ISSN: 1543-9518

From Classroom to Kickoff: A Case Study on the Perceived Value and Career Impact of Experiential Learning at the Super Bowl for Sport Management Students

Joshua S. Greer1, Jason Grindstaff2, Noa Stroop3


Dr. Joshua S. Greer serves as an Assistant Professor and Program Director for both the graduate and undergraduate Sport Management programs at Cumberland University. He also fulfills the role of Internship Coordinator for Exercise Science and Sport Management within the Jeanette C. Rudy School of Nursing and Health Professions. Dr. Greer holds a B.S. from the University of Tennessee at Martin, an M.Ed. from Bethel University, and an Ed.D. from the United States Sports Academy. His academic interests focus on experiential learning, sport marketing, and industry engagement, aiming to prepare students for dynamic careers in the sport industry.


Dr. Jason S. Grindstaff is the Interim Dean of the Jeanette C. Rudy School of Nursing and Health Professions at Cumberland University, where he has been a faculty member since 2010. He has taught across undergraduate and graduate programs in Exercise & Sport Science and has held leadership roles including Program Director for the Master of Sport & Exercise Science, Executive Director of the Honors Program, and Chair of the Academic Integrity Board. Dr. Grindstaff earned his B.A. from Dakota Wesleyan University, two M.S. degrees and a Ph.D. from the University of Tennessee, Knoxville, and an M.B.A. from Cumberland University.


Dr. Noa D. Stroop is an Assistant Professor of Business at Cumberland University. He completed both his B.S. and M.B.A. at Tennessee Technological University and earned his D.B.A. from Trevecca Nazarene University. Dr. Stroop’s professional background includes roles as a consultant, coach, and business leader. At Cumberland, he focuses on delivering practical, student-centered business education, integrating real-world applications into his teaching.

Joshua S. Greer. https://orcid.org/0009-0005-2890-1673

We have no known conflict of interest to disclose.

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Joshua S. Greer, 230 Foxfire Road, Paris, Tennessee 38242. Email: [email protected]

Abstract
Experiential learning is a foundational component of sport management education, offering students the opportunity to apply theoretical knowledge in real-world settings. Grounded in Kolb’s Experiential Learning Theory, this case study investigates the perceived value and career impact of an immersive experiential learning opportunity at the NFL Super Bowl. Using a mixed-methods approach, data were collected from 11 undergraduate and graduate sport management students through a structured survey instrument. Paired samples t-tests were used to assess the alignment between students’ pre-event expectations and their post-event perceptions, while Pearson correlation analysis examined relationships between networking confidence and career-related outcomes.


Results revealed that students’ actual experiences exceeded their expectations in terms of professional development (t(9) = 3.67, p = 0.005), while expectations regarding a competitive edge remained consistent with post-event perceptions (t(9) = -0.56, p = 0.591). Strong positive correlations were found between networking confidence and key career outcomes, including meaningful connections (r = 0.84, p = 0.002) and perceived job prospects (r = 0.90, p < 0.001). These findings emphasize the importance of structured, high-impact experiential learning opportunities in developing students’ professional readiness and self-efficacy.
The study offers actionable insights for educators and program administrators, emphasizing the need to set realistic expectations while maximizing long-term career development through experiential learning. Recommendations include expanding access to immersive experiences and integrating reflective components to reinforce the value of applied learning in sport management curricula.

Key Words: experiential learning, sport management education, Super Bowl, career development, student perceptions, networking confidence, Kolb’s Experiential Learning Theory, applied learning, professional readiness, event-based learning

From Classroom to Kickoff: A Case Study on the Perceived Value and Career Impact of Experiential Learning at the Super Bowl for Sport Management Students
Experiential learning has emerged as a cornerstone of sport management education, offering students practical experiences that bridge theoretical knowledge with the complexities of real-world practice. Grounded in Kolb’s Experiential Learning Theory, this pedagogical approach has informed the design of various instructional strategies, including capstone projects, industry simulations, and problem-based learning (Bower, 2013). The incorporation of experiential components within sport management curricula not only fosters the development of technical and interpersonal skills but also enhances students’ employability by immersing them in authentic, applied contexts (DeLuca & Fornatora, 2020; Faure & Ray, 2021).


This case study explores the perceived value and career impact of participating in an immersive experiential learning opportunity at the NFL Super Bowl for sport management students. Specifically, it investigates the extent to which guided, real-world experiences influence students’ confidence in pursuing careers in the sport industry and examines the alignment between their pre-event expectations and the professional benefits perceived post-participation. Utilizing survey data from student participants, the study contributes to the expanding literature on experiential learning in sport management education by providing empirical insights into its efficacy. The findings offer practical implications for educators, curriculum developers, and industry stakeholders seeking to enhance student career readiness through intentionally designed, high-impact experiential learning initiatives.

Literature Review
In response to the growing complexity and competitiveness of the sport industry, academic institutions have increasingly recognized the need to integrate experiential learning into sport management curricula. Traditional lecture-based instruction, while foundational, often falls short in preparing students for the multifaceted demands of the professional sport environment. As a result, experiential learning has emerged as a critical pedagogical approach, bridging the gap between theoretical instruction and real-world application. Grounded in Kolb’s Experiential Learning Theory, this educational strategy encompasses internships, client-based projects, event planning, consulting practicums, and blended learning environments—all of which immerse students in authentic industry settings. A growing body of literature demonstrates that such experiences not only enhance technical and interpersonal competencies but also foster critical career readiness attributes, including problem-solving, adaptability, communication, and leadership (Faure & Ray, 2021; Barefoot et al., 2023; Song et al., 2021). Furthermore, structured experiential opportunities facilitate professional networking, mitigate employment anxiety, and strengthen students’ confidence in their career trajectories (Chan, 2023; Wei & Fu, 2024). This case study explores the multidimensional value of experiential learning within sport management education, emphasizing its role in cultivating career preparedness, professional identity, and industry engagement through both in-person and virtual platforms.


Experiential Learning in Sport Management
Research continues to highlight the value of experiential learning in cultivating core competencies in sport management students. For instance, Faure and Ray (2021) demonstrated that student participation in a National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) championship event served as a meaningful capstone experience, sharpening real-time problem-solving and organizational skills. Similarly, interdisciplinary, problem-based learning environments have been found to improve oral communication and data analysis capabilities through engagement with complex, profession-relevant scenarios (Song et al., 2021). Additionally, applied improvisation exercises have been shown to facilitate the development of meta-skills—such as adaptability and collaboration—that are increasingly valuable across sport management domains (Barefoot et al., 2023). Service-learning models, which build upon traditional internships by embedding guided engagement, offer further opportunities for students to apply classroom learning while contributing to societal needs (Gipson et al., 2023).
The integration of experiential learning within sport management programs is inherently multifaceted. Educators utilize various strategies—including internships, guided field-based projects, and blended learning environments—to address the evolving demands of the sport industry. Structured activities such as facility inspections and managerial interviews provide students with hands-on experiences that mirror operational realities within sport organizations (Diacin, 2018). Concurrently, hybrid learning models that combine in-person instruction with digital tools support flexibility in pedagogy and promote consistent engagement across experiential initiatives (Lower‐Hoppe et al., 2019). Recommendations for improving experiential learning practices, particularly internships—emphasize the need for continual assessment and innovation to better align educational outcomes with industry expectations (Brown et al., 2018; Sattler, 2018).
Collectively, these approaches highlight the significance of experiential learning as both a theoretical framework and a practical mechanism for enhancing professional preparedness in sport management. As the field continues to evolve in response to industry shifts, experiential learning remains essential for equipping graduates with the critical thinking, decision-making, and reflective capacities necessary for sustained career success.


The Importance of Experiential Learning in Sport Management Curricula
The integration of experiential learning into sport management curricula is increasingly acknowledged as a critical component for preparing students to navigate the complexities of a dynamic and competitive job market. Faure and Ray (2021) emphasize the effectiveness of capstone experiences in promoting student readiness, noting that hands-on learning cultivates both confidence and professional competence. In alignment with this perspective, Southall et al. (2003) contend that the inherently competitive nature of the sport industry demands a strong experiential foundation to ensure that graduates possess the practical skills and applied knowledge necessary for success. Gipson et al. (2023) further reinforce the value of immersive learning opportunities—such as internships and structured, guided-learning projects—as essential mechanisms for bridging the gap between theoretical instruction and real-world application. These experiences not only deepen student engagement but also foster critical thinking, adaptability, and problem-solving capabilities, which are essential for sustained professional growth in the sport industry.


A growing body of research supports the idea that experiential learning aligns with the industry’s increasing demand for professionals who can seamlessly apply their knowledge in various sport-related contexts. Traditional lecture-based instruction, while foundational, often falls short in equipping students with the practical skills required to navigate the complexities of sport management. By contrast, experiential learning models encourage students to engage in active learning environments, allowing them to develop competencies in areas such as leadership, teamwork, communication, and adaptability—skills that are highly valued by employers in the field.


Methodologies and Strategies in Experiential Learning
A variety of experiential learning strategies have been implemented across sport management programs, each offering unique benefits to students. One such method is the use of client-based projects, particularly in sport sales courses. Pierce (2018) illustrates how these projects not only engage students but also simulate real-world sales environments, fostering practical experience in negotiations, client relations, and revenue generation. Similarly, Bower (2013) discusses the application of Kolb’s Experiential Learning Theory in organizing events such as golf scrambles, which provide students with opportunities to engage in hands-on event management and problem-solving.


Guided-learning projects and internships are among the most effective experiential learning strategies in sport management education. These initiatives allow students to work directly with sport organizations, gaining firsthand exposure to industry challenges and operations. Coffey and Davis (2019) note that these experiences are particularly valuable for student-athletes, as they help translate their on-field teamwork and leadership skills into professional settings. Additionally, guided-learning projects often involve community engagement, which enhances students’ understanding of corporate social responsibility and the broader impact of sport organizations.


Faculty mentorship and supervision also play a crucial role in the success of experiential learning programs. Deluca and Fornatora (2020) argue that faculty guidance during applied coursework is vital for maximizing learning outcomes, as instructors help students navigate complex projects and reflect on their experiences. This perspective is echoed by Pierce and Petersen (2010), who emphasize the importance of assessing student learning outcomes in experiential settings to quantify the effectiveness of these educational experiences. Assessment tools such as reflective journals, portfolio development, and performance evaluations ensure that experiential learning remains structured, and outcome driven.


The Role of Blended Learning in Experiential Education
As technology continues to reshape education, blended learning approaches have gained traction in sport management programs. Lower-Hoppe et al. (2019) propose that combining online and face-to-face instruction can optimize learning outcomes by accommodating diverse learning styles while maintaining the integrity of experiential projects. This approach is particularly relevant in sport event management courses, where students can engage in virtual simulations, case studies, and live event planning.
Blended learning also facilitates greater accessibility to experiential opportunities, particularly for students who may face geographic or financial barriers to participating in traditional internships. Online platforms enable students to engage with sport professionals, analyze real-time industry data, and develop strategic solutions to contemporary sport management issues. By integrating digital tools with hands-on experiences, educators can create a more inclusive and effective learning environment.


