Sports Facilities – Page 5 – The Sport Journal

Factors that Influence African-American Millennials to Purchase Athletic Shoes

Dr. Robert Lyons Jr., Johnson C. Smith University; Dr. E. Newton Jackson Jr., University of North Florida; Dr. Annette Singleton-Jackson, Florida A & M University

### Abstract

The purpose of the study was to determine which factors greatly influenced African-American millennials to purchase athletic shoes. A sample of (n=101) African-American millennials participated in the study. The participants rated the following seven purchasing factors in order of importance using a Likert scale from one (“strongly disagree”) to five (“strongly agree”). The seven factors were athlete endorsement, brand name, color of shoe, comfort level, cost, style of shoe, and quality. The results indicated that athletic shoe style, color and cost were determining factors among the participants when purchasing athletic shoes. T-test for unequal sample sizes indicated that there were significant differences as it related to males’ and females’ purchasing preferences. This study supports previous research findings on African-American youth purchasing behavior. Moreover, athletic shoe marketers should use this information as a means to understand the purchasing behavior of African-American millenials and to design marketing strategies to better reach this target audience.

### Introduction

African-American buying power has increased by 187 percent since 1990 (5). African-American buying power rose from $318 billion in 1990 to $590 billion in 2000, to $845 billion in 2007, and it is projected to increase to $1.1 trillion by 2012 (18). The buying power increase has been a result of African-American upward mobility (3). This increased buying power has afforded African-Americans from all generations the opportunity to purchase more goods and services, particularly African-American millennials. In general, millennials are those individuals born from 1980 to 1995, they are technologically savvy, very tolerant when it comes to sexual orientation, religion, and politics to name a few. Moreover, millennials are characterized by their independent nature, optimism, propensity to question the status quo, self-expression, and financial acumen (2,13,19). In contrast, generation x individuals (generally those born between 1964 and 1980) are characterized as pragmatic, self-reliant, less accepting of other viewpoints, and multi-taskers (17). Again, African-American millennial purchasing clout and influence is unparalleled, as witnessed by the following statement in the African-American/Black Market Profile report(8):

> Today’s African-American teen market (12- to 19-year-olds) are consumers and creators of trends, strong influencers of household purchases and a valuable target for advertisers. The same holds true for African-American/Black teens, who have a major impact on today’s mainstream culture—especially in music, sports and fashion. African-American/Black teens spend an average of $96 dollars monthly, 20% more per month than the average U.S. teen. In addition, when compared to all U.S. teens, male and female African-American/Black teens spend more yearly on items such as apparel and technology-related products and athletic shoes. (p. 11)

What’s more, the African-American/Black Market Profile report indicated that African-

American millennials have more brand loyalty to a variety of goods, including personal

products, food and footwear. Specifically, African-American millennial males exert more influence on household athletic shoe purchasing decisions and they are more brand loyal than other racial segments of millennials when it comes to purchasing athletic shoes (10). This trend in purchasing visible goods (such as athletic shoes) will continue as the African-American millennials continue to exert more influence on household purchases and as they continue to enter the workforce and earn wages (4).

In regard to the sport industry, athletic footwear is a thriving and lucrative business. According to the National Sporting Goods Association (2009), athletic shoe sales reached $17.1 billion for 2009 (12). Furthermore, of the 2.3 billion pairs of footwear purchased in the United States in 2007, Americans purchased 334 million pairs of athletic (1). African-Americans spent $391 per consumer unit on athletic footwear in 2006. This was more than any other race that year (5). Thus, the propensity that African-Americans have toward purchasing athletic shoes along with their loyalty to brands makes this population one worth investigating to determine their athletic shoe purchasing preferences.

There have been very few empirical studies dedicated to understanding the athletic shoe purchasing behaviors of youth and there is a dearth of information on the factors that influence African-American millennials to purchase athletic shoes. It is the intent of this study to add to the existing body of knowledge. The purpose of this study was to determine and identify the most important factors that influence African-American millennials to purchase athletic shoes.

### Methods

#### Procedures

The study was carried out in the summer of 2009 at a small historically black university in the southeastern United States. The researchers randomly selected a course time block to disseminate the questionnaire. This practice was initiated to prevent the same student from completing the questionnaire at one course time period and then attempting to complete during another course time period. The 11:30 am course time block was randomly selected. The researchers contacted all of the professors that taught a class during the time block via email to ask permission to disseminate the questionnaire. Professors were also informed that the researchers had received permission from the university’s institutional review board to conduct the study utilizing responses from university students, and that the questionnaire would take their students approximately ten minutes to complete. Thirteen professors offered courses at the 11:30 am time period. Of the thirteen, eight professors agreed to have their students complete the questionnaire.

#### Instrument

The researchers utilized a modified version of the Lyons and Jackson Athletic Shoe Survey. A ten item questionnaire was used to elicit responses from the participants. The questionnaire contained three demographic questions pertaining to the participant’s age, gender and race. In addition, seven questions addressing athletic shoe purchasing factors were included. The participants were asked to rate each factor on a Likert scale from one to five with one being strongly disagree and five being strongly agree.

#### Participants

Participants for this study were African-American millennials (n=101) between the ages of 18 and 24. All of the participants attended a historically black university in the southeastern United States. Of the participants, 52 (46.8%) were male and 59 (53.2%) were female.

#### Statistical Analysis

Descriptive statistics such as percentages, frequencies, and means were utilized to analyze data. Moreover, the researchers employed inferential statistics to further analyze data. The researchers used the t-test for independent unequal sample sizes. Specifically, the t-test for independent unequal sample sizes was employed to determine if there were significant differences between the purchasing factor mean scores of males and females.

### Results

Results from the study produced the following information regarding athletic shoe purchasing factors of African-American millennials. Group mean scores for both males and females revealed that style of shoe, comfort, color and quality were the most influential purchasing factors (Table 1).

For females style (M = 4.31), comfort (M = 4.14) and color (M = 4.03) were the most important factors (Table 2).

Style (M=4.63), quality (M=4.19), color (4.10) and brand (4.08) were the most influential factors for African-American males (Table 3).

T-test results revealed that there were no significant differences between males and females on each of the factors at the .05 level. To this end, there is indication that African-American males and females (in this study) have similar buying behaviors in that they valued each of the study factors somewhat equally (Table 4).

In terms of mean scores, athlete endorsement was the least influential factor for both males and females. Moreover, the cost factor did not rank highly for either group. In addition, the researchers considered the number of strongly agree and agree responses for each factor. Ninety-one percent of the participants indicated that they either strongly agreed or agreed that style was a crucial factor in purchasing athletic shoes. This factor was followed by comfort (76%), color (75%), quality (75%), brand (72%), cost (61%) and athlete endorsement (36%).

### Discussion

It became very apparent that style of shoe was the most dominating factor when deciding whether to purchase athletic shoes. The style factor mean score for males in this study was 4.63 and 4.31 for females. This finding is consistent with the findings from previous athletic shoe purchasing studies (16,20). It confirms to an extent that when African American youth are purchasing athletic shoes they focus primarily on the look of the shoe. Perhaps, as has been suggested, wearing a shoe that looks good makes one feel good. Better yet, the style of shoe may convey a form of status. Lyons and Jackson’s (2001) study on factors that influence African-American gen Xers to purchase athletic shoes also found that style was the most influential factor(7). This finding mirrored the responses of African-American millennials studied in this investigation, suggesting that the style phenomenon may be passed from generation to generation via cultural communication methods within the African-American community. It could also suggest that athletic shoe companies should continue to effectively communicate style as an influential feature among the African-American community.

