical education facilities continued to grow following World War II and into the 1960s, social and cultural influences in the 1970s significantly impacted the landscape for recreational sports on college campuses. With the advent of Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972, commonly referred to as Title IX, many more women were participating in college recreation and using recreational sports facilities. On many college campuses, furthermore, physical education was no longer a required part of the curriculum. As a result, many physical education facilities were being used for recreation and intramural sports. As the demand grew for recreation, the trend on college campuses was to build centers that were primarily designated for recreation, with little space being given to intercollegiate athletics. The model for operation was similar to that of a business model, where full-time staff trained in recreation management were hired to direct facilities. Under this new model, memberships were sold not only to faculty and staff, but also to the outside community, according to the director of one university recreational sports division (W. Canning, personal communication, March 4, 2008).

Today, growth of recreational sports facilities continues. The average project expenditure to build such a facility is currently $19.4 million, an increase of $5.2 million from 2004. During the next 5 years, it is estimated that 400 indoor and over 300 outdoor recreational facilities will be built or renovated, representing an estimated $4.9 billion investment (Goldman, 2007a). Over the past decade, colleges across the country have spent billions of dollars constructing recreation facilities to maintain their competitiveness in the higher education marketplace. In fact, the 2002 Kerr Downs Research Report found that institutions that were members of the National Intramural-Recreational Sports Association (NIRSA) had invested $11.69 billion from 1995 to 2000 and $7.12 billion since 2000 in new and renovated recreation facilities. This represents 91 million sq ft of indoor space (Turman et al., 2005).

Trend: Renovation of Older Facilities

The 1928 University of Michigan Intramural Sports Building has undergone a significant renovation, as have a number of older facilities on established campuses. In the original facility on the Michigan campus, there were two floors of lockers, each having 1,500 lockers. These days most of the school’s recreation participants change clothes in their residence halls and don’t use locker rooms: In recent times, the highest number of lockers actually rented was 300 men’s and 150 women’s (most locker usage was by runners). The University of Michigan decided to renovate both locker rooms and keep only 400 lockers for men and 200 lockers for women. Today the former locker area is a two-story fitness facility (W. Canning, personal communication, March 4, 2008).

The University of Pennsylvania encountered a dilemma when the institution decided to add new recreational facilities. It had to decide whether to renovate Gimble Gym (built in 1962 and containing three basketball courts, a weight room, a swimming pool, and locker rooms) or to demolish it and start over. The former option was chosen and the result was a $21 million, 102,000 sq ft project known as the David Pottruck Health and Fitness Center. The net result was 67,000 sq ft of new recreation and fitness space as well as a juice bar. An urban location prompted designers of the center to maximize vertical space, employing five levels. The facility’s exterior utilizes German-manufactured terra-cotta, a first in the United States, which has resulted in better insulation and lower maintenance costs (Suttell, 2003).

Recreation Hall at Pennsylvania State University served for decades as the home of many indoor varsity sports programs. Penn State was awarded the grand prize in the 2007 Education Design Showcase Awards for a renovation that transformed the hall into the Recreation Hall Wrestling and Student Fitness Center. The new facility covers 48,000 sq ft and was constructed at a cost of $17 million. It has been cited for its club-like atmosphere and at the same time is a high-caliber competitive wrestling facility (“2007 Education Design Showcase,” 2007, p. E1–E3).

Renovating sports facilities can be a political challenge. When Harvard University proposed renovating Hemenway Gymnasium into a state-of the-art fitness facility, the institution encountered unexpected opposition from the Cambridge Historical Commission. During the design phase the architect, Sasaki and Associates, rendered over 20 renovation schemes and there were four visits by the historical commission before approval was received. The major point of contention was the building’s windows. Sasaki was required to add three windows to the gymnasium’s facade but only after supplying details such as the number of glass panes per window and the size of the window’s mullions (Cohen, 2007a).

Similarly, the University of Texas planned to renovate Gregory Gym, a 1930s-era facility. The plan was to create an interior “street” between the original facility and an addition built in the 1960s. The project was eventually approved, but not until the Texas Historical Commission’s wish for larger entry areas and the replication of the original steel-casement crank windows was granted (Cohen, 2007a).

Trend: Innovations

It appears that eating establishments such as juice bars and cafés within collegiate recreational facilities are a trend that has emerged in recent years. A 1,700-sq-ft bistro and juice bar was incorporated in a $54 million recreation center opened in 2006 on the campus of the University of Nevada at Las Vegas (UNLV). Other features are a spa, two swimming pools, and a 5,000-sq-ft fitness area. The total square footage of the facility is 184,000 (Illia, 2006). Rider University, located in New Jersey, opened its Student Recreation Center in 2005. Similar to UNLV’s facility, the Student Recreation Center building includes a café, and it also features a formal lobby with seating and a flat-screen television wall. There are in addition a fitness center, an elevated running track, a game room, and three multiuse courts. The new facility, which is connected to an older alumni gymnasium, was constructed in two phases and provides 63,000 sq ft of new and updated space. The Student Recreation Center was named a Project of Distinction in the 2007 Education Showcase Awards and cost $10.8 million to build (“2007 Education Design Showcase,” 2007, p. E20).

Another new collegiate recreation facility that includes food service is Fairmont State University’s Student Activities Center. Located in West Virginia, this 145,000-sq-ft facility opened in December 2004 at a cost of $22 million. Food service comprises a student dining hall with a market-style food court that accommodates 600 students. In addition to serving as a recreation center, the facility is the institution’s student union. Included are a conference center, computer labs and classrooms, a convenience store, a photocopy and mail center, the campus bookstore, a student lounge, a coffee shop, and the campus police department. The Student Activities Center is attached to the university’s renovated main arena, which now houses the department of student life (“Architectural Showcase,” 2007, p. 96).

At the University of Connecticut, undergraduate enrollment has soared from 11,365 in 1995 to 16,347 today, consigning students in search of recreation to an overcrowded gymnasium built in 1951. Yet it appears that anticipated new recreational facilities for students are falling victim to other campus needs. For instance, while the $2.3 billion UConn 2000 construction program set aside $31 million for “intramural, recreational and intercollegiate facilities” (Goldman, 2007b, p. 18), the university spent that money toward the $48 million Burton Family Football Complex and the Shenkman Training Center. The university’s president said that, while he supported the proposed recreational facility, his priorities were academics and the hiring of nearly 200 more faculty members. If and when the recreation facility is built, plans call for it to include not only basketball courts and cardiovascular training facilities but a juice bar, bowling alley, and aquatic center with a kayak wave pool and water slides (Goldman, 2007).

Trend: Climbing Walls

Climbing walls are a popular trend in recreational sport facilities today. Increasingly at universities there are climbing clubs, competitive intercollegiate climbing leagues, and elective classes that incorporate the sport of rock climbing (“Universities: The Changing Look,” 2008). At the University of California, Santa Barbara (UCSB) last year a $12 million, 52,280-sq-ft facility was opened, built with funds from student fees. In addition to the unique offering of a pottery studio, the UCSB facility includes a 15-ft climbing wall (Cohen, 2007b, p. 61). In Michigan, Alma College’s Stone Recreation Center has a 30-ft tall, 600-sq-ft climbing wall where, for an annual fee of $10, students and members of the facility may train and, once certified, may climb whenever the wall is open. The wall features 10 belay stations and lead climbing routes. The Alma College Climbing Club conducts children’s climbing classes as a way to raise money for the club (“Climbing Wall and Club,” n.d.). In 2006 Hamilton College, in New York, opened its climbing wall at the Charlene and Wayland Blood Fitness Center. Hamilton’s wall is 3,000 sq ft and offers top rope and lead climbing, as well as a bouldering area. The wall is open to students and community members; children 8 and older are allowed to climb (“Climbing Wall,” n.d.).

Oberlin College in Ohio dedicated a climbing wall and bouldering cave in 2003, housed in Phillips Physical Education Center. The wall—a pillar with four sides—is 25 ft tall and has seven anchors for top roping. On the steepest side are quick-draws for two or more lead climbing routes. The wall is described as having “over 1,000 holds of all shapes and sizes” with routes “set often to challenge both rookies and experienced climbers alike” (“Climbing Wall,” n.d., ¶4). Oberlin College students are not charged to use the wall; other climbers pay $10 per year, the funds used to purchase replacement ropes, climbing shoes, harnesses, holds, and other gear (“Climbing Wall,” n.d., ¶8).

The $25.5 million RecPlex at the University of Dayton was named a Project of Distinction in the 2007 Educational Showcase Awards (“2007 Education Design Showcase,” 2007, p. E25). The facility includes 130,000 sq ft and is being paid for through a student fee, approved in a fee referendum. The RecPlex replaced a 30-year-old recreational facility that comprised only 5,000 sq ft. It contains a suspended running track, climbing wall, lounge and juice bar, classrooms, and outdoor sand-volleyball area (“2007 Education Design Showcase,” 2007, p. E25).

Trend: Rooftop Facilities

Another trend in collegiate recreational facilities is the placement of playing fields on top of structures. In 1981, Brown University in Rhode Island built the first rooftop field found on a college campus. Named Warner Roof, the site was designed as a field hockey pitch atop Olney Athletic Center. More recently the University of California, Berkeley developed Underhill Field on top of a four-story, seismically safe parking garage at the center of the campus. Underhill Field has an infill turf system, and 25-ft nets and a chain link fence enclose the perimeter. Also included are spectator areas, restrooms, equipment storage rooms, and a sidewalk plaza (Cohen, 2007a). Rhode Island’s Providence College constructed a field that is partially on grade and partially below grade. The facility, which primarily houses the college’s lacrosse and field hockey programs, has won engineering awards for overcoming the drainage challenges that occurred in matching the two elevations. In Canada, the University of Alberta renovated a 20-year-old playing field placing 80% of the turf on the roof of a parking structure, the remaining 20% on grade. The old field had featured a glued-down carpet, which eventually wrinkled and presented problems as the building settled. The new surface is a sand-filled, loose-laid turf installed over a premanufactured pad (Cohen, 2007a).