Networking Opportunities
Experiential learning has emerged as a crucial pedagogical strategy to enhance both networking and career readiness among students. In particular, work-integrated learning opportunities—including internships, consulting practicums, and co‐curricular activities enable students to develop career readiness attributes by providing direct exposure to workplace practices and professional networks. Chan (2023) argues that exposing students to diverse, real‐world situations through hands-on learning not only develops essential work readiness skills but also creates networking opportunities that can significantly influence career outcomes. Similarly, Mayorga (2019) demonstrates that higher education institutions can effectively develop career readiness through incubator programs that immerse students in authentic, situational learning environments, thereby facilitating connections with industry professionals.


Structured experiential initiatives also foster networking by placing students in scenarios where practical skills blend with professional interactions. Jackson and Bridgstock (2020) highlight that work-integrated learning activities, such as internships, guided field experiences, and practicum placements, are instrumental in forging meaningful interactions with industry practitioners. This interaction is further emphasized by Akpan (2016), who shows that consulting practicums effectively equip students with the necessary career skills while simultaneously providing platforms for networking with experienced professionals. Prather (2007) documents that internships allow students to experience a connected learning environment where classroom theory is continuously integrated with workplace practices, thus promoting both skill acquisition and the expansion of professional networks.


The design and implementation of experiential learning modules play a critical role in fostering career readiness by promoting reflective practices that enhance self-assessment and informed decision-making. Wart et al. (2020) and Aithal and Mishra (2024) emphasize that hands-on experiences coupled with structured reflection enable students to refine their professional identities and clarify their career goals. These reflective processes are vital not only for the development of technical competencies but also for cultivating essential soft skills such as communication, adaptability, and leadership, which are crucial for effective professional networking.


In addition to traditional in-person experiences, the incorporation of virtual platforms into experiential learning offers expanded opportunities for career development. Combs, Joyce, and Bynum (2024) demonstrate that digital environments can effectively support networking by connecting students with mentors and industry professionals, particularly when geographic or logistical barriers limit face-to-face interaction.


Experiential learning also addresses the psychological dimensions of career preparation, such as employment anxiety and self-efficacy. Wei and Fu (2024) and Chen and Tang (2024) advocate for the integration of experiential teaching into career planning curricula to reduce employment-related stress and reinforce professional confidence. Exposure to realistic workplace scenarios and ongoing interaction with industry professionals helps students contextualize their academic knowledge, navigate relational dynamics, and build meaningful networks.
Taken together, experiential learning offers a multidimensional approach to career readiness by simultaneously developing technical and interpersonal competencies, promoting reflective growth, and fostering network-building. Through a variety of mechanisms—including internships, consulting practicums, hands-on projects, and virtual platforms, students gain direct exposure to professional expectations and establish critical industry connections. This holistic framework enhances not only students’ employability but also their long-term capacity to succeed within the dynamic landscape of the sport management profession.

Conclusion
As the sport industry grows in complexity and competitiveness, the need for experiential learning in sport management education becomes increasingly imperative. This study emphasizes how experiential learning bridges the gap between academic instruction and real-world application through methodologies such as internships, capstone projects, guided-learning experiences, and blended learning environments. The integration of these strategies has demonstrated significant benefits, including the enhancement of critical thinking, adaptability, and industry-specific competencies.


Participation in large-scale events, such as the Super Bowl, represents a pinnacle of experiential learning, offering students a rare opportunity to immerse themselves in high-stakes, professional environments. These experiences provide not only technical skill development but also instill confidence, professional identity, and career direction. The value of faculty mentorship, structured assessment tools, and intentional curricular design further amplifies the effectiveness of experiential initiatives, ensuring that they are both impactful and aligned with industry expectations.


Looking ahead, continued research is essential to evaluate the long-term career benefits of experiential learning and to identify best practices for maximizing its impact. Expanding partnerships between academic institutions and sport organizations will be crucial in offering meaningful, scalable, and inclusive experiential opportunities. Ultimately, embedding experiential learning deeply within sport management education equips students with the tools they need to transition from the classroom to the kickoff—prepared, confident, and career-ready.

Materials and Methods
Participants
The total number of 11 participants were included in this study. The gender distribution was as follows: 7 participants (63.6%) were female, and 4 participants (36.4%) were male. Of these, 6 participants (54.5%) were graduate students, including 4 (66.7%) females and 2 males (33.3%).


Instrument
From Classroom to Kickoff: Evaluating the Career Benefits of Super Bowl Experiential Learning Survey (attached)
Data Treatment and Analysis
Statistical analyses were conducted to address the research questions and evaluate the perceptions of sport management students regarding the career benefits of participating in the NFL Super Bowl experiential learning opportunity. Descriptive statistics were used to summarize participant responses. Paired samples t-tests were conducted to compare students’ expectations before the event with their perceived outcomes (e.g., professional development, competitive edge, career benefits). Pearson correlation analysis was used to explore the relationships among key outcome variables such as confidence in career pursuits, networking effectiveness, and perceived career impact. Open-ended responses were analyzed thematically to supplement quantitative findings and provide deeper insight into students’ overall satisfaction and willingness to recommend the experience.

Results and Discussion
Student Expectations and Perceived Outcomes
The results of the paired samples t-tests revealed several important findings related to students’ expectations and perceived outcomes from their Super Bowl experiential learning experience. A significant difference was found between students’ expectations of gaining hands-on learning (Q1) and their perceptions of professional development after the experience (Q2), t(9) = 3.67, p = 0.005. This suggests that students felt their actual experience exceeded their initial expectations regarding professional development.


In contrast, no significant difference was found between students’ expectations of gaining a competitive edge in the job market (Q11) and their perceptions following the event (Q12), t(9) = -0.56, p = 0.591. This indicates that students’ expectations were generally aligned with their perceived benefits in this area. However, a highly significant difference was observed between students’ expectations of receiving direct career opportunities, such as job offers or interviews (Q13), and their reported outcomes (Q14), t(9) = 6.00, p < 0.001. This suggests that while students were optimistic about immediate career benefits, those expectations were not fully met in the short term.


Networking Confidence and Career Perceptions
The Pearson Correlation analyses revealed several statistically significant associations between students’ self-reported networking confidence and career-related perceptions, highlighting the potential impact of experiential learning within sport management education. A strong positive correlation was observed between students’ confidence in their networking abilities (Q10) and their belief that participation in the Super Bowl experience would enhance their future job prospects (Q5), r = .90, p < .001. This suggests that students who expressed higher levels of confidence in their networking skills were more likely to view the experience as a meaningful contributor to their professional development.


Similarly, a strong positive correlation was found between networking confidence (Q10) and students’ beliefs that the professional connections formed during the event would support future opportunities, such as employment, internships, or graduate assistantships (Q9), r = .77, p = .009. This indicates that students who perceived greater utility in their networking efforts also reported higher levels of self-assurance in their ability to build professional relationships. In addition, a strong correlation was identified between networking confidence (Q10) and the extent to which students reported making meaningful professional connections during the event (Q8), r = .84, p = .002. These findings collectively suggest that students who felt more confident in their networking capabilities were also more likely to report engaging in valuable professional interactions.

Career Readiness and Perceived Professional Development
Beyond networking-specific outcomes, further analysis revealed significant relationships involving overall career readiness and perceived professional development. Students who felt more prepared for a career in sport management (Q3) were more likely to recommend the Super Bowl experience to others (Q15), r = .80, p = .005. A strong correlation was also found between the alignment of students’ assigned tasks and their perception that the experience met their expectations for professional development (Q6), r = .88, p < .001. Notably, students who believed the Super Bowl experience gave them a competitive advantage in the job market were significantly more likely to report already receiving tangible career benefits, such as internship offers or job interviews (Q13), r = .89, p < .001. One additional correlation between networking confidence and perceived competitive advantage (Q10 and Q12)—approached statistical significance, r = .60, p = .066, suggesting a potentially meaningful relationship that could be more clearly established in studies with larger sample sizes. Collectively, these findings highlight the interconnectedness of networking confidence, career preparedness, and the perceived value of high-impact experiential learning. The strength and consistency of the correlations support the notion that participation in major sporting events such as the Super Bowl can meaningfully enhance students’ professional development trajectories within the field of sport management.

Conclusion
The present study contributes to the growing body of literature emphasizing the value of experiential learning in sport management education by examining student perceptions of professional development, career readiness, and networking outcomes resulting from participation in the NFL Super Bowl. The findings emphasize the importance of high-impact learning experiences in enhancing students’ confidence, career awareness, and perceived marketability within the competitive sport industry. Quantitative analyses revealed that students’ expectations regarding hands-on learning and professional development were not only met but exceeded, as demonstrated by significant increases in post-event perceptions. While students’ expectations regarding competitive advantage remained consistent, the anticipated short-term career outcomes such as job offers or interviews were not fully realized. This discrepancy suggests a need to frame experiential learning as a catalyst for long-term, rather than immediate, professional advancement.

The strong and consistent correlations between networking confidence and several career-related outcomes highlight the pivotal role of self-efficacy in professional relationship-building. Students who reported higher levels of networking confidence were more likely to form meaningful connections, perceive the experience as professionally valuable, and anticipate long-term career benefits. These findings align with existing research that underscores the importance of confidence and social capital in career development among emerging sport professionals.
Additionally, the alignment between assigned tasks and students’ expectations was a significant predictor of overall satisfaction and perceived professional growth. This supports the argument that carefully structured and intentional experiential learning opportunities are critical in maximizing the educational and professional value of such events. This study affirms the potential of large-scale sport events like the Super Bowl to serve as transformative learning environments that foster career readiness, enhance networking abilities, and solidify students’ commitment to pursuing careers in sport management. Future research should consider longitudinal approaches to evaluate the enduring effects of these experiences on actual career outcomes, including job placement, graduate school enrollment, and professional advancement. Additionally, expanding sample sizes and incorporating multi-institutional data could strengthen generalizability and provide further insights into best practices for experiential learning program design.

Research Limitations and Implications
While this study offers meaningful insights into the perceived benefits of Super Bowl experiential learning, several limitations should be acknowledged. First, the small sample size (n = 11) limits the generalizability of the findings. Although the data revealed significant patterns and correlations, the results may not fully represent the experiences of a broader population of sport management students. Future studies with larger and more diverse participant pools would enhance the reliability and applicability of these findings. Despite these limitations, the findings have important implications for sport management education. Experiential learning at large-scale events like the Super Bowl can play a critical role in enhancing students’ career preparedness, particularly in the areas of networking and professional confidence. Academic programs should continue to prioritize and expand these opportunities, while also integrating reflective components that help students connect their experiences to broader career goals.

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2025-05-05T10:49:36-05:00July 18th, 2025|General, Leadership, Sport Education, Sports Management|Comments Off on From Classroom to Kickoff: A Case Study on the Perceived Value and Career Impact of Experiential Learning at the Super Bowl for Sport Management Students
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The Impact of Head Coach and Student Athlete Decision Making in the Transfer Portal Era of College Sports

Authors:

Howard Bartee, Jr., Ed.D.1

Author affiliations:

1School of Public and Allied Health, Division of Kinesiology and Physical Education, Prairie View A & M University, Prairie View, TX, USA

Corresponding Author:

Howard Bartee, Jr., Ed.D.