Even though style was the predominant factor, other factors were influential as well. In regard to females, color and comfort ranked high, with mean scores of 4.14 and 4.03 respectively. For males, quality, color and brand name received mean scores of 4.19, 4.10 and 4.08 respectively, suggesting that African-American millennials are considering a specific set of factors that influence their purchasing decisions, based on their knowledge and experience with the athletic shoe. This knowledge and experience may be derived from the fact that African-American millennials may have purchased athletic shoes before and or they may have received information about the shoe via commercials, friends or other sources.

Athlete endorsement was rated the least influential purchasing factor in this study. Again, this finding is consistent with Lyons and Jackson’s 2001 study on African-American generation Xers(7). Both males and females rated athlete endorsement the least influential purchasing factor. This is surprising when one considers the enormous amount of money that athletic shoe companies spend to have athletes endorse their shoes. Nike spent close to three billion dollars in endorsements and sponsorship deals in 2007 with players like Michael Jordan and Tiger Woods receiving over twenty million dollars each (6). Perhaps athlete endorsement creates awareness for the shoe and even evokes some sort of emotion that causes a person to become loyal, curious and attached to the shoe brand. However, Martin stated that “the image of sport, independent of the athlete, can contribute significantly to the consumer’s response to an endorsement. The image of the sport can enhance, or detract from, the effects of the personality and appearance of the athlete making the endorsement” (9). In light of this statement, perhaps the respondents in this study held negative views of athlete endorsers and or their particular sport. Still, based on findings from this study, when an African-American millennial decides to make a purchase the athlete endorser does not figure prominently into the purchasing equation.

### Sport Marketing Implications

Based on the results of this study, athletic shoe sport marketers should be cognizant in crafting media messages that focus on style, color, and comfort. Moreover, athletic shoe retailers should develop in-store sales techniques that sales people can use to highlight shoe comfort, style and the importance of shoe color scheme when encountering African-American millennial customers. Marketing products and services are extremely important to the survival of many sport companies and franchises (11). Effectively marketing sport products and services can translate in to increased revenue for sport entities if they understand the needs and wants of their target audience (15).

### Recommendations

Based on the findings of this study, the researchers recommend the following:

– that a larger sample size be utilized to solidify and strengthen results;
– that studies comparing the purchasing behaviors of African-American and non-African-Americans should be conducted to determine if there are cultural and racial differences; and
– that athletic shoe studies comparing the purchasing behaviors of African-American generation-Xers and millennials be conducted to determine generational differences.

### Tables

#### Table 1
Factor Group Mean Scores

Factor	Group Means
Athlete Endorsement	2.83
Brand	3.98
Color	4.06
Comfort	4.06
Cost	3.50
Quality	4.01
Style	4.46

#### Table 2
Mean scores for African-American Millennial Females

Factor	Means
Athlete Endorsement	2.92
Brand	3.88
Color	4.03
Comfort	4.14
Cost	3.63
Quality	3.85
Style	4.31
Style	4.31

#### Table 3

Factor	Means
Athlete Endorsement	2.73
Brand	4.08
Color	4.10
Comfort	3.98
Cost	3.41
Quality	4.19
Style	4.63

#### Table 4

Factor	Males	Females	p-values (p > 0.05)
Athlete Endorsement	2.73	2.92	0.167
Brand	4.08	3.88	0.423
Color	4.10	4.03	0.252
Comfort	3.98	4.14	0.102
Cost	3.41	3.63	0.251
Quality	4.19	3.85	0.256
Style	4.63	4.31	0.256

### References

1. American Apparel and Footwear Association, (2008). Shoe stats 2008. Retrieved May 22, 2009 from <http://www.apparelandfootwear.org/UserFiles/File/Statistics/ShoeStats2008_0808.pdf>.
2. Armour, S. (2005, November 6). Generation Y: They’ve arrived at work with a new attitude.USA Today. Retrieved May 20, 2009, from <http://www.usatoday.com/money/workplace 2005-11-06-geny_x.htm>.
3. Buford, H (2005) Getting serious about winning the African American market. The SourceBook of Multicultural experts 2004/2005. Retrieved May 20, 2009, from <http://www.primeaccess.net/downloads/news/Sourcebook_AA_04-05.pdf>.
4. Charles, K. K., E. Hurst, & N. Rousannov (2008, May 14). Conspicuous consumption and race: Who spends more on what. Retrieved May 23, 2009 from <http://knowledge.wharton.upenn.edu/article.cfm?articleid=1963>.
5. Humphreys, J. (2009). The multicultural economy 2009. Georgia business and economic conditions, 69 (3), 1-16. Retreived August 17, 2009 from <http://www.terry.uga.edu/selig/docs/GBEC0903q.pdf>.
6. Kaplan, D. & Lefton, T. (2008, January 28). Nike to keep federer with a 10-year deal. The SportBusiness Journal. Retrieved May 22, 2009 from <http://www.sportbusinessjournal.com/index.cfm?fuseaction=article.main&articleId=57885&requestTimeout=900>.
7. Lyons, R., & Jackson, E. N. (2001). Factors that influence African American Gen-Xers to purchase Nikes. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 10 (2), 96-101.
8. Magazine Publishers of America (2008). African-American/Black market profile: Drawing on diversity for successful marketing. New York, NY.
9. Martin, J. A. (1996). Is the athlete’s sport important when picking an athlete to endorse a nonsport product? Journal of Consumer Marketing, 13 (6), 28 – 43.Mediamark Research & Intelligence (2007). Teenmark New York, NY.
10. Mullin, B., Hardy, S. and Sutton, W. (2008). Sport marketing (4th ed.). Human Kinetics: Champaign, IL.
11. National Sporting Goods Association (2009). Athletic footwear sales by month 2009. Retrieved May 23, 2009 from <http://www.nsga.org/i4a/pages/index.cfm?pageid=3513>.
12. Neuborne, K. (1999, February 15). Generation Y. BusinessWeek. Retrieved May 20, 2009, from <http://www.businessweek.com/1999/99_07/b3616001.htm>.
13. Shani, D. (1997). A framework for implementing relationship marketing in the sport industry. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 6 (2), 9-15.
14. Shank, M. (2008). Sports marketing: A strategic perspective (4th ed.). Prentice Hall: New York.
15. Stevens, J., Lathrop, A., & Bradish, C. (2005). Tracking Generation Y: A contemporary sport consumer profile. Journal of Sport Management, 19 (3), 254-277.
16. Turco, D. M. (1996). The X factor: Marketing sport to Generation X. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 5(1), 21-23, 26.
17. University of Georgia, Selig Center for Economic Growth (2008). The multicultural economy 2008. Retrieved May 22, 2009, from the Terry College of Business Web site: <http://www.terry.uga.edu/selig/docs/buying_power_2008.pdf>.
18. Yan, S. (2006, December 8). Understanding generation Y. The Oberlin Review. Retrieved May 22, 2009 from <http://www.oberlin.edu/stupub/ocreview/2006/12/08/features/>
19. Yoh. T., Mohr, M. S., & Gordon, B. (2006). The effect of gender on Korean teens’ athletic footwear purchasing. The Sport Journal, 9(1), 14-28.
20. Yoh. T., & Pitts, B. (2005). Information sources for college students athletic shoe purchasing. Sport Management and Related Topics, 1(2), 28-34.

