2006 – Page 7 – The Sport Journal

The Effect of Gender on Korean Teens’ Athletic Footwear Purchasing

Submitted by Dr. Taeho Yon*1, Mr. Brian Gordon*2, and Mr. Mike Mohr*3.

*1 Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, IL 62901, USA
*2 Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, IL 62901, USA
*3 Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, IL 62901, USA

Dr. Taeho Yon is an assistant professor in the Department of Physical Education at Southern Illinois University. He received a bachelor’s degree from Hongik University in South Korea, a master’s degree in recreation and sport management from Indiana State University and a Ph.D. in Sport Management from Florida State University.

Brian Gordon is a graduate student in sport management at Southern Illinois University. His area of interest includes legal aspects, sport marketing, and administration of intercollegiate athletics.

Mike Mohr is a graduate student in sport management at Southern Illinois University. His area of interest includes sport marketing (consumer behavior) and issues of people with disabilities in sport.

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to investigate factors that influence Korean teens’ athletic footwear purchase. Four hundred and fifty-six teens participated in the study. Throughout the review of related literature and the conduction of a pilot study, seven characteristics were considered; price, color, style, brand name, comfort, quality, and celebrity endorsement. ANOVA procedures indicated that gender played a significant role in the purchasing behavior of Korean teens. Male teens stated that comfort and quality are the most important factors while female teens revealed that style and color are more important factors than any other factor. Marketers and advertising managers of athletic shoes companies should utilize the findings of this study to communicate with teen consumers more effectively.

Key Words: Korean teens, Consumer behavior, Athletic Footwear,

In recent years, the buying power of the teenage Korean market has significantly increased. According to Park (2002), in 2003, there were approximately 11.3 million (23.9% of total population) teens in Korea, with an estimated 10 billion dollars in buying power. The Korean Institute for Youth Development projected that teen spending will significantly increase over the next ten years. Lee (2003) also pointed that due to the one child policy, which limits parents to having only one child to curb overpopulation, teens in Korea assume a greater role as consumers in the household and justify where funds are allocated. According to a report by Korea Institute for Youth Development (2004), Korean teens exert an influence on more than $36 billion in family purchases. The report also stated that most Korean teens make purchases with money that is provided by their family. Further, they ask their parents to buy a variety of products that are not teen products such as food, furniture, electronics, and other household products. New trends have developed within the Korean teen subculture. As a result, consumer behavior will change (Kim, 2002; Lee, 2003; Lim 2001). Lee (2003) stated that unlike previous generations, today’s Korean teens have different consumption behavior. They are very concerned about the conspicuousness of the products. In other words, they are very conscious about how they look from others viewpoints or the image they reflect upon others. As a result, they will place a higher value on aesthetics over quality. Woo (2001) also stated that approximately 50% of teens expressed design as the most important factor when they purchase teen-related products. Design and styles are viewed as more relevant characteristics among female teens in Korea. Consequently, parents consider secondary factors such as design and style over quality and comfort. Today’s teens are easily influenced by various advertising which presents role models such as sport entertainers (Lee, 2003). Lee (2003) found that 80% of teens are somewhat influenced by advertisements and believe the products advertised by celebrities have better conspicuousness than products that were not endorsed by celebrities. Korean teens are very sensitive to current fashion trends and have impulsive purchasing behavior (Kwon, 2000; Lim, 2002). Lim (2002) found that almost 50% of Korean teens have purchased products impulsively. They place a greater emphasis on the style and color of a product over the quality aspect (Kim 2000). Korean teens identify with certain brand products that help express their identity and characteristics. This consumer behavior is the most important factor that leads to a purchase (Lee, 2003; Lim 2002). Lee (2003) found that 79% of Korean teens care about product brands and have a strong brand loyalty to a certain brand of athletic shoes. Wearing a certain brand of footwear is very important for a teenager because it is a way of fitting in and gaining acceptance by the peer group (Forney & Forney, 1995; Miller, 1994). Among the teen products, athletic shoes are one of the highest brand loyalty items among Korean teens (Lee, 2003).