Prairie View A & M University

700 University Drive

Prairie View, TX 77446

[email protected]

770-314-4415

Howard Bartee, Jr., Ed.D. is an Assistant Professor of Health and Kinesiology-Sport Management at Prairie View A & M University in Prairie View, TX.  His research interests include sports management and communication, sports analytics, and organizational behavior within the context of health and kinesiology. With nearly twenty-five years in higher education, Dr. Bartee has served in administrative capacities and previously taught sports management and sports administration courses at Houston Christian University in Houston, TX and Belhaven University in Jackson, MS. Dr. Bartee has further spearheaded initiatives related to sports career services, student advisement, and program and curriculum development. 

ABSTRACT

In collegiate sports, the reputation of the head coach is important in urban and suburban America as the transfer portal era of college sports continues to evolve. Many young athletes are going through the decision-making process as they prepare to compete on the collegiate level. Athletes have overcome their circumstances to open doors to the field of college sports, but with the impact of coaching changes, coaching reputations, and the growth of the transfer portal in recent years, college sports has entered an era of mobility on the coach and player levels, during the post-Covid pandemic society in our global sports world.

Key Words: High School Sports, College Sports, HBCU Sports, Coaching, Transfer Portal

INTRODUCTION

College sports has evolved tremendously from the days of four-year scholarship opportunity commitments to now the transfer portal era of today’s sports paradigm.  The transfer portal era refers to the ability of players to sign with one school this year and then transfer to another school the next year if another opportunity arises.  Many forces are now influencing the expansion of college sports and which, in effect, draw attention to the reasons why the impact of who the head coach is and the student athlete decision making process, are now having an impact on where today’s student athlete is deciding to go on signing day. 

From a practical viewpoint, while the college or university name plays a role in the decision-making process, when considering the student athlete decision, when considering the movement in player recruitment evolving over the past five years, the reputation of the coach along with the transfer portal and name, image, and likeness (NIL) opportunities are now playing a larger role in where students are attending across America.  When considering the hiring of coaches like Deion “Coach Prime” Sanders at Jackson State University in 2021 and then his movement to the University of Colorado in 2023 and the growth of transfer portal in recent years, coaching changes and coaching reputations have evolved to a level where a ‘free agent” market, like professional sports includes, is now part of the everyday operations of college sports. 

Thus, using sociohistorical and current perspectives and demographical information, the following questions guide this exploration:  

  1. What is the impact of the head coach in the pre-Covid transfer portal era (prior to 2020) and post-Covid transfer portal era (2020 to the present) on the NCAA Division I (FBS), NCAA Division I (FCS), NCAA Division II, and NCAA Division III levels of college sports? 
  2. What is the impact of the student athlete decision making process in the pre-Covid transfer portal era (prior to 2020) and post-Covid transfer portal era (2020 to the present) on the NCAA Division I (FBS), NCAA Division I (FCS), NCAA Division II, and NCAA Division III levels of college sports? 

These questions provide the context for understanding how the impact of the head coach has evolved from the pre-Covid transfer era in 2020 to the present post-Covid era on the NCAA Division I (FBS), NCAA Division I (FCS), NCAA Division II, and NCAA Division III levels. These questions show how on each of these levels and even to the recruitment of graduating high school student athletes is much different in 2025 as compared to years past. Using the implications of contextual matters, these questions offer a wider understanding of the contextual impact of the head coach along with their reputation and the universities ability to compete in the transfer portal era of college sports with the appropriate academic and athletic resources, today and tomorrow in the changing landscape. 

A View of the Impact of the Head Coach in the Transfer Portal Era of College Sports

Context matters when viewing the impact of the head coach and the student athlete decision making in the transfer portal era of college football, particularly given how the post-Covid transfer portal era is significantly different than the pre-Covid transfer portal era has evolved for student athletes selecting their colleges and universities.  The competition that has become apparent is that many athletes are now choosing not only where they attend based upon the reputation of coach, as past studies show, but also now where they can build upon their name, image and likeness (NIL) as well as where they can have the abilities to play the sport they love.  With the convergence of these concepts, entrance into the college ranks has been a detailed process from middle school to high school as many parents and student athletes embrace the process of going from youth sports to collegiate sports through the traditional way of the college choice process as outlined in past studies, like (1), (4), (5), and (7).  

According to (2), the primary college choice model is the (3) model, which focuses on the “predisposition phase, the search process and the choice stage” (pp. 207-221). In this model, (3) explain the logical steps that a student would encounter in the decision-making process, including the following: (1) the predisposition phase focuses on whether or not the student would like to continue formal education; (2) the search process focuses on the consideration and selection of characteristics of higher education and (3) the choice stage focuses on developing choice criteria and selecting an institution to attend.

When looking at the (3) of college choice in more detail along with (2) study on the college choice process of male and female collegiate student athletes going to the next level, it has three primary components including: (a) creating a simpler yet more conceptual model as compared to previous models; (b) isolating and containing the college choice process within a manageable three-stage framework (predisposition, search, and choice) as described above; and (c) emphasizing stages that focuse more on the student rather than the institution.  As a result, we see how student athletes are navigating to colleges and universities, that include those hired during the Coach Prime Era from 2020 to the present, those with previous college coaching experience or those coached with former NFL players.

As Table 4 shows, from the sampling of coaching hires, it was found that out of 25 coaching hires, 10 or 40% had NFL Playing Experience, had college coaching experience 13 or 52%, and had NFL Coaching Experience, 2 or 8%, excluding Coach Prime, thus the Coach Prime Effect on college coaching hires is part of the impact of today’s post Covid transfer portal era along with higher coaching salaries heading into the 2025 season, according to (10) in Table 5.

A View of the Impact of the Student Athlete Decision Making Process in the Transfer Portal Era of College Sports

In 2025, context matters, too, with regards to the head coach and student athlete decision making in the transfer portal era of college sports, specifically in football.  During the past five years, following Covid in 2020, the transfer portal has become a major component of the college football paradigm.  With the ability of players to become immediately eligible to play in most cases when they transfer, player movement has evolved to resemble the free agency model of professional football.  Through a sampling of schools throughout the country, there has been an uptick in players entering the transfer portal from 2020 to 2024 that have impacted to the collegiate sports industry.  Table 6 summarizes how this period has reshaped the sports paradigm. 

As Table 6 shows from NBC Sports and On3.com, “there has been an increase from years 2020 to 2021 and then from 2022 to 2023. The 65% increase in 2020-2021, along with the 19% increase from 2022-2023, shows that the impact of the transfer portal is growing throughout the field of college football and in the student athlete decision making process” (9), (10), (11), (12), (13) and (14). The largest increase has been from the 2020 to the 2025 years as there has been a 418% increase in the number of transfer portal entrants as shown in Table 6 above from 786 entrants in 2020 to 4060 entrants currently in June 2025.

Table 7 shows the impact of when a high-profile coach leaves one college and moves to another college that student athlete’s decision making resulted in approximately 60 student athletes entering the transfer portal.  This occurred when Deion “Coach Prime” Sanders took a head coach job at the University of Colorado and completed his work as head coach at Jackson State University.  Coach Prime’s exit resulted in him achieving a Power 5 position in the Big 12 Conference.  The resulting impact has also seen the hiring of other former athletes, like former Tennessee State University head coach Eddie George, recently moving to Bowling Green State University after having a measure of success with an Ohio Valley Conference Championship and postseason playoff appearance at Tennessee State University. 

Though many well-known sports figures are arriving at colleges and universities, like Michael Vick at Norfolk State University (football), Desean Jackson at Delaware State University (football), Reggie Barlow at Tennessee State University(football), and Bill Belichick at the University of North Carolina (football), the student athlete decision making process of offers, commitments and signings continue to be a valuable part of the recruiting process as the world of college athletics in 2025 evolves into a stronger business model of NIL collectives, new administrative roles like Athletic Department General Managers, and a more active transfer portal era during the post-Covid era, thus requiring a broader contextual perspective.

Additionally, Coach Prime and the Colorado Buffaloes recently continued in their turnaround from a one win season in 2022, prior to his arrival, as they qualified for the Alamo Bowl with a nine win season in Year Two of the Coach Prime Era along with having a Heisman Trophy Winner, while Coach T.C. Taylor, the coach that replaced Coach Prime at Jackson State, just recently led them to a SWAC Championship and Celebration Bowl HBCU National Championship twelve-win, two loss season, though both schools were recently impacted by the transfer portal between 2022 and 2024, according to (6). Also, the Ohio State University football team won the first-ever 12 team playoff National Championship over the University of Notre Dame, with a fourteen-win, two loss season. 

Shared Implications of Coaching, Student Athlete Decision Making and the Transfer Portal Era of an Evolving College Sports Model in 2025 and Beyond

In closing, since the first collegiate football game in November of 1869 between Rutgers University and the College of New Jersey (now Princeton University) until the most recent national championship between the Ohio State University and the University of Notre Dame in January 2025, the college sports model has been consistently focused on maintaining the balance between student and athlete.  For many years, this balance was focused on a model of players going to school for an education through scholarship achievement and athletic competition.  Though this still remains the primary focus, the transfer portal is now playing a stronger role on the student athlete decision making process as athletes have the flexibility to opt-out of their scholarships and transfer to other schools on a year to year basis, if they so choose.  Moving forward, with a major $2.8 billion settlement coming in July of 2025, a shift in the model on all levels will see more fluidity as the impact of the head coach and who that person is, along with how valued a student athlete feels will become factors that influence where players play and whether or not they choose to enter the transfer portal and then go elsewhere.  For example, according to (8), “more than 4,600 Division I athletes have entered their names in the NCAA transfer portal in the month of April 2025, in part because schools have been preparing for the expected roster limits in the $2.8 billion settlement”.  Moreover, as new student athletes enter the college sports arena from high school, having knowledge of the NIL process, will factor into the how student athletes make college choices and it will also have an impact on how colleges and universities structure their athletic departments and, in many instances, run them like professional organizations as the transfer portal era continues. 

