ISSN: 1543-9518

Economic Impact of Equestrians on Aiken, South Carolina

Dr. Sanela Porca and Dr. J. Ralph Byington, School of Business Administration, University of South Carolina Aiken

Abstract

The equestrians have played a critical role in the growth and development of the Aiken County economy. The equestrian activities in Aiken, South Carolina, consist of many different events such as polo, horse racing, horse showing, carriage driving, and fox hunting, to name a few. The input-output analysis of the Aiken equestrian industry reveals that its operations have a substantial impact on output, jobs, and income in Aiken County. Like any other industry, the equestrian industry makes a variety of input purchases that translate into flow of funds throughout the local economy. The indirect and induced effects of the equestrian industry work through numerous other sectors within the local economy and contribute to Aiken County’s economic growth and development.

Introduction

The equestrians have played a critical role in the growth and development of the Aiken County economy. Besides the local economy, the equestrian migration from the north effected Aiken’s culture and businesses. Just like any other equestrian group, the Aiken equestrians are fragmented with numerous groups, associations, and stakeholders. All of them have different interests and goals. The goal of this paper is to define the Aiken County equestrian industry and to define its economic impact on Aiken County’s economy. In order to determine the nature and scope of the local equestrian industry, an equestrian survey was designed and conducted. The survey was aimed at the equestrian enthusiasts who live and work in Aiken and Aiken County. The data obtained from this survey was utilized to provide descriptive and normative analysis of the equestrian industry and its economic profile and impact.

Equestrian Activities in Aiken County

The equestrian population, activities, and events are constantly growing in Aiken, South Carolina. The equestrian activities consist of many different events such as polo, horse racing, horse showing, carriage driving, and fox hunting, to name a few. In order to define and analyze a complex sector such as the equestrian one, an equestrian survey was conducted. The purpose of this survey was to highlight a set of equine-related activities that are present in Aiken. The survey was distributed to randomly selected individuals considered to be horse owners and/or enthusiasts. An electronic version of the survey was sent to several different equestrian associations with an appeal to share the survey with their members. Furthermore, hard copies of the survey were placed at different locations in Aiken and 20% of the participants returned their responses. The survey had eight sections with questions related to equine activities, inventory, labor and capital expenses, equine expenses, gross receipts, tourism related activities, and general information.

The first survey question asked participants to define their equestrian activities in the past 12 months while specifically determining the number of days spent in Aiken versus the number of days spent in other counties in South Carolina and elsewhere. Figure 1 illustrates participants’ responses to the first question. The obtained data suggests that a majority of the equestrian activities are pleasure related (48%), followed by competition (21%), breeding (18%), and racing (13%). Individuals whose equestrian activities consist of pleasure riding and breeding spend more than 50% of their time in Aiken, while racing and competition account for one-third of responders’ time spent in Aiken. Responses indicate that the states of Pennsylvania, Delaware, and Wyoming are “other locations” where “local” equestrian enthusiasts spend their time.

When asked to define more specific activities within major categories, 17% and 21% of participants report that they enjoy fox hunting and polo, respectively. According to the survey results, the polo activists spend more than 55% of their time in Aiken, versus 45% for fox hunting enthusiasts. Fourteen percent of the survey participants indicate that trial riding (both English and Western) is their preferred equestrian activity in Aiken. These particular equestrian individuals spend about 30% of their time in Aiken and the other 70% outside of South Carolina. Eight percent of the participants report dressage as their main equestrian activity with 44% of their time spent in Aiken. Five percent consider driving as their leading discipline with 35% of their time in Aiken and 65% outside of South Carolina. Nineteen percent of the respondents are jumper and/or hunter enthusiasts with 47% of their time spent in Aiken. Four percent of participants select lessons, training, and fundraising as their dominant equestrian activity with 43% of their time spent in Aiken. Figure 2 illustrates different types of equestrian activities conducted in Aiken.

Horse Population in Aiken County

To address the equine inventory in Aiken, the second survey question asked participants to identify the equine breed they own or board. According to the data, the estimated total equine inventory in Aiken County tops 6,785 horses. As indicated by Figure 3, the most dominant breed is still Thoroughbred (32%) followed by Quarter Horse (22%), Warm Blood (9%), Ponies (9%), Tennessee Walker (6%), Pinto/Paint (6%), Miniature (5%), Mules and Donkeys (4%), Draft Horses (2%), and several other breeds (5%).

The obtained data was used to estimate the total and average value of equine inventory in Aiken County. Table 1 provides the estimated average value per breed for Aiken County. According to this data, the most valuable breed in Aiken is Warm Blood ($17,907.00) followed by Thoroughbred ($16,982.00). The survey showed the average equine value for all breeds is $5,002.00. The total estimated equine value for all breeds included in survey is $59,086,223. This somewhat higher total value of all horses in Aiken County is due to a high percentage of Thoroughbred horses present in the county and their respective high market value.

Table 1
Estimated Horse Value Per Breed

Equine Breed Per horse value
TN Walker 2908
Thoroughbred 16982
Miniature 1684
Quarter Horse 3735
Draft Horse 2980
Warm Blood 17907
Mules/Donkeys 1016
Ponies 1557
Pinto/Paint 2904
Other 3350

Equestrian Industry Capital Expenditures and Gross Receipts

The equestrian industry is very important to the local economy as it affects numerous and diverse activities such as agriculture, business, sport, entertainment, and recreation. The equestrian industry has introduced thousands of new people to the area in terms of owners, riders, trainers, etc. In order to determine the scope of the equestrian sector, the survey respondents were asked several questions about their capital expenditures and gross receipts. The participants were asked to list their annual capital related costs for the following categories: new equine purchases, new building and equipment investment, building and equipment depreciation, fencing investment, and interest on investment. The largest capital expenditure were new building and equipment investments (56%) followed by the new equine purchases (36%). Figure 4 illustrates capital related spending for the year 2007.

In addition to this, the respondents were asked to list the value of their personal property, business property, land, and any other category they relate to their equestrian activities. The responses indicate that business property (e.g. farm, barn) are the most valuable properties in this category (49%) followed by personal property (39%), and land (11%). Figure 5 illustrates these responses.

When asked about the taxes they pay to state and local government, the respondents indicate that the taxes paid to state government account for 46% of their total tax burden, followed by Aiken County taxes (32%), and Aiken City taxes (19%). The government permits, licenses, and/or contracts account for 3% of total tax spending of the Aiken equestrian industry.

Employment and Labor Earnings

The equestrian industry has its effect on the local labor market as well. Survey question # 3 asked respondents to report the number of full-time, part-time, and seasonal workers they employed for the past 12 months. Besides these three labor categories, two other categories – family members and others – were also choices for respondents. According to the results obtained from the survey, far more full-time workers are employed by the Aiken equestrian industry than any other worker. Seasonal workers are the second largest labor category, followed by family members, part-time, and other workers. Not every survey participant provided employment and labor earning responses. The total number of all workers across survey respondents who answered these two questions was 751. Such a high number of workers clearly support the constant care and management which horses require. Figure 6 summarizes the responses regarding equine related labor. The respondents report 243 full-time, 106 part-time, and 200 seasonal workers employed by the Aiken equestrian industry. In addition, there are 163 family members who contribute to the local equestrian sector. Under the “other” category, respondents indicate 39 contract-workers were hired during the past 12 months. Question # 3 also asked respondents to indicate the total equine-related payroll expenses for the past 12 months. The total reported payroll in 2007 was $3,122,300.00. This indicates a relatively high level of compensation given the fact that almost 22% of equine related labor are family members and 41% are part-time and seasonal workers combined.