Trend: Integrating Academics and Sport

There is also a trend to combine in single facilities both academics and sport; the combination has been both theoretical and pragmatic. At Haverford College in Pennsylvania, for example, President Thomas Tritton envisioned integrating athletics with the arts. The facility proposed to house the integrative program became one of the first recreational buildings to meet standards of the U.S. Green Building Council’s Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) Green Building Rating System. The multipurpose facility has space for the college’s programs in squash, basketball, martial arts, and dance. In addition, it includes displays of athletics-related paintings by students (Ezarik, 2006). Kenyon College in Ohio recently completed a $60 million facility covering 265,000 sq ft. Both varsity athletic teams and recreational participants use the facility. While the building is equipped with a 50-m swimming pool, weight room, field house, and racquet courts, a theater, film library, and study lounges were also part of its design (“Architectural Showcase,” 2007, p. 55).

The Ohio State University Recreation and Physical Activity Center, opened in 2007, consists of 568,380 sq ft and cost $117.6 million. The facility is funded by a combination of state funds and student fees. Because of the immensity of the project, it was designed to look like several smaller structures so that it would fit the scale of surrounding campus structures. The facility has numerous gymnasia, two swimming pools, racquet courts, and a fitness area. Serving the University’s student, faculty, and staff population of over 75,000, the facility contains some unique features such as a child care room, wellness center, juice bar, game room, and café (“Architectural Showcase,” 2007, p. 58).

Trend: Integrating Health and Wellness

Another trend—evidenced, for example, at the Joseph E. Gallo Recreation and Wellness Center on the campus of the University of California, Merced—is to combine sport and health care. The facility is located between the academic core of the campus and the residential area. On the second floor of the facility, the H. Rajender Reddy Student Health Center can be found. The health center’s philosophy is that “wellness encompasses an individual’s social, physical, emotional, career, intellectual, environmental, and spiritual health” (Student Health Services, 2008). Its serves as the physical “home” of wellness and works with other campus departments and faculty to offer a range of wellness activities, from peer health counseling for students, to nutrition programs, to massage therapy, to whitewater rafting excursions (Student Health Services, 2008). Butler University, in Indiana, also integrates sport with the concept of wellness. Its Health and Recreation Complex, which opened in September 2006, cost $14.5 million and contains 83,000 sq ft of space. In a unique fashion, both student health services and counseling services are housed in the facility. Another unique feature is a multipurpose room adjoining the swimming pool and having a synthetic floor, to allow for a wet classroom or a party room (“Architectural Showcase,” 2007, p. 70).

Long Island University in New York opened its Wellness, Recreation and Athletic Center in February 2008. This facility uses rooftop space to provide two all-weather tennis courts and a running track. The 100,000-sq-ft facility, which cost $28 million, has a number of other unique features. Among them are a 15,000-sq-ft wellness center integrated with the university’s health science program. The wellness center includes rehabilitation areas for treatment of asthma, cardiorespiratory conditions, and sickle-cell anemia, along with a hydrotherapy pool. All of these play a role in the institution’s teaching practicum with a major New York City hospital (“Architectural Showcase,” 2007, p. 132). Cleveland State University’s Recreation Center, opened in August 2006, cost slightly more, at $29.8 million, than did the Long Island University facility. It consists of 130,000 sq ft of space. In the design of the facility, the institution sought to achieve LEED certification. As a result, a number of unique features were included, such as storm water management to reduce runoff, use of native plant materials, and waterless urinals and other water-saving devices. Specifications for construction of the facility also included locally manufactured materials with recycled content (“Architectural Showcase,” 2007, p. 79).

Conclusion

Many changes have influenced college recreational facilities over the past few decades. Changes in demographics, curriculum, and cultural attitudes towards fitness have significantly affected recreational sports facilities. For example, on college campuses today, almost 60% of students are female (Marklein, 2005). This factor has significantly impacted recreational programming, facility design, and facility renovation. No longer are there weight rooms; rather, there are fitness areas with an emphasis on cardio equipment and a limited amount of free weights. Also, there are fewer traditional gyms providing little except courts used primarily for basketball. Large spaces are now dedicated to wide-open social areas that are used for general fitness. For example, in the University of Texas recreation center, a three-story atrium was built with “spines” filled with cardio equipment geared for females (W. Canning, personal communication, March 4, 2008). Because the college population has become increasingly female, collegiate recreational facilities will increasingly cater to the programming needs of women.

As described earlier, Pennsylvania State University was recognized for establishing a club-like atmosphere. This is just one expectation of today’s students. Students also expect that technology will be a part of their fitness experience on the college campus, just like the fitness experience that they might enjoy at health clubs. For instance, many institutions make available (across their full line of cardio equipment) customized entertainment options, such as personal viewing screens for treadmills, bikes, and ellipticals (“Take Your School’s Fitness Center,” 2006).

Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design, or LEED, certification is a trend that will continue, given the popularity of “green” building. Institutions are discovering the cost benefit of environmentally friendly features: how such features can be attractive, help the environment, and save money as well.

It appears that wellness is a strong trend, with a number of new facilities incorporating health services and counseling services, as well as rehabilitation services. The comprehensive offerings of traditional student unions, such as food service, post offices, and convenience stores, also have begun to be regular features of campus recreational facilities.

It is also evident that institutions are strongly considering renovation of existing facilities, especially in urban areas where property is at a premium. Efficiently using space by, for instance, placing playing areas on rooftops is a trend that this author expects will continue. In addition, funding of recreational facilities will continue to be supported by student fees. At private institutions, student fees have been an integral part of funding facilities for many years; today, even state institutions have begun to assess student fees for recreational and fitness facilities.

References

Architectural showcase. (2007, June). Athletic Business, 31(6), 46–223.

Climbing wall. (n.d.). Retrieved April 12, 2008, from http://www.hamilton.edu/adventure/climbing

Climbing wall. (n.d.). Retrieved April 28, 2008, from http://www.oberlin.edu/athletic/reccentr/climbing_wall

Climbing wall and club. (n.d.). Retrieved April 12, 2008, from http://www.alma.edu/student_life/stone_center/the_climbing_wall

Cohen, A. (2007a, November). Remaking history. Athletic Business, 31(11), 34–42.

Cohen, A. (2007b, December). 27th Annual Facilities of Merit 2007 Winners. Athletic Business, 31(12), 50–66.

Cohn, L. (1991, October). “Boxball”—History of a near miss. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance, 62, 8.

Ezarik, M. (2006, June). Sense of place: Haverford College (Pa.) Gardner Integrated Athletic Center [Electronic version]. University Business: Solutions for Higher Education Management, 9(6), 28. Retrieved April 12, 2008, from http://universitybusiness.com/viewarticle.aspx?articleid=51

Goldman, S. (2007a, April). NIRSA releases survey on construction [Electronic version]. Fitness Business Pro. Retrieved April 28, 2008, from http://fitnessbusinesspro.com/mag/fitness_nirsa_releases_survey/

Goldman, S. (2007b, May). UConn discusses plans for new rec center. Fitness Business Pro, 23(5), 18.

Greenberg, A. (2004, May 19). Baseball’s rebirthplace?: Mass. town hopes to capitalize. The Hartford Courant, p. 1. Retrieved June 27, 2008, from http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-7059853_ITM

Illia, T. (2006, August). Thinking big. Southwest Contractor, 10, 67.

Marklein, M. B. (2005, October 19). College gender gap widens: 57% are women [Electronic version]. USA Today. Retrieved April 12, 2008, from http://www. usatoday.com/news/education/2005-10-19-male-college-cover_x.htm

Stevenson, M. J., Reznick, J. W., & Pitcher, R. W. (1978). First intramural-recreation facility celebrates 50th year. Retrieved April 12, 2008, from University of Michigan, Department of Recreational Sports Web site: http://www.recsports.umich.edu/facilities/imsbhistory.html

Student Health Services. (n.d.). Retrieved April 28, 2008, from University of California, Merced Web site: http://health.ucmerced.edu/

Suttell, R. (2003, October). Getting fit. Buildings, 97, 34.

Take your school’s fitness center to the next level with fitness entertainment products from True Fitness. (2006, January). College Planning and Management, 9, 56.

Turman, J., Brown, T., Helgeson, S., McComber, M., Peterson, R., & Swenson, D. (2005). Planning principles for college and university recreation facilities: A report to the Board of Regents. Retrieved June 27, 2008, from
http://www.umcrookston.edu/planning/athletic/documents/exhibit/Exhibit%20D%20-%20Regents’%20Rec%20Sports%20docket%20March%202005. pdf

2007 Education Design Showcase Awards. (2007, June). College Planning and Management, 10(6), 1–36.

Universities: The changing look of sports and exercise. (2008). Retrieved April 28, 2008, from http://www.rockwerxclimbing.com/3797.xml

U. S. Census Bureau daily feature for Nov. 6: First college football game. (2006, November 5). BNET U. S. Newswire. Retrieved March 23, 2008, from http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb5554/is_200611/ai_n21882604?tag=artBody;col1

U.S. Sports Academy2020-06-02T11:37:32-05:00October 7th, 2008|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Facilities, Sports Management|Comments Off

Advantages of Diversifying the Funds of Sports Organizations

Submitted by: Aaron G. Lawson – Acworth, Georgia

Advantages of Diversifying the Funds of Sports Organizations

Diversification of funds is a hot topic in the business world. The sports world must adapt and apply diversification principles in order to maximize the stability of sports organizations. Diversification is a generic term that can be applied to assets, funds, and investors. Making sure these financial factors are well maintained is critical to the overall fiscal success of a sports organization. This paper seeks to establish the importance of diversifying funds within sports organizations. It also investigates the financial advantages of diversification, which include percentage return, stability, and investors. The paper is an exploration tailored to individuals who want to discover the importance of diversification, for example coaches, administrators, and the general public.