REFERENCES

  1. Adler, P., & Adler, P. (1991). Backboards and blackboards: College athletes and role engulfment. New York: Columbia University Press.
  2. Bartee, Jr. H. (2011).  The next level: Six erspectives on the college choice process of student athletes.  United States: CreateSpace.  ISBN-13:  978-1456377762
  3. Hossler, D. & Gallagher, K. (1987). Studying college choice: A three-phase model and the implication for policy makers. College and University, 62, 207-21.
  4. Hossler, D., Schmitt, J. and Vesper, N. (1999).  Going to college: How social, economic, and educational factors influence the decisions students make.  Baltimore, MD: John Hopkins Press.
  5. Letawsky, N. (2003). Factors influencing the college selection process of student athletes: are their factors similar to non-athletes. College Student Journal, 37(4), 604-610.
  6. Keith, J. T. (2023).  Jackson state football transfer tracker: Who’s leaving via portal. Retrieved on April 10, 2025 from https://www.clarionledger.com/story/sports/college/jackson-state/2023/12/04/jackson-state-football-transfer-portal-tracker-tc-taylor/71799007007/
  7. Mathes, S. & Gurney, G. (1985). Factors in student athletes’ choices of colleges. Journal of College Student Personnel, 26, (4), 327-333.
  8. Murphy, D. (2025, April 23).  Judge delays house settlement approval over roster limits. Retrieved on April 24, 2025 from https://www.espn.com/college-sports/story/_/id/44823761/judge-delays-house-settlement-approval-roster-limits.
  9. NBC Sports Staff (2024, February 12).  College football transfer portal tracker.  Retrieved on April 22, 2025 from https://www.nbcsports.com/college-football/news/college-          football transfer-portal-tracker.
  10. On3. (2025). 2025 College football transfer portal. On3.com. Retrieved on June 23, 2025 from https://www.on3.com/transfer-portal/wire/football/
  11. On3. (2024). 2024 College football transfer portal. On3.com. Retrieved on June 23, 2025 from https://www.on3.com/transfer-portal/wire/football/2024/
  12. On3. (2023). 2023 College football transfer portal. On3.com. Retrieved on June 23, 2025 from https://www.on3.com/transfer-portal/wire/football/2023/
  13. On3. (2022). 2022 College football transfer portal. On3.com. Retrieved on June 23, 2025 from https://www.on3.com/transfer-portal/wire/football/2022/
  14. On3. (2021). 2021 College football transfer portal. On3.com. Retrieved on June 23, 2025 from https://www.on3.com/transfer-portal/wire/football/2021/
  15. Talty, J. (2025, March 28).  College football’s highest-paid coaches in 2025: Colorado’s Deion Sanders enters top 10 with amended contract. Retrieved on April 24, 2025 from  https://www.cbssports.com/college-football/news/college-footballs-highest-paid-coaches-in-2025-colorados-deion-sanders-enters-top-10-with-amended-contract/

2025-06-24T08:57:53-05:00July 11th, 2025|Contemporary Sports Issues, General, Research, Sports Studies|Comments Off on The Impact of Head Coach and Student Athlete Decision Making in the Transfer Portal Era of College Sports
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Correlation Between Post-Injury Mental Health Symptoms and Rehabilitation Adherence in Collegiate Athletes

Luis Torres1, Fredrick A. Gardin2, Shala E, Davis3 and Colleen A. Shotwell4

1Department of Kinesiology, Montclair State University
2Department of Exercise Science, East Stroudsburg University

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Luis Torres, Department of Kinesiology, Montclair State University, 1 Normal Ave, Montclair, NJ 07043. Email: [email protected]. 

Correlation Between Post-Injury Mental Health Symptoms and Rehabilitation Adherence in Collegiate Athletes

ABSTRACT

Purpose: To explore the correlation between post-injury mental health symptoms and rehabilitation adherence in collegiate athletes to gain knowledge that would improve rehabilitative recommendations. Methods: 19 National Collegiate Athletic Association athletes (M age: 20.58 ± 1.31) were assessed for depressive and anxious symptoms using the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS) after injury. Once they were cleared for full sports participation, they were administered the HADS again and the Rehabilitation Adherence Questionnaire (RAQ) to measure their perceptions of adherence to their rehabilitation programs. Results: A significant correlation was found between the two administrations of the HADS  (R = .55, P = .03), but no significant correlations were found between RAQ scores and any of the HADS scores. Conclusions: Although the findings of this study did not establish a significant correlation between post-injury depression and anxiety symptoms and self-perceptions of rehabilitation adherence, strong evidence still exists to believe that poor mental health may be associated with poor rehabilitation adherence. Applications in Sport: Members of the collegiate athlete care team should be aware that the common underreporting of mental health symptoms in this population might make it difficult to establish the relationship between these symptoms and their recovery process after an injury. A holistic recovery approach should be considered in any injury recovery processes to allow collegiate athletes to heal both physically and psychologically.

Keywords: depression, anxiety, injury, recovery

Abbreviations: NCAA, National Collegiate Athletic Association; HADS, Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale; RAQ, Rehabilitation Adherence Questionnaire

Introduction

Depression and anxiety remain as the leading mental health conditions among collegiate athletes, with as many as 30% and 50% of National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) athletes reporting depression and anxiety, respectively, in a 2011 survey from the National College Health Association (NCAA, 2024).  More recently, the American College of Sports Medicine (2024), in their 2021 statement on mental health challenges for athletes, found that the prevalence for depression and/or anxiety in this population ranges between 25% to 35% and only 10% of collegiate athletes with a known mental health condition seek help from a mental health professional. The reasons for this prevalence are multi-faceted given that collegiate athletes often maintain a strong athletic identity that is reluctant to ask for help and are faced with the societal perception of athletes always having to be immensely resilient during all hardships (Chang et al., 2020; Sarac et al., 2018; Tomalski et al., 2019; Wayment et al., 2017; Weigard et al., 2012; Wolanin et al., 2016). Collegiate athletes balance academic demands with their time-intensive and stress-inducing athletic demands while encountering issues relevant to sexuality, gender, hazing, bullying, sexual misconduct, body image, and sport transition (Greenleaf et al., 2009; Petrie et al., 2008; Putukian, 2016). The notion that athletes may be at a decreased risk for mental health conditions due to increased levels of exercise and other personality traits that can aid in athletic success has been shown to be a misconception (Chang et al., 2020).Furthermore, collegiate athletes are exposed to an abundance of additional unique risk factors for depression and anxiety when compared to non-athlete collegiate student counterparts (Demirel, 2016; Ghaedi et al., 2014; Hagiwara et al., 2017; Hanton et al., 2013; McGuire et al., 2017).

Unfortunately, sports injury is an often unavoidable element of collegiate athletics participation, with approximately 40% to 50% of collegiate athletes sustaining at least 1 injury requiring either medical attention or a participation restriction during their careers (Yang et al., 2014b).  Injuries such as ligamentous sprains, muscular strains, skeletal fractures, joint dislocations, and concussions are relatively common (Yang et al., 2014a). Sports injuries further aggrandize the preexisting symptoms of depression and anxiety present in collegiate athletes due to the fact that a sports injury may serve as potentially one of the most physically and emotionally disturbing events that a collegiate athlete may experience during their career.  Injured collegiate athletes experience enhanced risk factors of depression and anxiety such as fear of reinjury, trouble sleeping, poor concentration, emotional numbness, and injury conversation avoidance (Li et al., 2017; Padaki et al., 2018).  They utilize the coping mechanisms of unrealistic wishful thinking, unhealthy venting of emotions, denial, and behavior disengagement (Wadey et al., 2014). Additively, social stressors and financial stressors have also been shown to substantially grow post-injury in collegiate athletes (Evans et al., 2012).  Despite these complications, however, collegiate athletes are often still expected to adhere to sports rehabilitation exercise programs for a full recovery and timely return-to-sport.

Sports rehabilitation exercise programs are only effective for collegiate athletes when they are closely adhering to the instructions provided to them by their rehabilitative healthcare provider (Torres et al., 2023a).  Poor rehabilitation adherence may prolong recovery, enhance reinjury risk, and reduce the likelihood of positive patient outcomes upon return-to-sport (Jack et al., 2010). The salient post-injury symptoms of depression and anxiety play a role in reducing rehabilitation adherence and hindering injury recovery in collegiate athletes (Baez et al., 2023; Torres et al., 2023b).  However, given that as many as 98.3% of injured collegiate athletes have been reported to either overadhere and underadhere to their rehabilitation programs, more contemporary evidence is needed to further understand this extent of this role (Granquist et al., 2014). Despite the recent progress in collegiate athlete mental health screening that has been made, rehabilitative healthcare providers of injured collegiate athletes may not yet be collectively appropriately aware of the symptoms of depression and anxiety in rehabilitation. The purpose of this study was to explore the correlation between post-injury depression and anxiety and rehabilitation adherence in collegiate athletes in an effort to gain knowledge that would improve recommendations for sports rehabilitation programs.

Methods

Sampling

The sampling in this study was limited to two collegiate institutions of varying NCAA competition levels (NCAA Division II and NCAA Division III) within the Mid-Atlantic region of the United States. Demographic information on age, sex, NCAA competition level, race/ethnicity, academic eligibility level, type of sport, and type of musculoskeletal injury was collected from all participants. Participants were recruited by their athletic trainers after a sports injury had occurred and were included based on being 18 years of age or older and sustaining an acute musculoskeletal sports injury that required the inability to engage in full sports participation for at least four weeks. The purpose of this four week requirement was to ensure that the injuries sustained were significant enough to require a rehabilitation program for at least a month (Shin et al., 2010). Collegiate athletes were excluded if they had a concussion, respiratory disease, metabolic disease, cardiac disease, autonomic nervous system disease, or chronic injury of an unknown origin.

Instrumentation

Zigmond and Snaith (1983)  designed the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS) as a 14-item questionnaire to measure the symptoms of depression and anxiety. The HADS consists of two subscales that are constructed of seven items for symptoms of depression (HADS-D) and seven items for symptoms of anxiety (HADS-A). Each item contains responses that are individually scored on a scale from 0 to 3 with higher scores indicating a higher level of symptom frequency (i.e., not at all, sometimes, occasionally very often, nearly all the time, etc.). The combined score of emotional distress (sum of HADS-A and HADS-D) ranges from 0 to 42 with scores of 11 or higher indicating a potential for a clinically significant mood disorder case. The total score of each participant places them into one of the following categories: non-case/normal (0 – 7), borderline case/borderline abnormal (8-10), case/abnormal (11 – 21+). Correlations ranging from .76 to .41 for the seven anxiety items (P < .01) and from .60 to .30 for the seven depression items (P < .02) have been associated with this instrument (Zigmond & Snaith, 1983).  Similarly, calculated Spearman correlations between subscale scores and confirmed psychiatric ratings have shown that R = .70 for HADS-D and R = .74 for HADS-A (P < .001). The HADS has been routinely established as an instrument that performs well in assessing the symptom severity and caseness of depression and anxiety in both psychiatric and primary care patients and the general population (including collegiate athletes) (Bjelland et al., 2002).

RAQ

Fisher et al. (1988) designed the Rehabilitation Adherence Questionnaire (RAQ) as a 40-item questionnaire to measure rehabilitation adherence, while Shin et al. (2010) later redeveloped the RAQ into a 25-item questionnaire and validated it for injured athletes. The RAQ consists of six subscales: support from significant others (five items), pain tolerance (five items), scheduling (four items), self-motivation (five items), perceived exertion (three items), and environmental conditions (three items), and participants using the RAQ rate their level of agreement to each item using a four-point scale (i.e., 1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = agree, 4 = strongly agree). The responses to each statement are then summed for a total adherence score that can range from 25 – 100. Higher total adherence scores indicate that participants perceive themselves successfully adhering to and completing their rehabilitation programs as prescribed by their rehabilitative healthcare provider. Moderate to high intra-class correlation coefficients for the each of the six subscales (support from significant others = .81, pain tolerance = .64, scheduling = .72, self-motivation = .78, perceived exertion = .67, and environmental conditions = .82; P < .01) have been found for this instrument, thus indicating a high level of test-retest reliability within the RAQ (Shin et al.).