Tourism Related Activities and Benefits

Tourism activity generates a wide variety of benefits to the local economy such as tax revenues from travel-related expenditures and new employment opportunities. When tourists arrive in an area, they spend money on products and services acquired from the local business community. Businesses that benefit directly from tourism include lodging establishments, restaurants and bars, recreational facilities, amusement parks, gas/convenience stores, department stores, and sporting goods retailers. Over the past several decades, tourism in Aiken County has been steadily increasing and this growth can be related to the boom in the equestrian industry. The equestrian industry is bringing more and more people in for riding lessons, to watch the shows, to shop in the equine stores, to buy horses, and to attend polo and other equestrian events.

The survey of tourists was conducted during the spring time and that is when the Aiken equestrian community draws the most attention due to the Triple Crown events. A total of 96 surveys were filled-out and the data was analyzed to reveal some important characteristics of tourists visiting Aiken. Fifty percent of respondents had previously been to Aiken on more than one occasion. This indicates a high rate of return visitors with a majority of them stating that they repeat this visit at least 2-4 times. Generally, the people that responded with a higher number of return visits to Aiken also indicated a family and/or friend connection with Aiken or a horse association referral.

Figure 7 illustrates the results from the question that asked participants about the events that brought them to Aiken. The majority of respondents were either visiting family/friends (37%) or they were visiting a horse event (34%). For some of the respondents, these two categories were interchangeable. The other three “referral” categories for tourists to choose from were golf (11%), historical attractions (9%), and other (9%). The visitors who had family/friends and horse association connections also indicated that they did not need tour guide services while in Aiken. These respondents also characterized Aiken as “exciting for tourists” (67%). The remaining 33% stated that Aiken was not particularly exciting either because there is “no nightlife for single tourists” or there is very “limited activity for families.”

Economic Impact of the Equestrian Industry on Aiken County’s Economy

The equine related businesses bring over a billion dollars into the South Carolina economy and support suppliers throughout the state. These contributions are very important as industries such as tourism, marketing, and many others are impacted by the equestrian industry. This is important from the economic perspective as it is much easier to grow and maintain an existing, productive industry than to build a new one. Therefore, in this section the equestrian expenditures are reported as they serve as a main determinant of the size of this industry.

Table 2
Total Equestrian Related Expenditures in 2007

Expenditure Category Dollar Value Percentages
Boarding Fees 1,449,125 10%
Equine Purchases 2,496,000 18%
Stable Lease 629,000 4%
Animal Health 2,132,875 15%
Feed 1,215,195 9%
Grooming 2,299,735 16%
Fees 2,933,350 21%
Maintenance 1,014,720 7%
Total 14,170,000 100%

There are several main sources of equestrians’ expenditures in Aiken County. The equestrian survey asked participants to report their equestrian related expenditures for 2007. All together there were 32 expenditure categories which were combined into eight groups: boarding fees, equine purchases, stable lease payments, animal health, feed, grooming, fees, and maintenance. The total equestrian industry expenditures (without labor and capital costs) for 2007 were $14.17 million and are reported in Table 2.

As Table 2 and Figure 8 indicate, the equestrian expenditures were spread widely among the eight selected categories. The main expenditure categories reported by the participants were horse-related fees (21%), which include training, track, breeding, and show/tournament related fees. The second largest category was new equine purchases (18%). Grooming came in the third place (16%) and includes expenses such as farrier, clothing and other supplies (for both individuals and horses), grooming supplies, saddle & tack, advertisement, utilities, insurance, etc. The fourth largest category was animal health (15%), which included veterinarian fees, medicine, hospital-surgery/lab work, and other health related services. Boarding fees accounted for 10% of total equestrian expenditure while feed (feed, feed supplements, seeds, etc) and maintenance expenditures (fertilizers, building and equipment repair, fencing, etc) accounted for 9% and 7% respectively.

This study estimates an annual cost of $7,393.00 per horse, which amounts to $50.163 million in total spending produced by the equestrian sector. This immediate impact of the equestrian industry on Aiken County’s economy is a solid base for the County’s economic growth and development. However, in addition to the direct economic impact of the Aiken equestrian industry, there are additional indirect effects or so called “ripple” effects that get created by the initial equestrian spending. Numerous workers in Aiken County are employed by the local equestrian industry and those jobs provide workers with income which enables them to purchase goods and services from our local economy. These purchases are translated into additional economic impacts of the Aiken equestrian industry. These multiplied effects are explained and discussed in the following section.

Input-Output Analysis, Multiplier Effects & Economic Impact

It is important to measure the interrelationship of the equestrian industry with other industries in Aiken County. This study uses an economic input-output analysis in order to understand the inter-industry relationships between the Aiken equestrian industry and the local economy as well as the long-term impacts that result from equestrian businesses and activities. There are numerous economic models that can generate economic multipliers and estimate the long term benefits of an industry. However, this study uses the economic impact software program IMPLAN (IMpact Analysis for PLANning) to estimate the total economic contribution of the equestrian industry to the Aiken County economy. With this input-output model the purchases and sales of commodities between industries, businesses, and final consumers can be easily traced and analyzed. The input-output model uses the multiplier analysis to estimate the direct and indirect contribution of an industry. For example, total spending by the equestrian industry for labor, feed, veterinarian services, insurance, etc. create employment and income for businesses in those sectors. The output multiplier will measure the effect of a $1 change in an industry’s sales on the output of all other local industries.

The intention is to use the input-output model to estimate the “multiplier” portion of the equestrian industry’s impact on the Aiken County economy. However, the “equestrian industry” is not a well defined industry by the existing standard defined by the North American Industry Classification System (NAICS). In other words, while there are numerous other industries well defined by the United States Census Bureau and NAICS (e.g. farming, mining, manufacturing, trade, etc.), the equestrian activities are considered to be a part of the agricultural sector. Therefore, any spending regarding the equestrian sector (according to this definition) contribute to supporting the suppliers of the agricultural sector. However, the equestrian industry goes beyond the agricultural sector. Many race tracks and stables in Aiken County are not part of farm operations and not all horses are kept on farms. This makes it difficult to use a standard input-output model to estimate the economic impact of our local equestrian industry. Given the responses obtained from the equestrian and the tourist surveys, this study defines an equestrian industry as the one that reaches and affects numerous other industries and activities such as the agricultural sector, farm construction and maintenance, hunting, sporting goods, real estate, veterinary services, accounting and advertising services, hotels and other accommodations, and spectator sports. Based on the findings from the two surveys conducted, these 11 different industrial activities are closely related and affected by the Aiken equestrian industry. Therefore, when the economic impacts of the equestrian industry were estimated, a unique model that reflects diverse and multiple-industry related activities of the Aiken equestrian industry was created. All 11 above mentioned industries were combined and averaged out to obtain an economic impact that the equestrian industry has on our local economy.

The study estimates four different kinds of equestrian industry effects on our local economy:

  1. Direct Effects are associated with the Aiken equestrian industry’s direct gross receipts.
  2. Indirect Effects represent the relationship between different firms working through input purchases of goods and services.
  3. Induced Effects are economic impacts that arise from spending of household income earned by workers employed by the Aiken equestrian industry.
  4. Total Economic Impact of the Aiken equestrian industry is calculated as the sum of the direct, indirect, and induced effects of the Aiken equestrian industry.