Apart from this, the teenage period is the life stage in which an individual’s consumption leverage increases dramatically in terms of financial resources and decision-making discretion (Shim & Gehrt, 1996). Hence, with the strong marketing impact that teens create, marketers and consumer researchers become increasingly interested in exploring the shopping behavior of teens (Kamaruddin & Mokhlis, 2003). Often such teen shopping behaviors are influenced by their demographic background. Among the different demographic variables, gender has been considered as one of the most influential variables due to the following reasons: (1) gender is easily identifiable, (2) gender segments are accessible (since most media provide this information), and (3) gender segments are large enough to be profitable, gender is still a frequently used variable to implement segmentation strategies. (Stevens, Lathrop, & Bradish, 2005; Belk, 2003; Cleveland, Babin, Laroche, Ward, Bergeron, 2003; Darley & Smith, 1995; Meyers-Levy & Sternthal, 1991). In the sport product segment, some research investigated gender differences on athletic shoes purchasing (Belk, 2003; Lyons & Jackson, 2001). However, previous research showed inconsistent results. Belk’s (2003) study found a gender difference on athletic shoes purchasing, but Lyons & Jackson (2001) found that African-American teens did not show gender differences on athletic shoe selection. Moreover, although there is the practical importance of gender differences in the field of consumer behavior and a growing interest in the consumer behavior of teens in Korea, a meager amount of research has been conducted to investigate the gender differences on the factors that influence teens purchasing athletic shoes in Korea.

The primary purpose of this study is to investigate the factors that influence Korean teens purchasing athletics shoes with association of gender.

Method:

Participants

Participants for this study were five hundred twenty-five randomly selected teens from 6 schools in a metropolitan area of Korea. Self-administered surveys were given to participants. Of the 525 returned survey questionnaires, 456 were usable. Female teens represented 46% (211) and 54% (245) were represented by male teens.

Instrumentation

A survey was developed through literature reviews and discussions with teenagers in Korea. A pretest was conducted for 37 Korean teens and the survey questions were revised to make them more appropriate for the population tested in this study. The survey consisted of two parts with 18 questions. The first part included demographics of gender and age. The second part of the survey consisted of questions about the factors that influence Korean teens to purchase athletic shoes. From the review of relevant literature, seven most important factors were identified: style, price, brand name (recognition), color, quality, comfort, and celebrity endorsement. For this section, a five-point Likert-type scale (5-Strongly agree 1-strongly disagree) was used to rate the agreement of each factor. The following is a sample statement for each information source:

• Style: When I purchase athletic shoes the style of shoes is very important

• Comfort: When it comes to deciding to buy athletic shoes, comfort is the most important factor.

• Quality: I often purchase athletic shoes which are very durable

• Price: I’m very concerned about the price of shoes

• Brand name: I am very concerned about the brand name of shoes

• Color: When purchase athletic shoes, color of the shoes is one of the major concerns

• Celebrity endorsement: I often purchase same athletic shoes that a celebrity whom I admire wore.

The data collection process was completed in five weeks. Data were entered and statistics calculated by SPSS 12.0 for Windows program. Descriptive statistics of mean and standard deviation were acquired to analyze the data. Analysis of Variance procedures were conducted with factor scores, with independent variable of gender. Alpha values were set at 0.05 to determine significant differences between genders.

Results

Descriptive statistics generated from the questionnaire indicated that for male teens comfort of shoes (M = 4.4, SD = 0.72) is the most important factor. The second most important factor is quality (M = 4.2, SD = 0.83). (See Table 1).

For female teens style (M = 4.4, SD = 0.67) and color (M=4.3, SD=0.75) are two most important factors. (See Table 2).

ANOVA for gender are represented in Table 3.

ANOVA found that there is a significant difference between genders on style (F=24.913, p = 0.001). Style is the most important factor for female teens (M=4.4) while the third most important factor for male teens (M=3.9). There is a gender difference on the importance of comfort (F=7.421, p= .007). Comfort is more important factor for male teens (M=4.4) than for females (M=4.1).The importance of brand name differs between genders (F=17.279, p= .001). Brand name of the shoes is more important factor for female teens (M=3.7) than for males (M=3.2). The data revealed that there is no significant difference between genders on quality, price, and endorsement of athletic shoes.

Discussion and Managerial Implications

The results of this study provide empirical evidence regarding factors that influence Korean teens purchasing athletic footwear in relation to demographics.