Data Collection

A non-experimental repeated-measures prospective cohort study design was used in the completion of this study. Human subjects research approval was provided from the East Stroudsburg University Institutional Review Board (protocol #ESU-IRB-041-2021) in March of 2021, with the data collecting period for this study starting in June of 2021 and ending in February of 2022. After an in-season sports injury had occurred, collegiate athletes who met the appropriate inclusion criteria were approached by their athletic trainer for voluntary participation in this study through the provision of an electronic informed consent form on their first full day of starting their rehabilitation programs. The collegiate athletes were made aware that their involvement in this study would not have any effect on their status as a student-athlete at their respective institution. Once enrolled in the study, the participants were asked to complete the HADS to measure their current post-injury depression and anxiety symptoms. Participants were then monitored throughout the duration of their rehabilitation programs until they received clearance for full sports participation from either their team physician and/or athletic trainer (i.e., at return-to-play). On the day this clearance was attained, the HADS was administered again as well as the RAQ to measure their self-perceptions of their adherence to their rehabilitation programs. All questionnaires in this study were administered through Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) compliant Google Forms on either a password-protected tablet, smartphone, or computer desktop with all collected data being deidentified, kept confidential, and storedin a password-encrypted computer.

Data Analysis

The IBM SPSS 27.0 Statistical Package was used to analyze all collected data once the data collection period was complete. Descriptive statistics were reported and Pearson product-moment correlation tests with a significance level of P < .05 were conducted among HADS and RAQ scores to attempt to further identify the relationships between post-injury depression and anxiety and rehabilitation adherence in collegiate athletes. The following criteria were used to interpret R values: little to no relationship (.00–.25), fair relationship (.25–.50), moderate to good relationship (.50–.75), and good to excellent relationship (above .75) (Portney & Watkins, 2009).

Results

The 19 participants (M age: 20.58 ± 1.31; 17 males, 2 females) in this study were primarily NCAA Division II student-athletes (73.7%), White Caucasian (63.2%), academic seniors (42.1%), and football athletes (63.2%). The participants sustained various musculoskeletal conditions such as foot/ankle injuries (36.8%), knee injuries (21.1%), hip/thigh injuries (21.1%), and shoulder injuries (21.1%) with three participants not being cleared for a return to full sports participation at the conclusion of the data collection period. The cleared participants (n= 16) took 96.63 ± 31.90 days to recover from their sustained injuries before they were cleared for full sports participation. For the completion of the post-injury HADS (i.e., HADS 1 administration), the participants (n = 19) scored an 11.58 ± 5.26, while for the completion of the return-to-play HADS (i.e., HADS 2 administration), the participants (n = 16) scored a 9.63 ± 5.83. The participants (n= 15) rated their self-perception of rehabilitation adherence to be 57.20 ± 4.95 on a scale of 25 to 100 using the RAQ. A significant positive correlation was found between HADS 1 and HADS 2 scores (R = .55, P = .03), but no significant correlations were found between RAQ and HADS 1 scores (R = .52, P = .85) or RAQ and HADS 2 scores (R = .14, P = .63).

Discussion

The mean scores of both HADS 1 and HADS 2 falling above the asymptomatic normal HADS category indicates that depressive and anxious symptoms remain a substantial presence for collegiate athletes at post-injury and return-to-play states. Furthermore, although the findings of this study did not establish a significant correlation between post-injury depression and anxiety symptoms and self-perceptions of rehabilitation adherence, there is still strong existing evidence from previous researchers to believe that poor mental health may be associated with poor rehabilitation adherence. Holt et al. (2019) organized a literature review of 34 studies on the topic of adherence to exercise therapy interventions in children and adolescents with musculoskeletal conditions among 6 different databases. The selected studies represented 1,563 participants (35% male, 65% female, 2-19 years old), 11 musculoskeletal conditions, and multiple exercise interventions. Commonly identified barriers to rehabilitation adherence in this review included time constraints, physical environment (location), and previous negative exercise experiences. Holt et al. concluded that a diversity of barriers and facilitators to exercise therapy for musculoskeletal conditions exist and current strategies to boost adherence are not consistent with contemporarily identified barriers and facilitators. They clinically referenced that making exercise enjoyable, social, and convenient may be important to maximizing rehabilitation adherence to exercise therapy in young, injured athletes.

Jack et al. (2010)  developed a systematic review of 22 articles reporting on 20 independent cohort studies using the ADMED, CINAHL, EMBASE, MEDLINE, PUBMED, PSYCINFO, SPORTDISCUS, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, and PEDro databases to understand the barriers to treatment adherence in physiotherapy outpatient clinics. These researchers identified high quality studies that maintained a focus on the exploration of rehabilitation adherence in patients with musculoskeletal conditions. They found that there was strong evidence to indicate that poor treatment adherence was associated with low levels of physical activity at baseline or in previous weeks, low in-treatment adherence with exercise, low self-efficacy, depression, anxiety, helplessness, poor social support, greater number of perceived barriers to exercise, and increased pain levels during exercise. They also found that the research focused on the ability of health professionals and health organizations to address these barriers was comparatively limited. Holt et al. (2019)  and Jack et al. would agree that symptoms of depression and anxiety may negatively influence rehabilitation adherence and that future study on the barriers to rehabilitation adherence is essential to the development of useful interventions by sports medicine professionals and other healthcare providers.

Brewer et al. (2013)  studied the predictors of adherence to home rehabilitation exercises following ACL reconstruction in a study of 91 (58 males, 33 females) post-operative patients. These patients completed measures of athletic identity, neuroticism, optimism, and pessimism before ACL surgery and measures of daily pain, negative mood, stress, and home exercise completion for 42 days postoperatively. These researchers found that their participants reported high levels of adherence to the prescribed exercise regimen and that the participants completed fewer home exercises on days when they experience more stress or negative moods. They concluded that day-to-day variations in negative mood and stress may contribute to adherence to prescribed home exercises. This conclusion may be generalizable to athletic training settings in collegiate athletics, as past studies have supported the presence of poor rehabilitation adherence by student-athletes in these settings (Granquist et al, 2014; Fisher et al., 1988).

Evans et al. (2012)  researched the stressors experienced by injured athletes during the 3 phases of their recovery from sports injury (onset, rehabilitation, return to play) and the differences in the stressors experienced by team-sport athletes as compared to individual-sport athletes with the use of semi structured interviews. The sample in this study consisted of 5 previously injured high-level rugby players and five previously injured high-level golfers. These researchers found that the athletes in their study experienced sport, medical/physical, and social and financial stressors; they also found that these same athletes reported several differences in the stressors experienced across the 3 phases of injury recovery and between team and individual-sport athletes. These researchers stressed that their findings have important implications for the design and implementation of interventions aimed at managing the potentially stressful sport injury experience and facilitating the return of injured athletes to competitive sport. This research supports the notion that certain psychosocial components of sports injury affect the ability of collegiate athletes to return to sports participation without any limitations.

Wadey et al. (2014) explored the relationship between re-injury anxiety and return-to-play outcomes in a cross-sectional research study of 335 collegiate athletes (M age = 23.5 ± 6.6) from varying NCAA competition levels. The athletes in this study completed the RIA-RE subscale of the Reinjury Anxiety Inventory (RIAI) as an assessment of reinjury anxiety and the Return to Sport After Serious Injury Questionnaire (RSSIQ) as an assessment of the perceptions of athletes on returning to sport. These researchers also assessed the presence of coping strategies in these athletes with the use of the Crocker and Graham MCOPE measure. They found a positive relationship between re-injury anxiety and heightened return concerns (R = .62, P < .01) and significant indirect effects for coping were found for wishful thinking, venting of emotions, denial, and behavioral disengagement. They suggested that future researchers should continue to examine the relationship between anxiety and return-to-play outcomes using diverse methodologies. 

Conclusions

With the premise that poor mental health may be correlated to poor rehabilitation adherence, it is reasonable to suggest that rehabilitative healthcare providers should have an invested interest in utilizing effective psychosocial interventions within their programming when treating injured collegiate athletes. Additionally, they should re-evaluate their own mental health screening practices to ensure that they are screening for appropriate mental health symptoms at baseline, at post-injury, and at return-to-play, as this is now considered best practice (Baez & Jochimsen, 2023). Rehabilitative healthcare providers should also be keenly aware of the fact that underreporting and a proven reluctance to ask for help in this population may play a role in masking certain symptoms through the entire rehabilitative process. These same elements may have also played a role as to why a relationship was not established between post-injury depression and anxiety symptoms and self-perceptions of rehabilitation adherence in this study. Other study limitations, including a small, predominantly White and male sample, timing and scheduling issues in the athletic training facility, and a lack of standardization when it came to the rehabilitation programs prescribed by the athletic trainers, could also have impacted the results. Future researchers should seek to create similar studies with much larger, diverse sample sizes that explore correlations between the individual subscales of HADS-D and HADS-A and the self-perceptions of rehabilitation adherence of collegiate athletes.

Applications in Sport

Members of the collegiate athlete care team, such as coaches, athletic trainers, and other healthcare providers, should be aware that the common underreporting of mental health symptoms in this population might make it difficult to establish the relationship between these symptoms and their recovery process after an injury. A holistic recovery approach should be considered in any injury recovery processes to allow collegiate athletes to heal both physically and psychologically. Despite their inability to sometimes be vulnerable and transparent in reporting, collegiate athletes clearly struggle with their mental health and more research is needed to better understand how the more nuanced aspects of depressive, anxious, and disordered eating symptomatology affect them while they are recovering from a sports injury. The best collegiate athletic environments are those that permit collegiate athletes to report any and all mental health symptoms, concerns, and crises without any fear of consequences stemming from coaches and other relevant personnel.

References

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2025-05-23T11:29:04-05:00July 4th, 2025|General, Research, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|Comments Off on Correlation Between Post-Injury Mental Health Symptoms and Rehabilitation Adherence in Collegiate Athletes
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Effect of a Lace Locking Device on Skate Lace Tension

Authors: Hsu, T-T.1, Lockwood, K.1, Dunne, C.1, and Ellingson, J-A.2

1Faculty of Applied Health Science, Brock University, St. Catharines, Canada

2School of Mechanical Engineering and Technology, George Brown College, Toronto, Canada

Corresponding Author:

Tzu-Ting Hsu, MS

Office WC274A, 1812 Sir Issac Brock Way

St. Catharines, ON L2S 3A1

[email protected]

585-281-0698

Effect of a Lace Locking Device on Skate Lace Tension

ABSTRACT

Ice hockey skate boots traditionally use laces to secure the foot inside the boot, limit slippage, customize fit and enhance performance. A lace locking device was proposed to enhance the role of laces, maintain lace tension and customize tension zones throughout the lacing pattern. Applied sport research is often challenged by the lack of portable measurement instrumentation that can quantitatively assess the merits of athletic equipment and the effectiveness of specific equipment components. With a measurement apparatus developed in the previous research1, the merits of skate laces can be easily assessed. The purpose of the study was to investigate the effect of without versus with the lace locking device installed on lace tension pre-post a bout of skating in two skating conditions: on a skating treadmill and on real ice. No significant differences were revealed with the lace locking device installed, potentially suggesting that lace tension was maintained by the device (p<0.05). Outcomes of the study suggested that the lace locking device provided a resistance to lace slippage, had the ability to maintain pre-established tension specific to the location where the device was installed, and further supported the athletes in customizing their skate setup.

