In Their Own Voices: Factors Effecting Collegiate Hockey Player Use and Perception of Mental Skills

Author: Elia Burbidge

Author: ¹ Elia Burbidge

Elia Burbidge is a Doctoral Student in Sport and Exercise Psychology at Springfield College. Springfield, MA.

ABSTRACT 

Mental skills use and perceptions of their effectiveness in collegiate level athletes have been studied extensively in sport psychology. The usage of mental skills has been deemed effective overall and in collegiate settings. That said, little research has investigated hockey players’ perceptions of mental performance. Due in part to the unique culture of hockey there is a need to study hockey players’ perceptions of, and influences on the use of, mental skills. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the perceptions and usage of mental skills in collegiate hockey players, along with perceptions of how hockey culture impacts these beliefs through interviews with current college hockey players. Semi-structured interviews of six collegiate hockey players took place. Findings from these interviews suggest that level of play, exposure, and hockey culture largely impact how participants use and perceive mental training. These findings also suggest that some collegiate hockey players may be using psychological strategies without having been deliberately taught these strategies. 

Key Words: psychological strategies, hockey culture, college athletics 

INTRODUCTION 

The effectiveness of mental training has consistently been shown in both research and applied settings (6, 10, 21, 23, 26, 33, 34).  A recent meta-analysis by Lochbaum et al. (26) indicated that using mental skills positively impacts performance, with mindfulness, task cohesion, and self-efficacy having the largest positive mean effect sizes.    

Despite evidence that mental skills training and mental health interventions increase performance, athletes often neglect the development of psychological skills (12, 19). Athletes are hesitant to work with a sport psychology professional in part due to common misperceptions related to masculine stigmas, lack of knowledge about sport psychology, and the tangibility of results (5, 10, 16, 19, 27, 40).  Findings indicate that hesitancy can stem from past experiences with sport psychology professionals (SPPs), demographics (gender, age), and participation in a masculine or more physical sport where injury is common, and where the social role of a male athlete is stigmatized (27, 16). This supports previously found conclusions that reflect a greater hesitancy from male athletes to seek help from an SPP than female athletes (27, 28). Furthermore, personal openness, playing a team versus individual sport, and preferences of a consultant based on the same or similar cultural background contribute to overall perceptions of working with an SPP and using mental skills (5, 14, 20, 27, 28, 39). Additionally, Fortin-Guichard et al. (14) found that athletes’ perceptions and understanding of sport psychology or SPPs are often confused with the role of a psychiatrist or therapist, with the perception of offered services rooted in clinical psychology.  

Research has also indicated that NCAA athletes are often likely to view the benefits of a psychological skills training (PST) program as negative and have low confidence in the process and its benefits (28). Furthermore, the perceptions of SPPs can be positively impacted based on the SPPs actions of involving coaching staff, serving as a player-coach liaison, and earning trust through social and environmental involvement (40). Lastly, research indicates that the coaching staff’s perceptions of using an SPP vary. Although becoming more positive (43), the staff’s perceptions of and willingness to use an SPP is also a factor influencing athlete’s perceptions and use of mental skills (5, 15, 37, 2010).   

MENTAL SKILLS USE IN HOCKEY  

Research focused on hockey players’ perception and use of mental skills originated from Anderson et al. (4), who implemented a PST program in a collegiate hockey team throughout two seasons to help improve body checking in games. Body checking is seen as a beneficial asset in being successful against a team’s opponent and can often be used to defend, gain possession of the puck, and even intimidate. To date, body checking is only allowed in men’s hockey after a certain age and is penalized in women’s hockey. The use of body checking was assessed pre and post goal setting, feedback, and active praise interventions. It was found that hitting rates increased more with feedback over goal setting and praise. Furthermore, a study of junior-level Finnish hockey players found that using different methods of goal setting (e.g., task, approach) was highly correlated with enjoyment and perceived sporting ability (22). Most recently, after implementation of a PST program with a collegiate hockey team, players showed significant increases in their ability to cope with adversity, goal setting, peaking under pressure, and freedom from worry. Overall, this intervention positively influenced the mindfulness, resiliency, and coping skills in the personal and athletic lives of collegiate hockey players (42). These results highlight the continued importance of psychological skills training for hockey players. Research on mental skills of hockey goalies as their own unique group has also been done. A recent review of mental training effectiveness in hockey found that the majority of mental skills training (MST) programs have a cognitive control focus, specifically using attention, thought, and emotional control exercises (29). Common mental techniques used by goalies have been identified by both Monnich (29) and Gelinas and Munroe-Chandler (17), including mindfulness, imagery, goal setting, focused breathing, and self-talk.   