The influence of factors differs between genders. This study found that for male teens, the comfort and quality are the two most important factors while female teens ranked the style and color as the most important factors. There were significant differences between genders on style, comfort, and brand name. Interestingly, female teens showed higher scores for some physical factors of the products, style and brand name, than male teens while male teens consider internal factors such as comfort as a more important consideration. This finding is consistent with a previous study (Park 2002; Solomon & Schopler, 1982; Taylor & Cosenza, 2002). Females are more sensible about the appearance of the product such as style, design, and brand name while males tend to consider internal factors such as comfort and quality as more important factors. Belk (2003) also found a gender difference on perception toward athletic shoes, with women being more alert to the symbolic implications of shoes than men. Women strongly feel that their footwear is an expansion and expression of themselves. They also feel that shoes affect their perceptions of others and their perceptions of self. Compared to male consumers, female consumers see shoes as highly significant articles of clothing that are regarded as expressing the wearer’s personality. Furthermore, for adolescents especially females, shoes are a key signifier of their identity (Belk, 2003; Park, 2002). Male consumers, on the other hand, see shoes as a utilitarian thing. As a consequence, the style that they identify with most is the critical purchase decision-making factor for Korean female teens while comfort is the most important consideration for male teens in Korea. Some researchers applied socio-cultural perspective to explain the fact that physical appearance is greater for women than for men (Burton & Netemeyer, 1995; Jackson 1992; Kim, 2002; Lee 2003; Striegel-Moore, Silberstein, & Rodin, 1986). In Korea, women are generally viewed as having less social power than men (Kim, 2002; Lee, 2003).Lee (2003) stated that in Korea, traditional perceptions of the male role have centered on the man as the worker and financial provider, whereas the traditional female role has been outside of the workforce such as raising children. As a consequence, often the physical attractiveness is used as a more important evaluative cue for women because of the less “objective” criteria available for judging their successful role fulfillment. This perspective is supported from other research (Burton & Netemeyer, 1995; Jackson 1992; Buss & Barnes 1986). Buss and Barnes (1986) revealed that women select their spouse on the basis of their social power (as a means of elevating social position), whereas men, as the sex with greater social power, choose their spouse more on the basis of beauty and physical attractiveness. This perspective implies that women use their appearance as a means to enhance social power (Burton & Netemeyer, 1995). Thus, the women’s concern about their physical appearance is far greater than that of men. Such a perception and orientation certainly impacts on their purchasing behavior (Brownmiller 1984).

This study provides critical information to marketers and advertising directors of athletic shoe companies which target Korean teens. This study found that Korean male and female students are affected by different factors when they purchased athletic shoes. Male teens seek comfortable and quality shoes while female teens consider the appearance of the product, such as style, color and brand names, as the more important factor. Therefore, marketers and advertising directors should pay emphasis on the comfort and quality for male athletic shoes advertising. For female teens, they should create more the eye-appealing advertisements. The finding of this study should be interpreted in light of some limitations. First, although the sample size was not small, the samples were drawn from schools in a metropolitan area. Therefore, it is recommended for future studies to have samples from a wider geographical distribution to provide more generalized findings. Second, demographic characteristics other than gender should be considered in future studies. For example, future studies on this topic should examine demographic characteristics such as age, education, race, and socio-economic status. Different demographic characteristics may have a significant impact on consumption behavior.

References

Belk, R.W. (2003). Shoes and Self. Advances in Consumer Research, 30 (1), 27-34.

Brownmiller, S. (1984). Femininity. New York: Simon and Schuster.

Buss, D. M., & Barnes, M. (1986). Preferences in human mate selection. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 735-747.

Burton, S., Netemeyer, R. G. (1995). Gender differences for appearance-related attitudes and behaviors: Implications for consumer. Journal of Public Policy & Marketing, 14 (1) 60-76.

Cleveland, M., Babin, B. J., Laroche, M., Ward, P., & Bergeron, J. (2003). Information search patterns for gift purchases: A cross-national examination of gender differences. Journal of Consumer Behavior 3 (1), 20-47.

Darley, W. K., & Smith, R. E. (1995). Gender differences in information processing strategies: An empirical test of the selectivity in advertising response. Journal of Advertising, 24 (1) 41-56.

Forney, J., & Forney, W. (1995). Gangs or fashion: influences on junior high student dress, Journal of Family and Consumer Sciences, Vol. 87, pp.26–32.

Jackson, L. A. (1992). Physical Appearance and Gender: Sociobiological and Sociocultural Perspectives. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press

Kamaruddin, R. A., & Mokhlis. S. (2003). Consumer socialization, social structual factors and decision-making styles: a case study of adolescents in Malaysia. International Journal of Consumer Studies, 27(2),145-157.

Kim , B. J. (2000). A Research on Consumption Behavior Among Youths. Unpublished Masters Thesis, Changwon University, Korea.