Keywords: footwear, lace tension, lace locking device

INTRODUCTION

Athletic footwear is the vehicle by which mechanical function is translated to human motion and sport performance. The athlete-equipment interaction in gliding and sliding sports has been recognized as a fundamental component of performance success2–5. However, quantitatively assessing the merits of equipment, namely athletic footwear on the execution of technique, is technically challenging and has been handcuffed by the lack of portable, reliable, and sensitive research instrumentation that can be used in a real-world sport environment.

Previous research has provided proof of concept that laces can help limit foot-shoe movement and achieve better fit6. Different lacing patterns are often employed in an attempt to address anatomical differences in individual foot morphology7 and customize tension preferences in footwear. In the sport of ice hockey, skate boots traditionally use laces to secure the foot inside the boot and further enhance fit and comfort. It is common for an athlete to customize their skate lacing setup by using different types of laces or lacing strategies to create varying tension zones at different locations along the lacing pattern to optimize fit, comfort and ultimately support skating performance. Some practices have included using different materials of laces (e.g., waxed versus non-waxed), different lacing patterns (e.g., skipping or doubling up on eyelets), or by installing ad hoc lace locking devices. These practices are somewhat temporary band-aid solutions since laces are continuous; tension may disperse across the length of the laces and lacing pattern. Furthermore, the material properties of the laces allow for stretch1 and as a result, lace tension loosens. All these factors may result in changes in the original or intended effect of securing and customizing footwear setup.

A novel practice that has emerged recently to enhance lace tension and secure footwear is the use of a self-lacing technology. One innovative method utilizes a motorized cable instead of the traditional lace permitting automated and precise control of lace tension. A recent study by Myers et al. (2022)8 investigated the impact of self-lacing technology on foot containment during dynamic motion. Results revealed significantly less movement of the foot within the footwear that potentially translates to related improvements in athletic performance and reduced injury potential, with the technology at low (-10% preferred), preferred, and high (+10% preferred) tensions. A subjective measure of athlete’s perception also revealed an increase in the athlete’s confidence level when performing dynamic motion with higher tension. However, the technology described above is currently unavailable in specialized footwear, such as ice skates.

Previous research has established relationships between lacing practices, tension and athletes’ confidence and performance7–9. Quantitatively assessing the merits of lace locking practices is technically challenging. A portable apparatus was designed, built and reliability assessed previous research1, specifically for the purpose of quantifying lace tension parameters [applied force (N) and displacement from skate tongue (mm)] while the footwear is secured on the foot. The apparatus included a customizable platform to accept different types of footwear (e.g., running shoes, hiking boots, ski boots, ice skates), allowing lace tension to be assessed when the footwear was secured on the foot, pre and post a bout of activity in both the controlled environment of a laboratory and when subjected to a sport-specific, real-world environment.

The current study proposed an alternative lace locking device to maintain lace tension during activity and to further support comfort and fit of the athletes’ equipment in sport-specific environments. The piece of equipment under investigation was a patented and commercially available after-market lace locking device (Figure 1). The lace locking device can be installed on the existing lace of athletic footwear with the intention to reduce lace slippage, permit the user to create distinct zones of lace tension, and reduce the need of retying the footwear during extended use. Therefore, the purpose of the study was to confirm these claims by comparing lace tension pre and post a bout of skating without and with the lace locking device both in a lab environment on a skating treadmill and in a real-world environment on ice.

Figure 1

Note. Illustrations of the lace locking device in three positions (a) the Lace Locking Device, (b) Device open with laces, (c) Device closed with laces secured.

METHODS

Study Design

The study was a mixed methods experimental design including two interventions, namely without and with the lace locking device installed on the skate boot laces. The intervention was repeated in two experimental environments; (i) in a controlled laboratory environment on a skating treadmill, and (ii) in the real-world sport environment, on the ice during game play. Ethical clearance was obtained from the Office of Research Ethics Board at Brock University (File #21-251).

Instrumentation

A portable apparatus (Figure 2) designed and built specifically for the purpose of quantifying lace tension parameters1 was used for the current study. Data collection procedures and data analyses were consistent with procedures developed in the previous study1.  Output measures of the apparatus included force (N) and displacement (mm) collected by the load cell and the calliper when a force is applied to the lace. To facilitate this, the hook secured to the end of the cable was attached to the lace at the desired eyelet location. Once a force was applied to the lever, the force was transferred to the lace via the cable and pulled the lace away from the tongue of the footwear1.

Figure 2

Note. Different views of the apparatus. (a) View at 45 degrees (b) Frontal view. The base of the apparatus was designed to secure all types of footwear including ice skates. There are adjustable stoppers located at the front and the two sides of the base. There is a slot in the middle of the base plate which can allow skate blade to fit in to provide constrain to footwear movement. The lever on the top coming out of the back provided a loading mechanism through the cable while the load cell and calliper attached at the other end measure force and displacement of the force applied respectively. The microcontroller was used to initiate and stop the data collection while recording measurements from the load cell and the calliper.

Phase 1 – Investigation of lace locking device installed on a skate boot in a controlled laboratory environment while skating on a skating treadmill

The purpose of Phase 1 was to investigate the effect of without the lace locking device installed versus with the lace locking device installed on lace tension pre and post a bout of skating on a skating treadmill.

Participants

A total of eight participants (n=8) were recruited (four males and four females). The eligibility criteria included: participants were treadmill trained defined by having completed a minimum of eight sessions of previous skating treadmill training, participants were self-reported as injury free, and participants were actively playing hockey at a competitive level.

Equipment

Participants wore their own skates. Skates were sharpened to game play conditions and a new pair of non-wax laces (Howies Hockey Tape, MI, USA) were installed in all skates. A previous study suggested that laces stretch under tension loads and depending on the material of the laces, some stretches more than the other1. For the purpose of consistency across all participants, non-waxed laces were selected for the study. The lacing pattern was consistent. Each participant tied their own skates to their own preferred tension for game-like conditions. Plantar pressure insoles (XSENSOR® Technology Corporation, AB, Canada) were inserted into the skate boots prior to lacing the skates. The insoles were used in the study to provide a baseline measure of fit of the skate and lace tension for each intervention. Baseline pressure measures (psi) were defined as the pressure exerted on the insoles from the foot due to the tension of the laces securing the foot to the footbed. The baseline pressure measures were collected prior to the skating bout in both interventions. Participants were required to sit on a bench with knees extended and feet lifted from the ground to unweight the skates for five seconds. The baseline pressure measures were calculated as the average pressure over five seconds for each section of the foot (forefoot, midfoot, heel and total foot). Paired samples t-tests of the baseline pressures (psi) recorded by the insoles at the forefoot, midfoot, heel and total foot were conducted between interventions. An analysis of the pressure data revealed consistent pre skate baseline pressures for each section of the foot and total foot between interventions. This consistency in the pressure data can be interpreted as a consistent fit of the skate and lace tension prior to the bout of skating in both interventions. 

Warmup

A skating treadmill in a controlled laboratory environment was used for the purpose of this study. The surface of the treadmill is 3.6 m2 (200cm by 180cm) covered by a series of parallel polyethylene slats prepared with silicon to simulate the frictionless surface of real ice. A harness was fit and secured to each participant and connected to an overhead track system as a safety measure. A standardized and supervised warm up protocol consisted of three 20-second skates at a speed of 7.5mph (12.07km/h) and an incline of 5° on the skating treadmill.

Treadmill Skating Protocol

Participants completed a standardized protocol of moderate intensity consisting of five 30-second bouts of skating at 7.5mph (12.07km/h) speed and 5° incline, followed by three 30-second bouts of skating at 7mph (11.27km/h) speed and 10° incline. Moderate intensity was dictated by participant’s previous treadmill training experience and calibre of play and was consistent and repeated for both interventions. A work-to-rest ratio of 1:3 was implemented to control for the effect of fatigue while skating on the treadmill.

Without lace locking device – pre and post lace tension measurement procedures

Pre: Following the warmup and prior to the skating protocol described above, participants were instructed to sit in a chair to loosen and retie the laces of the skates to ensure the pre skate tension measures were not influenced by any skating prior to the start of the skating bout. The lace tension apparatus (Figure 2) was used to measure the force (N) required to pull the lace as well as its displacement (mm) away from the tongue of the skate boot (Figure 3). Lace tension measurements were recorded at the second (below the lace locking device hold zone), the fourth (between the lace locking device hold zone), and the sixth (above the lace locking device hold zone) eyelet of the left skate.

Post: Following the skating protocol described above, participants were again required to sit in a chair and lace tension measurements were repeated at the same eyelet locations (two, four, and six) as the pre measurement on the left skate.

With lace locking device

Participants were instructed to loosen their laces so that the lace locking device could be installed. Lace locking devices were installed on the laces aligned with the third and the fifth eyelets on the left skate during the retying process. The hold zone referred to the space between the two lace locking devices (Figure 3). The skating protocol and measurement procedures were consistent with those performed for the previous condition, without the lace locking device.

Figure 3

Note. Locations for the lace locking devices in Phase 1 with the red box indicating hold zone.

Figure 4

Note. Setup of the apparatus during data collection of Phase 1.

Phase 2 – Investigation of lace locking device installed on a skate boot in a real-world environment while skating on the ice

The purpose of Phase 2 was to investigate the effect of without the lace locking device installed versus with the lace locking device installed on lace tension pre and post a bout of skating on the ice.   

Participants

A total of 14 female participants (n=14) were recruited. Eligibility criteria included; participants were self-reported as injury free and were actively playing competitive hockey. All participants were instructed to wear their own skates sharpened for game like conditions.

On Ice Skating Protocol

Participants warmed up with their own choices of movements for the first 5 minutes of the skate. A 45-minute bout of on ice skating simulated the movement patterns, speeds, and intensities of competitive game play.

Pre and post lace tension measurement procedures

Pre: Participants were required to sit in a chair with their knees flexed at 90°. The lace locking device was installed on the seventh eyelet from the toe of each participant’s left skate. No lace locking device was installed on the right skate. The measurement apparatus was used to collect force (N) and displacement (mm) of a pull on both left (representing with) and right (representing without) skates of each participant at the sixth eyelet (one eyelet below the lace locking device).

Post: Following the on-ice bout of skating, participants were required to sit in a chair with their knees flexed at 90° in order to repeat tension measurements (force (N) required to pull the lace and lace displacement (mm) away from the tongue of the skate boot) at the same eyelet location (eyelet 6).

Figure 5

Note. Apparatus setup during Phase 2 data collection.

DATA ANALYSIS & RESULTS

Phase 1 – Results of lace tension with lace locking device installed on a skate boot in a controlled laboratory environment while skating on a skating treadmill

At each of the measurement sites (eyelets 2, 4, and 6), a force (N) versus displacement (mm) plot was generated for both pre and post skate data. A linear line of best fit was generated for each data set; the slope of the line represents the stiffness property of the lace materials and the translation value represents the shift in displacement (mm) for pre and post measurements. The shift in displacement (mm) was compared and used as a quantitative metric for lace tension. Paired-comparison t-tests were performed to compare means of the lace tension parameter between pre and post skate measurements without and with lace locking device.