One definition of diversification is “an investment fund that contains a wide array of securities to reduce the amount of risk in the fund” (Diversified Fund, n.d.). The logic beneath advocating diversification is that “Actively maintaining diversification prevents events that affect one sector from affecting an entire portfolio, making large losses less likely” (Diversified Fund, n.d.). Diversification, then, is a key component of achieving long-term financial stability and success.

In discussing diversification of funds, one acknowledges two general categories of funds, the diversifiable and undiversifiable. Diversifiable funds are those that can be controlled by the company, for example choosing where to invest monies, choosing the amount of money to be diversified, the business and financial risk associated with types of investments, and the current status of diversification options. Undiversifiable funds involve matters beyond an organization’s control, such as rates of currency exchange, political developments, fluctuations in investment fields, and interest rates. To become and remain financially sound, a sports business must take all of these under consideration as it identifies the method of diversification that best serves its needs (Chamberlain, 2003).

Diversifying funds is a serious endeavor for financial organizations. There are many factors to consider before reaching a final decision. An organization must decide if diversification will benefit its financial needs, including determining any long-term benefits to its fiscal well-being (Brooks & Kat, 2002). Every sports organization has unique needs; every team in a league has its own unique needs, as well, given that different team-owning corporations emphasize different areas of finance. Deciding on the proper amount of diversification can be an arduous task, but it is worth the time and effort, because the economic stability of the organization is at stake.

Because diversification has become increasingly popular, diversification options have expanded. Many banks, other financial outfits, and sports establishments now offer guidance or services aimed at funds diversification. Understanding one’s organization’s particular needs is essential in determining the most effective diversification method. Its monetary structure must be thoroughly scrutinized. Investing without fully understanding the organization’s status could prove disastrous.

Importance of Liquid Cash

Liquidity describes “how fast something can be turned into cold hard cash” (Kennon, n.d.). Keeping much liquid cash is considered by many to be a waste of investment potential; however, it has proved beneficial in some instances. For example, when catastrophe strikes some area (or areas) of investment, those portions of a financial portfolio which are liquid would suffer minimal damage. The September 11, 2001, events, for example, had a tremendous negative effect on financial stability. In the wake of the attacks, many of the United States’ financial structures suffered from a dramatic decrease in consumer confidence. Stock market investors even had to endure a 4-day freeze on their holdings. This had an incredible impact on America’s confidence in the market. Because catastrophe in inherently unpredictable, there is a sense of security in keeping some part of an organization’s finances liquid (Kennon, n.d.).

Traditionally, bank accounts have been regarded as a safe alternative to investments. Although savings accounts generally offer less return on one’s money, the money in such accounts is generally secure even in the event of an emergency. Having quick access to money can be the difference between a business’s success and its failure. When companies or sports organizations have most of their money tied up in nonliquid investments or holdings and an immediate need for funds arises, it can be difficult to fulfill that need. If a sports organization is going through a downturn in terms of ticket sales or sponsorships, the team may find itself unable to make payroll, which requires liquid cash. Such instability can have far-reaching effects on consumer support, fan support, and the general appeal of the organization within the sports community. Keeping adequate supplies of liquid cash allows sports organizations to continue to function throughout trying economic periods, and persisting in rocky times will allow an organization to develop and achieve success.

Diversification of finances helps to eliminate the effects of sudden changes in particular areas of investment. These specific changes are generally referred to as unsystematic risks, and they strike when least expected, by their very nature producing devastating effects on those invested too heavily in the stricken area. In this instance, the term unsystematic means that the investment did not meet expectations, but was drastically affected by an unforeseen circumstance like fire, strike, or scandal. Unpredictable, unsystematic risks frequently influence the liquidity of an investment.

Liquidity, again, is the capacity of a financial holding to be turned into cash without being affected by the present economy. The liquidity of diversification can prove to be extremely beneficial to sports organizations, because of their constant need for liquid cash. Furthermore, the more liquid the diversified investment, the safer is the money that was invested. However, liquidity’s price is often a lower return. Common forms of liquid assets are certificates of deposit, stocks, and bonds. While most experts consider certificates of deposit to be relatively liquid, there is a penalty for withdrawing funds froms certificates prior to a date set as the certificates’ date of maturity. Stocks and bonds are regarded as slightly less liquid than certificates of deposit, although both can typically be converted into cash within a couple days.

Liquid cash is viewed as an organization’s heart and soul. This is particularly relevant to sports organizations because of their direct need for cash. Operational cash flow must be sustained by the organization if the organization is to be deemed successful. Banks are the safest course for organizations aiming to maintain operational cash flow, because banks often act as a mediator between investments and ready cash. The basic rule of liquidity is simple and finite within a sports organization: If the organization cannot meet its financial needs, it will fail.

Savings Accounts

Savings accounts are commonplace in today’s economic structure. They are a safe alternative to risking money in investments which may never produce a return. Savings accounts are a way to save money that does not immediately need to be spent; the money is considered liquid because it is easily accessed—although it is not as liquid as funds in a checking account. Checking accounts are the most fluid form of investment, because banks administering the accounts assume the money will be promptly retrieved. For this reason, checking accounts tend to offer lower interest rates than savings accounts. Banks offer many types of savings accounts, but it is important to research associated fees and interest rates before determining which savings account is right for one’s business. Because savings accounts are not accessed as frequently as checking accounts, banks pay a higher interest rate on savings. Savings account interest rates are often between 1% and 3%, depending on the institution and type of account.

Savings accounts have changed over the past 20 years. Online banking services have led to a transitioning of the traditional savings account, one in which deposited savings slowly built interest. Owners of savings accounts in the past had to wait for earned interest, which was applied to deposits only on a few preset dates throughout the year. With online banking, interest is applied minute by minute, making an account’s maturity instantaneous.

Banks can pay interest on savings deposits because they use the money to fund loans, on which they charge interest greater than the interest paid to savers. In short, the banks are selling the money (Pritchard, n.d.). Savings accounts are viewed as safe because the money is insured. If something were to happen to the bank, the money would always be recoverable, thanks to the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation, a government bank-insurance program established after the Great Depression.

Sports organizations often take advantage of savings accounts to keep their resources in a safe place, out of the hands of individuals, since there is a history of individuals mishandling teams’ funds. Keeping money in a secured savings account eliminates part of that problem, because the money is easily traced to and from the bank. Professional sports teams that have substantial sums to keep in savings accounts can benefit greatly from interest earned. In short, it has become a necessity for businesses to possess savings accounts. Savings accounts allow businesses to store money and yet, simultaneously, gain interest. One of the prime advantages of a savings account is that the money stays separate from the normal circulation of funds.

Investors

Obtaining investors is one of the most challenging, and also most potentially profitable, aspects of stabilizing a business’s finances. When businesses begin operations, money is often hard to come by; money from investors can mean the difference between success and failure. Investors are individuals or businesses that provide money to an organization, in hopes of receiving a financial return on their investment. Investors can invest money in various facets of organizations, ranging from advertisement to stocks and bonds. The bottom line is that organizations have a great need for investors’ money during the start-up phase, and investors expect financial progress on an organization’s part, in order to maximize return on their investments. It is a situation not free of stress: The start-up business and its investors are concerned that the business become financially stable and able to turn a profit (Arnold, n.d.). And investor confidence is time sensitive; the longer it takes the business to become established, the greater the impact on investor confidence.

Small sports companies and entrepreneurs may be able to fund their business opportunities helped by friends and family only. Or, they may look to “angel investors.” Corporations must be cautious about involving angel investors (Advani, 2006). They typically do not have access to large amounts of money, and a corporation will need to ensure that the funds offered are actually available.

Information is the key to attracting investors. Investors need to know the current status of the organization and the rate of growth within its market. Having information about an organization’s competition can also enhance investors’ confidence. Many investors require the signing of an investment agreement establishing a framework, rules, and guidelines for the investment, outlining the steps to be followed to achieve success. An investment agreement makes clear that a new business is serious about its long-term profitability. Companies often use two forms of communication to maintain healthy investor relationships, the record of growth statement and the financial statement. The information in these statements provides investors the bottom line on their investments’ current status. If used properly, the statements also show investors that the business is able to set and meet (or at least approach) goals, which can be a great advantage in maintaining investor confidence.

Stock and Bonds

Professional sports organizations that own sufficient resources have an opportunity to make investments of their own—in stocks and bonds. If the investments are sound, the organization’s worth can grow markedly. Purchasing stocks and bonds is a common means of diversifying funds. Stocks can be purchased by the general public and represent ownership in companies. The price of stock issued by companies that are experiencing success goes up, allowing the investor to receive more money than he or she invested. The price of stock issued by companies that struggle goes down, and an investor may not only see no return on investment, he or she may lose the money initially paid for the stock. Unlike stocks, bonds do not represent ownership, being more akin to a loan. A company issues a bond in order to raise money to fund its daily operations. The purchaser of a bond is essentially loaning the purchase price to the company for a specified time, having been promised by the company that when the time elapses, the loan and interest will be returned. Both stocks and bonds are means of diversification that are considered lucrative and are readily accessible in today’s financial structure.