Kim, S. S. (2002). Korean Adolescents’ Purchasing Behavior for Hip Hop Clothes. Unpublished Masters Thesis, Yonsei University, Korea.

Korea Institute for Youth Development. (2004). Spending Power of Korean teens. Retrieved August 2, 2005 from http://www.youthnet.re.kr/

Kwon, M. H. (2000). Consumption values and rationality of consumption behavior of adolescent consumers. Unpublished Masters Thesis, Seoul National University, Korea.

Lee, J. K. (2003). A Study on the Adolescent Consumer Behavior and Economy Education Special Program. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, DongUi
University, Korea

Lim. H. J. (2002). Study on Adolescent Consumers’ Consumption Consciousness and Consumption Behavior : Focusing on junior high school students in Jeju city. Unpublished Masters Thesis, Jeju University, Korea

Lyons, R., & Jackson, N. (2001). Factors that influence African-American Gen-Xers to purchase Nikes. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 10, 96-101.

Meyers-Levy, J., & Sternthal, B. (1991). Gender differences in the use of message cues and judgments. Journal of Consumer Research, 28, 84-96.

Miller, C. (1994). Phat is where it’s at for today’s teen market. Marketing News, 28, 6–7.

Park, J. M. (2002). A Study on the Variables to Adolescent’s Propensity to Conspicuous consumption. Unpublished Masters Thesis, Ewha University, Korea

Shim, S., & Gehrt, K.C. (1996). Hispanic and Native American adolescents: an exploratory study of their approach to shopping. Journal of Retailing, 72,
307-324

Solomon, M., & Schopler, J. (1982). Self consciousness and clothing. Personality and Social Psychology, 8, 508–514.

Stevens, J., Lathrop, A., & Bradish, C. (2005). Tracking Generation Y: A Contemporary Sport Consumer Profile. Journal of Sport Management,19(3), 254-276.

Striegel-Moore, R. H., Silberstein, L.R., & Rodin, J. (1986). Toward an Understanding of Risk Factors for Bulimia. American Psychologist, 41, 246-63.

Taylor, S. L., & Cosenza R.M. (2002). Profiling later aged female teens: mall shopping behavior and clothing choice. Journal of Consumer Marketing,19 (5), 393-408.

U.S. Sports Academy2015-03-19T13:59:38-05:00January 3rd, 2006|Contemporary Sports Issues, General, Women and Sports|Comments Off

Efficacy of Relaxation Techniques in Increasing Sport Performance in Women Golfers

Submitted by Dr. Linda LaGrange*1 and Ms. Janet Ortiz*2.

1* New Mexico Highlands University, Las Vegas, NM 87701 USA

2* New Mexico Highlands University, Las Vegas, NM 87701 USA

Dr. Linda LaGrange is a professor of psychology, concentration in psychopharmacology and physiological psychology at New Mexico Highlands University. Her research interests range from the biological correlates of sensation seeking to the fetoprotective capacity of bioflavonoids, and finally, the association of alcohol consumption with aggressive behavior.

Janet Ortiz received B.A. in Psychology and M.S. in Clinical Psychology from New Mexico Highlands University. She became interested in the game of golf at the age of four when first introduced to the game by her father. She began competitive golf at the age of six and played in the Sun Country (New Mexico and west Texas) and the American Junior Golf Association (national) junior circuits. In high school, Janet received All-District and All-State honors each year and was a five-time varsity letter winner. She was also a member of state championship team in 1996. Finally, Janet was a student-athlete as a member of the University of Wyoming women’s golf team for two years where she was a varsity letter winner both years.

Abstract

Stress and anxiety can adversely affect athletic performance across all levels of athletic ability and types of sports. The researchers wanted to determine if progressive relaxation techniques (PRT) would improve sports performance in a group of female recreational golfers. The study was conducted over a 3-month period during which the experimental group (n=9) regularly engaged in PRT. Both the experimental group and the control group (n=9) played their regular golf game; recording their scores, putts per round, and number of greens hit in regulation. Preintervention measures were recorded and compared with post intervention measures. Both groups recorded significant improvement on all three measures. The amount of improvement observed for the experimental group was more than that observed for the control group. The between-group differences were not, however, significant.

