Sports Coaching – Page 33 – The Sport Journal

Ethic in Coaching?

Submitted by: Sue Dulaney

The
history of public relations is littered with confirmations
and allegations of unethical behavior
demonstrated by coaches and athletes. The latest firing of
Indiana University’s notorious
Bobby Knight and the suspension of baseball’s John Rocker
are two recent cases that involved
poor decision making on the part of Knight and Rocker. Professionals?
One often wonders
from what moral foundation do participants in the world of
sport chose to make their decisions
and subsequently act (1). Their ethical conduct was in question
and steps were taken to
remedy the situation.

Ethics means more than being honest and obeying the law; it
means being morally good (2). Every athlete, every coach has
to face the ethical dilemma of “What is ethics and what
criteria
should I follow ?” Knowing what is right and what is
wrong defines the boundaries of ethics.
Those involved in sport organizations need to be their own
public relations expert and make
decisions on what is best for them and their organization.
But how many of those involved in
sport know how to deal with a controversial issue, the public,
etc? Coaches and athletes need to
be educated in public relations and situations such as Bobby
Knight and John Rocker could possibly
be avoided. Managers must help their employees decide what
is right and what is wrong.
But how and where do we begin?

The bottom line with regard to ethics rests within the “Golden
Rule”: Treat others in the
way you would like to be treated. This concept is not new.
The principles that shape ethical
conduct have remained constant while people have chosen to
manipulate those principles in
ways which foster self-promotion and self-aggrandizement (3).
Coaches and athletes should 1 be the most ethical persons
in an organization. The public and all of its people are constantly
observing
and scrutinizing sport organizations. Sport organizations
are in the public eye and the
public should demand nothing less than professionalism from
its athletes and coaches.

Everyone knows that athletes and coaches are role models.
Any prospective coach or athlete
should be aware of and strive to produce positive images and
public relations for the sake of
the sport organization and the community. How a coach proceeds
in developing a relationship with
the media and the public is vital. High profile athletes and
coaches should realize that public
relations is a major part of their job. Literature points
to the fact that coaches need to communicate
their role in society with various groups. Standards and tenets
should be used as a guideline
to help develop ethical behavior.

“What
is ethics” and how a coach should go about developing
a sound ethical sports program
poses a dilemma to any rookie coach or manager. Whose ethics
to follow is often in question.
How does one choose? Mark McElreath has identified five factors
that one should consider
in developing ethical behavior. Sound ethics can enhance one’s
athletic program and give a
solid foundation on which to stand and build.

Ethics is defined by Mark McElreath as “a set of criteria
by which decisions are made about what is right and what is
wrong.” The most ethical person in a sport organization
should be the coach. How a coach should develop ethical behavior
begins by looking at five factors:

Tradition
Ways in which the situation has been viewed or handled in
the past.
Public Currently acceptable behavior according to the majority
of one and Opinion their peers.
Law Behaviors that are permissible and those that are prohibited
by legislation.
Morality Generally, a spiritual or religious prohibition.
Immorality is a charge usually leveled in issues on which
religious teachings have concentrated.
Ethics Standards set by the profession, an organization,
or oneself, based on conscience-what is right or fair to
others as well as to self (6).

The world of sports is bound by rules and is very fragile
in the face of the moral quest for
betterment. Those people in a position of sport leadership
must possess a strong sense of priorities,
purpose and ethics for themselves and their programs. The
sport participants and the
sport should begin with looking at the coach and the five
moral obligations a coach should possess:

To ourselves-to preserve our own integrity.
To our athletes-to honor their contracts and to use our
professional expertise on our athletes behalf.
To our sport organization-to adhere to organizational goals
and policies.
To our profession and our professional colleagues-to uphold
the standards of the profession and, by extension, the reputation
of our fellow practitioners.
To society-to consider social needs and claims (7).

Moral obligations could be considered controversial, yet they
are the basis for beginning to establish a noble and virtuous
career as a coach. The explicit goal of all competitive sports
is to
win within the rules. When athletic participants engage in
competition for its inherent pleasure,
generally very few problems based upon ethical conduct emerges
(8).

Any derivation from the inherent pleasures of simple participation
intensifies the pressure
to win therein influencing the ethical constraints in decision-making,
risking the loss of important
“teachable moments” which make sport the educational
tool it can be. Lumpkin (1990)
states: When winning becomes the primary objective, other
potential outcomes are lost.

Coaches
are usually the ones initially caught up in this win-at-all
cost attitude. To fulfill their own
ego needs, coaches too often pressure their young players
to play while injured, to violate the
rules to their advantage, and to quit if they are not good
enough (9).

When the outcome becomes so highly significant that some or
all of the participants employ whatever means possible to
achieve success, then the questionable behavior is covertly
or overtly employed, to the detriment of values and sound
character, and the ideals of sport.

Today’s
interscholastic sport managers and coaches are faced with
more and more difficulty in making ethical decisions and appear
to be distancing themselves away from a solid foundation for
making
ethical decisions.

A solid foundation begins with building the five factors for
ethical behavior and moral obligations.
The adoptions of these five factors could be the beginning
of something positive for sports.
If moral and ethical values are to result from athletic programs
then coaches must emphasize
them.

One might question if ethics in sport should have principles
and values. The principles speak largely to character development,
not the accumulation of victories. Four tenets have been identified
and linked to modern sports. These tenets intertwine sport’s
ideals and ethics. Each tenet
sustains the inherent and traditional values of sports, reinforcing
the “goodness” of the experience.

Athletes must always be considered ends and not means (10).
The competition must be fair (11).
Participation, leadership, resources, and rewards must be
based on achievement rather than ascribed characteristics
(12).
The activity must provide for the relative safety of the
participants (13).

These
four tenets draw from the fields of religion, philosophy and
psychology, valuesthat serve as a foundation of a way of life.
Coaches are expected to conduct themselves in accordance with
certain values or moral standards. Sport ethics should concentrate
on how moral standards apply to sport policies, institutions
and behaviors. It is presumed that standards of ethics
are not innate but are acquired or learned through models
and various life experiences. If they
are learnable, then they are teachable.

Ethical behavior in sport oftentimes requires incredible moral
courage, meaning the resolve
to cohere to one’s values in unsavory times, to resist pressures
from short-term actions not in
the team’s or institution’s long-term best interests. The
weight to conform to “politically correct”
statements and positions outweighs the necessity to express
unpopular opinions or ideas.

Numerous professional organizations provide both general principles
and rules to cover most
situations that need an immediate decision. A Code of ethics
are a common set of values upon
which coaches build their professional work. It is the individual
responsibility of each coach
to aspire to the highest possible standards of conduct. Coaches
respect and protect human and civil rights, and do not knowingly
participate in or condone unfair discriminatory practices.

Increasing
the professionalism in coaching can be accomplished by following
a code of ethics.
The role of the coach is viewed by various groups in the public.
The code of ethics not only
involves dealings with athletes, but other groups as well.
The coaches family, faculty, community
agencies, other coaches and the news media extend beyond the
gyms and fields. A positive
view should be presented as a coach is a public figure. How
the coach views and deals with
situations is based on his ethics.

Coaching professionals must recognize that while a decision
can be made alone, the effects
of the decision may be far reaching and can reflect on the
integrity of the individual who made
the decision and on his/her organization. The professional
must ask themselves questions to
consider in order to maintain an ethically principle-centered
perspective in a decision-making process:

Do I/we have all the information they need? Do I/we need
to speak to someone else, such as the legal staff, to obtain
what is needed?
What
are possible options? Are they legal? Do they violate any
federal, state,
district, or league organizational policy or standard?
Do the options support my/our values and personal ethics?
Can I/we justify
them in the light of my/our values and business ethics?
If not, the option probably is not ethical.
What are the short-term and long-term consequences of each
option? Who or what does each option benefit? Who or what
does each option harm?
Am/Are I/we still comfortable with the options? How will
they be perceived by
others? Could they embarrass any party(ies) involved?