In the stock market, where stocks are bought and sold, the basic strategy is, of course, buy low and sell high. But investors regularly fall short of this aim, since the market can be unpredictable. In such instances, diversification can play a major role in investors’ overall success in the stock market. To use the old cliché, not putting all the eggs in one basket—in other words, investing in more than one kind of stock—can protect an investor, since falling stock prices in one area of the market may not affect prices in other areas. Diversifying the categories of stocks in which one invests is also a protective measure. If all of one’s eggs are transportation-related—if one purchases only automotive and aerospace and railroad stocks—the development of adverse economic conditions affecting transportation could wipe out the investment. Bonds are viewed as more stable than stocks, since they comprise a financial agreement between investors and bond issuers. Because they entail fewer risks, bonds generally yield smaller returns than stocks.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Diversification

The basic reasoning behind diversification is to make a financial portfolio less volatile. Diversification lowers the possibility of one bad investment affecting the stability of a financial portfolio. In order to take full advantage of diversifying a portfolio, one must invest in different types of assets that move in different directions and to different rhythms. The following are some key advantages of diversification, according to Klein and Saidenberg (1998):

Money is invested in various assets, not consolidated in one
Investors may benefit financially from many markets
Investors are not wholly financially affected by one poor investment
Return on diversified investments is higher, traditionally, than return on money kept in cash holdings
Diversification adds stability to and reduces volatility within a financial portfolio

While diversification tends to serve investors well, overdiversification is not advisable. Overdiversification means spreading investments over too many opportunities too thinly. Overdiversified investments lack opportunity to prosper. While essential in today’s economy, diversification of funds does have a limit, and most experts set it at 20 investments or assets at one time (Dangers of Over-Diversification, n.d.). An organization that invests in more than 20 entities may well find that its funds begin to plateau rather than increase, because the amount of money available for each investment does not carry its own weight within the investments (Dangers of Over-Diversification, n.d.).

Summary and Conclusions

Anything a sports organization possesses or controls is considered an asset. How its assets are managed determines the financial steadiness of an organization. Today, sports organizations’ assets typically extend far beyond bank accounts. For example, corporate funds are invested in stocks and bonds. In order to achieve financial success, professional sports organizations must acquire funding. When it is not forthcoming from a league, it may be obtained from other corporations, from private investors, or in the form of secured bank loans.

Diversification of assets may have become a buzzword, fun to discuss, but it should be remembered that diversification requires understanding and serious preparation, including trial and error that frequently comes with a price tag. To truly diversify one’s funds requires constant monitoring of one’s investments. Investments are never foolproof; unavoidable risk is the nature of investment. Businesses that seek to diversify their funds do so to reduce the volatility of their financial portfolio. Many sports organizations benefit from diversification, in light of the financial fluctuations which occur from month to month and, especially, season to season. In the course of a competitive season, a sports organization may be responsible to pay out millions of dollars. It is thus vital that the organization maintain a sound financial structure providing ready access to needed funds. If a sports organization is unable to fund its own team, the consequences reach beyond angry players; they can shake the foundation of the organization: fan support, community support, ticket sales, consumer sales, advertising sales, consumer confidence. Diversification acts against such a situation by sustaining investments in various investment fields, increasing the chances of having accessible money.

Ready availability of the professional sports organization’s money can mean success; the lack of it can mean failure. Professional sports businesses are always in need of cash—not just assets, but cash. But keeping assets in cash means the money is not earning much interest or otherwise making the organization money. Money will always earn more when it is placed in the hands of financial institutions that loan or invest it. Because professional sports organizations require a frequent turnover of funds, a smaller portion of their overall worth is available to be invested. Thus the recommended ratio of liquid funds to other funds is different for professional sports organizations than for many other corporations: 60:40. Professional sports organizations are unlike many other businesses in needing substantial amounts of cash to sustain day-to-day operations. Of course, from team to team, unique and varying needs and financial statuses mean that the 60:40 rule is actually a rule of thumb.

Diversification today is looked on as a prerequisite for securing financial permanence. The world has embraced the concept, and many options are offered for taking full advantage of diversification’s benefits. Professional sports corporations operate within a highly volatile system that nevertheless demands financial stability. Diversification of funds helps sports organizations develop a solid base able to withstand bumps in the road. The telephone, when it was newly available, seemed a luxury for the few; today it seems a necessity. The same can be said of funds diversification; once a strategy for investment adepts to consider, it has become a necessity for operating corporations. Knowledge of diversification is key, and the sports organization that does its homework is likely to benefit greatly from diversification, minimizing the strategy’s risks.

References

Advani, A. (2006, October 12). Raising money from informal investors: The devil’s in the details when taking money from—and structuring a deal with—friends, family and angel investors. Retrieved September 26, 2008, from http://www.entrepreneur.com/money/financing/startupfinancingcolumnistasheeshadvani/article168860.html

Arnold, R. (n.d.). Finding investors and hard money lenders. Retrieved September 26, 2008, from the Creative Real Estate Online.com website: http://www.creonline.com/money-ideas/mm-038.html

Brooks, C., & Kat, H. M. (2002). The statistical properties of hedge fund index returns and their implications for investors. The Journal of Alternative Investments, 26-44.

Chamberlain, G. (2003). Funds, factors, and diversification in arbitrage pricing models. Econometrica, 51, 1305-1323.

The Dangers of Over-Diversification. (n.d.). Retrieved September 26, 2008, from http://www.investopedia.com/articles/01/051601.asp

Diversified fund: What does it mean? (n.d.). Retrieved October 7, 2008, from the Investopedia website: http://www.investopedia.com/terms/d/diversifiedfund.asp

Kennon, J. (n.d.). The importance of liquidity and liquid assets: A lesson from September 11th. Retrieved September 26, 2008, from the About.com website: http://beginnersinvest.about.com/cs/banking/a/091102a.htm

Klein, P. G., & Saidenberg, M. R. (1998). Diversification, organization, and efficiency: Evidence from bank holding companies (Working Paper No. 97-27). Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, Wharton School, Center for Financial Institutions.

Pritchard, J. (n.d.). Bank savings accounts: Best uses for bank savings accounts. Retrieved September 26, 2008, from the About.com website: http://banking.about.com/od/savings/a/savingsaccount.htm

U.S. Sports Academy2017-08-07T11:41:44-05:00October 7th, 2008|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Management|Comments Off

An Examination of Preservice Routines of Elite Tennis Players

Submitted by: Noah B. Gentner – Ithaca College, Theodore J. McGraw – University of Tennessee, Stephen Gonzalez and Daniel R. Czech – Georgia Southern University

Abstract

A preperformance routine may support consistent optimal performance. Preperformance routines’ benefits for closed skills are largely accepted, but effects of time and situational factors are little understood, nor have results of altering movements of preperformance routines been much studied. This observational study investigated preservice routines of 4 elite tennis players. Inconsistent with much prior research, the presence of a routine did not enhance performance in this study: Mean serving percentage measured 66% for players with routines, 69% for others. The findings do support Jackson (2003) and Jackson and Baker (2001), studies of rugby players forced to alter routines during competition. Observation of preservice routines and performance over several months at various tournaments may advance the research on this topic.

An Examination of Preservice Routines of Elite Tennis Players

The development and administration of a preperformance routine has been linked to optimal and consistent performances in many activities. Past research has shown the positive effects of preperformance routines in various sports, including tennis (Moore, 1986), golf (Cohn, Rotella, & Lloyd, 1990), bowling (Kirschenbaum, Ordman, Tomarken, & Holtzbauer, 1982), basketball (Czech & Burke, 2003; Lobmeyer & Wasserman, 1986; Wrisberg & Pein, 1992), and skiing (Orlick, 1986). Preperformance routines seem most beneficial within closed skill and self-paced tasks found in these sports, for example free-throw shooting in basketball, serving in tennis, kicking in football, and putting in golf.

Previous research has shown that preperformance routines can help athletes focus attention, enhance confidence, eliminate distractions, and reduce anxiety (Weinberg & Gould, 1995). Eliminating distractions and focusing attention creates an ideal state of concentration prior to performance; consistently replicating this state of concentration can create consistent performances (Schmidt & Peper, 1998). Focus and concentration allow for other psychological skills (i.e., visualization and relaxation) to be implemented during the preperformance routine, which helps block any external stressors and unwanted environmental stimuli (Schmidt & Peper, 1998). The ability to eliminate distractions before a performance may be the difference between a good athlete and a great one (Orlick, 1997).

Another benefit of preperformance routines is that they structure and organize the time leading up to a desired task, mentally preparing the athlete for the performance (Weinberg & Gould, 1995). For example, Crews and Boutcher (1987) observed the preperformance routines of golfers in the Ladies Professional Golf Association (LPGA), measuring the time taken for routines. Results indicated that all the golfers were automatic in their routines, starting and finishing with consistent and purposeful actions and completing their routines in a consistent amount of time. Purposeful behavior is key to consistent and effective performance during a preperformance routine. Foster, Weigand, and Baines (2006) studied free-throw shooters found to have superstitious behaviors and attempted to implement a preperformance routine among the athletes. Surprisingly, the effect of preperformance routines and of superstitious behavior differed little (performance worsened when neither was conducted before shooting). Purposeful behavior, whether based on superstition or on a structured preperformance routine, resulted in consistent and effective performances.

A preperformance routine can also help athletes reactivate appropriate physiological and mental processes before each shot, hit, service, or putt, increasing the chance of a successful performance (Schmidt, 1982). Boutcher and Zinsser (1990) studied the cardiac, respiratory behavior patterns of elite and nonelite golfers during a putting task. Elite golfers’ consistent preperformance routines resulted in slower breathing and heartbeats, indicating relaxation and focus on the task. Nonelite golfers lacked consistent preperformance routines and had higher heart rates. Physiologically, preperformance routines prepare the body for competition and sync mind and body for better control.