U.S. Sports Academy2013-11-25T16:36:38-06:00January 25th, 2011|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Facilities, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|Comments Off

Preparation for an International Sport Event: The Promotional Strategies of 2009 Kaohsiung World Games

Steve Chen, Morehead State University; Ron Dick, Duquesne University; Ashley McNabb, Morehead State University; Yin-chu Tseng, Kaohsiung Medical University, Taiwan

### Abstract
This investigation presented administrative and marketing-related information on Kaohsiung City’s preparation for the 2009 World Games. The presented information was allocated through an extensive literature review on secondary sources, personal interviews, and observations from fall of 2008 to summer of 2009. Promotional strategies and activities, projected financial and sales data, reports on constructions, and issues and challenges related to the Games were further analyzed. The study further discussed the “not-for-profit” approach that was practiced by many East Asian Countries to gain international recognition and promote patriotism while hosting a major sport event.

### Introduction
The International World Games Association (IWGA), which currently includes 33 international sports federations, has been holding its competitions every four years since 1981 (24). The World Games is considered one of the largest sport competitions, other than the Olympic Games (7). The City of Kaohsiung was fortunate to be awarded the opportunity to host the World Games after a competitive bidding process (11,25). The 2009 World Games were held in the largest port city of Taiwan, Kaohsiung, from July 16 to July 26, 2009. Past literature has shown that hosting a gigantic international sport competition has provided a golden opportunity for the hosting country to demonstrate power and wealth, to boost economics and tourism, to increase publicity and media exposure, and to improve the hosting cities’ infrastructure (10,12-14,33). In addition, an enormous amount of national pride is often associated with the host countries when they host mega-events such as the Olympic Games or Federation Internationale de Football Association (FIFA) World Cup (1,14,29,39). For the aforementioned reasons, the administrators and citizens of Kaohsiung City sincerely hoped that the city could realize economic benefits from the 2009 World Games.

The Mayor and citizens of Kaohsiung City believed the 2009 World Games was a main event that would launch Kaohsiung to the center of the world stage (21). According to Tsai’s comments on the city government’s approach (37), the World Games was a perfect opportunity for the Kaohsiung residents to reaffirm their identity and loyalty toward the city. The potential economic profits and benefits brought by the events could also help the central government reevaluate the importance and development of the city. With the support of Kaohsiung citizens and volunteers, the Kaohsiung Games was described as the most successful World Games by the IWGA President, Ron Froehlich (16,18). In this investigation, the researchers went beyond the scope of a case study by presenting administrative and marketing-related information on how Kaohsiung City prepared for its first-ever major international sport event. The collected information and analyzed results may serve two specific purposes. First, the collected information can be valuable for the city to plan its bidding proposal for 2012 University Games. Second, the information may also provide great insights for other Taiwanese cities in preparing for any future international major sport events (i.e., the 2009 Deaflympic Games in Taipei and bidding for the 2010 World University Games).

#### Background History and Facts about the World Games
When the IWGA was formed in 1980, it had 12 international sport federations as charter members (7). The 2009 Kaohsiung World Games was the IWGA’s 8th competition and included 31 different sports. Since 1981, the number of participants in the World Games has increased from approximately 1500 to approximately 3400 in 2005 (7,24). Prior to the 2009 Kaohsiung World Games, it was estimated that the city would host more than 4,500 athletes, coaches, and staff. Athletes competed in 31 different sports which were divided into six categories, artistic and dance, ball sports, martial arts, precision sports, strength sports, and trend sports (24). In general, the seven previous World Games were all financed through a virtual company or foundation established by the government of the hosting countries (35). The hosting city was also responsible for covering the lodging, transportation, and dinner costs for all of the participants (34).

Building the venues for competitions was considered the most difficult challenge in preparing for the World Games. Kaohsiung City started two major constructions as early as 2004 (9). The Main Stadium of the Kaohsiung World Games was designed by the famous Japanese architect, Toyo Ito. It has a capacity of 40,000 seats and 15,000 standing spaces (9). The total construction cost of the stadium was estimated around $150-million USDs (31). The construction of the Kaohsiung Arena costs about $20-million USDs. The central government supported about 10% of the total construction cost (7). The arena has a 16,000-person seating capacity. The DC Construction company holds the right of business operation for the next 50 years. The Kaohsiung City Government will retain the operational right thereafter. For the infrastructural preparation, the Kaohsiung City planned to complete two tracks of the Metro Rapid Transit System (MRTS), both Red and Orange Lines, in 2009 prior to the opening ceremony of the World Games (11). Apparently, both systems were completed on time.

#### Preparations Completed by the National and Local Government
As soon as Kaohsiung City was awarded the opportunity to host the 2009 World Games, the former Mayor Hsieh Chang-ting announced three programs to transform Kaohsiung into a “City of Health” (25). It was Mr. Hsieh’s most lofty ambition to utilize the World Games to further develop the city and promote its competitiveness by becoming the largest trading seaport in Southeast Asia.

The information on organization of the Kaohsiung Organizing Committee (KOC) was obtained through personal conversation with Ms. Hus, the CEO of KOC. KOC was commissioned by the Kaohsiung City Government to plan and organize the 2009 World Games. In order to complete the required tasks for the game operation, the KOC formed nine divisions to handle the businesses. They were: (1) Administration, (2) Treasury, (3) Sport Competition, (4) City Development, (5) Supportive Division, (6) Marketing and Public Relations, (7) Culture and Tourism, (8) Information Technology, and (9) Safety (27). There were 26 full-time employees in the KOC. The leadership positions of the KOC include a President, a Sport Director, three Deputy CEOs, an Assistant Coordinator, two Executive Secretaries and a Chair of Divisions. In addition, the Kaohsiung City Government further assigned 43 people (including the CEO) and 14 non-committee staff members to support the KOC. Several visiting teams were also sent to Beijing to observe the practices of the Chinese Government in preparing for the 2008 Olympic Games (22).

#### Economic Benefits and Profits for Hosting Major International Sport Events
Past literature has documented how host cities of major sport events (i.e., Super Bowl, National Basketball Association (NBA) All-Stars Games, and Olympic Games) reaped direct and indirect profits from gate receipts, tourism, and television (TV) fees. To name a few examples: (1) visitors of the 2006 Super Bowl spent as much as $180 million during their trips and the total economic impact of the event was estimated to exceed $300 million (32); (2) the 2007 NBA All-Stars Game drew more than 25,000 out-of-town visitors, generating non-gaming revenue of $26.7 million (32); and (3) $400 million in TV rights and $200 million sponsorship fees were at stake in the 2002 Salt Lake City Winter Games (4). The National Broadcast Company paid broadcasting rights fees of $793 million and $894 million for the 2004 and 2008 Summer Olympic Games (14). The Chinese government announced its operating profit for the 2008 Summer Olympic Games at $146 million(5).