After professionals weigh the options against their ethical
standards, they are ready to make their decision and share
it with those involved. The leader or coach must make sure
they conceptualize and articulate the decision so that subordinates
view it as consistent with their stated shared values and
ethics. The leader cannot completely protect themselves and
their programs from the unethical behavior of associates and
related other parties, but they can build into
their programs a strong ethical foundation that will keep
themselves and their organization strong
in both good times and bad.

A part of becoming a professional is adherence to the highest
organizational and personal ethical
standards. Leaders as well as followers in any group must
establish the ethical tone for the
organization. If leaders at all levels, junior high to college,
choose to act beyond reproach, reward
correct behavior, and refuse to tolerate wrong doing, there
is a much greater chance that the
entire organization will behave ethically.

References

Reilly, R. (1995). Putting it in writing. Sports Illustrated,
82 (2), 64, p1.
Baskin, O, Aronoff, C & Lattimore, D. (1997). Public
Relations: The Profession
and the Practice (4th ed). Madison: Brown and Benchmark.
Petersen, D. (1968). The Clinical Study of Social Behavior.
Englewood Cliffs,
N.J.: Prentice Hall, p 32.
Staffo, D. (1989). Enhancing Coach-Media Relations. Journal
of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance, v60, n7,p25-27.
Giamatti, A. (1989). Take time for paradise. New York: Summit
Books.
ibid 2
Bivins, T. (1992). A Systems model for ethical decision
making in public rela-
tions. Public Relations Review (Winter 1992) p. 375.
Beisser, A.R. (1967). The madness in sports. New York: Appleton-Century-
Crofts.
Lumpkin, A. (1990). Physical education and sport: A contemporary
introduc-
tion. St. Louis: Times/Mirror/Mosby College Publishing.
Merriman, J. Hill, J. (1992). Ethics, law and sport. Journal
of Legal Aspect of
Sport, 2(2), 56-63.
Jones, B., Wells, L., Peters, R., and Johnson, D. (1988).
Guide to effective
coaching principles and practice. Newton, MA: Allyn and
Bacon.
Coakley, J. (1994). Sport in society: Issues and controversies.
St. Louis:
Mosby Publishers.
Conn, J. (1997). Legal concepts and court finding in kinesiological
settings.
Unpublished Manuscript. Warrensburg, MO: Central Missouri
State University
Donald, L. (1988). The media and the coach, again. Today’s
Coach, 10(6), 2-3.

U.S. Sports Academy2013-11-26T21:52:29-06:00February 14th, 2008|Sports Coaching, Sports Management, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|Comments Off

Olympism for the 21st Century: New Life to a Timeless Philosophy

Submitted by: Deborah J. Hunter

Introduction

The Olympic Movement, sometimes referred to as Olympism, is a universal concept that is not defined simply. It is a philosophical ardor for life and the uncompromising pursuit of excellence. Just as individuals operate with a personal philosophy that guides their decision-making, Olympism, too, is philosophically directed through the elevated dimension of quality in how an individual conducts his/her life.

Olympism is an inner faith of a man in himself, a constant effort of physical and intellectual enhancement (Filaretos, 1993 p. 61). It is a general concept which emphasizes not only development of bodily strength, but generally healthier individuals with a happier attitude and a more peaceful vision of the world (The International Olympic Academy, 1997, p. 10). Olympism recognizes and extols individual effort and accepts no discrimination among nations, races, political systems, classes, etc. (The International Olympic Academy, p. 9). As we build awareness and highlight our commonality as human beings, we must realize we are all interconnected in this world. Though these connections are sometimes complex, elusive and difficult to recognize, examining our own patterns of behavior as world citizens will reduce our distance and allow us to find our common ground. All become part of the whole when members of nations learn about global perspectives and become familiar with national issues — this has been a long and historical pattern of the dynamics of relationships among many different people. The fact remains, Olympism involves not only active participants of the sport movement, but also the general public (The International Olympic Academy, p. 9). All people are relevant and interconnected among the diverse cultures of the world.

A Viewpoint on Olympism

The good intentions of Olympism are indeed well-established, but not necessarily well known. A prevailing challenge in today’s world is how to capture people’s attention long enough to convey important and life enhancing messages. Being the difficult job it is, merely sharing information only illustrates the size of the challenge it is to effectively educate people. Education takes quality time and the perception, too often, is that simply receiving information is the same as education. Education is the process of learning conceptual ideas that leads to behavioral awareness or change. A clear distinction needs to be understood on this matter; learning occurs only through practice. Our desire to educate young people regarding the values within the Olympic Movement runs deep and has long existed within a few select people all around the world. Accomplishing the goal of educating others about the Olympic Movement requires recognition of the major reorganization that must occur: 1) there must be an open willingness for revision of the Movement’s principles/values to be better understood in today’s reality; 2) we must package the valuable principles/values in numerous effective ways for appealing delivery; 3) advocates must first educate the deliverers (e.g., teachers, coaches, administrators, etc.) on the importance of the values within Olympism; 4) we must interrupt long existing educational patterns by convincing these systems to provide a window of opportunity for educational time to be devoted to the teaching of Olympism.; and 5) we should provide simulated, lifelike environments in which to apply the practice of the principles/values.

What is Valuable about Olympism Today?

Olympism encourages exploration of self and how self relates to community in a local sense. The smallest local actions accumulate and make an important global contribution. Also, Olympism is a tool that can better unify the people of the world. As experience is gained, the ability to see and think about the global picture becomes a natural outcome. Finally, everyone could be a role model to someone. If we have more people living with the concepts of Olympism in their daily lives, the philosophy will permeate our world at an exponential rate.The evolution of the principles of the Olympic Philosophy is essential. More importantly, there are necessary changes to be made in the moral standards and the values of people, their mentality and sentiments. The inherent values of Olympism that seem to have lost their meaning in our changing society must be identified and revised so that they match the continuous advancement of today’s world. People gain experience and perspective as they advance along the continuum of life. The birth of the Modem Olympic Games spawned a formal sporting event and the growth and change that has occurred from 1896 until today is almost immeasurable. As philosophy directs individual lives and the spirit of Olympism affects those lives around the globe, the common thread the two has is embedded in founding principles. These principles are anchoring and timeless values that have endured. From where or whom we are born, the principles of life that parents teach affect their children throughout their future. The Olympic Movement is much more than just the parent of the Modem Olympic Games, it is a choice that people can undertake by which to conduct their lives.