Some research argues that consistency of performance as a result of using a preperformance routine involves more than simply keeping the routine to a consistent time period. For example, Southard and Miracle (1993) conducted a study of female basketball players that manipulated how fast their free-throw routines occurred (time for the routine was doubled, was cut in half, etc.). Despite the manipulations of time, the results showed that the relative time to complete the routine did not vary, and that the rhythm of the routine was most important to successful performance.

While there is little argument about the positive effects of preperformance routines on closed skills, external variables make each skill unique, making necessary the investigation of various skills. Lobermeyer and Wasserman (1986), Gayton, Cielinski, Francis-Keniston, and Hearns (1989), and Wrisberg and Pein (1992) have investigated the effects of preshooting routines in basketball extensively, but the literature reflects little research on preservice routines in tennis (Moore, 1986). Additionally, little research is found on the effects of time and situation (i.e., winning or losing) on preperformance routines. Research shows that altering the movements of a preperformance routine can lead to poor or inconsistent performances (Gayton et al., 1989).

The purpose of this study was to investigate the preservice routines of 4 elite tennis players. Observation of the players was expected, ultimately, to yield visual identification of the presence of a preservice routine. Then, correlation would be sought between use of a preservice routine and successful service attempts.

Method

Participants

The participants in this study were 4 professional tennis players (2 men and 2 women) who were competitors belonging to the United States Tennis Association or the Women’s Tennis Association.

Procedure

Videotapes were viewed of 2 male participants playing in the Australian Open and 2 female participants playing in the Olympic Games. Data were collected during several matches in each tournament. To control for external variables, only first services were examined. The Preservice Routine Index (appendix) was developed to record data. Each researcher recorded data independently; then the data were compared and combined to produce a single set of final data to be used in analysis. Data discrepancies were discussed by the researchers until all felt comfortable with the data.

Collection of the data was initiated when a server placed his or her feet in their final ready position. For each service the following information was collected: server’s gender, server’s score in the game or match (i.e., leading or trailing the opponent), success of the service, and preservice routine. After several practice trials, racket position (low/high, horizontal/vertical) as well as number of times the player bounced the ball prior to serving were identified as the predominant variables in a preservice routine. These two elements were the most consistent and measurable preservice actions the players displayed. A minimum of 30 services were needed to determine the presence or absence of a preservice routine. A service was counted only if the server was fully visible from the time he or she set his or her feet until the final service motion was initiated.

Data Analysis

The first step of data analysis was identification of a preservice routine. Each player’s preservice data was examined to determine whether or not a consistent routine was present. Looking at the data, the researchers established for each player his or her most common racket position and the typical number of bounces used prior to a service. These comprised the player’s preservice routine, which in this study had to precede at least 80% of a player’s services in ordered to be considered a consistent preservice routine. Players who did not follow the identified routine at least 80% of the time were assigned to one of two groups in the study, the nonroutine group.

For each player, the researchers calculated the percentage of services (over all 30 trials) featuring the identified preservice routine. Restricting the calculation to first services only, they also computed the serving percentages for the entire tournament, in an effort to balance effects of emotion across “good” and “bad” matches. The serving percentages were compared by gender and by group (routine, RG, or nonroutine, NRG). Use or omission of a routine by players in the routine group was evaluated in the context of the player’s score (game and match) at the time of each service.

Results

Only one study participant, Player 1, could be assigned to the routine group; the remaining players showed limited consistency of preservice actions. Player 1 used a preservice routine 83% of the time and had an overall serving percentage of 66% over the entire tournament. Player 2’s use of a preservice routine had the second-highest rate of consistency, 67%. Players in the nonroutine group had an overall successful serving percentage of 69%: Player 2 was successful 65% of the time; Player 3, 78% of the time; and Player 4, 63% of the time. Overall for the tournament, the routine group had a mean serving percentage of 66%, while the nonroutine group had a mean serving percentage of 69%.

One of the two men in the sample had a detectable preservice routine, while neither of the women had a detectable routine. Mean serving percentage for the men was 65%; for the women, mean serving percentage was 70%.

Finally, the participant who used a detectable preservice routine seemed to do so more frequently when he trailed, rather than led, his opponent in either the game or match. Player 1 followed his routine 100% of the time when he was losing a game and 82% of the time when he was losing a match. He followed his routine 72% of the time when he was winning a game and 68% of the time when he was winning a match.

Discussion

In light of the performance benefits research shows to derive from a preperformance routine, the studied elite tennis players’ lack of consistency in using such routines was unexpected. The findings could be explained in three ways. First of all, research suggests that preperformance routines can be cognitive in nature. Imagery and self-talk are two examples of mental skills that could play a very important role in the preperformance routine (Wrisberg & Anshel, 1989). Cognitive preperformance strategies may or may not have constituted significant elements of our participants’ preservice rituals. With videotape observation the sole means of data collection, cognitive routines were undetectable. It is quite possible that the presence or absence of a cognitive strategy influenced effects of the psychomotor aspects of positioning the racket and bouncing the ball. For example, Player 3’s high percentage of successful services could have been supported by focused, consistent use of imagery before each service. Future research on preservice routines definitely should include interviews aimed at understanding players’ preservice cognitive strategies.

A second explanation of our study’s findings is the limited time span of the play we observed. Relatively unchanged situational factors from match to match may have positively or negatively affected the data. For instance, perhaps one of the study participants had an injury affecting performance. In addition, it was unknown whether any players used a specific number of preservice bounces, a number that might have changed during the rest of the tournament. Our findings are interesting, given that traditional research focuses on consistency of the preperformance routine, and they support previous findings reported in Jackson (2003) and Jackson and Baker (2001). Jackson and Baker (2001) studied professional rugby players in a highly competitive environment and found that preperformance routines were often altered during competition due to factors beyond players’ control (i.e., time running out, players out of position, speeding or delaying in response to others, and the like). Future research should include several months of observation of the participants’ services, involving a variety of different tournaments. An expanded time frame would help control such external variables as injuries, skill constraints, and development of the preservice routine.

A final explanation for the discrepancy between participants’ behavior reflected in this study and in earlier research findings on preperformance routines is that in tennis, serving may not be positively affected by a preperformance routine. While earlier researchers have found a positive correlation between free-throw success and preshooting routines, it is entirely possible that environmental, physiological, and psychological aspects of closed skills from basketball and closed skills from tennis differ enough to drastically affect the results of a preperformance routine. But this is unlikely. In our study Player 1, whom we observed to employ a consistent preservice routine, is consistently ranked (by the United States Tennis Association) among the best tennis players and servers in the world. Individual differences must also be taken into account. Preservice routines are as unique as the players who use them, meaning each routine’s benefits are likely to be unique as well.

One strength of our study is that the services were observed in the most elite competitive venues. Player 1 and Player 2 were videotaped competing in a grand slam competition; Player 3 and Player 4 were videotaped contending for Olympic gold. Environmental distractions during each of these tournaments were significant. In addition, it can be assumed that each player tried his or her best to serve successfully in each observed trial. Many consider first-service success an important component of elite competitive tennis. Such anecdotal evidence can certainly be challenged, but it is useful to consider. Future research might also explore the benefits of a preservice routine to second services.

References

Boutcher, S. H., & Zinsser, N. (1990). Cardiac deceleration of elite and beginning golfers during putting. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 12, 37-47.

Cohn, P. J., Rotella, R. J., & Lloyd, J. W. (1990). Effects of a cognitive-behavioral intervention on the preshot routine and performance in golf. The Sport Psychologist, 4, 33-47.

Crews, D. J., & Boutcher, S. H. (1987). An exploratory observational behavior analysis of professional golfers during competition. Journal of Sport Behavior, 9, 51-58.

Czech, D. R. & Burke, K. L. (2003). An examination of the maintenance of pre-shot routines in basketball free throw shooting. Journal of Sport Behavior, 3, 23-32.

Foster, D. J., Weigand, D. A., & Baines, D. (2006). The effect of removing superstitious behavior and introducing a preperformance routine on basketball free-throw performance. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 18, 167-171.

Gayton, W. F., Cielinski, K. L., Francis-Keniston, W. J., & Hearns, J. E. (1989). Effects of pre-shot routine on free-throw accuracy of intercollegiate female basketball players. Journal of Sport Psychology, 5, 343-346.

Jackson, R. C. (2003). Preperformance routine consistency: Temporal analysis of goal kicking in the Rugby Union World Cup. Journal of Sport Sciences, 21, 803-814.

Jackson, R. C., & Baker, J. S. (2001). Routines, rituals, and rugby: Case study of a world class goal kicker. Sport Psychologist, 15, 48-65.

Kirschenbaum, D. S., Tomarken, A. J., & Ordman, A. M. (1982). Specificity of planning and choice in adult self-control. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 41, 576-585.

Lobmeyer, D. L., & Wasserman, E. A. (1986). Preliminaries to free-throw shooting: Superstitious behavior? Journal of Sport Behavior, 9, 70-78.

Moore, W. E. (1986). Covert-overt service routines: The effects of a service routine training program on elite tennis players. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Virginia.

Orlick, T. (1986). Psyching for sport: Mental training for athletes. Champaign, IL: Leisure Press.

Orlick, T. (1997). In pursuit of excellence (3rd ed.). Champaign, IL: Leisure Press.

Schmidt, A., & Peper, E. (1998). Strategies for training. In J. Williams (Ed.), Applied sport psychology: Personal growth to peak performance (pp. 316-328). Mountain View, CA: Mayfield.

Schmidt, R. A. (1982). Motor control and learning. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Southard, D., & Miracle, A. (1993). Rythmicity, ritual, and motor performance: A study of free throw shooting in basketball. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 3, 284-290.

Weinberg, R. S., & Gould, D. (1995). Foundations of Sport and Exercise Psychology, Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Wrisberg, C. A., & Anshel, M. H. (1989). The effect of cognitive strategies on free throw shooting performance of young athletes. The Sport Psychologist, 3, 95-104.