To the contrary, there were reports and studies that rejected the notion of international sport events, such as the Olympic Games, generating any profit at all. It is extremely difficult to calculate the financial merits of any particular Olympic Games, due to expensive construction and many, varying costs(15). It is estimated that costs for hosting the 2012 event could run more than $3 billion USDs. Sydney and Athens spent $3.4 billion and13 billion, respectively, on the Summer Games. With these huge costs, it is hard to perceive how profits can be made(15). In fact, host countries did not make money at all prior to the 1984 Los Angeles Olympic Games (3,4). The Los Angeles Games were able to turn the Olympics into a gold mine, netting $200 million, by introducing aggressive commercializing strategies and minimizing the construction costs (3). Cities such as Barcelona, Athens, Beijing and London would spend far more money than the U.S. host cities to build new facilities and develop their community, so the profits severely dwindle (2). Local residents seldom benefit from the profits. According to Sports economist Philip Porter, who studies the effect of large sporting events on communities, it’s not unusual for cities to make less than has been projected (4).

Most economists agree that economic impact of major sport events are often calculated from three areas (5). They are direct financial impacts, indirect financial impacts and intangible. Although most of the host cities may not prosper from the profit gains, cities such as Lillehammer, Norway, and Nagano, Japan have enjoyed worldwide attention by hosting the winter Olympics. Mayors of hosting cities clearly understand that the spectacle will promote national pride and justify local development (15). Burton and O’Reilly (5) warned against focusing solely on cost and profits as the criteria for evaluating the impact of the events. They want people to consider the intangible benefits of the Atlanta Games. Although the Atlanta Games only broke even financially, Atlanta has subsequently become a bigger, better, and more respected global city.

The Kaohsiung City Government is standing on a crossroads facing an uncertain future. Based on the aforementioned paragraphs, the city has clearly spent a huge amount of money to prepare for the World Games, and anticipates huge economic profits and intangible benefits. Will the city’s investment turn out to be a prosperous return? The researchers sincerely hope the results of this study will provide preliminary findings to this difficult question.

### Methods
The information on construction costs and spending on community development was gathered through a series of reviews of secondary sources and online articles prior to March of 2009. The findings related to this topic have mainly been presented in the Introduction. In order to obtain the marketing related information, promotional strategies, and projected financial data of the 2009 World Games, the researchers conducted interviews with the Chief Executive Officer, Marketing Director of the KOC, and two city councilmen. Seven specific questions given to the interviewees to obtain qualitative and statistical information are listed in Table 1.

The interviewees received the questions at the beginning of 2009. The researchers received all of the interviewees’ responses in early March of 2009. Answers were received via e-mail and phone calls. Information on stadium construction and promotional strategies released by the city government and press from 2005 to 2008 was extensively reviewed and analyzed in the month of February, 2009. The researchers categorized the collected information into two aspects: (1) public relations and promotional activities associated with the game, and (2) sales and other marketing related data.

### Results
Based on the results of interviews and search on the secondary sources, the researchers obtained the following marketing and public relations related information. The information was analyzed and categorized based on their two aspects.

#### Promotional Strategies and Public Relations Activities
To promote the World Games to Kaohsiung residents and countrymen of Taiwan, both local and national governments put great effort into creating many, varied activities. Special design competitions were held to solicit ideas for the official logo and mascot. Mr. Lin Hung-he won the (approximately) $13,000 USDs grand-prize as his design was chosen as the official logo (35). The former interim Mayor, Yeh Chu-lian also revealed the official mascot, Water Spirit, during her short tenure (35,38). Nearly $20,000 USDs was spent to reward the winners for naming the official mascot (38). To educate the fans and residents about the World Games the Kaohsiung Education Bureau established the World Games Education Program which involved all of the elementary and secondary schools. Students at each school were assigned to study a specific sport. They became familiar with the rules, history, and star athletes of their assigned sport. These students also received complimentary tickets to the games to cheer for the athletes (20). Other promotional activities for the World Games included: (1) a special float for the Independence Parade on October 13, 2003, (2) the announcement of national sport heroes, Chi-Cheng and baseball star of the Yankees, Wang Chien-ming to be the event spokespersons, (3) a poster contest, and (4) sport movie festivals (24,26,40).

The Taiwanese government publicized the news of hosting the World Games to many of its treaty nations. Delegates traveled more than half a world away to South America to express appreciation for the support and friendship provided by treaty nations (25). Former President Chen Shui-bian also promised to invite the Army parachute troopers to perform during the opening ceremony of the World Games(19).

On May 20, 2009 with the inauguration of the Main Stadium, a special concert was held in the Main Stadium of the World Games. The Pittsburgh Symphony Orchestra, the Vienna State Opera Choir, the National Experimental Chorus, the National Sun Yat-sen University Music Department Women’s Chorus and the Kaohsiung Medical University Singers worked together to perform Tchaikovsky’s ‘1812 Overture’ and Beethoven’s ‘Ode to Joy’. More than 40,000 people attended the concert (6). The Kaohsiung Metro Rapid Transit System also proved its capability to handle a high volume of passengers during the peak hours. During the competition period, fireworks shows, expositions, and food fairs were held every night at the True Love Harbor, one of the most popular tourist attractions in the city (6).

#### Sales and Marketing-Related Data

Table 2 lists the major sponsors of the 2009 World Games. A total of 40 sponsors and partners are further classified into three levels. About 80% of the total sponsors and partners were domestic business organizations. The amount of contribution from each level of sponsors and partners was not available for disclosure.

Public Television Service of Taiwan televised selected events. However, no fee amount for the TV rights has been disclosed. Most media coverage and exposure came mainly relied from the Internet. The KOC also collaborated with AllGenki.net to sell event tickets. Spectators purchased the tickets in one of the 4,800 7-11 stores in Taiwan by using the I-bon system, or at the event sites. The information on ticket prices was released in March 2009, and tickets were available for sale in April 2009. According to the news report, revenues for the gate receipts exceeded $2-million USDs (8).

For the sale of licensing merchandise, the official mascot, “Water Spirit”, was used as the main icon to create a series of subsidiary products. These products were produced by Cheerful Fashion Goods CO., LTD., a company devoted to cultivating young Taiwanese designers who design products based on traditional Taiwanese culture. The World Games licensing merchandise included polo shirts and t-shirts with color choices, recyclable chopsticks, flip-flops, key chains, passport holders, purses, shopping bags, coffee mugs, caps, and poker cards. The price of these souvenirs generally ranged from $4 to $30 USDs.

Prior to the event, an optimistic estimation (over 5,000) was given regarding the number of potential participants. According to the news report, the total number of participants from 131 countries indeed exceeded 5,000 (8). Because the Kaohsiung World Games was held during the summer time, which is the “hot” season for the city’s tourism, it was difficult to estimate the actual number of foreign visitors who arrived strictly due to the World Games. However, some economists estimated the number of the foreign visitors would reach between 30,000 and 50,000 people (31). The World Games was also predicted to bring in business worth $30 million USDs to Kaohsiung City. It was thought that the event could have a great impact on the price of real estate, estimating that the price of a house near the Main Stadium could expect a 30% increase in value (31). Based on the researchers’ personal observations, this prediction has been realized in some areas near the MRT stations adjacent to the stadium.

### Discussion and Conclusions
Past literature has in-depth discussions of economic impact and financial gains for international sport events. The data of sponsorship deals, TV rights fees, and gate receipts for past events such as FIFA Tournament or Olympic Games are available for the public to browse (1-2,17,30,36,41-42). It seems logical that scholars in Western societies, with the strong influence of capitalism, would focus more on financial (or economic) related information of the events. Clearly, there was a series of pre-game promotional and cultural activities sponsored by the KOC to increase the residents’ awareness of the World Games. However, all of the interviewees failed to provide valuable financial data on TV rights fee and sponsorship incomes. They seemed to have a vague idea or no interest at all regarding the topics of potential economic impact or projected revenues of the Kaohsiung World Games. There was also no available data on revenue generation through merchandise sales. More attention was devoted to issues related to the possible boycott by the Chinese team, the potential outbreak of H1N1 influenza, and cultural festivals sponsored by the city.