The economic benefits gathered by the Aiken community are best measured in terms of the number of jobs created and the amount of personal income accruing to local residents. In the case of the equestrian industry, there are certain direct effects associated with the $50.163 million in total spending and estimated 1,329 full-time workers. The impacts of the equestrian industry on employment are given in Figure 9. As mentioned earlier, the Aiken equestrian industry itself accounts for 1,329 jobs. There are an additional 283 jobs due to indirect effects and 202 jobs due to induced effects. In total, 1,814 jobs in Aiken County can be attributed to the operations of the equestrian industry. The estimated 1,329 jobs translate into 1.7% of total jobs in Aiken County and this makes the equestrian sector an important local employer.

Furthermore, this study estimates the impact of the equestrian industry on the local household income. These estimates are given in Figure 10. There are $16.93 million in income effects that result directly from the local equestrian industry. In addition to this, there are indirect linkages that account for an additional $2.09 million, and the induced effects are another $217,513.00. In total, the impact of the Aiken equestrian industry on household income is estimated to be $19.25 million annually in 2007.

Finally, the economic impact of the Aiken equestrian industry can also be gauged by analyzing the effect of an average dollar in output on our local economy. In terms of the output multiplier of the equestrian industry, one dollar of spending by this industry leads to $1.65 of spending in the local economy. In other words, for every dollar of spending made by local equestrians, an additional 65 cents is generated for the Aiken County economy. Relative to other industries that dominate the Aiken economy, this multiplier is smaller than the ones produced by the manufacturing sector (2.05) or the construction sector (2.10). However, the equestrian multiplier is still larger than the FIRE multiplier of 1.51 (FIRE – Finance, Insurance, and Real Estate). Figure 5.4 illustrates direct, indirect, induced, and total output effects that the Aiken equestrian industry has on our local economy. The $50.16 million in direct gross receipts leads to an additional $11.76 million in indirect effects and an additional $9.89 million in induced effects for a total of $71.82 million.

Therefore, the key indicators of equestrian activities include total industry output, total income, and employment. Table 3 and Figure 12 summarize all the above mentioned effects of the equestrian industry on our local economy. The total estimated impacts of the Aiken equestrian industry are $71.81 million in gross output, 1,814 workers, and $19.25 million in labor earnings. The indirect effects are $11.76 in gross output, 283 workers, and $2.09 million in labor earnings, while the induced effects are $9.89 in gross output, 202 workers, and $217,513 in labor earnings.

Table 3

Total Impact Direct Impact Indirect Impact Induced Impact
Gross Output $71,817,514.65 $50,163,380 $11,764,446.86 $9,889,687.79
Household Income $19,250,943.46 $16,937,618.10 $2,095,812.09 $217,513.27
Employment 1814 1329 283 202

This input-output analysis of the Aiken equestrian industry reveals that its operations have a substantial impact on output, jobs, and income in Aiken County. Like any other industry, the equestrian industry makes a variety of input purchases that translate into flow of funds throughout the local economy. The indirect and induced effects of the equestrian industry work through numerous other sectors within the local economy and contribute to Aiken County’s economic growth and development.

Summary

The equestrian industry of Aiken provides many economic and cultural benefits to the people who live here. Aiken’s equine industry presents itself in many different ways starting from local business development to veterinarians, furriers, dentists, boarders, and other businesses closely related to horses. The current study estimates substantial benefits to the Aiken County economy through the creation of jobs, labor income, and output. Besides the economic benefits and contributions, the equine industry is very influential as it effects Aiken’s social, cultural, and financial environments. Given Aiken County’s strong reliance on industries susceptible to external factors – industries such as administrative and waste services, manufacturing, and construction – it is a recommendation of the current study to nurture the equestrian industry as an important economic cluster. The equestrian industry is an existing economic cluster of firms and institutions whose activities interconnect with the rest of the Aiken County economy. Nurturing the equestrian industry of Aiken should be the long-term goal. Industries such as tourism, accounting, marketing, and many others are impacted by continued growth of the Aiken equestrian industry.

References

South Carolina Department of Agriculture. (2008). South Carolina Market Bulletin. (Volume 83). Columbia, South Carolina: Author.

U.S. Bureau of Census. (2007), North American Industry Classification System. Washington, DC: Author.

Dr. Sanela Porca and Dr. J. Ralph Byington
School of Business Administration
University of South Carolina Aiken
Aiken, South Carolina 29801
803.641.3340

2016-10-12T15:01:23-05:00January 8th, 2010|Sports Facilities, Sports Management, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|Comments Off on Economic Impact of Equestrians on Aiken, South Carolina
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Do BCS Schools Have an Advantage over Non-BCS schools in APR Rankings? An Early Examination

Adrien Bouchet and Matthew Scott – Texas A&M University

Abstract

This paper will examine academics and athletics. In particular it will review the NCAA’s newest academic measuring tool, the Academic Progress Report. The APR was the NCAA’s response to calls for academic integrity. It is intended to ensure eligibility for student-athletes and to serve as a check and balance on athletic departments. The scores are meant to provide institutions with a clear set of goals for each team and to set a higher priority on academics in collegiate athletic departments. We will try and answer the question: Do BSC schools have an advantage over non-BCS schools in APR rankings?
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2016-10-20T14:15:38-05:00October 5th, 2009|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Facilities, Sports Management|Comments Off on Do BCS Schools Have an Advantage over Non-BCS schools in APR Rankings? An Early Examination
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A Study of the Participative Motivation, Satisfaction and Loyalty of the Members at the Taekwondo Training Hall in Taipei County

Chang Chia-Ming, Associate Professor, Department of Physical Education, National Chia-Yi University; Chen, Kuan-Chung, United States Sport Academy; Kelly E. Flanagan, D.S.M., Chair of Sport Studies, United States Sports Academy

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to explore the differences among the taekwondo training hall members’ demographic variables as they related to participative motivation, satisfaction, and loyalty. A secondary aim is to verify the cause and effect relationship of participative motivation, satisfaction, and loyalty. For this study, a total of 358 members were selected from 15 taekwondo training halls in Taipei County. The instruments utilized in this research include a participative motivation scale, a satisfaction scale, and a loyalty scale. The data were statistically analyzed utilizing descriptive statistics (including a frequency distribution percentage, the mean and the standard deviation), a t-test, a one-way ANOVA, the scheffe method and structural equation modeling. The results were as follows: (a) As it related to the demographics of the members at the taekwondo training halls in Taipei county, the descriptive statistics indicated that a majority of the members were males between 9-12 years old; their total family income was around NT 40,001~NT 60,000; and a majority of the members had practiced taekwondo for less than one year. (b) The results of the analysis of the member’s demographic variables showed that a member’s gender, age, and time spent learning taekwondo indicated statistically significant differences on his or her participative motivation and satisfaction. A member’s gender, age, family income, and time spent learning taekwondo also indicated statistically significant differences on his or her loyalty. (c) According to the analysis conducted by the structural equation modeling, participative motivation had a positive influence on satisfaction and loyalty, and satisfaction had a positive influence on loyalty. Based on these findings, the researchers have provided some suggestions for taekwondo training halls.
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2016-10-20T14:11:38-05:00October 5th, 2009|Sports Coaching, Sports Facilities, Sports Management, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|Comments Off on A Study of the Participative Motivation, Satisfaction and Loyalty of the Members at the Taekwondo Training Hall in Taipei County
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Strategic Planning in University Athletic Departments in the United Kingdom

Submitted by: Thanos Kriemadis – University of Peloponnese

Abstract

The study’s purposes were to (a) determine the extent to which university athletic departments in the United Kingdom use strategic planning, (b) identify key factors discouraging strategic planning, and (c) examine relationships between use of strategic planning and the variables university size and athletic director’s background. Of athletic departments studied, 59.5% were strategic planners that wrote long-range plans, assessed external and internal environments, and based strategies on department mission and objectives. The remaining 40.5% were nonstrategic planners using just some components of the strategic planning process, as either users of short-range written plans and budgets, for the current fiscal period; users of unwritten short-range plans maintained in an administrator’s memory (intuitive planners); or users of no measurable planning procedures.