Wrisberg, C. A., & Pein, R. L. (1992). The pre-shot interval and free throw shooting accuracy: An exploratory investigation. The Sport Psychologist, 6, 14-23.

U.S. Sports Academy2013-11-25T21:17:08-06:00October 7th, 2008|Sports Exercise Science, Sports Management|Comments Off

Compliance by Hong Kong’s National Sport Organizations With the World Anti-Doping Program

Submitted by: Lena Fung – Hong Kong Baptist University; Yvonne Yuan – Hong Kong Sports Institute Limited

Abstract

The present study aimed to assess current anti-doping efforts among Hong
Kong’s national sport organizations (NSOs), for example
organizations’ readiness to change and to initiate or strengthen
anti-doping measures. The points of view of administrators, coaches,
and committee members were considered. A great majority of NSOs in Hong Kong appeared to be at the
contemplation stage, concerning anti-doping actions. The major
constraints they faced were limited funds and manpower.

The World Anti-Doping Program, developed by the World Anti-Doping
Agency (WADA), is structured in three levels: a World Anti-Doping
Code, international standards, and models of and guidelines for best
practices. WADA officials state that one purpose of the World
Anti-Doping Program and code is “to ensure harmonized, coordinated,
and effective anti-doping programs at the international and national
level with regard to detection, deterrence, and prevention of doping”
(World Anti-Doping Agency, 2003). We would like to suggest that the
program actually can serve two purposes. On the macro level, it can
provide various international federations and national anti-doping
organizations (NADOs) with a framework for developing anti-doping
policies, rules, and regulations. On a micro level, it can guide
national sport organizations (NSOs) in carrying out anti-doping
functions like educational programming and in adopting appropriate
practices to demonstrate compliance with various anti-doping
regulations.
The World Anti-Doping Code has been in place for over 5 years, so the
roles of international federations and NADOs in promoting and
monitoring athletes’ anti-doping behaviors should be clear to sport
organizations and professionals involved in high-level competition
(e.g., World Games, Olympics). Those not involved at that level may
be less familiar with arrangements, for instance coaches and
administrators of NSOs that have not produced athletes qualifying for
high-level competitions. Even NSOs with experience in high-level
competition may have second- or third-tier athletes lacking the
exposure their elite counterparts have had. Given that NSOs play a
significant role in communicating anti-doping information to athletes
and explaining their role in anti-doping regulations, the evaluation
of NSOs’ current practices is important. The present study provided
such an evaluation, using a case-study approach to determine the
extent of Hong Kong NSOs’ compliance with the anti-doping program.
Specifically, we aimed to assess whether Hong Kong’s NSOs were
implementing anti-doping functions, as well as to identify
constraints on their full compliance. Although the study involved
only Hong Kong organizations, knowledge gained should be applicable
in countries with similar anti-doping experience, and the study
should thus prove useful to international federations, NADOs, and
WADA as they direct resources and efforts.
Since to an extent NSOs are organizations whose anti-doping
compliance or noncompliance can be treated as the adoption of one
management practice over another, their anti-doping compliance can be
modeled as organizational change. We therefore reviewed such models
and chose Prochaska’s transtheoretical model (TTM) (Prochaska,
2000) to analyze NSO anti-doping functions. The popular TTM was
originally developed to explain behavioral change in individuals
(Prochaska, Prochaska, & Levesque, 2001).
Central to the TTM are three theoretical constructs related to
change: (a) stages of change, (b) decisional balance, and (c) process
of change. Intentional change—whether by an individual or an
organization—can occur in stages and so can be seen as a series of
movements along a continuum. There are six such movements or stages:
pre-contemplation, contemplation, preparation, action,
maintenance, and termination. The terminology process
of change, in contrast, connotes the belief that change is
influenced by both overt and covert activities that comprise
experiential processes and behavioral processes.
Experiential processes characterize the early-stage transition and
include consciousness raising, dramatic relief, environmental
reevaluation, social liberation, and self-reevaluation.
Behavioral processes characterize later-stage transition and include
stimulus control, helping relationship, counter conditioning,
reinforcement management, and self-liberation.
In sum, the TTM provides an opportunity to understand the temporal
ordering of events as an established pattern is changed, which is
what we intended to do in terms of the NSOs’ implementation of
anti-doping functions. It also provides opportunity to explore
mechanisms mediating intentional change (e.g., constraints on
implementation of anti-doping functions). An additional rationale for
adopting the model was its prior successful application in an
analysis of family-service agencies (Prochaska, 2000), a study of the
implementation of a system of “time-limited therapy” that has
notable parallels to the implementation of anti-doping functions.

Method

Design of Questionnaire

The three versions of the self-report instrument used in the present
study were developed with input from three NSOs of different sizes,
whose staffs were invited to participate in face-to-face interviews
with a member of the research team experienced in anti-doping works.
During these interviews, the purpose and procedures of the study were
clarified for the NSOs, and items for inclusion in the questionnaire,
as well as in a structured interview, were identified. NSOs
participating in these preliminary interviews did not participate in
the study itself.

Collection of Survey Data

A letter of invitation to participate in the research project and
three copies of the final questionnaire were delivered to each NSO in
Hong Kong (except the three involved in instrument development).
Follow-up telephone calls were made to confirm the organizations’
interest in participating. NSOs that volunteered to participate were
scheduled for interviews with research team members. Completed
questionnaires were collected during or after an interview session.
The three versions of the study questionnaire included one for NSO
administrators, one for NSO coaches, and one for NSO committee
members. All versions included Part 1 and Part 2; the version for
administrators contained an additional three parts. Part 1 of the
questionnaire represented a modification of the Readiness to Change
Questionnaire (RTCQ) (Rollnick, Heather, Gold, & Hall, 1992). The
original RTCQ, designed to study drinking behavior, is a 12-item
questionnaire that assigns excessive drinkers to either the
precontemplation, contemplation, or action stages
(Heather, Gold, & Rollnick, 1991). For the present study, the
modified questionnaire assessed each NSO’s readiness to increase
its anti-doping efforts. Part 2 of the questionnaire was based on the
early interviews with the three NSOs not generating study data. From
these interviews, a list of pros and cons of increased anti-doping
efforts was developed. Part 2 asked respondents to rate the
importance of these pros and cons as influences on the NSO’s
decisions about increasing or not increasing anti-doping work.
Finally, Parts 3, 4, and 5 of the questionnaire were directed to NSO
administrators only and collected information about (a) spending on
anti-doping works, (b) opinions about anti-doping education programs,
and (c) an NSO’s demographic information.

Collection of Interview Data

Two members of the research team conducted structured face-to-face
interviews with representatives of NSOs who were either
administrators, committee members, or senior coaches. All were
familiar with their NSO’s anti-doping works. Standard questions
were posed initially, with a respondent’s answers guiding a series
of appropriate follow-up questions.

Results

A total of 62 invitations were sent to NSOs in Hong Kong to
participate in the research project, and 44 NSOs returned completed
questionnaires, a response rate of 71%. Interviews were completed
with 42 NSOs’ representatives, a response rate of 67.7%.

National
Sport Organization Demographics

The participating NSOs’ demographics provide a rough idea of the
scope of Hong Kong’s locally organized sport. Tables 1–4 present
the numbers of athletes, of coaches, and of competitions organized by
or participated in by our respondents. Most of the NSOs had fewer
than 5 full-time and 5 part-time employees. A majority (77.1%) had
fewer than 50 athletes active in international events that were
endorsed by an international federation. Over half of the surveyed
NSOs (60.6%) had 50–200 Level-1 coaches, while about half (57.6%
and 51.5%, respectively) had fewer than 31 Level-2 coaches and fewer
than 6 Level-3 coaches. About half of the NSOs organized fewer than
10 local competitions per year, and 65% organized 0–1 international
event annually. About 63% of the NSOs sent athletes to 1–5
international competitions each year.

Table
1

Numbers
of Employees at Hong Kong’s National Sport Organizations, With
Percentage of All Surveyed NSOs Having Similar Numbers

	Full-time		Part-time
Count	%	Count	%
0	2	4.8	20	48.8	1–5	28	66.7	20	48.8	>5	12	28.6	1	2.4	Total	42	100	41	100

Table 2

Numbers
of Athletes Within Hong Kong’s National Sport Organizations, By
Competitive Event Type, With Percentage of All Surveyed NSOs Having
Similar Numbers

100

	International Event^a	Other Event
Count	%	Count	%
0–10	7	20.0	1	3.8	11–50	20	57.1	5	19.2	51–100	4	11.4	9	34.6	101–200	3	8.6	2	7.7	> 200	1	2.9	9	34.6	Total	35

^aFor
purposes of this study, an international event is a competition
endorsed by an appropriate international federation.
Table 3

Numbers
of Coaches Within Hong Kong’s National Sport Organizations (By
Level), With Percentage of All Surveyed NSOs Having Similar Numbers

Level 1	Level 2	Level 3
	Count	%		Count	%		Count	%
0–50	8	24.2	0–10	13	39.4	0	7	21.2
51–100	9	27.3	11–30	6	18.2	1–5	10	30.3
101–200	11	33.3	31–50	3	9.1	6–10	7	21.2
201–300	4	12.1	51–100	5	15.2	11–20	4	12.1
>300	1	3.03	>100	6	18.2	>20	5	15.2
Total	33	100	Total	33	100	Total	33	100

Table 4

Annual
Average Number of Competitions Organized By and Participated in By
NSOs, With Percentage of All Surveyed NSOs Having Similar Numbers