Gain More Widespread Respect For Olympism

To gain placement within an educational curriculum, the Olympic values must be progressive and command widespread public support and respect. For all of the positive stories that exist within the Olympic Movement, unfortunately, those stories told most frequently and with greatest sensationalism are the negative ones. Often this is said to sell more magazines, newspapers, to keep more television viewers, radio listeners, internet browsers, etc. Modem man is easily influenced by the somewhat contradictory information coming from a myriad of sources. This makes the individual lose his/her intellectual and spiritual independence and lowers the level of healthy self-analysis, which is imperative for self-improvement. Such an individual does not concentrate on the personal spiritual world; rather, he/she develops a tendency to suppress the thoughts and ideas that do not coincide with the interests of other people and society in general. The negative stories and constant reliance on other sources is in conflict with the development of a self-determined individual with unwavering moral standards. By the time an athlete becomes an Olympic-level performer, his/her character and value system has long been formed. In turn, these values are the reflection of the moral standards of society where the athlete has been raised. Reality shows that violence in sport and the use by top athletes of prohibited means of increasing their physical capacity are contradictory to the Olympic concepts of excellence and achievement. Contemporary competitive sport, with its emphasis on the materialistic benefits for individuals and societies, can create elite athletes with an individualistic, egocentric mentality and an excessively self-sufficient attitude (Dellamary, 1994, p. 210). So many adjunct sources contribute to the “win-at-all cost” acceptance of the Olympic Games, that the values of Olympism are often overlooked by the participants, spectators and organizers. It seems we espouse philosophical statements and then act contradictorily toward them. We most naturally reward the outcome rather than the process. Life’s journey is a process and cannot be ignored. The values of Olympism can be taught only through constant practice. Theory without practice is utopian. In Olympism, the principles and values that do not have a connection with an application to real life will not live long in people’s minds. When this connection is established, then Olympism will become not just a philosophy, but a beneficial lifestyle.

Improved Ways To Package The Message Of Olympism

Incorporating the values of Olympism into current curriculums and practices that develop athletes is better than to develop something entirely separate. This enhances the already existing curriculums and athletic practices and can contribute throughout the participation phase. Individuals must be practical and conceptual in the process of learning, understanding and most importantly, experiencing Olympic values. The worth of values is determined by their practice. That is why the education of Olympism should not be a promotion of statements; rather, it should teach the implementation of the values in life situations. Create ways to practice and reinforce these values; extend and apply them to today’s real life. Coaches are the instrumental and influential figures in the promotion of Olympism among young athletes. To develop a uniform and global reinforcement procedure has limited feasibility. It is best if the nations contribute within their cultural means and understanding of how to reach and reward their people in the best possible manner. An excellent program that is successfully operating to this end is the United States Olympic Committee’s Champions in Life program, which is targeted to include the disadvantaged children through youth recreational organizations. The program addresses the benefits of staying in school, staying drug-free, avoiding gangs and violence and being good citizens by being the best one can be. The concept of being a productive member of a society should be promoted as the prerequisite to being a good citizen of the world with global awareness. Sports, therefore, offer us a great opportunity to promote Olympic principles and values, but this opportunity is often under-utilized. Constant reminders of what we believe in are needed. Even simple things (T-shirts, pins, posters, banners, etc.) could have messages written in a simple but thought provoking and heart warming way. We should make a point to devote a few minutes at sporting events to recognizing our belief in the importance of Olympic values (messages in game programs, banners in the gym, public address announcements, athlete or coach comments at the end of the competition, etc.). It could be a valuable contribution if famous athletes and coaches, in their interviews, would sincerely include their support of the Olympic Movement in their commentary.

Improved Ways To Deliver The Message Of Olympism

There are three necessary steps in promoting new concepts and values:

Delivery of the message: the message must be clear, simple to understand and deliver the intended values through sport activities at different levels;
Education and reinforcement of the message: the application process should have reinforcement so the message is taken seriously and the learner comprehends the merits of the message and accepts them as desirable guidelines; and
Consistency which promotes the philosophy in all activities: continuous emphasis is a key to show how much the promoters care about their message.

This will require sincerity regarding why one is teaching/coaching and careful rationale as to what one is teaching/coaching. Concentrated educational experiences such as the International Olympic Academy are an effective model for delivery of Olympism as a valuable curriculum to study. The atmosphere and revered respect that the Olympic Movement is afforded changes lives and perspectives in a short amount of time. Undoubtedly, each and every individual who studies at Olympia becomes a lifetime activist for the movement. Disseminate teacher lesson plan guides beyond the formal educational system. Include children’s museums, national chain daycare centers, Girl and Boy Scouts and other youth organizations where quality children’s activities are valued and sought after. Incorporate the teaching of Olympism in the educational background of coaches.

These teachings must educate coaches how purposefully teaching about Olympic values will contribute to more balanced individual athletes and ignite their personal desire to find their own personal excellence and how Olympic values will strengthen and improve team interaction and success. Administrators, teachers and coaches should show personal interest and reward the adherence to the principles and make the experiences personal and valuable. There is a fine line between competition and cooperation — both are essential and the fine line must be identified and honored for sport to be optimized successfully as an asset to society. Today’s Olympic Movement must be challenged to assist with the removal of all barriers in allowing competitive excellence to be available to all. Sport within the Olympic Movement changes lives positively when performance excellence is sharply focused upon and established as a founding principle in life. When the fine line is blurred and disrespected to the point of allowing competition to be used only for personal gain (as in the pursuit of money or recognition), those driving pursuits are shallow and short-lived. They offer no lasting substance for a quality life from which our new generations will be born.

Suggestions For Gaining Educational Time

Traditions are a base for the formation of values. When people forget their traditions, they interrupt the connection between the past and the present and, as a result, lose the values. The revival of the traditions of Olympism will help to return the essence of the true values to our world.

Transcendence

Contemporary Olympism is influenced by the interaction of many factors that may cause its progressive decline (Dellamary, p. 209). There are two major threats that may prevent the progress of Olympism. They are excessive commercialism and the active involvement of governmental politics in sports (Filaretos, p. 61). The Olympic Movement will always be able to be improved. Implications for our Future Will teaching and thus interweaving these values into society uplift us and provide an eagle-eye view so that we may bring solutions to our varied world problems, which include: Asian economic instability, hyper-urbanization in Brazil, environmental degradation in China, civil war in Rawanda, starvation in North Korea, violence and drugs in the schools of the USA? Is Olympism powerful enough to make a difference to the even bigger issues in our world? Adherents of Olympism cannot influence the human tendency for violence, war, destruction and aggression among nations and groups. Advocates cannot stop economical and political changes of nations. They are helpless in the face of the commercialization of sports and the gigantism and luxury of the Olympic Gaines. But with all of their limits, they have a powerful instrument in their hands that can revive Olympism with its unique philosophy of ideal social coexistence. Only through the education of our youth and the establishment of high moral standards that unite the human race and disregard grounds for discrimination can the dissemination of a true universalization of Olympism become possible.

U.S. Sports Academy2013-11-27T15:02:50-06:00February 13th, 2008|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Coaching, Sports History, Sports Management, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|Comments Off

A Coach’s Guide to Recognizing Alcohol/Drug Problems Among Athletes

Submitted by: University of Massachusetts Athletic Health Enhancement Program

How do I know if one of my athletes is abusing alcohol, drugs, or both?

Assessing a potential alcohol or drug problem is a difficult and often frustrating process. Your influential role as a coach and a confidant, however, places you in a unique position to successfully reach a troubled student.

What should coaches look for?

There are many reasons why students may show the following signs and symptoms. The behavior may or may not be alcohol or drug related. When these behavior patterns occur with some regularity and are interfering with the student’s performance, it’s time to intervene.