Keywords: planning, strategic planning, strategy, university athletic departments

Private and public organizations today use a structured planning process to select appropriate long-term objectives and develop means to achieve these objectives (Christensen, Berg, Salter, & Stevenson, 1985; Elkin, 2007; Mintzberg, Lampel, Quinn, & Ghoshal, 2003; Wheelen & Hunger, 2008). The business sector of society has long recognized that continued profitability requires maintaining a strategic fit between organizational goals and capabilities and changing societal and economic conditions. As its environment changed, the business sector developed planning systems which made possible coordinated and effective responses to increasing unpredictability, novelty, and complexity (Ansoff, 1984). Strategic thought and practice generated in the private sector can also help public and nonprofit organizations anticipate and respond effectively to their dramatically changing environments (Bank, 1992; Bryson, 1988; David, 1989; Duncan, 1990; Espy, 1988; Laycock, 1990; Medley, 1988; Nelson, 1990; Robinson, 1992; Wilson, 1990).

Today’s colleges and universities have experienced rapid change. Educational administrators are confronted with changes associated with aging facilities, changing technology, changing demographics, increasing competition, rising costs, funding cuts, and so on. The educational sector has begun to recognize that strategic planning is necessary in order to maintain responsiveness to the rapidly changing environment (Agwu, 1992; Busler, 1992; Hall, 1994; Williams, 1992). Since athletic programs are so much a part of colleges and universities, athletic departments face the same problems as do the institutions to which they belong. If athletic departments are to respond well to change, they must anticipate it and adapt programs and resources to meet their mission and objectives in new situations (Bucher, 1987; Kriemadis, Emery, & Puronaho, 2001). Strategic planning may help athletic departments do this and may further point them to the strategies necessary to achieve their missions and objectives (Dyson, Manning, Sutton, & Migliore, 1989; Ensor, 1988; Gerson, 1989; Kriemadis, 1997; Smith, 1985; Sutton & Migliore, 1988).
Duncan (1990) stated that strategic planning is a method of decision making developed in the private sector that has been adopted by public sector organizations. Proponents of strategic planning argue that traditional long-range planning fails in the contemporary world, and strategic planning is now the powerful tool for organizations to cope with an uncertain future.

The service sector today includes a growing nonprofit segment, including social services, schools and universities, research organizations, sports organizations, religious orders, parks, museums, and charities. Strategic planning is earning its place in the management systems of service businesses (Kriemadis, 1997; Kriemadis et al., 2001; Sutton & Migliore, 1988; Wilson, 1990). Pearce and Robinson (1985) have argued that strategic planning consists of the following steps:

1. Determining the culture, policies, values, vision, mission, and long-term objectives of the organization.
2. Performing external environmental assessment to identify key opportunities and threats.
3. Performing internal environmental assessment to identify key strengths and weaknesses.
4. Developing long-range strategies to achieve the organization’s mission and objectives.
5. Establishing short-range objectives and strategies to achieve the organization’s long-range objectives and strategies, a process called strategy implementation.
6. Periodically measuring and evaluating performance, a review known as strategy evaluation.

Steps 1–4 together are referred to as strategy formulation.
A number of authors (Ansoff & McDonell, 1990; Barry, 1986; Bryson, Freeman, & Roering, 1986; Bryson, Van de Ven, & Roering, 1987; Elkin, 2007; Kotler, 1988; Mintzberg et al., 2003; Rowe, Mason, Dickel, & Snyder, 1989; Steiner, 1979; Wheelen & Hunger, 2008) argue that, in turbulent environments, strategic planning can help organizations to

  • think strategically and develop effective strategies
  • clarify future direction
  • establish priorities
  • develop a coherent and defensible basis for decision making
  • improve organizational performance
  • deal effectively with rapidly changing circumstances
  • anticipate future problems and opportunities
  • build teamwork and expertise
  • provide employees with clear objectives and directions for the future of the organization and increase employee motivation and satisfaction

Wheelen and Hunger (2008) and Newman and Wallender (1987) stated that basic management concepts should be applied to both profit and nonprofit organizations. The present study is useful in extending the basic management concept of strategic planning to university athletics. It may help athletic administrators to further their understanding of the strategic planning process in their respective athletic departments.

Management of University Athletic Departments in the U.K.

Both the nature and context of sports programs in the United Kingdom—and specifically of sports in higher education there—have changed in unprecedented ways in the last decade. For instance, public income per student has declined by 40% in real terms, and universities have responded by rapidly expanding student numbers and developing alternative income-generation activities involving nongovernmental sources (Lubacz, 1999).

Sports in the university sector in the U.K. has historically been managed by each university’s athletic union, a largely student-run body attached to the student union. The role of the athletic union, the fact that students belonging to it are untrained, and the voluntary nature of athletic union offices (filled annually by election) have rendered management of university sports largely ineffective, strategic planning virtually nonexistent. But sports’ profile has increased considerably, as has the value attached to sports. Many universities in the U.K. have already recognized that by managing their sports programs more effectively, fully endorsing a corporate-type strategy within their athletic departments, they should be able to develop new opportunities at local, regional, national, and even international levels. To establish a rationally planned and coordinated approach to sports, many universities have introduced relatively formal sports management structures. These have often involved full-time paid positions emerging from either academic departments, central services, or, more directly, from a university’s student union.

Because the scale and scope of such developments in university athletic departments over the last five years have varied widely, university sports in the U.K. now involves many diverse approaches to management. At one extreme, some universities still feature programs run entirely by students for students. At the opposite end of the continuum, some universities have recently created institutes of sports that are separate cost centers employing up to 20 staff members or more. Such institutes of sports aim to fully realize roles that may include (a) encouraging and supporting sports participation by students and staff, (b) establishing the university’s place as a center of excellence in sports, (c) managing the university’s sports facilities, programs, and events, and (d) organizing short courses, seminars, conferences, research, consultancy, and publications that reflect both university expertise and strong international, European, and regional links enjoyed by the university (Ilam, 1999).

Thus the functions of university sports and the nature of university sports programs are now considerable in some cases, much broader than campus athletic clubs and student competitions. Stakeholders can include internal and external clientele: participants, spectators, coaches, administrators, sponsors. Sports products and services can relate to anything from merchandising to organizing short courses; from national athlete awards to requirements of degree study in sports-related areas. University sports facilities can be used for a variety of leisure purposes over all 52 weeks of a year, and the meaning of recreational sports can extend to providing personalized health fitness programs. Consequently, within higher education, sports has a growing, diversifying audience, only one part of which is involved with competitive performance. Many universities have positioned themselves accordingly, establishing the balance and management practices to meet new needs.

Where universities and their students wish to compete against one another, either nationally or internationally, they must become institutional members of the British Universities Sports Association (BUSA). This voluntary association has its origins in the first intervarsity athletic meeting between nine institutions from England and Wales, held in 1919. Since that time, membership eligibility has been limited to U.K. institutions of higher education, but in 1999 BUSA had 148 members and some 200,000 students participating in nationally organized championships in 43 different sports (BUSA, 1999).

The present study addressed two research questions: (a) To what extent do university athletic departments in the United Kingdom use the basic management tool of strategic planning? and (b) What are the key factors discouraging athletic departments’ use of strategic planning? In addition, the study tested the following two hypotheses:

Hypothesis 1. The extent to which strategic planning is used by the athletic department of a U.K. university is independent of the university’s size.
Hypothesis 2. The extent to which strategic planning is used by the athletic department of a U.K. university is independent of the background of the university’s athletic director.