UNDERSTANDING HOCKEY CULTURE   

To better understand mental skills perception and use in hockey players, it is critical to analyse the hyper-masculine culture of hockey. Hockey has been culturally accepted as a tough, physical, and aggressive sport played by predominately white, middle to upper-class, heterosexual males (1, 3, 7, 18). Interviews with former and current Canadian Hockey League (CHL) players found that players attributed much of the masculine ideologies that describe how hockey should be played (3). Players also discussed how locker room culture is an environment that heavily enforces and upholds masculine ideals. Finally, participants expressed concern about how the media plays a role in suppressing traits that are not deemed as masculine (e.g., finesse style of play, not fighting, being vulnerable) (3). Using current NHL player Sidney Crosby as an example, Allain (2) showed how the media often called him ‘wimpy’ and a ‘complainer’, or during substantial concussion-based injuries as ‘weak’ (2). In addition, Lefebvre et al. (24) specifically addressed the stigmas surrounding mental health in junior hockey players. The researchers described how athletes often avoid seeking mental health counselling for fear of being seen as weak or unable to compete, a finding more prominent in male athletes (14, 24).  

Research on hockey culture also focuses on the challenges female players face (1, 18). Interviews with female hockey players in Sweden indicated their perceived femininity is deemed “at risk”, as opposed to the male athletes who are perceived as going through hockey as a rite of passage into manhood (18). Furthermore, women in hockey are deemed to have a ‘masculine’ image (muscular, tough) but are also required to prove their worth in ability and strength to compete in the men’s game. The participants also expressed how they are often viewed as inferior and that it is very difficult to challenge these norms and ideologies (18).  

Adams and Leavitt (2018) interviewed the staff of varying Alberta youth hockey associations. Participants heavily discussed the lack of female representation across positions within the organizations and poor refereeing due to the misunderstanding of body checking or lack thereof in the women’s game (1). Overall concluding that there is often a romanticization of female athletes, and how their journeys are portrayed as positive, but are often dampened by discrimination, accessibility issues, suppressed opportunity, and gender ideologies (1).  

PURPOSE  

Based on past research, it seems hockey players can benefit from working with an SPP, however few players are using this service, perhaps in part due to hockey culture. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to address the following research questions:   

1. Develop an understanding of the usage of mental skills in collegiate hockey players.  

2. Develop an understanding of the perceptions of mental skills held by hockey players.  

3. Better understand the impact if any of how hockey culture on the above beliefs. 

METHODS 

Participants 

Participants consisted of three collegiate athletes that competed in men’s hockey (participants four – six) and three collegiate athletes that competed in women’s hockey (participants one – three). Three of the six participants competed at the highest level of collegiate hockey, NCAA Division I, while two competed at ACHA DI, the highest level below NCAA, and one participant competed at the ACHA DII level.  

Procedures 

A semi-structured interview guide was developed for this study to increase the consistency of the interviews and give a framework for the interviewer to follow. Although there were set questions, the guide allowed for follow-up and engagement based on the clients’ answers, allowing for flexibility and opportunities for openness for the participants (35).   