Introduction

One of the most difficult obstacles to overcome among people who strive to improve their sports performance is that of anxiety. Anxiety becomes even more of an obstacle to attaining optimal performance in the concentration-intense sports such as golf. Beyond the competition-induced stress and anxiety, the competitors may find themselves dealing with two other general sources of stress: competition-related issues such as coach/team interactions and stress factors that are completely external to competition, such as sleep deprivation. Anshel, Kim, Kim, Chang, and Eom (2001) further categorized stress into acute and chronic stress. Most relaxation techniques are designed to deal directly with acute stress, whereas there are few studies of possible relaxation methods that are designed to alleviate both acute and chronic stress.

Two of the most common general types of relaxation techniques are progressive relaxation and imaginal relaxation. Progressive relaxation is characterized by tensing and relaxing the muscle groups and is typically accompanied by deep breathing exercises. Specifically, it entails tensing a particular muscle group, maintaining the tension briefly, and then releasing the tension. Typically, the individual begins with the lower extremities, gradually progressing up to the neck and shoulders (Nideffer, 1981; Bernstein & Borkavec, 1993). Imaginal relaxation techniques are driven by cognitive processes and do not involve muscular tension and relaxation (Scogin, Richard, Keith, Wilson, & McElreath, 1992).

Nicholls, Holt, and Polman (2005) interviewed a number of golfers to determine what types of coping strategies they employed when they were in the midst of competition. The most effective strategies included rationalizing, reappraising, blocking, positive self-talk, following a routine, breathing exercises, physical relaxation, and seeking on-course social support. In a recent qualitative study (Giacobbi, Foore, & Weinberg (2004), semi-structured interviews were conducted with 11 golfers in which the golfers were asked to identify the most common sources of stress they encountered when playing golf. They were then asked to describe their coping responses. Their various coping strategies included cognitive strategies, relaxation techniques, off-course, efforts, golf course strategies, avoidance coping, and emotion-focused coping. Of the 11, 6 used some form of relaxation, usually as part of their pre-shot routine. The golfers found relaxation techniques effective both on and off the golf course. In a study of 51 male varsity golfers, the efficacy of pre-competition imagery use on competition performance was examined. The researchers found that motivational general mastery imagery was positively associated with golf performance as was elevated personal self-efficacy. Interestingly, the higher the degree of personal self-efficacy, the more likely the golfers were to engage in general-mastery imagery (Beauchamp, Bray, & Albinson, 2002). Finally, in a study in which comparisons were made of two coping interventions, cognitive intervention and progressive relaxation, Haney (2004) found that both strategies reduced trait anxiety and increased self-efficacy among a sample of female athletes. However, the improvements seemed to be longer lasting for the cognitive intervention group. It was not clear if the progressive relaxation group participants continued their relaxation program. It seems likely that if the progressive relaxation program were discontinued, its beneficial effects would dissipate over time.

Giacobbi and Foore (2003) have observed that there has been relatively little research conducted on non-elite golfers. They assert that the potential for sport psychologists to render services to the millions of avocational golfers in the U.S. could be greatly enhanced if more were known about how these golfers deal with sport-related stress. Thus the current study recruited participants who were not professional athletes, but whose game would, nevertheless, be negatively influenced by anxiety. We wanted to determine if regularly listening to a 20-minute standard progressive relaxation recording over a 3-month period would positively affect the participants’ golf game.

Hypotheses

It was hypothesized that the women in the experimental group who listened to the progressive relaxation tape would improve their golf performance relative to the women in the control group as measured by the following three dependent variables: 1) scores per 9-hole round, 2) number of putts per round, and 3) number of greens hit in regulation.

Methods:

Participants

Before participant recruitment and data collection, the research protocol was reviewed and approved by the New Mexico Highlands University IRB committee. Study participants were recruited from Women’s Golf Associations throughout New Mexico. Their ages ranged from 19 to 48 years (mean = 33). All of the participants had current United States Golf Association (USGA) handicaps between 6 and 12.

Materials

Each participant was given a 20-minute standard relaxation cassette tape. The tape contents were originally developed by Dr. Kathy B. Parker, who, at the time, was a sport psychologist for the University of Wyoming Athletic Department. Contained in the recording are the instructions for tensing and relaxing specific muscle groups, beginning with the arms, moving up towards the head, and then moving down the shoulders, back, and legs.