Method

Population
The population for the present study consisted of 101 of the 148 institutional members of the British Universities Sports Association (BUSA). The 101 BUSA members studied represented all U.K. universities that had participated in more than 10 sports competitions during 1999 and that furthermore employed a full-time coordinator of sports. These criteria were established in order to ensure participation by sports planning units large enough to pursue the kind of strategic planning under investigation. Surveys were sent to the athletic departments of the 101 BUSA members. Out of these, 37 responded (37% response rate). Nonrespondents’ characteristics did not appear to follow a pattern of geographical location or institutional size. This fact, combined with the response rate, suggests that results of the study can be generalized to the target population.

Instrument
Data describing the 37 participating athletic departments’ strategic planning practices were collected using a questionnaire developed by the author and validated by a panel of experts in strategic planning, higher education, management, and sports management. The reliability of the survey instrument was determined via Cronbach’s alpha (a); all alpha coefficients were within acceptable ranges for comparable instruments (Nunnally, 1967). Coefficients for each subdimension were as follows: general planning factors, a = .67; external factors, a = .89; internal factors, a = .87; constraint factors, a = .82; type of plan factors, a = .74; short- and long-range plans factors, a = .68. A pilot study was also conducted, and recommended improvements were incorporated in the final research instrument.

Results

Data from the survey instrument showed that 75.7% of the responding athletic departments have developed a vision statement, and more than 90% have developed a mission statement, conducted a SWOT (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, threats) analysis of the internal and external environment, and developed long-range and short-range plans (Table 1). In addition, 73% of the surveyed athletic departments reported that they evaluate the performance of their planning process, while 78.4% reported that they evaluate the performance of the athletic department.

Table 1
Activities Included in Surveyed Athletic Departments’ Current Planning Processes

Item Frequency Percentage
Vision statement
Yes 28 75.7
No 9 24.3
Mission statement
Yes 35 94.6
No 2 5.4
Evaluation of strengths and weaknesses
Yes 34 91.9
No 3 8.1
Evaluations of opportunities and threats
Yes 34 91.9
No 3 8.1
Formulation of goals and objectives
Yes 35 94.6
No 2 5.4
Formulation of long-range plans
Yes 35 94.6
No 2 5.4
Formulation of short-range plans
Yes 35 94.6
No 2 5.4
Formulation of planning process
Yes 27 73
No 10 27
Performance Evaluation
Yes 29 78.4
No 8 21.6

However, the percentage fitting all three criteria specified to indicate authentic strategic planning was smaller, only 59.5% (Table 2). The three criteria are (a) the formalization of long-range written plans; (b) the assessment of the external and internal environments; and (c) the establishment of strategies based on a departmental mission and objectives. The remaining 40.5% of the surveyed athletic departments were identified as nonstrategic planners not meeting the three criteria, although they may have indicated that they did pursue some components of the strategic planning process. Athletic departments in the nonstrategic planner group were excluded from the present analysis, because their planning endeavors represented the use of only short-range written plans and budgets, for the current fiscal period; or the use of only unwritten short-range plans maintained in an administrator’s memory (intuitive planners); or no use of measurable planning procedures at all.

Table 2
Surveyed Athletic Departments’ Level of Planning

Type of Plan Used Frequency Percentage
Structured long-range plan 22 59.5
Operational plan 11 29.7
Intuitive plan 3 8.1
Unstructured plan 1 2.7

The study found that at least 50% of the responding athletic departments reported that they weighed three external factors—competition, community opinion, and government legislation—to a “very great or great” extent when formulating their plans (Table 3). In addition, at least 78.3% of the responding athletic departments reported that they weighed three internal factors—financial performance, adequacy of facilities, and department staff performance—to a “very great or great” extent when formulating plans (Table 4). The study also found that at least 75.7% of the responding departments considered financial plans and human resource plans to a “very great or great” extent during their planning activities (Table 5).

Table 3
Frequency and (Percentage) of External Factors Considered to Three Different Extents by Athletic Departments During Plan Formulation, in Descending Order of Consideration

External Factor Very Little or Little Some Very Great or Great
Competition 4(10.8) 10(27.0) 23(62.1)
Community opinion 7(19.0) 12(32.4) 18(48.6)
Government legislation 10(27.0) 9(24.3) 18(48.6)
Economic/tax 10(27.0) 12(32.4) 15(40.5)
BUSA trends 10(27.0) 13(35.1) 14(37.8)
Demographic trends 4(10.8) 20(54.1) 13(35.1)
Political trends 17(47.9) 14(37.8) 6(16.2)
Spectators 22(59.4) 14(37.8) 1(2.8)

aCorresponding Likert-type scale self-measures: 1 (very little), 2 (little), 3 (some), 4 (great), 5 (very great).

Table 4
Frequency and (Percentage) of Internal Factors Considered to Three Different Extents by Athletic Departments During Planning Process, in Descending Order of Consideration

Internal Factor Very Little or Little Some Very Great or Great
Financial performance – 2(5.4) 35(94.6)
Adequacy of facilities 1(2.7) 3(8.1) 33(89.2)
Staff performance 3(8.1) 5(13.5) 29(78.3)
Athletic performance 4(10.8) 12(32.4) 21(56.7)
Coaches’ opinion 6(16.2) 16(43.2) 15(40.5)

aCorresponding Likert-type scale self-measures: 1 (very little), 2 (little), 3 (some), 4 (great), 5 (very great).

Table 5
Frequency and (Percentage) for Management Factors Incorporated to Three Different Extents by Athletic Departments During Planning Activities, in Descending Order of Consideration

Management Factor Very Little or Little Some Very Great or Great
Financial plan 2(5.4) 3(8.1) 32(86.5)
Human resource plan 3(8.1) 6(16.2) 28(75.7)
Facilities master plan 2(5.4) 10(27.0) 25(67.5)
Marketing plan 9(24.3) 11(29.7) 17(45.9)
Contingency plan 17(45.9) 13(35.1) 7(18.9)

aCorresponding Likert-type scale self-measures: 1 (very little), 2 (little), 3 (some), 4 (great), 5 (very great).

What are the key factors that discourage UK university athletic departments from engaging in strategic planning activities? Insufficient financial resources and time were identified by this study as factors that, to a “very great or great” extent, discourage 35% or more of the athletic departments from engaging in strategic planning activities.

Table 6
Frequency and (Percentage) for Factors Discouraging Athletic Departments from Strategic Planning, to Three Different Extents (in Descending Order of Influence)

Discouraging Factor Very Little or Little Some Very Great or Great
Insufficient financial resources 8(21.6) 12(32.4) 17(45.9)
Insufficient time 15(40.5) 9(24.3) 13(35.1)
Insufficient training in planning 20(54.0) 12(32.4) 5(13.5)
Inadequate communication 23(62.1) 9(24.3) 5(13.5)
Staff’s resistance 27(72.9) 5(13.5) 5(13.5)
Lack of a planning policy 27(72.9) 5(13.5) 5(13.5)
Planning is not valued 30(81.1) 5(13.5) 2(5.4)

aCorresponding Likert-type scale self-measures: 1 (very little), 2 (little), 3 (some), 4 (great), 5 (very great).

Both hypotheses tested by the study were supported. Chi-square analysis X2(2, N=37)=2,811, p=0,245 showed that the extent to which an athletic department uses strategic planning is indeed independent of the size of the university. No significant relationship was found between the extent of strategic planning and university size (p = 0.57). Similarly, Chi-square analysis X2(3, N=37)=7,192, p=0,66 showed that the extent to which strategic planning is used by athletic departments is independent of their athletic directors’ backgrounds. No significant relationship was found between the extent of strategic planning and the background of athletic directors (p = 0.35).