Behavioral Patterns

Actions

Physically assaultive or threatening
Exaggerated self-importance
Rigid, inflexible, unable to change plans with ease
Incoherent, irrelevant statements
Excessive attention to routine procedure, almost making it a ritual
Frequent arguments
Frequent outbursts of temper
Frequent episodes of crying
Excessive amount of breaks at practice
Reports from peers who are worried about the person in question
Complaints from community regarding debts, rude behavior
Minor scrapes with campus or municipal authorities
Depressed
Withdrawn
Suspicious
Mood swings: high and low
Oversensitive
Frequent irritability with teammates and other students

Performance

Accidents

Frequent minor injuries due to carelessness, lack of conditioning
Mishaps not related to sports
Frequent physical complaintsAthletic Performance and Patterns:
Assignments take more effort and time to complete
Difficulty in recalling instructions
Difficulty in handling complex procedures
Lack of interest in one’s game
Difficulty in recalling previous mistakes
Absent-mindedness, general forgetfulness
Coming to practices or games in an intoxicated or impaired state
Fluctuating periods of high or low productivity
Mistakes due to poor judgement
Complaints from others concerning her work or habits
Improbable excuses for deteriorating performance
Overall carelessnessAcademic
Poor reports from instructor or academic advisors
Lateness or failure to complete assignments
Listlessness or sleeping in class
Sharp fluctuations in classroom work
Evidence of cheating or using someone else’s work
Frequent cutting of classes
Excessive time spent sick
Misuse of excused absences
Unreasonable resentment to discipline or mistakes of others
Excessive lateness for practices, meeting, or after breaks
Increasingly improbable and peculiar reasons for absence
Absences after weekend, holidays, or other time off given to team

Strategies for Approaching and Helping a Student

If the student comes to your for help

Commend the student’s initiative and courage for coming to you for help. This first step is one of the toughest.
Listen. Listen. Listen. Allow the student to tell you why she thinks there’s a problem.
Discuss options available for ongoing help. The student may want to continue talking to you, in which case you may need to set a limit on how long you can be put in this position. Encourage the student to seek professional help.
Know the resources on campus: Alcohol and Drug Awareness Project x2616, Health Education x2466, Health Services x2121, Counseling Center x2307
If you have reason to suspect a drug/alcohol problem
Arrange a private meeting with the student.
Develop a highly specific list of facts which substantiates your reasons for believing the student may have a problem.
During your initial meeting with the student, express your concern based on the list of facts you have documented about behavioral changes.
If the student denies there is a problem, continue monitoring his or her behavior. Approach the again in a couple of weeks. If there’s no change in behavior or if denial persists, you may need to consider stronger action.
If the student acknowledges there is a problem, be prepared to suggest where she can go for help.

Key Points to Remember

Remember that the message you want to convey is: “There is a problem and I care.” (Note: Anticipate your own anger fear and/or disappointment, so that it can be controlled.)
Policies and procedures you follow must be consistent with all of your students.
Privacy and confidentiality are necessary to ensure trust.
Speak in terms of behavioral fact: weed out your personal judgements on personality, performance, etc. (Note: Avoid “labeling” the individual as an alcoholic or drug addict.)
Anticipate the student’s reactions; learn to expect:
- Defensive reactions: denial, rationalization, blaming
- Emotional reactions: anger, shame, embarrassment, hopelessness, despair, disappointment in self and support system

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Robin Harris, Mount Holyoke Health Educator, UMASS Athletic Health Enhancement Program, (414) 545-4588.

U.S. Sports Academy2013-11-27T16:26:14-06:00February 13th, 2008|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Coaching, Sports Management, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|Comments Off

Factors Associated with Success Among NBA Teams

Submitted by: Anthony J. Onwuegbuzie

Abstract

Data from the 1997-1998 National Basketball Association (NBA) regular season were analyzed to determine factors that best predicted success, as measured by winning percentage. A total of 20 variables were examined. A multiple regression analysis revealed that field goal conversion percentage was the best predictor of success, explaining 61.4% of the variance in winning percentage. The average three-point conversion percentage of the opposing teams explained a further 18.9% of the variance. These two variables combined explained 80.3% of the variance in winning percentage. The finding pertaining to field goal conversion percentage suggest that the attainments of the offense are more important than are the defensive attainments in predicting the success levels of NBA teams. These and other implications are discussed.

Introduction

The game of basketball was invented in December 1891 by Dr. James A. Naismith while an instructor in the physical training department of the International Young Men’s Christian Association (YMCA) Training School in Springfield, Massachussets (Fox, 1974). Naismith’s goal was to answer the challenge of Dr. Luther H. Gulick, his department head, who wanted an indoor game to be invented that (1) would attract young men during the winter, when baseball and football were out of season, and (2) would replace gymnastics and calisthenics, which provoked little interest (Fox, 1974). Naismith, known as “the father of basketball,” incorporated features of soccer, U.S. football, rugby football, field hockey, and other outdoor sports in developing the game of basketball.

By 1946, professional basketball had acquired a large and faithful following among U.S. sports fans, who wanted to watch their former collegians in action. During this period, there was the American Basketball League (ABL) on the East Coast and the National Basketball League (NBL) in the Midwest. In June, 1946, the Basketball Association of America was formed, which effectively replaced the ABL and competed directly with the NBL (Fox, 1974). The BAA and the NBL merged in 1950 as the National Basketball Association (NBA), comprising 17 teams. The NBA was reduced to 10 teams in 1951, as 7 NBL teams with marginal franchises dropped out (Fox, 1974). However, in the 1970s, the NBA expanded to 22 teams. Presently, the NBA contains 29 teams, with 15 teams in the Eastern Conference (with 7 teams representing the Atlantic division and 8 teams representing the Central division) and 14 teams in the Western Conference (with 7 teams representing the Midwest division and 7 teams representing the Pacific division). Basketball is now one of the most popular sports in the United States. Indeed, in the 1997-1998 season (the last time a full 82-game season was played), a total of 8,877,309 people attended an NBA game (The Sports Network, 1998), with an average attendance of 17,135 people per game (USATODAY, 1999).

Currently, at the end of the regular season, that is, when each team has played 82 matches, the top eight teams in each conference qualify for the playoffs. These eight teams then participate in a knockout tournament with the eventual winners of this stage within each conference advancing to the NBA finals. Because the teams which advance to the playoffs are those that have the highest winning percentages in their respective divisions during the regular season, knowledge of factors which predict success during this period would be of educational value for NBA coaches and analysts. Indeed, the former group could use this information to target coaching interventions.

Basketball is abound with empirical facts. Surprisingly, however, only descriptive statistics (e.g., averages, totals, percentages) tend to be utilized. Conversely, few inferential statistical analyses are undertaken on NBA data. Yet, such analyses provide consumers with information regarding the relationships among variables. As such, inferential statistics can yield very detailed and important information to consumers of professional basketball. Moreover, inferential statistics can be used to determine factors that predict the performance levels of teams.

To date, only a few studies have investigated correlates of basketball-related performance. Of those that have, the majority have involved an examination of psychological antecedents of basketball performance. For example, Whitehead, Butz, Vaughn, and Kozar (1996) found that increased stress (assumed to be present in games as opposed to practices) among members of an NCAA Division I men’s varsity team was associated with longer pre-shot preparations and a greater incidence of overthrown shots.

Newby and Simpson (1994) reported (1) a statistically significant negative relationship between minutes played by a sample of men and women college basketball players and mood, (2) a statistically significant negative relationship between the number of assists and depression, (3) a statistically significant negative relationship between the number of turnovers committed and mood, and (4) a statistically significant positive relationship between the number of turnovers committed and degree of tension. The researchers concluded that success in basketball is negatively related to psychopathology.

Both Pargman, Bender, and Deshaires (1975) and Browne (1995) found no relationship between free-throw and field goal shooting and field independency/field dependency. Additionally, Shick (1971) found no relationship between hand-eye dominance and depth perception and free-throw shooting ability in college women. Hall and Erffmeyer (1983) examined the effect of imagery combined with modeling on free-throw shooting performance among female college basketball students. These researchers noted that players who shot free throws under the conditions of videotaped modeling combined with relaxation and imagery were significantly more accurate than were those who shot in the relaxation and imagery condition only.