Procedures

Recruitment fliers containing project information were posted at golf courses and country clubs throughout the state of New Mexico. Once recruited, the participants were asked to record the number of putts per round of golf (in this case, 9 holes), their scores for each round, as well as the number of greens hit in regulation, for the next four rounds. These data provided the baseline for post intervention comparison purposes. Once the baseline data collection was completed, the 18 participants were randomly assigned to one of two groups: the experimental group, which received the relaxation tape, and the control group, which did not get a relaxation tape. The participants assigned to the control group were instructed to continue with their normal practice and playing routines for the next three months. They were provided with logbooks in which they were to record their scores, putts per round, and greens in regulation for each round of golf they played. The experimental group participants were also given logbooks and instructed to maintain normal practice and playing routines. In addition, they were told to listen to the relaxation tape five times a week, at bedtime, for the first 30-day period of the study. At the end of the first month, the participants from both groups were asked to turn in all of their scores.

During the second month of the study, the participants in the experimental group were instructed to reduce the number of times they listened to the relaxation tape from five to three times per week. Participants from both groups were instructed to continue with their normal practice and playing routines and to also continue keeping a record of their scores in the logbook. At the end of the second month, the participants again turned in all of their scores.

In the third and final month, the participants in the experimental group were told to listen to the relaxation tape just once a week. All other activities for both groups remained the same. Upon completion of the third month the participants played a final 36 holes. A final tally of the latest scores per 9-hole round, the number of putts per round, and the number of greens hit in regulation was recorded.

Results

Means and standard deviations were computed for the pre and post conditions for both groups. Pre group values did not vary significantly between groups for all three dependent variables; scores per 9-hole round, putts per round, and number of greens hit in regulation.

Because the participants were recruited in late winter and early spring, it was expected that participants from both groups would improve on all three dependent variables as a consequence of playing more often as the weather improved. This indeed was the case (see Table 1). However, we hypothesized that the participants in the experimental group would improve significantly more than their counterparts in the control group.

Figures 1-3 illustrate the improvement trends for both groups for each of the three dependent variables. Independent groups t-tests were performed to compare the degree of improvement observed for the cassette group with the improvement observed for the no cassette group on each of the three dependent variables. All effect sizes are reported using Cohen’s d equation. For the first, in which the comparison was the improvement in scores per round for the cassette group (M = 0.1986, SD = 0.1254) and the no cassette group (M = 0.1143, SD = 0.1395), the difference was not statistically significant, t(16) = -1.299, p >0.05. The effect size was calculated at 0.64. The second variable was that of number of putts per round. The improvement by the experimental group (M = 0.0649, SD = 0.0286), although better than that of the control group (M = 0.097, SD = 0.0278), was not statistically significant, t(16 = -1.141, p >0.05. The effect size was 0.54. The final variable to be tested was that of the number of greens hit in regulation. The experimental group (M = 0.2638, SD = 0.1401) again improved more than the control group (M = 0.1812, SD = 0.0792), however the difference in improvement was not statistically significant t(16) = -1.539, p > 0.05. The effect size was 0.76.

Discussion

As expected, both groups improved over the three-month course of the study. The question was, however, would the participants in the experimental group demonstrate significantly greater improvement than their counterparts in the control group. For each of the three dependent variables, the improvement observed in the experimental group exceeded that of the control group. However, the group differences were not significant. Yet, the effect sizes, ranging from .54 – .76, were certainly not negligible, indicating that the lack of significance was, in part, a consequence of the small sample size. The improvement trends illustrated in Figs. 1-3 seem to grow more robust with time.

It would be of interest to determine if improvement leveled off after a specific length of time. Additionally, would the level of improvement be maintained even if the participant no longer engaged in progressive relaxation? This question is at least partially addressed by Haney (2004), who noted that many stress management plans for athletes are constructed to be sport-specific as well as task-specific. In the case of progressive relaxation, the intervention can address sources of anxiety unrelated to sport performance. However, in her study, the progressive relaxation group experienced a rebound level of anxiety (after significant improvement) from post-experiment levels to the follow up data collection. This rebound was attributed, at least in part, to a reduction in the number of participants who continued to practice the relaxation regimen. If we were to replicate our study, it would be useful to continue the sampling period beyond the 3-month period during which the experimental group was actively practicing the relaxation technique.

An observation made by Giacobbi et al. (2004) was that among non-elite golfers there is a great degree of variability in how individuals cope with stress. It would be of interest to know whether the exposure to the progressive relaxation tape altered the coping responses of the participants or if it reduced the overall level of stress. Another observation made by Hassmen, Raglin, and Lundqvist (2004) was that there was a strong correlation between Somatic Anxiety scores and golf performance. In a future study it would be beneficial to determine if the long term practice of progressive relaxation would alter a participant’s scores on the Somatic Anxiety scale.