The interview guide was comprised of three sections. The first section focused on the participants’ demographics and general sport experience. This section aimed to give the participants a chance to get comfortable with the interviewer and to develop a relationship between interviewer and interviewee. The second section of the interview guide was focused on understanding the athlete’s experiences with mental training, both formal and informal in the past, as well as on their perceptions of mental training. Example questions included “Would you be open to learning more about mental skills? Why or why not?” and “Have you used or do you use mental skills?”  The third and final section focused on the participants view of hockey culture and how if at all they felt it impacted their or others use of mental skills. Example questions included “If someone asked you to explain the culture of hockey, what would you say?” and “Do you think this culture influences your views on: the use of mental skills, seeking help from a sport psychologist, and what people think about you?” “Questions in each section of the interview guide were based on prior research stemming from the previously conducted literature review. The broader themes of topics found (i.e., body checking, how players might have been using mental skills) were used to guide the development of open-ended questions for the current study to satisfy a potential gap or recommendation suggested within the previous literature.” At any point during the interview process the participant wanted to expand or discuss ideas not included in the original questions, they were encouraged to do so freely, and this information was included as part of their experience and responses.   

IRB approval was obtained for this study. Once approval was obtained participants were recruited via convenience sampling. Specifically, as the primary researcher of this study was part of the collegiate hockey community, they reached out to coaches they knew to ask that they send a recruitment email to their athletes. Additionally, posts were made on social media via the primary and secondary researchers’ university and personal pages. Once participants emailed the research team indicating that they were interested in participating they were scheduled for a Zoom interview. Participants were interviewed until saturation was met.  “Saturation is defined as “when no new data or information is being produced, was believed to have occurred within the six participants (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Saunders et al., 2018).  

At the beginning of the interview, participants were sent a link to follow that included the research notification and an opportunity for them to consent to participation in the study. Zoom was chosen as it allowed for interviews with participants in a large geographical location and served to increase the convenience of participation for the participants.  Interviews were conducted by the first and second author of the study and lasted between 25-45 minutes.  Although every participant was asked the same questions from the interview guide, in the same way, the order with which they were asked and the extent of the follow up conversation was guided by the participant themselves, in an attempt to build open communication with the participants. Elaboration language such as “Can you tell me more about that?” or “Why do you think that is the case?” were used to give more detail and paint a fuller picture of the participants experiences (35). Interviews were recorded and transcribed using Yuja programming. Transcripts were then checked by the primary author for accuracy and any changes necessary were made. 

Data Analyses  

Coding and analysis were done using Braun and Clarke’s guide for reflexive thematic analysis (8, 9). Specifically, the aim was to follow an inductive, semantic, and realist approach to data analysis in the pursuit of finding meaning in the data. This method allowed the primary author, to identify, analyze, and assess patterns or themes within the transcripts. Using this method of data analysis also allowed for greater flexibility in theme extraction. At each stage she documented my work to help ensure the development of themes was clear and could be followed by the secondary author and a second coder who has brought in to increase trustworthiness at a later stage of the data analysis process. This was a six-phase approach in which she first became familiar with the data set by reading through the transcribed interviews multiple times, noting any initial thoughts or ideas. She then began to code initial thoughts, making sure to re- read the transcripts as thoughts and emerging themes were being identified, followed by a more in-depth analysis of the transcribed data by defining themes with the matching data.  Although she tried to not have her experiences impact coding, to allow for an inductive approach to the coding, it was noted that as a former hockey player and coach she likely had biases that she was bringing to the coding. Therefore, a researcher who was not part of the study design or implementation also independently coded the data using the same methodology. We then analyzed the codes against the data to make sure they were representative of the data. Once we had both developed our themes, we discussed any differences and came to a consensus. This led to a set of themes and where appropriate subthemes created to help explain the experiences of the participants. Finally, by writing down the analysis process the primary researcher was able to notice patterns and connect the themes to past research, as is desired in the final step of thematic analysis (9). 