Financial information related to the Kaohsiung World Games, other than the spending in promotional activities and construction costs, was difficult to retrieve. A report had indicated the revenues in ticket sales exceeded $2 million USDs (8), but this is a small amount compared to the construction costs of nearly $170 million USDs. Based on the KOC CEO Ms. Hsu’s explanation, Kaohsiung City has taken a “not-for-profit” approach to recruiting volunteers and sponsors. This seems to be a common approach used by many of the East Asian countries to host major sport events. This implies that the local government is willing to absorb the operational cost, even if revenues fail to cover expenses. As long as the country receives recognition and media attention, it is seen as worthwhile to spend a huge amount of money for hosting the event. Thus, it is not difficult to understand why the Taipei city would promise to offer free admission to all spectators of the Deaflympic Games. Although the KOC outsources the ticket and merchandise sales to AllGenki.net and Cheerful Fashion Goods CO respectively, potential revenues through TV rights and ticket sales are not clearly discussed and emphasized. Apparently the previous seven World Games were all financed by a virtual company established by the governments of the hosting countries; however, none of the previous hosts has spent so much money in trying to advertise their country and the events.

In Kaohsiung’s case, the researchers would actually like to see a more commercialized approach to allocating funding. This would mean less spending of tax dollars for the games (35), and more involvement of the private sectors in advertising, donations, and sponsorships. There is no advantage to putting the city in debt in hosting an event that shows no promise in bringing profits.

Prior to the opening ceremony of the World Games, the Taiwanese government had monitored politically-related issues closely.

The patriotic acts of the Taiwanese residents and the Chinese government’s unfriendly political actions were considered to be critical issues during the competition period (28). Although it is common to witness political activists taking actions during a gigantic international sport event (i.e., Olympic Games) to express their ideologies (14), for a new event host such as Taiwan, any unexpected political activity during the event would negatively affect the reputation and image of the nation and future business opportunities brought by foreign enterprise. The Chinese team eventually boycotted the Opening Ceremony, but the KOC adhered strictly to the Olympic operational model to prevent any further political disruption (23,34). From the political perspective, the Kaohsiung World Games can be considered a great success. From the economic standpoint, it seems the city is not clearly standing on the “winning” side.

### Practical Applications in Sport
Based on the aforementioned discussions, the researchers would recommend the following to the City of Kaohsiung and other sport organizing committees for planning the future events:

1. Future sport organizing committees should develop a strategic plan to solicit more well-known international and domestic business franchises/industries to sponsor the event. In this case, the KOC had done a great job in recruiting a variety of sponsors according to their nature of business and functionality to satisfy the needs of the events. However, the KOC did not provide enough onsite opportunities for the sponsors to actively interact with the spectators. A future strategic plan for targeting sponsors should cover how to execute “activation” activities effectively and utilize complimentary tickets for hospitality. The committees need to provide clear incentives and business opportunities for the sponsors, so the sponsors can be convinced to invest their capitals and manpower. More complimentary tickets could be offered to the sponsors to enhance the level of hospitality.
2. The sport organizing committees should closely collaborate with the governmental agencies (i.e., city government, Sport Affairs Council, and Bureau of Tourism) to aggregate accurate financial reports (especially on the revenues of broadcasting rights and ticket sales and costs of construction) of the events. The collected information will be beneficial to the planning and bidding of future events. It also acts to show accountability to the public, by making the figures of total spending transparent. Without a clear income figure on broadcasting rights and sponsorship deals, it is hard to imagine how the organizing committee could make any profits.
3. For any developing countries wishing to achieve political stardom rapidly, bidding to host a mega-international sport event seems to be a good alternative. Evidently, China and South Africa both greatly increased their political visibility by hosting the 2008 Olympic Games and 2010 FIFA World Cup. The City of Kaohsiung should be actively involved in bidding on a moderate-scale for continental and international sport competitions, such as East-Asian Games, Asian Games, World University Games and special track-and-field invitationals. This will help Taiwan increase its political visibility and learn to handle its political conflict with China peacefully. Having these events in Kaohsiung will also maximize the opportunities for the use of existing facilities and boost potential tourism.

### Tables

#### Table 1. The List of Interview Questions
Q1. Who are the primary sponsors of the World Games? (If the numbers are available, please specify the amounts of contributions for each level of sponsors.)

Q2. Which television network will televise the World Games? What is the estimated amount of the TV right fee?

Q3. How are tickets sold to the general public? How many types of tickets are available? What are the prices of all different types of tickets?

Q4. What are the major types of the World Games licensed merchandise along with their prices?

Q5. What are the projected revenues that the World Games may bring to the city?

Q6. What is the estimated number of the visitors during the period of World Games competitions?

Q7. How many full-time staff members are recruited by the city to prepare for the World Games?

#### Table 2. Major Sponsors of the 2009 World Games

Level	Company
Level A (n=11) Official Partners	China Airline, 7-11, Chunghwa Telecom, Carrefour, China Steel Company Group, Taipower, China Petroleum Company Corporation, Marina, Tissot, Volkswagen, Coca-Cola

Level B (n=7) Partners	SECOM, Banana Chippy, Wei Mon Industry, China Postal, Kaohsiung Medical University & Hospital, Heineken, Real Estate Development Association of Kaohsiung
Level C (n=22) Sponsors	Taiwan High Speed Rail, Taiwan Sugar Corporation, Giant, SYM, PXmart, Greenoil, Fish888, Starbucks, ShinKong Life, Hellocar, Hamilton Sunscreen, Dole, New Zealand Kiwifruit, Nitto Denko, Sundance, Bank of Kaohsiung, Sakura, Tong-yang, Cold Stone Creamery, Bros Sports, White Flowers

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Chang, M.H. (2009). Mayor Chen announces the opening ceremony of World Games will be held on July 16. Retrieved July 19, 2009 from <http://www.5ch.com.tw/news/news_detail.asp?bclass= 0015&num=0000768>

Chen, S.H. (2004). Analysis on official data for 2009 World Games. Retrieved November 5, 2008 from <http://old.npf.org.tw/PUBLICATION/EC/093/EC-R-093-008.htm>

Cheng, C.F. (2009). The Worlds Games has completed: Revenues on tourism is rising. Retrieved July 29, 2009 from <http://tw.news.yahoo.com/article/url/d/a/090727/5/1ntnl.html>

Cheng, H.H., & Chen, P.L. (2008). 61% of the stadium has been completed: Mr. Toyo Ito is deeply moved. Retrieved November 12, 2008 from <http://tw.news.yahoolcom/article/url/d/a/ 080331/8/wfls.html>

Cheng, S.T. (2001). Principles and practices of sport marketing. Taipei, Taiwan: Han-wen Publishing.

Central News. (2005). Say good-bye to 2005 World Games and see you in Kaohsiung in 2009. Retrieved November 8, 2008 from <http://www.wretch.cc/blog/rivamylove/1908034>

China Chemical Reporter (2008). Discovering opportunities in the advanced materials industry. China Chemical Reporter, 19(24), 8.

Economist (2008). Going for gold. Economist, 388(8593), 40-42.