Discussion, Implications, Recommendations

In this study of member institutions in the British Universities Sports Association, more than 75% of responding athletic departments indicated that they were involved in such strategic planning activities as developing a vision statement, developing a mission statement, formulating goals and objectives, establishing short- and long-term strategies, and developing plan and performance evaluation procedures. However, only 59.5% of the sample could be classified as practicing authentic strategic planning, defined here as participation in three specific things: the formalizing of long-range written plans, the assessing of the external and internal environments, and the establishing of strategies based on departmental mission and objectives. With more than 40% of the athletic departments practicing either nonstrategic planning or no planning, the need clearly exists to outline formal strategic-planning committees, processes, and systems for these departments’ better management.

According to Harvey (1982), a strategic plan is developed in order to gain or maintain a position of advantage relative to one’s competitors. Following the development of the strategic plan, its implementation becomes critical. The present study did not rigorously assess such implementation, and it remains to be determined whether athletic departments that can be identified as strategic planners are also actual implementers of their strategic plans. Such knowledge would be useful for decisions about committing athletic department resources to reach desired objectives.

The present study did provide evidence that whether and how much a university athletic department engages in strategic planning is unrelated to the size of the university. David (1989) noted that small firms pursue a less formal kind of strategic planning than large firms do. Despite this study’s first hypothesis, then, it was a surprise to this author that large universities’ and small ones’ athletic departments generally pursue strategic planning and a strategic approach to decision making in rather similar fashion.

Evidence was also provided by the study suggesting that the extent of strategic planning carried out by the athletic departments is unrelated to athletic directors’ backgrounds. Some of the athletic directors who participated in the survey had private-sector work experience. Nevertheless, either knowledge of and experience with strategic planning was not transferred to the university environment, or such knowledge and experience had not been a meaningful part of the private-sector background. Failure to transfer knowledge and experience may, however, be attributable in some cases to athletic department decision makers’ lack of access to financial and human resources. Alternatively, it could be that some university administrations do not encourage formulation and implementation of strategic plans.
The findings presented above have implications for the development and use of the strategic planning process in athletic departments. First, since the most significant constraints on strategic planning, according to the survey, were insufficient financial resources and insufficient time, athletic departments need to recognize, and then to remove, these constraints if they are to enjoy the benefits of an implemented strategic plan. Second, if athletic departments are to respond to the scientific literature by accepting strategic planning as an important administrative responsibility, then departments must address a third significant constraint, insufficient training and experience in strategic planning procedures. They can do so by providing staff with strategic-planning educational opportunities. Programs meant to develop skills like human relations, analytical thinking, time management, and participatory decision making can greatly assist athletic departments in preparing to carry out the strategic planning process. In taking these two steps, athletic departments will encourage the perception of strategic planning as one of the primary responsibilities of management—not an auxiliary task.

The literature about strategic planning in intercollegiate athletics remains limited for now, even though interest in the topic appears to be growing. Further studies are needed, and the present study’s findings indicate that some of these future investigations might take up the following:

Three to five years from now, a follow-up study with the same sample of BUSA member institutions should seek out any changes in the way the university athletic departments are using the strategic planning process.

Also, further investigation with the same population might assess the extent of strategic planning from a qualitative perspective, one concerned with data from interviews, observation, and the study of official documents. Through observation and interview, for example, such issues as the membership of a strategic planning committee, the type of data applied to strategic planning, the methods by which those data were obtained, the leadership behavior involved in strategic planning, and resistance encountered to strategic planning could all be addressed in detail. Through study of official documents, researchers might gauge the extent to which documents reflect strategic issues like the assessment of external and internal environments.

Another useful investigation might be the evaluation of the relationship between how extensive the strategic planning activities of an athletic department are and the financial performance or productivity of the department. Such a study would require establishing appropriate measures of financial performance or productivity. An example would be the percentage of self-generated, not university-provided, revenue (e.g., sponsorships, concessions, ticket sales); or alternatively, the national performance of the total athletic program provided by the department.

Finally, future research should be undertaken to establish a valid, reliable strategic planning survey instrument for use in any United Kingdom university athletic department to evaluate the quantity and quality of its ongoing strategic planning activities, as well as the quality of the implementation of strategic plans it has previously developed.

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2013-11-25T19:52:16-06:00April 24th, 2009|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Facilities|Comments Off on Strategic Planning in University Athletic Departments in the United Kingdom
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A New Scale Measuring Coaches’ Unethical Behaviors for Comparison by Gender, Age, and Education Level of Coach

Submitted by: Semiyha Dolaşir Tuncel – Ankara University

Abstract

An effort to develop a scale measuring coaches’ unethical behaviors included two phases. In the first, factor and reliability analyses were made of potential survey items meant to gather data from athletes describing coaches’ behavior. In the second, select items were incorporated in a survey randomly administered to 221 male and female taekwondo competitors at a national competition in 2006, for comparison of behaviors by coach gender, age, and education. Behavior was not found to differ significantly by gender (n = 219, t = 1.71, p > .05), age (n = 216, t = 1.13, p > .05), or education (n = 217, t = 1.60, p > .05).

A New Scale Measuring Coaches’ Unethical Behaviors for Comparison by Gender, Age, and Education Level of Coach

In coaching, a code of ethics is a tool providing a minimum standard of conduct and behavior expected of the coach as he or she develops into a professional. Many other professions, including medicine and law, also expect members to adhere to a behavior code requiring them to do their best and maintain professional standards (Ring, 1992). Codes established for coaches provide common values and guidelines for performing one’s job.

It has been suggested that there is a sensitive relationship between physical education and moral education. Stoll (1995), who is with the University of Idaho Center for Ethical Theory and Honor in Competitive Sports, emphasized that “physical education and athletic programs could be harmonious in promoting the development of sportsmanlike behaviors, ethical decision-making skills, and a total curriculum for moral character development.” Many studies by philosophers of sport concern the relationship of moral education and competition concepts; many conclude that a completed sports education involving both competition and development of an understanding of fair play effects a moral education (i.e., an education in moral values such as honesty, equality, justice, and respect) (Bergmann, 2000; Carr, 1998; Priest, Krause, & Beach, 1999; Singleton, 2003; Spencer, 1993). Sabock (1985) argued that sports provide students an important opportunity to develop ethical behaviors including honesty and fairness. Bergmann (2000) noted a logical relationship between physical education and moral education, one based on students’ understanding of the concept of success and their acceptance of the importance of competitions. Bergmann added that, through competition, students have opportunities to compare their skills and talents to those of others, which motivates them to gain practical knowledge meeting certain standards.

As role models for athletes, coaches can help them develop fair and ethical behavior by demonstrating how these can be applied in sports. Coaches have the capacity to teach and reinforce ethical behavior by athletes and indeed are central to value development in young people, since they are role models of institutional norms (Wandzilak, 1985).

Today, however, unethical behavior exhibited in the course of coaching is decreasing respect for coaches and for sports. Too many coaches approach their duties without adequate regard for values such as honesty, objectivity, and justice. This is so despite the fact that many sports organizations and communities have published codes of ethics that coaches are expected to uphold (American National Youth Sports Coaches Association, n.d.; American Psychological Association, 1992; Australian Sports Commission, n.d.; British Institute of Sports Coaches, n.d.; Canadian Professional Coaches Association, 2003; International Coaches Federation, 2003; Sports Medicine Australia, n.d.; Sports Coach, n.d.). Figure 1 presents a summary of the standards set out by these codes of conduct, classifying them as either a responsibility of coaches or a form of respect coaches are expected to demonstrate.