Results revealed significant differences in lace tension parameter pre and post a bout of treadmill skating for both interventions (without and with the lace locking device) at the fourth and the sixth eyelets, but no significant differences at the second eyelet (Table 1). An observation of graphs revealed less change was observed between pre and post measurements for the second (see Figure 6) and the fourth eyelet (Figure 7) with the lace locking device equipped, but not in the sixth eyelet (Figure 8). Measured displacements were negative as they reflected the direction the calliper was moving when the lever of the apparatus was pulled. Less magnitude in the displacement measured by the apparatus indicates that there was less “give” in the lace which means there was less likelihood of foot shift and discomfort caused by loosening of the lace.

Table 1

Paired comparison t-test results for treadmill data collection.

Compared PairMean ± SDp-value
Without Eyelet 2 Pre – Post0.56 ± 0.970.076
With Eyelet 2 Pre – Post1.30 ± 2.840.119
Without Eyelet 4 Pre – Post0.63 ± 0.690.018
With Eyelet 4 Pre – Post2.16 ± 2.740.031
Without Eyelet 6 Pre – Post1.44 ± 1.330.009*
With Eyelet 6 Pre – Post3.01 ± 1.900.001*

*p<0.05 for indication of statistical significance.

Figure 6

Note. Pre and post skate comparison of force – displacement plots for in-lab skating session at eyelet 2. (a) Result without the lace locking device equipped (b) Result with the lace locking device equipped. X and Y axis of the plots were scaled to the same values. There is a larger change in displacement measurements pre versus post skate without the lace locking device equipped meaning there is more change to lace tension without the device equipped at eyelet 2.

Figure 7

Note. Pre and post skate comparison of force – displacement plots for in-lab skating session at eyelet 4. (a) Result without the lace locking device equipped (b) Result with the lace locking device equipped. X and Y axis of the plots were scaled to the same values. There is a larger change in displacement measurements pre versus post skate without the lace locking device equipped meaning there is more change to lace tension without the device equipped at eyelet 4.

Figure 8

Note. Pre and post skate comparison of force – displacement plots for in-lab skating session at eyelet 6. (A) result without the lace locking device equipped (B) result with the lace locking device equipped. X and Y axis of the plots were scaled to the same values. There is a larger change in displacement measurements pre versus post skate with the lace locking device equipped meaning there is more change to lace tension with the device equipped at eyelet 6.

Phase 2 – Results of lace tension with lace locking device installed on a skate boot in a real-world environment while skating on the ice

The change in displacement of the lace tension measurements were plotted and statistically compared pre and post skate without and with lace locking device using the same analysis performed in phase 1. Pre and post skate measurement differences were used as a comparative lace tension metric between the right (without lace locking device) and left (with lace locking device) skate.

Results revealed significant differences in lace tension on the right skate (without lace locking device installed) pre and post a bout of simulated game play skating on ice. However, no significant difference in lace tension was seen on the left skate (with the lace locking device) (see Table 2). Force-displacement plots provide a graphical representation of the collected data (Figure 9) where the slope of the line represents the stiffness property of the lace materials and the translation value represents the shift in displacement (mm) for pre and post measurements. The shift in displacement (mm) was then used as a quantitative metric for lace tension.

Table 2

Paired comparison t-test results for on-ice data collection.

Compared PairMean ± SDp-value
Without Pre – Post2.76 ± 4.300.016*
With Pre – Post1.43 ± 4.290.116

*p<0.05 for indication of statistical significance.

Figure 9

Note. Pre and post skate comparison of force – displacement plots for on-ice skating session. (a) result without the lace locking device equipped (b) result with the lace locking device equipped. X and Y axis of the plots were scaled to the same values. There is a larger change in displacement measurements pre versus post skate without the lace locking device equipped meaning there is more change to lace tension without the device equipped during on-ice skating session.

DISCUSSION

The study provided a comparative analysis of lace tension parameters without the lace locking device versus with the lace locking device installed in the controlled environment of a laboratory on a skating treadmill and in a sport-specific real-world environment on the ice. The behaviour of the laces is governed by their material properties, and as such, the lace locking device is an add-on device with the specific purpose of adding value to the role of laces. By maintaining tension established by the athlete, the lace locking device could potentially help reduce friction induced injuries, increase athlete confidence, and footwear comfort.

Results revealed more change in pre and post lace tension measurements without the lace locking device versus with the lace locking device installed. These results were consistent across both environments, on skating treadmill and on ice. This potentially implies that the lace locking device consistently maintains tension at the location where it is installed in both a controlled lab and a real-sport environment.  

Through improving the fit of the footwear and foot containment, maintaining lace tension at preferred tension or higher lace tension can provide athletes with confidence in their equipment while performing dynamic movements. The lack of shifting of the lace tension with the lace locking device throughout the skate has multiple implications for a user. By holding lace tension, the lace locking device made it easier for athletes to customize their skate lacing setup knowing that the setup would maintain tension, providing athletes with the confidence to perform dynamic movements required throughout their performance.

Limiting the movement of the foot inside the footwear can also further reduce the potential for friction related injuries, such as lace bite, heel spurs and bunions. Treatment for these friction related injuries involve reducing contact force and friction between the footwear and the foot or ankle10. The lace locking device achieved that objective by holding lace tension at its optimal tension to prevent further irritation due to overly tight skate. The lace locking device may potentially be used as preventative measures for friction induced injuries as well.

FUTURE RESEARCH

It is a logical progression to extrapolate and implement assessment methodologies across athletic footwear in different sports requiring footwear models consisting of 2-15 eyelets. Funding has been secured to investigate the generalization of the lace locking device across different footwear models consisting of 2-15 eyelets. Further investigation is needed to provide insight on how different configurations and quantity of the lace locking device on the laces could potentially impact the tension results. Further investigation is also needed to help eliminate friction-based injury in footwear with the lace locking device. This will build upon the current academic-industrial relationship established and generalize the effectiveness of the device across a variety of athletic footwear.

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2025-05-23T11:23:16-05:00May 30th, 2025|General, Sport Training|Comments Off on Effect of a Lace Locking Device on Skate Lace Tension
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The Association Between Pitch Accuracy and Batter Outcomes in Major League Baseball

Authors: Benjamin E. Napoli,1 Daniel A. Napoli,1 Anthony M. Napoli MD MHL1, Timmy R Lin PhD1, Macall S. Robertson JD, Jason Machan PhD,1 Janette Baird PhD1

1Department of Emergency Medicine, Alpert Medical School of Brown University

Editor’s Note: This article’s formatting was corrected on July 8, 2025. All tables, figures, and appendices are now present in the article.

Abstract

Purpose: Pitch speed is considered synonymous with pitching success. In years past, the accuracy of a pitch was paramount but in recent years this has been deprioritized as compared with pitch speed. Over the years, batters have adapted to higher pitching speeds so pitch strategy and placement may be more important.  Our hypothesis was that pitching accuracy associated with intended pitch location would be a significant factor in pitching success in Major League Baseball (MLB).  

Methods: To study this, we studied multiple facets of a pitch, including pitch accuracy, to assess the association between pitch accuracy and batter outcome in over 1000 at bats in over 20 randomly selected games during the 2022 MLB season.  Our primary goal was to determine if there was an association between pitch accuracy, after controlling for confounders, and batting average against (BAA) and slugging percentage (SLG). 

Results: We found that at bats in which the last pitch hit the intended spot reduced batter success by greater than 50%.  Higher pitching speed was not associated with success partly because it was associated with lower accuracy. If a pitch was accurate, after adjusting for other variables, it was 3.28 times more likely to be successful. 

Conclusions: This study demonstrates that pitching accuracy is a highly important skill in determining the success of pitchers, beyond that of other traditional pitching features.  Future studies to automate this work and integrate machine learning and predictive modeling could be used to optimize pitcher success or identify the most accurate pitchers.

Applications in Sport: This study demonstrates that pitching accuracy is a critical determinant of success in Major League Baseball (MLB), with accurate pitches reducing batter success rates, including batting average and slugging percentage, by over 50%. While pitch speed has traditionally been prioritized, this research highlights that accuracy has a far greater impact on outcomes, as accurate pitches are more than three times as likely to succeed. These findings challenge the current emphasis on velocity, suggesting that focusing on accuracy could optimize performance and reduce injury risks for pitchers.

Introduction:

In recent years, hitting and pitching analytics have been used extensively to study talent and study what makes a successful pitcher or hitter. For pitchers, these features can include pitch movement, pitcher mechanics,(Manzi et al., 2022) pitch selection, pitch types, and spin rate.(Whiteside et al., 2016)  While pitch speed has continued to increase(Cooper, 2020) and batters have adjusted, these other features become increasingly important.  An ideal pitcher would have peak velocity and accuracy but having both is not easy to obtain.(Venkadesan & Mahadevan, 2017) 

Pitch accuracy in common baseball parlance is often referred to as whether the pitcher “hits his spot.”  Hitting or missing the spot refers to the intended pitch location indicated by the catcher.  Before each pitch, catchers set their glove for the intended pitch location.  While there are some observational studies of pitch accuracy over different levels of baseball,(Kawamura et al., 2017) in the modern era there is no published study to indicate just how much of an effect accurate pitching has on batter performance.

Our hypothesis was that a significant difference in hitter outcomes will exist between pitchers who “hit his spot” (are within 6 inches of the intended pitch location) and those who do not.  A secondary outcome of our study was to examine whether pitch accuracy had a greater association with batter outcome than pitch selection, location, or speed.

Methods:

This was a retrospective study of 17 randomly selected games during the 2022 Major League Baseball (MLB) Season.  Investigators used a pre-specified Google Form (Mountain View, CA) with all key pitcher, pitch, and batter outcomes identified.  The investigators documented the outcome of the last pitch of each at bat.  This is consistent with current MLB methods of determining measures like batting average against (BAA) as it is the only pitch in the at bat in which the batter is forced to make a decision that will result in an at bat outcome. BAA and Slugging Percentage (SLG) were calculated using standardly accepted methodology (BAA = H/AB; SLG = (1B + 2Bx2 + 3Bx3 + HRx4)/AB).

An a priori sample size estimate based upon an estimated effect size of a 20-point decrease in BAA indicated a need to study approximately 1700 at bats.  An interim analysis of effect was planned at 500 and 1000 at bats. One game from each MLB team’s 2022 season was randomly selected until the study was complete.  Data abstractors were blind to the study results.  Data collection included pitcher handedness, pitch speed, intended pitch location, pitch type, and outcome.  As is customary for measuring BAA, only the last pitch of an at bat was used in this study.  

Our primary outcome was to demonstrate that a significant difference will exist between accurate pitches, “hit his spot” (estimated to be within 6 inches of the intended pitch location) and inaccurate pitches (“missed his spot”).  The secondary outcomes were to study if pitch speed, pitch selection, or pitch location had an impact on pitcher success.  Statistical analysis was done using SAS 9.4 (Cary, N.C.). We report on median with interquartile range (IQR) and proportions with 95% confidence intervals (95% CI).  Direct comparisons of unadjusted data were completed using a Chi-square test for proportions while a logistic regression was used to adjust for all variables associated with pitching accuracy.  A definitions table can be found in the Appendix due to the number of abbreviated outcomes.   