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Ewe, P. (2003). Nine cities bid to host the 2012 Summer Olympics. Retrieved April 29, 2009 from <http://www.citymayors.com/features/2012olympics.html>

Ge, Y.H. (2009). World Games volunteers proudly received praises. Retrieved July 29, 2009 from <http://www.libertytimes.com.tw/2009/new/jul/27/today-fo1.htm>

Horne, J.D., & Manzenreiter, W. (2004). Accounting for mega events: Forecast and actual impacts of the 2002 Football World Cup Finals on the host countries Japan/Korea. International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 39(2), 187-203.

Hsu, M.L. (2009). The most successful World Games: Kaohsiung has done it. Retrieved July 28, 2009 from <http://www.libertytimes.com.tw/2009/new/jul/27/today-t1.htm>

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### Corresponding Author
Steve Chen
208C Combs Business Building, Morehead State University, Morehead, KY 40351
<[email protected]>
606-783-2433 (office)
606-780-8173

U.S. Sports Academy2015-10-02T23:25:11-05:00October 4th, 2010|Sports Facilities, Sports Management|Comments Off

The price of NFL fandom: An exploratory study of the past, present, and future purchasing power of NFL fans

Jeffrey J. Fountain, Nova Southeastern University; Peter S. Finley, Nova Southeastern University

### Abstract

Concerns regarding gentrification of sports and the loss of middle-income fans have increased throughout the years, as ticket prices have continued to increase well beyond the rate of inflation for professional sports. This research focused on the changes in purchasing power for fans wishing to attend live games in the National Football League from 1991 to 2009 and then made subsequent forecasts for purchasing power 10 years into the future, should current pricing trends continue unabated. The Fan Cost Index (FCI) was utilized to compare purchasing power over time. Results showed that average FCI price for the league increased by 75% beyond inflation from 1991 to 2009. Purchasing power for fans from all the teams in the study diminished in some fashion from 1991 to 2009. However, eight of the 24 teams in the study severely reduced fan purchasing power, including a 50% or more reduction in the number of tickets alone. If pricing trends continue, the league could experience decreased attendance, particularly from fans in the lower income brackets.

**Key words:** purchasing power, FCI, gentrification, NFL, ticket prices
(more…)

U.S. Sports Academy2017-08-03T10:21:27-05:00October 4th, 2010|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Facilities, Sports Management, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|Comments Off

Relationship of Arm Span to the Effects of Prefatigue on Performance in the Bench Press

David M. Bellar, Department of Kinesiology, University of Louisiana Lafayette, Lafayette LA; Lawrence W. Judge, School of Physical Education, Sport and Exercise Science, Ball State University, Muncie, IN; Tiffany J. Patrick, Department of Kinesiology, University of Louisiana Lafayette, Lafayette LA; Erin L. Gilreath, School of Physical Education, Sport and Exercise Science, Ball State University, Muncie, IN

### Abstract
The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of arm span on the acute effects of fatigue caused by maximum voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC) on performance in the bench press. Eight female collegiate track and field athletes involved in the throws events (shot put, discus, hammer, and javelin) volunteered for this investigation. Initial assessments included one-repetition maximums in the bench press (Pre Max 59.5±19.8kg) for each volunteer as well as basic anthropometric data including arm span. Volunteers reported twice for two treatments that included three maximal bench press attempts. The standard (STAND) treatment consisted only of the maximal attempts. The MVIC treatment consisted of a 30-second maximal voluntary isometric contraction prior to maximal attempts. General Linear Model analysis was performed to evaluate fixed effects (Treatment, Arm span) on maximum weight lifted. The model was significant (Likelihood Ratio Chi-Square 3507.525, p<0.001) and revealed main effects for treatment (STAND 59.78±18.8kg vs. MVIC 52.32±11.5kg, p<0.001) and arm span (p<0.001), as well as a significant two-way interaction treatment*arm span (p<0.001). Post-Hoc analysis revealed that under the STAND treatment arm span was not a predictor of change in bench press performance; however under the MVIC treatment (F=16.255, p=0.007) arm span was a significant negative predictor of change in bench press performance (Beta = -0.855, p<0.001). Arm span is a simple measure that can quickly and easily be assessed; yet also a variable that can provide valuable information for coaches to consider before planning weight training for track and field throws athletes.

**Key Words:** Anthropometry, Strength, Athlete

### Introduction
Muscular strength is one essential component contributing to optimal athletic performance (4). The development of upper body strength typically involves high-resistance, low-repetition exercises using larger muscle masses to increase the maximal force generation by a muscle or muscle group. The ability of individuals to adapt positively to increasing training loads requires careful consideration of the volume and intensity of the exercises (1). Regardless of precise planning by the coach, an athlete’s physical limitations may prevent optimal adaptation, or physical gifts may instead promote adaptation (4).

A plethora of anecdotal evidence surrounds the effects of the length of the appendages of the human body on performance in the weight room. In particular in the bench press lift, many recreational lifters maintain that long arm length is detrimental to performance. The fact that lifters with longer arms must displace the bar further from the chest in order to complete the lift would seem to lend some credence to this anecdotal belief. However, recent work by Mayhew et al. (5) demonstrated that skeletal length was not a valid predictor for performance on the NFL-225 bench repetition test. In more recent work, Reynolds et al. (7) examined the relationship between more basic anthropometric measurements and performance in the bench press. In this study, Reynolds et al. recruited seventy subjects, 34 men and 36 women ranging in age from 18-69, and found that no anthropometric measurements were significant predictors on one repetition maximum (1-RM) performance.

Although previous results have not demonstrated a relationship between anthropometric measurements and 1-RM strength, results supporting differences in strength based on skeletal position have been witnessed. Murphy et al. (6) reported a significant correlation between isometric strength at 90 degrees of elbow flexion and 1-RM in the bench press exercise. Interestingly, the participants in this study demonstrated greater isometric strength at 120 degrees of elbow flexion, but this was not related to 1-RM strength. This angle (90 degrees) coincides to the ‘sticking point,’ the point of lowest force production, in the lift (3). It is intuitive that 1-RM strength in the bench press should correlate to the angle of lowest isometric force production. To complete a successful attempt, a lifter must move the weight through the ‘sticking point’ in order to achieve the elbow angle of 120 degrees, a point of greater isometric force production, and from there, finish the lift (3). Lifters who have longer arm spans will thus have a greater total distance to push the bar in order to reach the 120 degrees angle of elbow flexion. Thus, longer arm length could potentially be disadvantageous in the bench press lift.

Although previous research has not demonstrated this disadvantage (5), the Mayhew et al. investigation was descriptive in nature, predicting performance in one predetermined maximal set to failure. Past research evaluating the relationship between arm length and bench press strength has ignored how arm length may affect a total workout. Studies accounting for the potential effects of arm length during fatigue on the bench press are missing from the body of research. It is possible that effects of arm length do not manifest until the lifter is in a fatigued state. Thus, the purpose of the present investigation is to examine, in a very practical way, the effects of arm length on performance in the bench press while fatigued.

### Methods

#### Participants

The present investigation was presented to and approved by the local Institutional Review board for human subject usage. Eight apparently healthy college-aged (19.75yrs±1.2) female track and field athletes who compete in the throws events (shot put, hammer, javelin, discus) volunteered for this study (Table 1). The participants underwent a 1-RM test (Pre Max) for the bench press as prescribed by Baechle and Earle (2) as a normal part of practice and their coach reported their values (59.5kg±19.8).