To increase the trustworthiness of this study, credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability were assessed (25, 32). Specifically, as a previous hockey player and sport psychology professional, the primary researcher recognized the biases she possessed and the potential impact it would have on the study. Therefore, not only was a second coder brought in, as noted above, but peer debriefing, with the second author of the study serving in the role, was used to challenge her assumptions and analyze the data collection and data analysis of both her and the outside coder (establishing credibility). After the two coders had met to go over their codes and came to agreement, an external auditor also reviewed both the process and the results (establishing dependability and transferability). Finally, a thick description of both the research process and the participants’ interviews are included in this manuscript to increase transferability and confirmability.   

RESULTS 

Four themes emerged that impacted if and how the players used mental training skills, their perceptions of mental training, and their perceptions of sport psychology professionals. The major themes that emerged were level of competition, exposure, and hockey culture. Furthermore, players indicated using several mental training strategies which was a final theme related to hockey players mental training use. Each theme also had sub themes, for a full list see Table 1 with further description and illustrative quotations below. 

Table 1   

Theme Chart  

Theme	Subtheme
Level of Competition	Length of season  Intensity of the game
Exposure	Organizational support – access to SPC    Coaching staff  Peers and teammates   Classes   Lack of exposure
Hockey Culture	How others view hockey players and hockey culture  Participants’ views of hockey culture
Mental Strategies Used	Skills development  Strategy development

Level of Competition  

The level of competition theme included two subthemes. The first subtheme was length of season, with three participants noting the length of the season being a reason to use mental training. As stated by Participant 1 “Hockey is a long season too … so I think it could take a toll on your mental, but yeah.”  The second subtheme was the level of intensity present at the collegiate level where participants expressed using mental skills were more important at higher levels. For example, Participant 3 noted “College hockey is kind of a lot, it takes like a mental toll on you. I definitely am experiencing it right now. As fun as hockey is, like, it gets pretty tough.” Participant 5 who competes in the NCAA DI level, stated  

“I think it’s [mental training] super important, especially as you get older. As you climb the ranks of hockey through high school and junior hockey to college, it becomes more and more important…. Everyone’s really good hockey players when you get to this point. So, you’ve got to find an edge somewhere. So that’s when you realize you got to start doing a different mental preparation thing.”   

In contrast, Participant 4 who competes at the ACHA DI level, discussed how they recognized mental skills use but “I just wanted to train really hard, but I’ve never really wanted to train my mind … it’s just we’re there to have fun, right.” It is important to note that this was in part in comparison to many people he played with in Canada currently playing at what he perceived to be higher levels of play, “I’m just here to have fun … I got to play hockey through my whole career at school and stuff like that. That’s kinda where I’m happy. These guys [people he played with as a youth] are getting paid to play, so I’m paying to play.” (Participant 4).  The differences in the athletes’ views of the levels they competed at highlight the importance of athletes’ perception of their experiences.   

Exposure   

The theme of exposure relates to the experiences participants had about how their environment and how those within it influence their usage and perceptions of mental skills. Within this theme, five subthemes were identified: organizational support, coaching staff, peers and teammates, classes, and lack of exposure.    

For the subtheme of organization support four of the six participants expressed how they would use services provided by a SPP if this resource was available to them at the organizational level but that they did not have access with their current team (contracted by the athletic department). As expressed by Participant 5   

Yeah, I think if it [mental training] was available, I think if we had one at school right now, I think if that was available to the team, I definitely be talking to him or her. But unfortunately, it’s not something we have here. But if the opportunity presents itself, I definitely think I would see them. 

For the second subtheme of coaching staff, all six participants explained how their coaching staff influences their use and perceptions of mental skills. Three participants indicated that their coaches often offered support, emphasis on proper preparation, and suggested mental training books. Participant 6 explained their coach’s emphasis on preparation, “… [talks] about preparation stuff… like not going out the night before games, gotta get prepared. Like to make sure to stay in shape, don’t be eating like shit.” While other participants expressed how their coaching staff neglect or do not encourage mental skills use. As Participant 4 described “He mentioned them, but he just yells at us. He pretty much just tells us we’re not mentally strong … He knows like your mentality is very important, but he doesn’t know how to like build your confidence.” Further explained by Participant 2 “We’re always told growing up that hockey is 90% mental and 10% physical… they didn’t put emphasis on the mental part, but they still tried to get people to think about that too.”   