All the above studies investigated correlates of specific basketball skills (e.g., free-throw shooting), and, with a few exceptions (e.g., Butz et al., 1996), these skills typically were examined under simulated conditions. Such studies, although interesting, have limited utility for basketball coaches, in particular, because they does not provide any information as to why or how a team wins a basketball game. Indeed, the only inquiry found determining factors associated with success among basketball players was that of Steenland and Deddens (1997). These researchers studied the effects of travel and rest on performance, utilizing the results for 8,495 regular season NBA games over eight seasons (1987-1988 through 1994-1995). Findings revealed a statistically significant positive relationship between the amount of the time that elapsed between games and performance level. Specifically, more than 1 day between games was associated with a mean increase of 1.1 points for the home team and 1.6 points for the visitors. Peak performance occurred with 3 days between games. The researchers theorized that the negative effects of little time between games may be due more to insufficient time for physical recovery than to the effects of circadian rhythm (i.e., jet lag). However, although not statistically significant, they also found that visiting teams performed four points better, on average, when they traveled from the west coast to the east coast than when they traveled form east to west.

Surprisingly, no other study has investigated predictors of success among NBA teams. Even more surprising is the fact that no research appears to have examined what factors directly associated with skill level (e.g., field goal conversion percentage) best predict a team’s winning percentage. This was the purpose of the present inquiry. A secondary goal was to determine whether offensive or defensive factors would have more predictive power. It was expected that knowledge of these factors could help coaches to decide where to focus their attention, as well as assist analysts and fans in predicting a team’s performance.

Method
The data comprised all 21 unique team-level variables (when both team averages and totals were presented, only the averages were utilized, since they rendered totals redundant) that were presented on the official NBA website (i.e., http://www.nba.com) for the 1997-1998 regular professional basketball season. (The 1997-1998 NBA season was chosen because it represented the last time a full 82-game season was played.) These variables comprised winning percentage, which was treated as the dependent measure and 20 other variables which were utilized as independent variables. All variables are presented in Table 1. Scores pertaining to each variable for each team were analyzed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS; SPSS Inc., 1999).

Table 1 Pearson Product-Moment Correlations of Winning Percentage and Selected Variables for the 1997-1998 Regular NBA Season

Variable	Winning Percentage
three-point conversion percentage	.38
field goal conversion percentage	.78*
free-throw conversion percentage	.03
average number of offensive rebounds per game	-.31
average number of defensive rebounds per game	.47
number of total rebounds	.19
average number of assists per game	.61*
average number of steals per game	.08
average number of blocks per game	-.13
number of points scored per game	.57*
field goal conversion percentage of the opposing teams	-.68*
average three-point conversion percentage of the opposing teams	-.50
average free-throw conversion percentage of the opposing teams	.18
average number of offensive rebounds per game of the opposing teams	-.49
average number of defensive rebounds per game of the opposing teams	-.71*
average number of total rebounds of the opposing teams	-.69*
average number of assists per game of the opposing teams	-.70*
average number of steals per game of the opposing teams	-.45
average number of blocks per game of the opposing teams	-.58*
average number of points scored per game of the opposing teams	-.70*
* statistically significant after the Bonferroni adjustment

Results and Discussion
Table 1 presents the correlations between winning percentage and each of the selected variables. It can be seen that, after adjusting for Type I error (i.e., the Bonferroni adjustment), winning percentages increased with field goal conversion percentage, number of assists per game, and number of points scored per game, and decreased with field goal conversion percentage of the opposing teams, average number of defensive rebounds per game of the opposing teams, average number of total rebounds per game of the opposing teams, average number of assists per game of the opposing teams, average number of blocks per game of the opposing teams, and average number of points per game of the opposing teams.

An all possible subsets (APS) multiple regression (Thompson, 1995) was used to identify which combination of independent variables best predicted NBA teams’ success. Again, success was measured by NBA teams’ regular season winning percentages. For this study, the criterion used to determine adequacy of the model was the maximum proportion of variance explained (i.e., R2), which provides an important measure of effect size (Cohen, 1988). Specifically, all variables were included except for those that represented (1) the total number of points scored or the total number of rebounds (use of the number of defensive rebounds and offensive rebounds rendered use of the total number of rebounds redundant). Consequently, a total of 16 independent variables were analyzed.

The multiple regression analysis revealed that the following two variables made a statistically significant contribution (F [2, 26] = 53.12, p < .0001) to the model: field goal conversion percentage and average three-point conversion percentage of the opposing teams. The regression equation was as follows:

winning percentage =
-159.53 + {(7.90) X field goal conversion percentage} – {(4.24) X average three-point conversion percentage of the opposing teams}

The regression equation indicates that every 1 percentage increase in field goal conversion rate is associated with a 7.90% increase in winning percentage. The confidence interval corresponding to this variable suggests that we are 95% certain that every 1 percentage increase in field goal conversion rate is associated with an average increase in winning percentage of between 6.00% and 9.80%. Additionally, every 1 percentage increase in the three-point conversion rate of the opposing teams is associated with a 4.24% decrease in winning percentage (95% confidence interval is 2.49% to 5.99%).

With respect to predictive power of the model, field goal conversion percentage explained 61.4% of the variance in winning percentages, whereas average three-point conversion percentage of the opposing teams explained 18.9%. These two variables combined to explain 80.3% of the total variance in winning percentage (adjusted R2 = 78.8%). In the study of human behavior, this percentage is extremely large, suggesting that an NBA team’s success can be predicted with an excellent degree of accuracy.

Conclusions
The purpose of this study was to determine which variables best predict whether an NBA team’s success rate. The finding that field goal conversion percentage explains more than three times the variance in success than does the average three-point conversion percentage of the opposing teams suggests that the attainments of the offense are more important than are the defensive attainments in predicting whether an NBA team will be successful. Thus, the present finding is in contrast to Onwuegbuzie (1999a), who identified four multiple regression models which adequately predicted the winning percentages of National Football League (NFL) teams for the 1997-1998 regular football season–the most notable being a two-variable model comprising turnover differential (which explained 43.4% of the variance in success) and total number of rushing yards gained by the offense (which explained a further 9.3% of the variance). Based on these models, Onwuegbuzie concluded that, outside the 20-yard zone, the attainments of the defense are more important than are the offensive attainments in predicting whether an NFL team is successful.

The present result pertaining to NBA teams also is in contrast to Onwuegbuzie’s (1999b) replication study of NFL teams for the 1998-1999 football season in which a model was identified containing the following five variables: (1) turnover differential (which explained 54.4% of the variance); (2) total number of rushing yards conceded by the defense (which explained 21.3% of the variance); (3) total number of passing first downs attained by the offense (which explained 9.4% of the variance), (4) percentage of third-down plays that produce a first down (which explained 4.1% of the variance), and (5) total number of penalties conceded by the opponents’ defense resulting in a first down (which explained 4.1% of the variance). Onwuegbuzie concluded that defensive gains are better predictors of success than are offensive gains because the first two variables, which explained more than 75% of the variance, were characteristics of the defense.

The finding that field goal percentage rate explained a very large proportion of the variance in success (i.e., 61.4%) highlights the importance of offensive efficiency not only of the starting players but also of the “bench” players, since the latter group also contribute to the field goal percentage rate. Nevertheless, the fact that three-point conversion percentage also made a contribution to the regression model, albeit a smaller one, suggests the importance of teams forcing the opposition to hurry their three-point shots and to take these shots from non-optimal parts of the basketball court.

Although a significant proportion of the variance in winning percentage was explained by the selected variables, this study also should be replicated using data from other seasons. Furthermore, regression models should be fitted using college basketball data. Information from such analyses should help coaches and analysts alike to obtain objective data which can be used to monitor the performance of NBA teams.