42.5

3–5

31.7

Average # of Local Competitions Organized	Average # of International Competitions Organized	Average # of International Competitions Participated In
	Count	%		Count	%		Count	%
0–5	14	34.1	0	9	22.5	1–2	13	31.7
6–10	10	24.4	1
11–20	8	19.5	2	6	15	6–10	6	14.6	21–30	1	2.4	3	1	2.5	11–20	6	14.6	>30	8	19.5	>3	7	17.5	>20	3	7.3	Total	41	100	Total	40	100	Total	41	100

Resources
Used for Anti-Doping Efforts

Our data suggest that Hong Kong’s national sport organizations have
not invested much, either in terms of finances or manpower, in
anti-doping efforts (Table 5). A majority of our respondents—close
to 88%—had expended no funds for anti-doping efforts within the 3
years preceding the study and anticipated no such spending throughout
the current year. Moreover, 80%–90% of the NSOs had neither any
staff members nor honorary consultants assigned to anti-doping work.
Table 5

Average
Annual Spending on Anti-Doping Efforts by Hong Kong NSOs, Over 4-Year
Period, in United States Dollars, With Percentage of All Surveyed
NSOs Spending Similar Amounts

	Average Annual Spending in 3 Years Preceding Study	Anticipated Spending During Current Year
0 USD	36 (87.8%)	37 (88.1%)
1–1,000 USD	3 (7.3%)	2 (4.8%)
1,001–2,000 USD	1 (2.4%)	2 (4.8%)
> 2,000 USD	1 (2.4%)	1 (2.4%)

Tables 6

NSOs’
Staffing for Anti-Doping Efforts, By Paid Status and Position, With
Percentage of All Surveyed NSOs Providing Similar Numbers of Staff
Paid Staff

	Count	%
0	35	85.4
1	5	12.2
2	1	2.4

Honorary
Consultant from Medical Profession

	Count	%
0	32	80
1	3	7.5	2	2	5	>2	3	7.5

Honorary
Consultant from Legal Profession

	Count	%
0	36	90
1	2	5
2	2	5

Honorary
Consultant from Technical Field (e.g., Doping Control Officer)

	Count	%
0	33	82.5
1	2	5
2	3	7.5
>2	2	5

Honorary
Consultant (Unspecified)

	Count	%
0	38	95
4	1	2.5
6	1	2.5

Opinions
About Anti-Doping Education Programs

The NSO respondents were asked their opinions or perceptions
concerning appropriate content for inclusion in anti-doping
educational programs or informational materials (Table 7). The three
most important content areas, according to our respondents, were
“ways to avoid inadvertent doping,” “rights and
responsibilities of athletes in doping control,” and “anti-doping
rules and regulations.”
Table 7

NSO
Respondents’ Rank Ordering of Importance of Content Areas in
Anti-Doping Educational Programs, From Most to Least Important

Content	Score
Mean	SD
Ways to avoid inadvertent doping	.97	1.09	Rights and responsibilities of athletes in doping control	.95	1.17	Anti-doping rules and regulations	.77	1.02	Responsibilities of NSO in doping control	.56	.93	Competitive sports and ethics	.47	.69	Therapeutic use exemption for prohibited drugs	.45	.92	Drug testing procedures	.40	.80	Current international anti-doping practices	.39	.84	Whereabouts information of athletes	.35	.87	Current Hong Kong anti-doping practices	.34	.72

As shown in Table 8, the surveyed respondents indicated that the most
suitable medium to deliver anti-doping educational programs was a web
page. Workshops, pamphlets, and video presentations were also
considered suitable modes of delivery.
Table 8

NSO
Respondents’ Rank Ordering of Suitability of Anti-Doping
Educational Program Delivery, From Most to Least Suitable

	Mean	SD

Web page

2.77

2.02

Workshop

2.58

2.12

Pamphlet

2.15

1.79

VCD

2.13

1.73

Other

.35

1.03

Surveyed
NSO associates suggested other suitable media for providing
anti-doping education (Table 9), as well.
Table 9
Other Modes of Anti-Doping Education Suggested by Respondents

Mode	Number of Respondents Making This Suggestion
TV Commercial/Program	3
Seminar	1
Newspaper Article	1
Commercial Media	1
Exhibition	1

Respondents
were asked what they thought would be a suitable time to conduct an
anti-doping workshop; opinions varied from NSO to NSO. As shown in
Table 10, while 45% preferred weekday evenings, other times also had
support (i.e., weekday “office hours,” 30%; weekends, 25%).
Table 10
Anti-Doping Workshop Times Preferred By Respondents

	Frequency	%
Monday–Friday “Office Hours”	12	30
Monday–Friday Evenings	18	45
Saturday–Sunday	10	25
Total	40	100

Asked if they would recommend that their NSO staff attend a 6–8-hr
anti-doping workshop costing $300 HKD (about $40 U. S.) per
participant, 68.3% of our respondents said yes (Table 11).
Table 11
Number/Percentage of Respondents Who Would/Would Not Recommend NSO
Staff Attendance at 6–8-Hr, 300 HKD Anti-Doping Workshop

	Frequency	%
Yes	28	68.3
No	13	31.7
Total	41	100

Readiness
for change

Data from the modified RTCQ completed by NSO administrators, coaches,
and committee members are presented in Table 12. A majority of
respondents of all three types were in the contemplation stage (54.5%
of administrators, 51.1% of coaches, and 47.7% of committee members).
Being in the contemplation stage meant actively considering whether
to initiate or strengthen an NSO’s anti-doping effort.
Table 12

Indicated
Readiness to Initiate or Strengthen NSO’s Anti-Doping Efforts, In
Terms of RTCQ “Stage,” With Percentage of All Respondents at Same
“Stage”

	Precontemplation	Contemplation	Action
Administrators	8 (18.2%)	24 (54.5%)	14 (27.3%)
Coaches	8 (17.8%)	23 (51.1%)	14 (31.1%)
Committee Members	10 (22.7%)	21 (47.7%)	13 (29.5%)

Factors in
Decision Making About Anti-Doping Efforts

Administrators, coaches, and committee members were asked to rate the
importance of a list of pros and cons of initiating or strengthening
anti-doping efforts within their NSO (Tables 13 and 14).

Table
13

NSO
Respondents’ Rank Ordering of Importance of “Pro” Factors in
Anti-Doping Decisions, From Most to Least Important

Pros	Score
Average	SD

Administrators

It will directly or
indirectly improve professional knowledge of the NSO staff.

5.1

1.17

It will help us to
avoid being penalized by an international federation.

3.85

1.61

It will affect the
professional image of the NSO.

3.69

1.49

It will help to
preserve the health of our athletes.

3.17

1.38

There is a need to
comply with the rules and regulations set forth by the
international sporting community.

2.06

1.17

It will help to
maintain fair play.

2.06

1.21

Coaches

It will directly or indirectly improve professional knowledge of the NSO staff.	4.11	1.41
It will help us to avoid being penalized by an international federation.	3.93	1.67
It will affect the professional image of the NSO.	3.7	1.66
There is a need to comply with the rules and regulations set forth by the international sporting community.	2.93	1.6
It will help to preserve the health of our athletes.	2.7	1.6
It will help to maintain fair play.	2.41	1.54

Committee
members

It will directly or indirectly improve professional knowledge of the NSO staff.	4.85	1.24
It will help us to avoid being penalized by an international federation.	4.1	1.62

It will affect the
professional image of the NSO.

3.94

1.6

It will help to
preserve the health of our athletes.

2.73

1.58

There is a need to
comply with the rules and regulations set forth by the
international sporting community

2.45

1.11

It will help to
maintain fair play.

2.24

1.28

Table
14

NSO
Respondents’ Rank Ordering of Importance of “Con” Factors in
Anti-Doping Decisions, From Most to Least Important

Cons	Score
Average	SD

Administrators

It will create
unnecessary hassle for our athletes.

4.98

1.23

It will pose additional
financial pressure on our NSO.

3.81

1.46

Anti-doping work is not
essential to the development of our NSO.

3.36

1.55

Athletes in our sport
do not use prohibited substances to enhance performance.

3.12

1.66

There is a lack of
professional knowledge to implement such works.

3.07

1.51

There is a lack of
manpower to implement such works.

2.44

1.38

Coaches

It will create unnecessary hassle for our athletes.	4.56	1.28
Anti-doping work is not essential to the development of our NSO.	3.78	1.41
It will pose additional financial pressure on our NSO.	3.6	1.55
Athletes in our sport do not use prohibited substances to enhance performance.	3.58	1.76
There is a lack of professional knowledge to implement such works.	3.06	1.63
There is a lack of manpower to implement such works.	2.76	1.21

Committee
Members

It will create
unnecessary hassle for our athletes.

4.92

1.41

Anti-doping work is not
essential to the development of our NSO.

3.92

1.68

It will pose additional
financial pressure on our NSO.

3.85

Athletes in our sport
do not use prohibited substances to enhance performance.

3.27

1.71

There is a lack of
professional knowledge to implement such works.
3.52

1.69

There is a lack of
manpower to implement such works.

2.85

1.66

For
the list of “pros” associated with initiating or strengthening an
anti-doping effort, administrators, coaches, and committee members
alike said the three most important considerations were, in
descending order of importance, “It will directly or indirectly
improve professional knowledge of the NSO staff,” “It will help
us to avoid being penalized by an international federation,” and
“It will affect the professional image of the NSO.” Similarly,
for the list of “cons,” they agreed that the most important
consideration was “It will create unnecessary hassle for our
athletes,” and that the second and third most important factors
were “Anti-doping work is not essential to the development of our
NSO” and “It will pose additional financial pressure on our NSO,”
respectively. However, administrators said financial pressure was a
more important consideration than coaches and committee members said
it was, while the latter groups felt more influenced than
administrators did by anti-doping’s perceived nonessential role in
the development of an NSO.