Table 1. Descriptive Data of the Participants

Conditions	Mean±SD
Age (yrs)	19.7±1.2
Height (cm)	171.5±8.7
Weight (kg)	94.7±29.9

*Descriptive data of the (n=8) female participants listed in mean±SD.*

#### Procedures

Participants recruited for the investigation underwent initial anthropometric testing including both height measurement via stadiometer (Health-o-Meter Inc., Bedford, OH.), weight via a balance beam scale (Health-o-Meter Inc., Bedford, OH.), and arm span measured from the farthest distance between finger tips with the arms held outstretched using a vinyl open reel tape measure. Arm span was determined in this manner because it was a simple and inexpensive method of performing an anthropometric assessment of the length of the arms that might also be assessed by a coach with relative ease. The experimental procedures were thoroughly explained to the participants prior the first session. Participants were also given a demonstration on the MVIC device. Grip width was also selected during the initial visit to limit the known effect of different grip widths on the bench press exercise (6). Following the initial visit, participants reported twice more for a total of 30 minutes per session.

##### MVIC induced fatigue

Fatigue was induced in the participants through a 30-second maximum voluntary contraction against a stationary bar set a height equal to 90 degrees of elbow flexion for the participant. The position of the bar was chosen to be approximately at the ‘sticking point’ in order to fatigue at a position critical to the successful completion of the lift. The MVIC device consisted of a standard power rack (York Barbell, York, PA.) with two sets of rails inserted, and a flat bench. A standard Olympic bar (York Barbell, York, PA.) was placed between the rails. The bar was supported from underneath by the lower rail and prevented from being lifted upward by the upper rail; the bar was thus held in a stationary position. The rails were adjustable in height, and the device was set to a point where the elbow of the participant was as close to 90 degrees as the adjustments on the device would allow. Participants were required to lay supine on the bench and press maximally against the Olympic bar for 30 seconds.

#### Experimental Design

The present investigation employed a within subjects design, with random assignment. The participants reported to the weight room on two separate occasions with 72 hours between visits. The sessions occurred at the same time as a normally scheduled team weightlifting session. Each participant was randomly assigned to one of two orders for treatment (STAND then MVIC, or MVIC then STAND).

##### Treatments

Each day began with a standard warm-up on the bench press. The first warm-up set consisted of 5 repetitions of a weight that represented 70% of the previously established one repetition maximum (1-RM). The second warm-up set of three repetitions was done with a weight that represented 80% of 1-RM. Following the warm-up on each day participants completed the protocol for one of two treatments. The first treatment was a standard (STAND) one repetition maximum determination on the bench press. The participants were instructed to attempt a total of three single repetition lifts to determine the maximum amount of weight that could be lifted on that day. The starting weight was set at a value that was approximately 2.25kg underneath the previously determined 1-RM. If the participant successfully completed the attempt they were allowed to increase the weight; if they failed at the attempt approximately 5kg was removed before the second attempt. The second treatment, pre-fatigue via maximum voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC), was identical to STAND except that immediately prior to each attempt the participants performed 30 seconds of MVIC against a stationary bar at approximately 90 degrees of elbow flexion. All participants completed all three attempts under both conditions. At least 3 minutes of recovery were allowed between attempts to reduce between lift fatigue effects (1,7).

#### Statistical Analyses

Prior to analysis all dependant variables were analyzed for normality. Paired samples t-tests were utilized to examine the differences between the two treatments so the degree of pre-fatigue can be determined. Generalized Estimation Equation analysis was utilized to examine the fixed effects of measured arm span on subsequent bench press performance. Any significant interaction effects were further explored via multiple regression analysis. Significance was set a priori at alpha ≥0.05.

### Results

Paired samples t-tests were used to determine the difference between treatments (MVIC vs. STAND). The MVIC treatment resulted in significantly lower performance on the 1-RM test (p=0.02, Table 2). General Linear Model analysis was performed to evaluate fixed effects (Treatment, Arm span) on maximum weight lifted in the bench press. The omnibus test for the model was significant (Likelihood Ratio Chi-Square 3507.525, p<0.001). The analysis revealed main effects for treatment (STAND 59.78±18.8kg vs. MVIC 52.32±11.5kg, p<0.001) and arm span (p<0.001), as well as a significant two-way interaction treatment * arm span (p<0.001). Post-Hoc analysis via linear regression revealed that under the STAND treatment arm span was not a predictor of change in bench press performance as the ANOVA for the model was not significant (F-0.806, p=0.404); however, under the MVIC treatment (F=16.255, p=0.007) arm span was a significant negative predictor of change in bench press performance (Beta = -0.855, p<0.001) (Figure 1).

Table 2. Changes in 1-RM Strength by Treatment

Treatment	1RM post (kg)	Change from PreMax Value
MVIC pre-fatigue	53.0±11.5	-6.51±8.56
STAND	60.9±18.8	1.43±2.99

*All values are listed ±SD. 1RM post MVIC and STAND are significantly different p=0.02. Change between MVIC and STAND treatment are significantly different p=0.02.*

### Discussion

Based upon these data it would appear that in a state of induced pre-fatigue, arm span is a significant predictor of 1-RM performance in the bench press for female collegiate track and field throwers. Though previous research has not demonstrated similar findings(5), these findings did not represent data obtained from fatigued subjects. It would appear plausible that the effects of arm span on the bench press may only become manifest in situations of fatigue.

Understanding fatigue is an important consideration for coaches. First, a majority of an athlete’s bench press workouts is a series of sets resulting in muscular fatigue. Secondly, weight-training sessions may occur after a practice has already taken place, ensuring muscular fatigue before the bench press workout begins. Post-exercise fatigue may limit the effectiveness of the resistance-training program as an adaptive physiologic stimulus for strength gains. Understanding how each athlete reacts to fatigue in a workout is imperative to designing a training program in order to achieve maximal strength.

Track and field throws coaches in particular must specifically understand how arm span will affect bench press workouts. Throws coaches often target athletes with longer arms for recruiting purposes; longer levers are advantageous for the discus and hammer events. Coaches training athletes with a greater arm span may have to change bench press protocol to account for a greater fatigue.

The present investigation was not without limitations. Firstly, the choice of measurement of arm span versus actual determination of skeletal lengths was made to increase the applicability of the findings to coaches, but is also a limiting factor. Secondly, the simulated method of fatigue chosen for practicality for the current investigation may not be completely representative of fatigue that occurs as the result of a weight room training session. Though not without limitation, the finding remains that arm span was a significant negative predictor of performance in the pre-fatigued condition.

Future research needs to establish the relationship between arm span and differences in muscle fatigability, and exercise training and prescription in order to optimize strength development in males and females.

### Conclusions

Arm span is a practical measure that can easily be assessed by any coach with access to a tape measure. Fitness professionals and coaches should be aware that in a fatigued state arm span is a negative predictor of performance in the bench press in female track and field throwers. Therefore, it is important for the coach to understand the individual differences among the athletes who are involved in the program; the amount of required recovery time may differ among individuals (4). Considerations for this can be suggested to professionals working with similar athletes including limiting the number of sets performed and focusing on quality of the lifts performed in order to allow for the associated fatigue.