References

Browne, G.S. (1995). Cognitive style and free throw shooting ability of female college athletes. Unpublished master’s thesis, Valdosta State University, Valdosta, Georgia.

Cohen, J. (1988) Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. New York: Wiley.

Fox, L. (1974). Illustrated history of basketball. New York, NY: Grosset & Dunlap.

Hall, E.G., & Erffmeyer, E.S. (1983). The effect of visuo-motor behavior rehearsal with video taped modeling of free-throw shooting accuracy of intercollegiate female basketball players. Journal of Sport Psychology, 5, 343-346.

Newby, R.W., & Simpson, S. (1994). Basketball performance as a function of scores on profile of mood states. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 78, 1142.

Onwuegbuzie, A.J. (1999a). Defense or Offense? Which is the better predictor of success for professional football teams? Perceptual and Motor Skills, 89, 151-159.

Onwuegbuzie, A.J. (1999b, November). Is defense or offense more important for professional football teams? A replication study using data from the 1998-1999 regular football season. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Midsouth Educational Research Association, Point Clear, AL.

Pargman, D., Bender, P., & Deshaires, P. (1975). Correlation between visual disembedding and basketball shooting by male and female varsity athletes. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 41, 956.

Shick, J. (1971). Relationships between depth perception and hand-eye dominance and free-throw shooting in college women. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 33, 539-542.

SPSS Inc. (1999) SPSS 9.0 for Windows. [Computer software]. Chicago, IL: SPSS Inc.

Steenland, K., & Deddens, J.A. (1997). Effect of travel and rest on performance of professional basketball players. Sleep, 20(5), 366-369.

The Sports Network. (1998). Statistics: 1997-1998 NBA attendance. The Sports Network, 21(21).

Thompson, B. (1995). Stepwise regression and stepwise discriminant analysis need not apply here: A guidelines editorial. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 55, 525-534.

USATODAY. (December 28, 1999). Inside the numbers. Retrieved January 28, 2000 from the World Wide Web: http://www.usatoday.com/sports/basketba/skn/numbers.htm.

Whitehead, R., Butz, J.W., Vaughn, R.E., & Kozar, B. (1996). Stress and performance: An application of Gray’s three-factor arousal theory to basketball free-throw shooting. Journal of Sport Behavior, 19(4), 354-364.

Footnote
1 Due to space constraints, the intercorrelations among all the variables is not presented. However, this can be obtained by contacting the author.

Address correspondence to Anthony Onwuegbuzie, Department of Educational Leadership, College of Education, Valdosta State University, Valdosta, Georgia, 31698 or e-mail (TONWUEGB@VALDOSTA.EDU).

U.S. Sports Academy2013-11-27T16:29:09-06:00February 13th, 2008|Sports Coaching, Sports History, Sports Management, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|Comments Off

Coaching in Foreign Lands: Denmark and Egypt

Submitted by: Timothy W Henrich, Ph.D., Robert Pankey, Ed.D., Henrik Bech, Rania Elwani and Bill Carleton. Ed.D.

Abstract

The purpose of this article is to discuss and contrast the authors experiences coaching in the Kingdom of Denmark and the Arab Republic of Egypt. The qualitative observations are my own and obviously from the perspective of my own country. Expatriates working in the sport environment must understand the values of the people with whom they are working or training as well as the values of their colleagues and of the society in general. In addition, an expatriate must understand how their athletes and their colleagues are educated and socialized to live and conduct themselves in society. Finally they must understand the social and economic systems of the nation. A highly developed understanding of the society early in the expatriates stay will make their job much easier and lead to a greater success in each of their endeavors. Denmark is one of the poorest countries on earth but has the highest standard of living and the most educated population as well. It is the oldest kingdom in Europe and possess an interesting history. The Scandinavian countries have a state supported church but most people are not involved in religious faith. Egypt has one of the most rapidly developing middle classes in the world. Egypt has a strong upwardly mobile, economy. Egypt has a rich history an tradition of its own. Ninety-seven percent of Egypt’s population follow Islam and I characterize it as a deeply religious society while Danes do not generally have a religious faith. These experiences have been among the most rewarding in my coaching career.

Introduction
Recently, much has been written about the high standard of education in Europe and in the Far East. I do not think that Americans can compare themselves to people from another country in very many aspects of their existence. Not only is it necessary for an expatriate to understand his or her host nation in order to succeed but that they be able look at the strong points of their hosts and see if it is possible make applications for our own educational and sports systems and improve the lives of our students and athletes. The author lived and worked in Aalborg, Denmark for three years following the conferral of the doctorate in Physical Education. The position involved manager and head trainer of the swimming division of AAlborg Swimming Club, which had over 2,500 participants in various aspects of aquatics sports. The sports included Monofin Swimming, Swimming, Water Polo, Diving, Lifesaving, and a lesson program with 1800 participants. The author was also an adjunct instructor in English Language at Sofiendal Lower School as well as Noresundby and Hasseris Gymnasiums.

The Danish Experience
As most people are well aware, the social democracies of Iceland, Finland, Norway, Sweden, Denmark and their protectorate territories have social systems that take care of their citizens from cradle to grave (1). Anyone born in these countries is literally guaranteed a very reasonable life including all aspects of medical care, child care, housing, as well as enough money to live conformably whether they choose to work or choose to remain unemployed nine months and perform community service for three months. The language is very similar to Swedish and Norwegian. There is about a 60% overlap in word usage. However, Danish is not phonetic and impossible to pronounce by looking at the spelling of the words. There are a lot of jokes about Danish language and it was a challenge to learn as well as understand. It was however a necessity and if I had it to do over again I would spend more time in language school.

While these social democracies are not supposed to have competitive values Denmark produced 7 Olympic Medals in 1996 of which 5 were gold. The key behind their success is not the idea that they “defeat” their opponent but that they do their very best. You will not see a Danish athlete doing little victory dances or strutting around after they have beaten someone in a competition. They accept their success graciously and with a humble demeanor.

The first major difference I noticed about Denmark compared to America was that was essentially an atheist nation. There was a state supported Lutheran church but if you ask most Danes will tell they do not believe in God. Most students are exposed to religions during their education and the typical assignment for a student is to compare the values of the world religions. The students studied the common elements of the great religions of the world. When I asked them about religion they responded that their logic told them that if the religions all had common elements there must not be a God. Consequently accountability to a higher power does not exist. The highest power they observed was their government. The other big difference was that there were a lot of unwritten rules. When someone worked in a collaborative society the entire group shared equal amounts of that work. If one person took on more work it was interpreted that the hard worker thought they were better. This and many other unwritten rules were the major challenge of this society.

The Egyptian Experience
My experience in Egypt was also very satisfying and rewarding. They have a great sense of humor which is reflected in their saying that Egypt is run by IBM. This means that they will do something if it is Incha Allah (if God wills it) or they will do it Bokra (tomorrow) or they will say Millesh which means forget it they will not do it at all. I was selected as National Swimming Team coach and during 1992 had the privilege of preparing swimmers for the Darmstadt International, the Olympic Games, the African Junior Championships in Morocco and the Men’s Arab Championships in Syria. The swimmers trained diligently and as a group were dedicated as anyone I have every coached. A major contrast between Denmark and Egypt was what I call “the rules”. The rules in Egypt were either obvious or they were explained. When I first arrived in Egypt the time for prayers at sun down was about 1700. There were no exceptions, and we started workout after prayers. This was how the society operated. Europeans tend to have more unwritten rules and an expatriate might do something unknowingly and someone may never speak to you for the rest of your life. This would never happen in Egypt. They explain their customs, the rules and expectations and one would never fall into the aforementioned situation. For instance, when I was coaching girls I never talked with them at the pool side while they stood in their wet suits. I waited until they were covered with a bath robe. It was greatly appreciated by everyone concerned. In America and in Denmark we are more casual about things like modesty and appropriate behavior around the opposite gender. In Denmark the young women would swim in men’s suits when we were at training camps.