Results:

Primary Outcome:

The results of the interim analysis at 1000 at bats demonstrated a significant effect of pitch accuracy on BAA and SLG.   Of these 1000 at bats, represented by 17 randomly selected MLB games, the pitching accuracy was 45.3% (95% CI: 42.2% – 48.4%) and median pitch speed was 91 (IQR: 85 – 94) miles per hour.  The top three pitch types thrown were the fastball (31.8%), sinker (21.4%), and slider (19.5%) [Table 1].  Nearly 66% of pitches targeted low in the zone [Table 2]. Overall outcome (BAA and SLG) as it relates to pitch accuracy can be found in Table 3. 

Unadjusted analysis for the primary outcome of BAA and SLG demonstrated pitch accuracy was a significant predictor of pitcher success.  At bats ending in a pitch that hit the intended spot reduced batter success by greater than 50%; accurate pitches resulted in a BAA and SLG of 0.166 and 0.343 vs. 0.262 and 0.558 for inaccurate pitches, p<0.01.   If a pitcher hits his spot, after adjusting for other variables, he was 3.28 times more likely to be successful. No other variable was significantly associated with the pitcher success in the adjusted model (Table 4).

Table 3: Pitch Accuracy and Batter Outcome

*See Appendix for index of abbreviations

Secondary Outcome

There was no relationship between pitch speed and accuracy though pitchers who threw in the 80’s miles per hour (mph) appeared more likely to be accurate than those in the 90’s mph [Figure 1]. There was no statistically significant difference in pitch accuracy and BAA or SLG between left-handed pitchers and right BAA and SLG as they relate to pitch type and pitch location can be found in Tables 5 and 6, respectively.

Unadjusted analysis demonstrated that sliders had the lowest BAA (0.190), while changeups had the highest (0.293) [Table 5]. Higher pitching speed was not significantly associated with preventing a hit (χ2 (5) = 9.9, p=.08) but was significantly associated with lower accuracy (χ2 (5) = 13.2, p=.02).  No other pitcher variable other than accuracy of intended location was significantly associated with pitcher success. 

Assuming an accurate pitch, then high-in (2.02) and high-middle (2.96) pitches were significantly more likely to be successful at hitting the spot than baseline comparison (middle-middle). All off-speed pitches except for curveballs were significantly more likely to be successful than their baseline comparator (the fastball) with odds ratios ranging from 1.6 (sinker) to 2.8 (slider) [Table 8].

Discussion:  

Success in pitching is a combination of many different features, including game situation, the batter, the pitcher, and the pitch.  However, pitch accuracy has always been considered one of the most important features of a pitcher until recently when much of the attention has turned to pitch speed.  This study sought to investigate the impact of pitching accuracy, specifically the ability to hit the location of an intended pitch, on the success of pitchers in MLB games.  While many features of a pitch can affect the outcome, few of them (if not none in our study) have the impact that accuracy has on batter outcome.  In fact, our study indicates an unadjusted reduction of nearly 50% in batting average and slugging percentage when pitchers hit their intended location with an adjusted odds ratio of 3.28.          

Sports analytics is a $2.7B industry that is expected to have a compound annual growth rate of more than 20% over the next ten years.(Research, 2022)  The sport of baseball has been one of the earliest adopters and the clearest example of successful use of baseball analytics. Though baseball is considered a team sport, it is in fact a series of sequential events and therefore lends itself to more precise statistical analyzation.(Bechtold, 2023)  This has led to the rise of slow-motion video, new metrics for pitch movement and success, and the development of whole analytics departments in all MLB teams.  This information has given rise to pitch location analysis, enhanced studying of the influence of framing of pitches by catchers, profiles of pitch spin and movement, comparative pitching analytics, and even the possibility of machine learning and predictive analytics for pitching. 

The success of a pitcher is affected by so many features of the pitcher and the batter.  In the pitcher alone, features like pitch speed, spin rate, and selection are important.(Manzi et al., 2022)  Even pitcher mechanics has an effect on pitch accuracy.(Venkadesan & Mahadevan, 2017)  Pitching mechanics gets refined over time and studies indicate pitchers have greater accuracy at higher performance levels.(Kawamura et al., 2017)  However, it is hard to quantify the importance of each of these features.   The common belief is that pitch speed dominates all other features of pitcher success.  However, one study that incorporated pitch speed was only able to show that the combination of pitch speed, refined special pitch release location, and variation in pitch selection accounted for only 22% of the variance in pitcher performance.(Whiteside et al., 2016)  Our study demonstrated a significant portion of variance in accuracy is explained by pitch speed (21.5%); the higher the pitch speed the less accurate the pitch.  Overall, the adjusted model demonstrated pitch speed did not affect pitch success as opposed to an accurate pitch being greater than three times more likely to be successful. 

This study relied upon retrospective review of a random sample of regular season games to determine the effect of pitch accuracy while simultaneously accounting for some of the most important, traditional features of pitching success – pitch speed, location, and selection.  Unadjusted analysis reinforced some of the common opinions about current pitching – sliders and splitters if placed correctly are some of the most difficult pitches to hit (Table 5) and pitches thrown over the middle of the plate are more likely to lead to batter success (Table 6).  However, it also demonstrated some unexpected outcomes – that fastballs were some of the least accurate pitches and that pitch speed had limited, if any, effect on batter outcome.  However, after adjustment some interesting associations were revealed.  Pitching high in the zone had an odds ratio of success consistently two times greater than the middle of the zone, and that pitching low in the zone was not associated with improved pitcher outcome.  While interesting, this is not entirely surprising as it follows the trend of pitchers throwing higher much more commonly than they once did as batters have adopted an upward sloping swing to maximize launch angle.(Gutwein, 2021; Lu Chen, 2022)   Additionally, almost all pitches were more successful than a fastball at getting a batter out; this too reflects the trend toward increasing use of off-speed pitches in the MLB.(Norris, 2023)  After adjustment, all these other features of commonly accepted pitching importance – speed, pitch selection, and pitch location had limited effect on the outcome of the pitch in comparison with pitch accuracy.  An accurate pitch was more than three times (OR 3.28, 95% CI 2.45-4.4) more likely to result in a favorable outcome and resulted in 50% reduction in batting average and slugging percentage. 

Any study that attempts to study one feature (pitch accuracy) amongst a number of complex other potential confounding factors is bound to have some limitations.  Complexity itself is a limitation. Though many of the variables (pitcher, game, time in the season, etc.) were randomized, the complexity offered by any one pitcher limits interpretation.  For example, certain pitchers may not offer certain pitches or the quality of their pitches varies as compared to another when pitching in one location.  Any study incorporating such features would be much more complex and would also limit real world real-time application.  The retrospective nature of this study would normally be a limitation, but it allowed specificity of pitch location due to the ability to review the video and record features of each pitch.  However, certain features of each pitch were not available to the investigators – like spin rate, lateral and vertical movement.  These features may have a role in determining pitcher accuracy as well as batter outcome independent of pitcher accuracy.  Lastly, any study involving individual review with a general goal of subjectively identifying whether a pitch was accurate runs the risk of consistent over-estimation or under-estimation and/or variation.  Only computerized video review algorithms would be able to reduce imprecision further.  Computer algorithms and machine learning may eventually be able to be incorporated to refine this work. 

Conclusion:

In conclusion, this study suggests that pitching accuracy, particularly hitting the intended location of a pitch, is a crucial factor in determining pitcher success in MLB.  The findings provide valuable insights into the relative importance of various pitching variables, emphasizing the significance of strategic accuracy over sheer pitching speed.  This study contributes to the ongoing discourse about the multifaceted nature of successful pitching in professional baseball and emphasizes the importance of one of the most important features of a successful pitcher – accuracy. 

Applications in Sport:

This study highlights the critical importance of pitching accuracy in Major League Baseball (MLB), demonstrating that accurate pitches significantly reduce batter success rates, with a 50% decrease in batting average and slugging percentage when pitchers “hit their spot.” While pitch speed has traditionally been emphasized, this research shows that higher speeds often reduce accuracy and have limited impact on outcomes compared to precise pitch placement. The findings suggest that prioritizing accuracy over speed could improve pitcher performance and reduce injury risks associated with the current focus on velocity. These insights could inform training strategies, analytics, and even machine learning applications to optimize pitching success, offering a shift in how pitching effectiveness is evaluated and developed in modern baseball.

References: 

Bechtold, T. (2023). State of Analytics:  How The Movement Has Forever Changed Baseball – For Better or Worse. Retrieved November 25 from https://www.statsperform.com/resource/state-of-analytics-how-the-movement-has-forever-changed-baseball-for-better-or-worse/

Cooper, J. J. (2020). The Measure Of A Fastball Has Changed Over The Years. Retrieved November 19, 2023 from https://www.baseballamerica.com/stories/the-measure-of-a-fastball-has-changed-over-the-years/

Gutwein, C. (2021). Fastballs Keep Pouring Into the Top of the Zone. Retrieved November 25 from https://blogs.fangraphs.com/fastballs-keep-pouring-into-the-top-of-the-zone/

Kawamura, K., Shinya, M., Kobayashi, H., Obata, H., Kuwata, M., & Nakazawa, K. (2017). Baseball pitching accuracy: an examination of various parameters when evaluating pitch locations. Sports Biomech, 16(3), 399-410. https://doi.org/10.1080/14763141.2017.1332236

Lu Chen, S. (2022). The Launch Angle Revolution. Retrieved November 25 from https://www.bruinsportsanalytics.com/post/launch-angle

Manzi, J. E., Dowling, B., Wang, Z., Luzzi, A., Thacher, R., Rauck, R. C., & Dines, J. S. (2022). Pitching Mechanics and the Relationship to Accuracy in Professional Baseball Pitchers. Am J Sports Med, 50(3), 814-822. https://doi.org/10.1177/03635465211067824

Norris, J. (2023). The Surge Of The Slider In The Pitch-Tracking Era. Retrieved November 25 from https://www.baseballamerica.com/stories/the-surge-of-the-slider-in-the-pitch-tracking-era/

Research, G. V. (2022). Sports Analytics Market Size, Share & Trends Analysis Report By Component (Software, Service), By Analysis Type (On-field, Off-field), By Sports (Football, Cricket, Basketball, Baseball, Rugby), By End-user, By Region, And Segment Forecasts, 2023 – 2030. https://www.grandviewresearch.com/industry-analysis/sports-analytics-market

Venkadesan, M., & Mahadevan, L. (2017). Optimal strategies for throwing accurately. R Soc Open Sci, 4(4), 170136. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.170136

Whiteside, D., Martini, D. N., Zernicke, R. F., & Goulet, G. C. (2016). Ball Speed and Release Consistency Predict Pitching Success in Major League Baseball. J Strength Cond Res, 30(7), 1787-1795. https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0000000000001296

2025-07-08T10:57:33-05:00April 19th, 2025|General, Research, Sports Coaching, Sports Health & Fitness|Comments Off on The Association Between Pitch Accuracy and Batter Outcomes in Major League Baseball
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