Peers and teammates were the third subtheme identified in the exposure theme. Four participants discussed the impact of peers and teammates. For instance, Participant 4 stated   

Through my coach or through my peers. I think like if my buddies were saying, yeah, like I’m using this guy and he’s awesome. Or if my coach said, here we brought this guy in there, and hear them talk and see if you like them, then I’d be more willing to try stuff like that.  

For the subtheme of classes, two participants explained how they were exposed to mental skills use through taking Sport Psychology classes as part of earning their degree. Participant 2 described where they learned to use visualization techniques “I had been doing it [visualization] already, but I learned it in school,” and Participant 4 stated “I feel like school helped me more to understand my mental skills.”   

Lastly, the lack of exposure subtheme. Of the six participants four of them discussed using mental training skills, however, none of the participants had experience with or exposure to a SPP. There was also a general misunderstanding of mental skills use. Three of the six participants asked for clarification on what mental skills are or an example of mental skills use after being asked if they use mental skills. “Like what does that entail?” (Participant 1). Misunderstanding mental training and mental health was a common trend when these participants were asked about working with a SPP. “I don’t think I need to, but if it was diagnosed that I did, then yeah, I’d be open to it,” (Participant 6).   

Hockey Culture  

A prominent discussion point was that of hockey culture and its influence on mental skills use and perceptions. Two subthemes emerged from these conversations, how others view hockey players and hockey culture, and participants’ views of hockey culture.    

The first subtheme of how others view hockey players and hockey culture was described in the following ways. For example, Participant 3 described “I would have always chosen hockey over every sport just because of the people that I’ve met and the experiences that I’ve had, like I wouldn’t change any of that.” Male participants spoke to how male hockey players are seen as ‘red flags’ or ‘a**holes’.  Participant 6 said  

Yeah, so common beliefs for hockey players, definitely like not great guys, scum bags. Like think they’re better than everyone else. I think those are typical stereotypes for sure. Don’t think those are all true … the perception of hockey players all the time isn’t great.  

When discussing perceptions of hockey players and common stereotypes, the female participants explained how people perceive them in a masculine nature. “People do see that I’m hockey player, they kinda like take a step back because normally people are like field hockey or like they don’t think of like ice hockey because that’s normally just a guy sport,” (Participant 1). Within the conversation of differences between men’s and women’s hockey were comments related to body checking. The female participants expressed how the disallowance of body checking in women’s hockey supports the common stereotypes and perceptions about women’s hockey. “They come to our games, and we don’t do that (body check) and then they think it’s boring, or they think that we’re not good or something like that … because we’re women and more fragile and we can’t get hit because we will cry,” (Participant 2). In terms of influencing mental skills use and perceptions, Participant 2 also explained how the masculine stigmas of toughness associated with mental health would prevent male players or teams to work with a sport psychology professional,   

Because men are taught from a very young age that emotion, that they’re not supposed to show emotion and they’re not supposed to be vulnerable. So that would be putting them in a state of vulnerability. And then playing hockey in the first place is their spot to get out all that stuff on the ice and in an aggressive way.  

The second subtheme was participants’ views of hockey culture and their experiences within it. Three participants discussed how being mentally tough and being perceived as tough is important in hockey and impacted their use or lack of use of mental training strategies and/or seeing a sport psychology professional. Participant 1 noted “…I think just like the overall mental toughness and needing to have thick skin and like on and off the ice. And that if you can work on that, then it’s going to make you a better player.” Despite this, two participants alluded to their perceived importance of mental toughness in different way, like disregarding the need for SPP use or mental skills because they felt like support from their teammates was enough to help them, or vice versa, in that their teammates would support them in bettering themselves. As Participant 1 described “Yeah, I think if you’re not in a good culture, then definitely I would have to seek help, but being in a good culture, I don’t think you’d need to get help if you’re in a good environment.”   