Responsibility Respect
1. A coach should provide a healthy environment for competition and practice.2. A coach should always work toward personal development, in order to continuously improve his or her job performance.

3. A coach should provide the media and members of the public with correct information.

4. A coach should direct injured athletes to medical treatment and act in accord with medical professionals’ instructions and suggestions.

5. A coach should help athletes with their personal and family problems.

6. A coach’s support should extend to athletes in need, whether or not they are his or her own athletes.

7. A coach should work cooperatively with any expert who might contribute to the development of athletes.

8. A coach should inform athletes of how they should behave during media interviews.

9. A coach should not use training techniques that are harmful to athletes.

10. A coach should select equipment carefully to ensure athletes’ safety.

11. A coach should have the injured athlete’s well-being in mind when deciding whether to permit a return to competition and should never permit return ahead of complete recovery.

12. A coach should assign athletes appropriate responsibilities in order to contribute to their development.

13. A coach should take a protective stance toward athletes when it comes to harmful drugs, by informing athletes about drugs’ dangers.

14. A coach of nonprofessional athletes should schedule practice and competitions that do not interfere with athletes’ need to develop academically.

15. A coach should develop effective ways of communicating to athletes and their families their rights and responsibilities as part of the team.

16. A coach should emphasize education’s importance to athletes, as well as sports’ importance.

17. A coach should instill in athletes the idea that winning results from good team work.

18. A coach should always ensure that athletes receive an explanation of the objectives of training.

19. A coach who disciplines an athlete through punishment should not, in so doing, harm the athlete’s personality.

20. A coach should always explain for athletes the objectives of any rule that will be applied.

 1. A coach should have respect for each athlete’s being.2. A coach should avoid behavior that is likely to diminish the respect afforded him or her by the society.

3. A coach should not exaggerate his or her capabilities.

4. A coach should encourage fair play and sportsmanlike behavior.

5. A coach should keep confidential all personal information on athletes (e.g., personal problems, family problems) and all information about the coach’s job (e.g., budget, recruitment policy), unless disclosure is required by law.

6. A coach should emphasize honesty in competition.

7. A coach should respect the rules of competition.

8. A coach should respect written and unwritten rules of fair play.

9. A coach should respect decisions of referees during competitions.

10. A coach should not encourage athletes or spectators to disrespect referees.

11. A coach should always have his or her behavior under control.

12. A coach should not use negative words to criticize other coaches or organizations.

13. A coach should take responsibility in areas in which he or she feels confident.

14. A coach should not criticize athletes publicly or act to hurt them.

Figure 1. Summary of coaching behaviors mandated by various organizational codes of ethics.

When such standards are ignored, unethical coaching behaviors typically fall into four main categories, according to the United States Olympic Committee (DeSensi & Rosenberg, 1996). They are (a) offending athletes verbally or physically, (b) treating athletes inhumanely, (c) encouraging athletes’ use of performance-enhancing drugs; and (d) ignoring the athletic program’s educational goals. In its various forms, unethical behavior in coaching is becoming an important topic in the physical education literature. The present study’s purpose was to develop a valid and reliable scale measuring the extent of unethical behavior by coaches and then to test whether their unethical behavior was associated with gender, age, or educational level.

Method

Sampling and Research Design

The study collected data in 2006 from 221 competitors in a national taekwondo championship, 86 of whom were female (38.9%) and 135 of whom were male (61.1%). The majority of the sample (76.9%) were ages 17 to 23 years. The mean length of their experience in taekwondo was 7 ± 3 years. The average age at which they began high-performance training (attending training camps and national and international competitions regularly) was 8 ± 2 years.

Instruments and Data Collection

The instrument was developed in three phases. First, from a review of the codes of ethics of the American National Youth Sports Coaches Association (n.d.), American Psychological Association (1992), British Institute of Sports Coaches (n.d.), Canadian Professional Coaches Association (n.d.), International Coach Federation (n.d.), Sports Medicine Australia (n.d.), Sports Coach (n.d.), and several Olympic committees, a pool of 48 survey items was created and subsequently analyzed.

Second, with the 48 items providing a basis, an instrument was developed that used a 5-point Likert-type response scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree) to assess perceived ethical or unethical nature of coaching behaviors (see Table 1). This instrument was administered to a group of 18 taekwondo coaches, taekwondo players, and faculty members or instructors knowledgeable of the sport. They read each item on the instrument and circled a response. The 18 participants unanimously assigned a score of 5 to 35 of the items, so these 35 were accepted by the researcher as describing unethical behaviors (Balci, 1993). The scale was dubbed the Coaches’ Unethical Behaviors Scale, or CUBS.

Table 1

Score Levels Reflected in 5-Point Likert-Type Scale

Choice Score Level
1 Strongly disagree 1.00–1.79
2 Disagree 1.80–2.59
3 Undecided 2.60–3.39
4 Agree 3.40–4.19
5 Strongly agree 4.20–5.00

In the third phase, the final CUBS instrument of 35 items (with 5-point Likert-type response categories) was administered to the 221 taekwondo contestants. Each item posed a scenario involving coaching behavior; respondents circled the numeral indicating how strongly they agreed that they had experienced their coaches demonstrating the unethical behavior.

Statistical Analysis

The construct validity of CUBS was evaluated using exploratory factor analysis (EFA). EFA seeks to identify a factor or factors based on relationships among variables (Kline, 1994; Stevens, 1996; Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001). The reliability of CUBS was assessed using the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient and Spearman-Brown (split-half) correlation. In order to test whether coaches’ unethical behaviors change with gender, age, and educational level, a t test and one-way ANOVA analysis were applied.

Findings

Factor Structure of CUBS: Construct Validity

Results of exploratory factor analysis assessing CUBS’ validity showed 11 of the 35 items to have a factor loading below .45. These 11 were extracted, and the analysis was repeated with the remaining 24 items. Of these, 14 could be classified as pertaining to coaches’ responsibility for athletes, for rules, and for the integrity of the coaching profession; the 14 became Factor 1. The remaining 10 could be classified as forms of respect coaches are charged with upholding (for example, respect for individuals, personalities, gender, and health). These became Factor 2.

For Factor 1, factor loading ranged from .562 to .847, while for Factor 2 it ranged from .561 to .782. Factor 1 accounted for 50.34% of variance, and Factor 2 accounted for 11.31%, so together the factors accounted for 61.65% of total variance (see Table 2).

Item Factor 1 Factor 2 Communalities Variance
1 .562 .466 .533
2 .589 .424 .527
3 .761 .359 .708
4 .674 .426 .635
5 .719 .352 .641
6 .641 .436 .601
7 .758 .155 .599
8 .747 .192 .594
9 .794 .328 .738
10 .833 0.61 .698
11 .811 .228 .710
12 .720 .285 .600
13 .847 .262 .786
14 .834 .281 .774
15 .777 0.46 .606
01 .211 .675 .500
02 .301 .721 .611
03 .377 .561 .456
04 .236 .667 .501
05 .131 .709 .519
06 .191 .737 .580
07 .308 .782 .706
08 0.94 .753 .576
09 .180 .752 .597

Reliability

The reliability of CUBS was assessed using Cronbach’s alpha and the Spearman-Brown correlation. The Cronbach’s alpha coefficients indicate internal consistency; for the two CUBS subscales administered to the 221 athletes, Cronbach’s alpha was .78 for Factor 1 and .77 for Factor 2. The total internal consistency for the scale was .76. The Spearman-Brown correlation yielded .98 for Factor 1 and .93 for Factor 2. Total correlation for CUBS was thus .92.