Another contrast is the religious faith of the Egyptians. Ninety-seven percent of all Egyptians follow Islam and the rest are generally Christian. If you were to present them with the concept that all the great religions have many common values they would respond with ” that shows there is a God.” Islam is the fiber of their community and gives them structure by which to live. Its values provide an excellent background for competitive swimmers to develop. There is no alcohol use and no adolescent sub-culture. Consequently there are no competing forces to distract them from training. If the swimmers are given a good environment for training, incentives that are consistent and rewards they will train as hard an anyone in the world. Americans also have a strong religious tradition, however it does not permeate their daily lives as much it does the Egyptians. Americans have religious and secular values that govern their daily lives, where as the Danes values are entirely secular. A serious effort to understand the value systems or systems of belief are essential for success when working in a foreign land.

Structure and Ideals of the Educational System in Denmark
It is important to understand the educational system of any host country. If you are coaching young people they will be in the process of being educated and have a variety of stresses that are different from your own country. Following 1-2 years of kindergarten each student starts first grade with a class of twenty students which will stay together as a group until they finish 9th or 10th grade. The class will have projects together and each week they will be in some classes together. They grow up knowing one another, participating in social activities while taking on many values common to that group of students. The class is led by the same teacher beginning in first grade. This teacher will obviously have a significant influence on these students after having them in class for ten years. This is the first formal step by which young people are socialized by their peers and by a social institution. The students begin to live by the values of their peers rather than the values that may be unique to their family. It is a very important convention and is used for maintaining a homogeneous society (2).

The Teacher in Denmark
As an expatriate coach your closest colleagues may often be school teachers. Most of your peers will be part time coaches and in that respect may have different values. If your colleagues are teachers and you interact with them you should have some basic understanding of the educational system. The teacher in the lower school is educated at a Seminarium which is a four- year University education especially for Lower School teacher preparation. They study two academic specialties and spend four years learning these specialties as well as acquiring the ability to teach through practical experience with their peers. There are no formal education type courses in this curriculum. After graduation from Seminarium the teacher will apprentice for up to three years at full salary.

To teach in Gymnasium, the college preparatory high school, the teacher must have a master’s degree in his or her specialty and usually will only teach that specialty. In order to teach a second subject the teacher must have spent an extra year in that curriculum at the Master’s degree level. They have no education courses in their preparation and do not spend time during their university education learning to teach. However, everyone spends the first 3 years under the supervision of other faculty.

The working conditions of the teachers are outstanding. There are no more than twenty students in any class. Each class lasts 40 minutes, leaving a twenty minute break between classes. They have a maximum of fifteen student contact hours per week with the rest of the time used to grade assignments and preparation. Salary is increased every year and at the end of forty years a teacher’s the salary will be similar to that of a physician in general practice

The Educational System in Denmark.
When I first arrived in Denmark I realized the swimmers I would be coaching for the next 3 years would be involved in education. Thererfore, I needed to spend a lot of time understanding the challenges they faced. Once I mastered this I was able to maintain a good training environment while understanding what they had to do to succeed in their economic system. The school systems and curriculum are run by the Ministry of Education. Each Kommune (County) has local control over its schools. Each school is identical in curriculum, financing, facilities and teachers’ salary. No school is better or worse than another school. Since housing is not segregated by income, the schools contain the identical makeup of students from families of different occupations and or professions. The whole system is extremely egalitarian.

Primary Education or Lower School
The first nine years of education are nearly identical for everyone. The classes are completely integrated until the students begin to show certain aptitudes in 5th grade and are moved into advanced classes. In addition, 5th graders begin to study English and German in addition to their native language. In southern Jyland (Jutland Peninsula), near the border with Germany, the German language has top priority, while in the rest of Denmark, English has top priority. Students are not given grades in Lower School. They have a rating in each class but the only thing that counts are the exams at the end of the year which are given by their teacher and a teacher from another school. Evaluation is extremely discreet. The basics of mathematics, natural and social sciences, languages, arts and humanities are taught each year through either 9th or 10th grade depending on the cases explained below.

Secondary Education
After 9th grade the top forty percent of the students from lower school are able to enter Gymnasium. Some students may take 10th grade and than enter Gymnasium, however, they are in the minority and only comprise another 5% of the students in a given school. All students must be recommended for Gymnasium by their class teacher and this recommendation depends heavily on their final examinations. Gymnasium lasts three years and is a college level institution. The curriculum is demanding and requires a large degree of self-discipline because of the independent projects. The academic tracks are liberal arts, languages, mathematics, science or mathematics and science. Each student completes a core curriculum comprised of courses from each of the tracks that give them a liberal arts education in addition to their specialty. In Gymnasium, there are many cooperative projects, lectures, laboratories and individual research projects. There are opportunities for practical work in a business or government for short periods of time.

Post Secondary or University Education
Everyone accepted to a University is accepted for a five year program which includes a bachelor’s degree, awarded after three years, and a master’s degree, which is awarded after five years. Everyone studying in Universities is given a stipend of 5000 Danish Kroners or 800 US dollars per month, exactly the same as the students in vocational education. This can be extended up to two extra years if a student has changed programs. These students have a very high success rate because they have taken their time and decided what they really want to do. There is no tuition for the University or Seminarium. The students can major in almost all of the same subjects as Americans. Examples are medicine, law, business, natural and social science. The equivalent of the American liberal arts degree requires proficiency in two foreign languages as well as science and mathematics and is for students wishing to become a diplomat. Generally, after the first year of University education the students work in self-directed groups (2) working on projects with the advice and guidance of a professor. There are very few formal lectures in the last two years of the bachelor’s degree and none during the master’s degree. There are usually only 2 or 3 grades given after the bachelor’s degree and only 1 or 2 at the end of the master’s degree. Like the Gymnasium, the grading is from 0 to 13 with the same constraints on the higher and lower grades.

Structure and Ideals of the Educational System in Egypt
I have less understanding of the system in Egypt because I was there just under a year. The young people attended regular school but there was a very flexible schedule. Students in the social stratum of the swimmers have tutors and special study groups. Many attend private schools and receive an International Baccalaureate from Cambridge University. The educated people in my environment were multilingual. Most were fluent in English, French or German and their own language. I encountered many young people who spoke more 3 languages fluently by the time they were 17 years old. One of the interesting things they get to do is read books from their Nobel Prize winner Nagib Mahfouz. They will read the book in their native language and than in French and English or in German and English etc. The student then learns to see how perspectives can be changed by language. I considered the Egyptian young people the best educated relative to America and Europe.

In Cairo there are many international schools which have a very reasonable tuition or can often be free to qualified student. There are several American schools, a British school, a French school, a German school that many young Egyptians attend. With the exception of the American schools they are subsidized by the governments of these countries as a method of spreading the language and culture of the given country. There are many Catholic schools in Egypt and the middle east. I asked many Muslims why they send their children to Catholic school. They told me that the Catholic educational system helped create an empathy for poor people and people who were disadvantaged. The Catholic schools prepare people for success at the university level and give the young Egyptian a broader view of the world. When students finish high school they have one month of examinations to determine if they are eligible to attend University and which University they will attend.