The professional may also want to consider the optimization of the training volume for these athletes based upon the finding that arm span may affect performance in a multiple set lifting scheme. The coach can reduce the number of sets based upon arm span in order to compensate for the increased impact of fatigue that will likely occur for athletes with longer arm spans. For optimizing strength gains, exercise training and prescription to females should be modulated based upon arm span and related to: (1) resistance training to failure versus not to failure; and (2) the effects of a single set versus multiple sets.

### Applications in Sport

Coaches involved in events or sports (i.e. basketball and volleyball) where arm length is a determinant of athletic potential must recognize that these athletes might fatigue to a different degree during weight training than shorter-armed teammates or counterparts. Therefore, it is essential for the coach to understand the individual anthropometric differences among the athletes who are involved in the resistance training program because the amount of required recovery time may differ among individuals. Coaches need to understand this concept in order to get the full strength potential out of their athletes.

### References

Ambdessemed, D. (1999). Effects of recovery duration on muscular power and blood lactate during the bench press exercise. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 20(6), 368-373.

Baechle, T.R., & Earle, R.W. (2008). Essentials of strength training and conditioning (3rd ed.). Champaign: Human Kinetics.

Elliot, B.C., Wilson, G.J., & Graham, K.K. (1989). A biomechanical analysis of the sticking region in the bench press. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 21(4), 450-462.

Judge, L.W., & Burke, J. (2010). The effect of recovery time on strength performance following a high intensity bench press workout in males and females. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance, 5, 184-196.

Mayhew, J.L., Jacques, J.A., Ware, J.S., Chapman, P.P., Bemben, M.G., Ward, T.E., & Slovack, J.P. (2004). Anthropometric dimensions do not enhance one repetition maximum prediction from the NFL-225 test in college football players. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 18(3), 572-582.

Murphy, A.J., Wilson, G.J., Pryor, J.F., Newton, R.U. (1995). Isometric assessment of muscular function: The effect of joint angle. Journal of Applied Biomechanics, 11, 205-215.

Reynolds, J.M., Gordon, T.J., Robergs, R.A. (2006). Predictions of one repetition maximum strength from multiple repetition maximum testing and anthropometry. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 20(3), 584-592.

Wagner, L.L., Evans, S.A., Weir, J.P., Housh, T.J., Johnson, G.O. (1992). The effects of grip width on bench press performance. Journal of Applied Biomechanics, 8(1), 1-10.

### Corresponding Author
Dr. David Bellar
Department of Kinesiology
University of Louisiana at Lafayette
225 Cajundome Blvd
Lafayette, LA 70506
<[email protected]>
(216) 374-2590

### Author Bios

David Bellar is an assistant professor and director of the human performance lab in the department of kinesiology at the University of Louisiana at Lafayette. Dr. Bellar has a background in coaching track and field athletes, and researching performance attributes within this population.

Lawrence Judge is an associate professor and coordinator of the graduate coaching program at Ball State University. Dr. Judge has a long-established background in coaching track and field athletes and an extensive research background in coaching behavior, moral issues, and competitiveness versus participation in athletics, specifically in youth sports.

Tiffany Patrick is an undergraduate student studying exercise science in the department of kinesiology at the University of Louisiana at Lafayette.

Erin Gilreath is a graduate assistant studying coaching/sports performance at Ball State University. Erin is the current American record holder in the hammer throw and a 2004 Olympian.

U.S. Sports Academy2013-11-25T16:46:57-06:00October 4th, 2010|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Exercise Science, Sports Facilities|Comments Off

International Olympic Academy Master’s Degree Program Specifications

Introducing an Olympic Movement innovation, in collaboration with the Department of Sports Organization and Management of the University of Peloponnese (UOP), Sparta, the International Olympic Academy (IOA) now offers a Master’s Degree Scholarship Program for the Academic year of 2010-2011. The course title is, “Olympic Studies, Olympic Education, Organization and Management of Olympic Events.”

The program’s philosophy is consistent with the values of the Olympic movement aimed at worldwide diffusion of the Olympic ideal, global participation, and promotion of knowledge and research in Olympic issues. Grounded in Olympism and Olympic Pedagogy, the academics are based on the three pillars of the Olympic Movement: Education, Sports, and Culture.

### Objectives

– To provide students with specialized knowledge at a postgraduate level on issues related to Olympic Studies, as well as the necessary skills for their academic, professional, or research careers.
– To promote knowledge and research on issues of Olympic philosophy and education, and on organization and management of Olympic Games, big athletic events, and general Olympic and athletic studies.
– To provide a specialized workforce that will organize and direct Olympic and athletic institutions, promote the growth of international Olympic education programs, and contribute to the creation of a scientific basis for the growth and organization of sports.

### Applications

A limit of thirty students may be admitted to the Master’s Degree Program in these categories: degree holders from Greek and foreign higher educational institutions, preferably the officials of National Olympic Academies, National Olympic Committees, the International Olympic Committee, and EU Committees for Education, Culture, and Sport; or graduates of Centers for Olympic Studies, Schools of Sports Organization and Management, Physical Education, Journalism, Economic Faculties, and other Departments; corresponding Departments of recognized institutions of equivalent status in Greece and abroad; along with degree holders from Technology Institute Departments in related subject areas.

### Location and Duration of the Program

The program will take place at the facilities of the International Olympic Academy in Olympia, Greece, and the facilities of the University of Peloponnese in Sparta.

The duration of the program is three semesters. Students are required to attend two semesters of lectures in Greece. The third semester is done at the student’s place of choice. The first academic semester, lasting nine weeks, will start in mid-September 2010. Exact dates will be announced. Second semester dates will be set by the UOP and the IOA.

### Teaching Program

Attendance by all students at all lectures is mandatory. Submission of a dissertation project at the end of the 3rd semester, and of module assignments and examinations at the end of each semester, will determine a participant’s success in this program.

#### 1st Semester

##### Mandatory Modules

The Birth of Sports: History and Philosophy of Sport in Antiquity

– The modern Olympic Games – revival, historic development of Olympic Summer and Winter Games – social, political, and cultural aspects of the Games – Olympic institutions – Olympic law
– Sport and ethics – the Olympic Philosophy
– Olympic Pedagogy I: Olympic education school programs development, implementation

##### Optional Modules (Student to select one from below.)

– The role, organization, and operation of Olympic museums and libraries
– Financial management of sports organizations
– International relations and humanitarian law

#### 2nd Semester

##### Mandatory Modules

– Olympic Pedagogy II: Olympic education school programs development, implementation
– Evaluation of Olympic education programs, research methodology
– Olympic Games Organization and Management (technology, media, financial management, communication, etc.)
– Olympic sponsoring and marketing

##### Optional Modules (Student selects one.)

– Special Olympic Movement issues: media – technology and Olympic Games, doping, fair play, racism and sport, intercultural education, volunteerism, etc.
– Strategic and operational planning of major sports events

#### 3rd semester

##### Master’s Thesis

Preparation, submission, and presentation of Master’s Thesis (All lectures in English)

### Fees, Costs, and Documents Required

The Master’s Program is privately financed by the John S. Latsis Foundation; therefore, no course fee or accommodation costs will be incurred by the students.

Application documents required are

– application form;
– certified copy of diploma or degree with detailed marks;
– curriculum vitae (CV) of the applicant; and
– two recommendation letters, one that is required to originate from a university professor; and a second letter, preferably from the National Olympic Academy, the National Olympic Committee, or any other athletic organization.

U.S. Sports Academy2013-11-25T17:14:03-06:00September 9th, 2010|Sports Facilities, Sports Management, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|Comments Off