Corrected item total correlations, which ranged from .63 to .87, are shown in Table 3, along with t-test scores for the items in CUBS. Statistical significance at a level of p < .01 was attained for each item’s mean score.

Table 3

Corrected Item Total Correlations and t Scores for Items in CUBS

Item Factor 1 Factor 2 t p
1 .67 -7,122 .000
2 .70 -8,587 .000
3 .81 -9,341 .000
4 .77 -10,376 .000
5 .79 -10,645 .000
6 .76 -10,468 .000
7 .74 -9,826 .000
8 .75 -11,786 .000
9 .86 -11,590 .000
10 .78 -9,253 .000
11 .82 -12,238 .000
12 .76 -11,763 .000
13 .87 -14,444 .000
14 .86 -9,477 .000
15 .69 -11,574 .000
01 .67 -11,814 .000
02 .74 -9,108 .000
03 .63 -12,701 .000
04 .66 -10,988 .000
05 .74 -10,084 .000
06 .68 -10,174 .000
07 .74 -12,483 .000
08 .81 -11,849 .000
09 .70 -10,783 .000

Unethical Behaviors of Coaches

Using the data from the surveyed taekwondo competitors, coaches’ unethical behaviors were measured with descriptive statistics (see Table 4). As Table 4 illustrates, the athletes reported they had observed in the behavior of their coaches the 24 unethical behaviors reflected in CUBS, although the values measured for these behaviors were low. Observed unethical behavior did not, according to t-test results, appear significantly dependent on gender (n = 219, t = 1.71, p > .05), age (n = 216, t = 1.13, p > .05), or education level (n = 217, t = 1.60 p > .05).

Table 4

Mean, Standard Deviation, and Percentages for Coaches’ Unethical Behaviors as Indicated by CUBS Respondents

Unethical Behaviors M SD %
Responsibility
1. The coach does not deal honestly with athletes. 1.56 1.01 5.50
2. The coach does not inform athletes about harmful effects of drugs (drug abuse). 1.75 1.14 12.70
3. The coach does not build respectful, effective communication with athletes. 1.60 0.95 4.10
4. The coach encourages athletes’ weight loss via means that may harm their health. 1.75 1.02 7.30
5. The coach does not provide athletes necessary information about training. 1.61 0.98 7.70
6. The coach does not continuously improve his or her professional knowledge and skills. 1.72 1.16 10.90
7. The coach does not care about honesty in competition. 1.80 1.17 10.40
8. The coach does not know the legal regulations relevant to his or her sport. 1.53 1.00 5.00
9. The coach does not have sufficient knowledge of training science. 1.73 1.16 13.6
10. The coach abuses his or her authority as a coach. 1.61 0.99 6.80
11. The coach is not honest about the finances of competition. 1.62 1.04 5.90
12. The coach does not prepare effective training programs reflecting athletes’ ability levels. 1.84 1.11 7.20
13. The coach does not evaluate athletes’ performances as they reflect established goals. 1.66 1.00 5.90
14. The coach does not provide athletes with feedback about their performances. 1.68 0.99 7.20
Respect
1. The coach does not treat athletes respectfully. 1.39 0.95 5.90
2. The coach discriminates among athletes based on gender, religion, or language. 1.44 0.82 3.20
3. The coach curses or uses street language. 1.41 0.77 9.00
4. The coach does not respect the being of the athletes. 1.42 0.76 3.60
5. The coach is not careful to avoid harming athletes’ personalities when using punishment to discipline them. 1.56 0.89 5.50
6. The coach causes athletes physical harm in the course of using punishment to discipline them. 1.61 0.95 7.70
7. The coach discriminates among athletes based on reasons other than individual merit. 1.97 1.22 15.00
8. The coach degrades athletes with insults. 1.52 0.87 6.40
9. The coach becomes publicly angry and displays violence after a defeat in competition. 1.62 1.02 8.60
10. The coach does not respect rules and referees. 1.67 1.04 6.80

Discussion and Results

The present study’s purpose was to develop a valid and reliable scale measuring the extent of unethical behavior by coaches and then to test whether their unethical behavior was associated with gender, age, or educational level. CUBS is such a scale, according to the results of factor and reliability analysis (Kline, 1994; Stevens, 1996; Tabachick & Fidell, 2001).

Data obtained with CUBS were subjected to descriptive statistical analysis that suggested the three most frequent unethical behaviors in coaching are discrimination among athletes based on reasons other than individual merit; lack of technical knowledge; and failure to offer athletes facts about harmful drug use. Coaches’ unethical behaviors did not change to a significant degree with changes in gender, age, or education level, according to ANOVA and t-test results.

Addressing ethical issues is becoming a standard part of a coach’s duties. Increasingly, sports coaches must be able to teach and model fair play, respect for officials, paramount concern for athletes’ well-being (rather than the win-loss record), and the wise and legitimate use of power. At the same time, they must steer athletes away from harmful drug use, cheating, bullying, harassment, and eating disorders. The coach’s position on these issues, reflected in his or her coaching behaviors, has enormous impact on athletes, shaping their enjoyment of sports, their attitudes toward their peers in a sport, their self-esteem, and their continued involvement in sports.

The sports ethicist’s basic goal is to see individuals in sports accept a pertinent ethical code (Wuest & Bucher, 1987) and embody that code in their behavior patterns. The aim for the profession of coaching is each coach’s acceptance of an ethical code for his or her sport, exhibited in daily behavior. A scale like CUBS can not only indicate the level of unethical behaviors coaches engage in, it can point the way to the most urgently needed additions to coach education and development programs.

Knowledge and skills are vital to a profession, but appropriate attitudes and behaviors—professional ethics—are just as important. Professional ethics involve written codes containing rules tailored to specific professions and founded in general moral values like honesty, equality, justice, and respect (Fain, 1992; Pritchard, 1998). Unlike in the past, a workforce today is likely to include people of various races, ages, religions, educational levels, and socioeconomic statuses. They are likely to possess divergent values (Lankard, 1991; Frederick, Post, & Davis, 1988). Inculcating a set of professional ethics ensures that, although they are very different people, members of a profession together espouse common standards and rules designed to protect both themselves and the people they serve. The changing nature of the business world has increased the need for professional ethics, the most important characteristic of which is the need for systems, structures, and management that can secure compliance.

A common understanding of sports is that they consist of various activities people pursue that lead to competition (Penney & Chandler, 2000). In fact, sports is a multidimensional phenomenon. It involves social structures (an indispensable part of human life), and it is based on long-established ethical and value systems (Whitehead, 1998). A number of sports organizations want to see the essential ethical nature of sports brought home to spectators and the society by developing athletes’ and coaches’ ethics (Wuest & Bucher, 1987).

Concern for ethics (or the lack of concern) will have an important role in how sports continues to develop; much of the related work will fall to coaches, who are expected to do their jobs honestly, objectively, openly, and with respect and a sense of justice, tying their work to universal values and principles (Wuest & Bucher, 1999). Coaches who may be held responsible for demonstrating ethical behaviors need, first of all, to understand their sports’ particular ethical codes.

The present study was the very first research conducted in Turkey into unethical behaviors exhibited in coaching. Moreover, to date the literature worldwide has offered few studies on coaches’ unethical behaviors. For this reason, further research employing various designs, with various samples, is likely to contribute to understanding of the topic.

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2017-08-07T11:39:17-05:00January 8th, 2009|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Coaching, Sports Facilities, Sports Management, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|Comments Off on A New Scale Measuring Coaches’ Unethical Behaviors for Comparison by Gender, Age, and Education Level of Coach
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