The Teacher in Egypt
In this case my colleagues were not teachers but primarily other coaches. Most of them were former swimmers who came from every walk of life. Teachers are well educated and prepared but they were not working in my environment. The teachers are well educated, multilingual and many have had overseas experience. The best teachers make good money tutoring students in the evenings. The tutors work with groups of students and they do not do homework assignments for the students, they only teach. Often times private school teachers were educated in another country.

Post Secondary or University Education
The University education is also very rigorous in Egypt compared to America. Only the very best students go to the University. There are many examinations at the end of each term. The examinations last for as long as one month. Athletes attending universities in most countries including Egypt have a much more rigorous curriculum than the typical university in America. It is important to understand this and work with the athletes so they can accomplish their goals. You can bet that in Egypt if university athletes are competing in sports they are dedicated and will devote as much time as their studies will allow.

Observed Values in Egypt in Contrast to Denmark and America
Value 1. Faith and religious belief.

The Danes will tell you they are atheists and do not have a faith or religious belief. As previously stated their educational system teaches them religion and shows the common values of the great religions. Their conclusion is dramatically different from the Egyptians. The faith of the Danes however is rooted in their social system which provides for and sustains their life if they are unable to sustain themselves. Trying to use concepts like having faith that their training will lead to success is a somewhat foreign concept to the Danes. The Egyptians follow Islam, which sustains their entire life. Their faith is that anything can happen as long as it is God’s will or “Incha Allah”. The Egyptians who have trained for many months and are preparing for their big competition will acknowledge they are well prepared and can succeed only if it is “Incha Allah”. They have faith because they have faith in God.

Value 2. The family and society:

In Egypt, like America, the family is the most important influence in socializing the children. If you are going to have support as a coach you will have to have the support of the family. The mother is in charge of the house and the education of the children. However, one would usually discuss training with both parents. This is quite similar to America where the family is also the primary socializing agent. In Denmark, young people are socialized by their peers and the social institutions. The students class (previously described) has a strong effect on the student/athletes and their training. If they happen to have a majority of low achievers their is potential for them to pull the athlete from the training program into the “alcohol program”. There is a lot of pressure to conform and if the athletic team is not strong enough the student/athlete will easily be dominated by the cultural norm known as “Jentelavn,” which excludes ambition and hard work. Jentolovn principles reduce the self esteem of the young child and discourage individual initiative and enforce conformity (2).

Value 3. Color Blind Society – Children of God:

Both Egypt and Denmark are free from racial prejudice. It was really great to spent so much time in these environments. The Danes certainly recognize differences in skin tone and other ethnic characteristics. Their lack of prejudice is rooted in their egalitarian culture which considers everyone equals. It would be illogical for them to think otherwise. Recently, there have been problems with first generation refugees not integrating into the Danish culture. But the Danes are persistent with forcing immigrants to learn the language and accept Danish customs and values if they are going to stay. The Egyptians are the same but for different reasons. First there is hardly any recognition of differences of skin color or other anthropological variation. Egyptians have large variations in skin color and people really do not evaluate what skin tone people have. The reason is that everyone is created by God and they were made that way. To say that one of God’s creations was inferior or even different because of skin color would be very wrong in the eyes of a follower of Islam.

Value 4. Foreigners remain in Egypt but they leave Denmark

If you read the history of Egypt you will see that the title of this section is true. The most famous person to become an Egyptian was Mohammed Ali (we are not talking about the former Cassias Clay here). Mohammed Ali was a Turkish Sultan who ruled Egypt during the time of the Ottoman Empire. He eventually fought and liberated Egypt from the Ottoman Empire. The pace of life and the customs are relaxed and easy to accommodate into the life of an expatriate. It is an accepting society and you only need to follow the easy to understand customs. You are never in fear of breaking an unknown rule. In contrast, Denmark was not as easy. As previously discussed, there are many unwritten rules and customs. Danes are extremely attentive to the tone of voice used and often receive comments as insults based on their interpretation of tone. This problem is difficult to overcome particularly because the interpretation of tone in the English language comes from the meaning of tone in the context of Danish language. From the American point of view Denmark is a conformist society. On one trip to the U.S., Danish swimmers they would not purchase American Levi pants for $22.00 because the dye was slightly different than the levis which were imported from England and sold for $100. They were afraid to be different. (2) You must conform or be uncomfortable

Value 5. Trust:

Trust is something the expatriate must gain while residing and working in a foreign land. The expatriate must gain the trust of all individuals who can influence the outcome of the athletes being coached. In Denmark many of the sport governing bodies have been strongly influenced by the former East German training system which has now been completely discredited because it the results were dependent on steroid use by female athletes. However, the idea of these systems of training still exist today and the trust is based on a proper system. Because Denmark is a collective society, the faith and recognition often go to a “staff” of people rather than one responsible person. Consequently the trust must always be with the staff, not because it is a functional concept but because it is the nature of the society. In the case of trust there are similar ideas in Egypt probably because of the former Soviet influence. However, the trust must also come from the family of the athlete as well as from the athletes themselves. This trust can be built without the idea that the coach has a “system” of training. In this case Egypt was again more similar to America than to Denmark.

Value 6. Respect:

Most coaches in American gain respect from hard work and results. There are the only requirements and we as Americans tolerate a wide range of behaviors from a coach if they work hard and win. In Denmark people respect one another and verbalize this regardless of the work they are willing to put in on a coaching job. The respect comes from being a person and one cannot achieve a higher degree of respect for any amount of success. This comes from the “Jentelavn” which is translated as the Law of Jente. It is a series of sayings that sets down the rules for conformity in the society and sets up the idea in the child’s mind that everyone is equal in every way. This is a very strong opinion but my opinion is that Jentelove has a negative effect on the child’s self esteem and makes them completely dependent on the group for survival, robs them of their willingness to excel individually. Jentolovn creates many failures in the sporting arena. The Egyptians have the mentality that God’s creations deserve respect. They do not teach their children to respect each other by reducing their self esteem. They do through their religious faith and the rules by which they live. A person who works hard, sticks with the values in which they believe (Christians also) and shows respect and consideration to other people will receive respect. In either case the mutual respect is important. In Egypt you respect their way of life and faith. In Denmark the same rule applies. You cannot openly oppose institutions like Jentelove or you will fail because too many people will be against your endeavors. You have to do the best you can under the circumstances and try to restore the swimmers self-esteem as best you can.

Conclusion and Discussion
I have tried to explore some of the aspects of this society that allows young people to become extremely well educated in their area. It is truly amazing to hear a fourteen year old speak 3 languages. The education of Americans is often compared to Europeans and people living in the far east. The fact is that all Americans in high school are compared to only the most outstanding or elite students who enter Gymnasium in other countries. If vocational students were included in these studies you would see many similarities except for the outstanding language proficiency and the ability to function in the society. Comprehending the values of the society early on made it easy to develop a swim club that had declined to 30 swimmers over a 4 year period to a robust participation of 170 competitors A clear understanding of the society and of the segments with which I was involved helped me significantly. I recommend all expatriates develop an intellectual and scholarly attitude and become a student of their host nation. First and foremost to this is acquiring the language and being able to understand what people around you are saying. The rest will fall into place if you are interested in making it happen.

References
Allardt, Erik: Nordic Democracy. Det Danske Selskab, Copenhagen, Denmark 1981.
Dyrbye, H., Harris, S., Golzen, T. Xenophobes Guide to the Danes. Ravette Publishing Co. Horsham, West Sussex, United Kingdom.

U.S. Sports Academy2013-11-27T17:00:32-06:00February 12th, 2008|Sports Coaching, Sports Facilities, Sports Management, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|Comments Off