NSOs’
Present and Upcoming Anti-Doping Efforts

The interviews we conducted with representatives of Hong Kong’s
NSOs allowed for collection of information about their current and

upcoming anti-doping activities, including work in education,
capacity building, drug testing, cooperation with international
federations and anti-doping organizations, and policy. Results
obtained are presented in Table 15.

Table
15

NSOs’
Present and Upcoming Anti-Doping Work, By Activity, With Percentage
of All Surveyed NSOs Pursuing Same

Activity

Status^a

Count

Education

To remind athletes and athlete support personnel that they are bound by the anti-doping rules	1	7	16.3
2	1	2.3
4	35	81.4

Total

100

To distribute
information on doping control from third parties to your athletes
and athlete support personnel

32.6

2.3

65.1

Total

100

To distribute
information about education programs on doping control to
athletes/coaches/sport administrators

41.9

58.1

Total

100

To include
information on doping control in newsletter, web page, or
correspondence with NSO members

69.8

11.6

18.6

Total

100

To seek assistance from
relevant parties to organize education or information sessions for
your athletes and athlete support personnel, on matters related to
doping control

65.1

18.6

4.7

11.6

Total

100

To organize educational
talk or seminar for your athletes/coaches/sport administrators on
anti-doping

81.4

11.6

Total

100

Capacity Building

To upgrade the existing staff on doping issues, through information/education program	1	32	74.4
2	5	11.6
4	6	14

Total

100

To train a doping
control officer for your NSO

88.4

4.7

Total

100

Drug Testing (and Related Functions)

To conduct drug tests for locally held international event	1	23	53.5
2	4	9.3
4	16	37.2

Total

100

To conduct drug
tests for local competition

90.7

2.3

Total

100

To conduct
out-of-competition drug tests on your athletes

95.3

2.3

Total

100

To keep record of all
drug tests conducted on your athletes (for international
competition and out-of-competition)

60.5

2.3

30.2

Total

100

To regularly update
your international federation(s) and anti-doping organizations on
the drug test record and results of your athletes

83.7

2.3

Total

100

To collect or
coordinate the whereabouts information of your athletes

24
55.8

44.2

Total

100

To regularly update
your international federation(s) and anti-doping organizations on
the whereabouts information of your athletes

69.8

30.2

Total

100

To assist athletes in
the application of the therapeutic use exemption (TUE)

79.1

2.3

18.6

Total

100

To keep records of TUE
for your athletes

81.4

2.3

16.3

Total

100

To regularly update
your international federation(s) and anti-doping organizations on
the TUE status of your athletes

90.7

2.3

Total

100

Cooperation
with International Federations and Anti-Doping Organizations

To assist international federation(s) and anti-doping organizations in conducting drug tests	1	35	81.4
4	8	18.6
Total	43	100

Policy

To discuss doping issues in meetings of your NSO	1	25	58.1
2	1	2.3
4	17	39.5

Total

100

To include a clause
forbidding use of prohibited substances by athletes in the
constitution of your NSO

60.5

11.6

27.9

Total

100

To prepare a procedural
guideline to handle anti-doping duties (If such a guideline
exists, please provide details on the target group and contents.)

76.7

16.3

Total

100

^aA
numeral 1 in this column indicates an NSO does not intend to pursue
the activity in the foreseeable future; a 2 indicates that an NSO is
seriously considering action within 6 months (i.e., in the
foreseeable future); a 3 indicates that an NSO has developed a plan
to act; and a 4 indicates that the NSO has a system in place and
pursues the activity.
In terms of education, most NSOs (81.4%) had reminded their athletes
and athlete support personnel that they are bound by anti-doping
rules. Answers to our follow-up questions suggested that most of the
reminders were sent prior to major competitions. The majority of Hong
Kong NSOs would distribute to relevant persons information on doping
control obtained from third parties (65.1%) and related educational
programs (58.1%). However, only 18.6% of the NSOs had included
anti-doping information in a newsletter, a web page, or
correspondence with its members. To organize educational programs,
with or without assistance from third parties, was uncommon among the
local NSOs. Programs to enhance an NSO staff’s anti-doping
knowledge were also relatively undeveloped. Only 14% of NSOs had
organized educational programs to upgrade such knowledge, and only
4.7% had a trained doping control officer of their own.

On issues of drug testing and related functions, 37.2% of the NSOs
reported they had experience conducting drug tests at locally held
international events. However, only 7% had conducted drug tests for
local competitions and 2.3% had conducted out-of-competition tests on
athletes. It seems that in Hong Kong only athletes competing at the
international level are monitored via drug testing. Athletes in local
competitions have minimal exposure to drug testing.

In terms of record keeping, about 30.2% of NSOs had records of drug
tests conducted on their athletes, but only 14% reported this
information to an international federation (most federations made no
requests for the information). About half of the NSOs (44.2%) had
experience collecting or coordinating whereabouts information for
athletes. Only 30.2 %, however, updated an international federation
regularly about such information (follow-up questions suggested that
international federations did not request regular updates, especially
from NSOs without athletes competing internationally). Only 18.6% of
NSOs had experience applying the therapeutic use exemption with their
athletes; 16.3% kept records on TUE and 7% regularly updated an
international federation concerning athletes’ TUE status.

Only 8% of NSOs had assisted an international federation or
anti-doping agency in conducting drug testing. Responses to follow-up
questions suggested that both in-competition testing and
out-of-competition testing were involved. In terms of policy, 39.5%
of NSOs had discussed doping issues in their meetings. About one
third (27.9%) had included a clause prohibiting the use of specified
substances by athletes affiliated with them. Response to follow-up
questions indicated that most NSOs addressed the issue only
indirectly, asking individuals to refer to rules and regulations set
forth by international federations. Among the respondents, only 7%
had a procedural guideline for handling anti-doping duties.

Discussion and Recommendations

The main purpose of the survey was to evaluate the anti-doping
functions of Hong Kong’s NSOs. Data from a questionnaire and
interview suggest that the majority of NSOs in Hong Kong were at the
contemplation stage in terms of the implementation of anti-doping
functions. According to Prochaska’s transtheoretical model,
individuals at the contemplation stage have started to acknowledge a
target behavior, but they may not be ready to make any change
(Prochaska, 2000). Moreover, if pressured about the behavior,
individuals in the contemplation stage can be very resistant to
change. In the case of Hong Kong’s NSOs in the contemplation stage,
educational workshops and realistic support with resources are
essential to moving them to the next stage, which is the action
stage.
Studies of TTM suggest that “stage-matched interventions”
outperform “action-oriented interventions” (Prochaska et al.,
2001); the former can increase the likelihood of progress to the next
stage, action. For organizational change, TTM dictates that
interventions should be individualized and matched to employees’
readiness to change. This would be a necessary consideration during
development of anti-doping workshops’ content.
According to Prochaska et al. (2001), dramatic relief,
self-reevaluation, and thinking about commitment are processes of
changes that should be emphasized with those in the pre-contemplation
and contemplation stages. The Hong Kong NSOs can, then, be moved to
change their anti-doping functions through the use of emotional
arousal components, for example discussion of fears of sanctioning by
an international federation if noncompliance persists, or discussion
of advantages of successfully implementing the anti-doping code. A
reevaluation of the NSO’s strengths and weaknesses pertaining to
implementation can be helpful. NSOs should also be encouraged to
discuss the possibility of implementing anti-doping programs and to
make a commitment to further anti-doping efforts.
The present study found that resources are the major constraint on
implementation of anti-doping functions by the Hong Kong NSOs. To
provide the needed additional funds and manpower most
cost-effectively, a centralized body could be established to
coordinate anti-doping functions, rather than providing funds to
underwrite various NSOs’ individual efforts.
The present study is the first to study the status of anti-doping
efforts among Hong Kong’s national sport organizations. Apart from
investigating what anti-doping functions the NSOs are currently
fulfilling, we also measured their—the administrators’, coaches’,
and committee members’—readiness to change by starting or
strengthening anti-doping efforts. It appears that a majority of NSOs
in Hong Kong are in the contemplation stage of implementing
anti-doping functions and facing the constraints of limited funding
and manpower. These data provide a starting point for the design of
assistance to the NSOs as they initiate or strengthen anti-doping
efforts to comply with the World Anti-Doping Code. Results are likely
relevant, as well, in countries with similar anti-doping experience.
They should thus be of use to international federations, national
anti-doping organizations, and the World Anti-Doping Agency, in terms
of directing effort and resources.
References

Heather, N., Gold, R., & Rollnick, S. (1991). Readiness to
Change Questionnaire: User’s manual. (Tech. Rep. No. 15).
Kensington, New South Wales: University of New South Wales, National
Drug and Alcohol Research Centre.

Prochaska, J. M. (2000). A transtheoretical model for assessing
organizational change: A study of family service agencies’ movement
to time-limited therapy. Family in Society, 81, 76–84.

Prochaska, J. M., Prochaska, J. O., & Levesque, D. A. (2001). A
transtheoretical approach to changing organizations. Administration
and Policy in Mental Health, 28(4), 247–261.

Rollnick, J. O., Heather, N., Gold, R., & Hall, W. (1992).
Development of a short “readiness to change” questionnaire for
use in brief, opportunistic intervention among excessive drinkers.
British Journal of Addiction, 87, 743–754.

World Anti-Doping Agency. (2003). World Anti-Doping Code.
Retrieved August 28, 2006, from http://www.wada-ama.org/en/

Author Note
Lena Fung, Hong Kong Baptist University; Yvonne Yuan, Hong Kong
Sports Institute Limited.
This research was supported by a social science research grant from
the World Anti-Doping Agency.

U.S. Sports Academy2016-04-01T09:54:28-05:00July 8th, 2008|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Management, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|Comments Off