According to Nideffer (1976) one of the important issues to be considered when dealing with closed-skill sports, as is golf, is that the skills are automatic and thus do not demand a dynamic form of attention. This frees up attentional processing capacity, which allows the athlete to attend to other stimuli, some of which could be internal feelings of anxiety. This concept was studied further by Liao and Masters (2002). They describe how stress can cause athletes to reallocate information-processing resources from athletic performance to irrelevant stimuli, thus impairing performance. More of this process could be understood if we could determine if progressive relaxation techniques, by reducing anxiety, prevent the reallocation of information-processing resources. Or, is it possible that the participants who engaged in the relaxation program simply increased their attentional processing capacity?

In summary, PRT seemed to enhance the improvement in golf performance observed in a group of female recreational golfers. The dependent variables included scores per 9-hole round, number of putts per round, and number of greens hit in regulation. The members of the control group also improved their golf game, but not to the degree experienced by the experimental group. The effect sizes (Cohen’s d) for the differences in improvement were 0.64 for scores per 9-hole round, 0.54 for number of putts per round, and 0.76 for number of greens hit in regulation.

References

Anshel, M.H., Kim, K-W, Kim, B-H, Chang, K-J, & Eon, J-J (2001). A model for coping with stressful events in sport : Theory, application, and future directions. International Journal of Sports Psychology, 32, 43-75.
Beauchamp, M.R., Bray, S.R., & Albinson, J.G. (2002). Pre-completion imagery, self-efficacy, and performance in collegiate golfers. Journal of Sports Sciences, 20, 697-699.
Bernstein, D.A., & Borkovec, T.D. (1973). Progressive relaxation training. Champaign, IL: Research Press.
Giacobbi, P.R., & Weinberg, R.S. (2000). An examination of coping in sport: Individual trait anxiety differences and situational consistency. Sport Psychologist, 14, 42-62.
Giacobbi, P., Jr., Foore, B., & Weinberg, R.S. (2004). Broken clubs and expletives: The courses of stress and coping responses of skilled and moderately skilled golfers. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 16, 166-182.
Haney, C.J. (2004). Stress-management interventions for female athletes: Relaxation and cognitive restructuring. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 35, 109-118.
Hassmen, P., Raglin, J.S., & Lundqvist, C. (2004). Intra-Individual Variability in State Anxiety and Self-Confidence in Elite Golfers. Journal of Sports Behavior, 27, 277-291.
Liao, C.M. & Masters, R.SW. (2002). Self-focused attention and performance failure under psychological stress. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 24, 289-305.
Nicholls, A.R., Holt, N.L., & Polman, R. (2005). A phenomenological analysis of coping effectiveness in golf. Sport Psychologist, 19, 111-130.
Nideffer, R.M. (1976). The Inner Athlete. New York: Thomas Crowell.
Scogin, F., Rickard, H.C., Keith, S., Wilson, J., & McElreath (1992). Progressive and imaginal relaxation training for elderly persons with subjective anxiety. Psychology and Aging, 7, 419-424.

U.S. Sports Academy2015-03-19T13:45:15-05:00January 2nd, 2006|Contemporary Sports Issues, Women and Sports|Comments Off

The Impact of Elite Individual Athletic Performance on University Applicants for Admission in NCAA Division I-A Football

Submitted by Chad McEvoy, Ed. D*

1* Illinois State University, Normal,IL 61761

Dr. Chad McEvoy is an assistant professor in the school of kinesiology and recreation at Illinois State University. He holds an Ed. D. in Sport Administration with a minor in statistics and Research Methods from the University of Northern Colorado; a master of science in Sport Management from the University of Massachusetts at Amherst and a bachelor’s degree in sport management from Iowa State University.

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of elite individual athletes in NCAA Division I-A football on undergraduate admissions applicants to their respective institutions, an examination of what the media has labeled as the “Flutie Factor”. Using a pretest-posttest control group design, a statistically significant time-by-group interaction effect was found, with universities realizing a 6.59 percent increase in undergraduate applicants for admission in the year following having a football player finish among the top five vote recipients for the Heisman Trophy. (more…)

U.S. Sports Academy2015-03-19T13:50:32-05:00January 1st, 2006|Contemporary Sports Issues, General, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|Comments Off