Mental Skills Strategies Used   

Two subthemes, skill development and strategy use were identified within this theme. Mental skills used included staying focused and managing emotions. Participant 2 described   

“I don’t know, try, and keep all of my emotions down. Like I don’t get, I get very invested into the game and I get very emotional like as the game progresses and calming that down so I can focus on just playing instead of dealing with all this emotion plus having to play as well.” Participant 1 also noted “I think it’s a good way to talk to yourself and you don’t have to bring it out on other people. It’s more just between you and yourself.”  

The subtheme of mental strategies included breathing exercises, visualization, and preparation-based routines. Participant 6 highlighted the importance of their pregame routine and using visualization to help them prepare for their game, despite misunderstanding mental skills use previously,  

I usually put my AirPods in and just go I get ready like pretty, fairly early. I get dressed little early put my AirPods in and then go sit on the bench and just like look at the clean ice like after the Zamboni is done and just kind of visualize like what I’m gonna do out there.  

Participant 2 said “Yeah I like to visualize… I think it gives me a little bit more confidence, especially if it’s a big game and I’m nervous and it gives me the confidence that I could do the little things right.” Participant 5 stated   

I think visualization is a big mental skill that I use. Being a goalie, I think it’s a big part of the game… I like to spend the night if I know I’m playing the night before, I’d like to, before I go to bed, close my eyes and imagine game scenarios against who were playing and their players and fix myself in different situations so it can be best prepared for whatever is thrown at me during the game.  

DISCUSSION 

The purpose of this study was to investigate the perceptions and usage of mental skills in collegiate hockey players, along with perceptions of how hockey culture impacts these beliefs through interviews with current college hockey players. Interviews with six collegiate hockey players led to the following four themes emerging: Level of Competition, Exposure, Hockey Culture, and Mental Strategies Used. Within Level of Competition, two subthemes were identified: length of season and intensity of the game. Five subthemes were identified within Exposure: organizational support and access, coaching staff, peers and teammates, classes, and lack of exposure. Within Hockey Culture, two subthemes were found: others’ view of hockey culture and participants’ views of hockey culture. Lastly, two themes emerged from Mental Strategies Used: skills development and strategy development.   

When assessing the participants’ views on level of play and intensity, participants at the highest collegiate level found mental skills use to be more important than participants at lower levels, with one participant even noting that he did not use mental training strategies since he did not see the reason to for his lower level of play. Players noting level of play and intensity of the game as reasons to use or not use mental training highlights the need for more education on how mental training can be beneficial at all levels of the game.   

 The fact that none of the participants had worked with a SPP or had a coach who advocated or taught mental training strategies adds to this view.  Despite this, four participants still used a variety of mental strategies, most commonly imagery and breathing exercises. Given that these participants have had no experience in working with a SPP, nor encouragement from those around them to do so, it is of interest to determine where hockey players may be learning these strategies and if they are using them in an effective way. Future research should consider addressing this question via quantitative research that can better understand how mental strategies are being learned and implemented by athletes.  

Participants all noted not having access to an SPP, but that they would be willing to work with an SPP if they had access. Research conducted by Wrisberg et al. (41) at the NCAA DI level suggests that this may be due to lack of funds and differing perceptions athletic departments hold that prevent them from adding an SPP to their staff as an available resource to their student-athletes. Earlier research conducted by Wilson et al. (38) on athletic directors’ perceptions of SPPs show that higher value was placed on support staff that focused on physical wellbeing of student athletes (athletic trainers, strength and conditioning coaches) rather than consultation services provided by an SPP. This highlights the importance of the organization when it comes to athletes’ mental skills use. These findings support past research that indicated leadership was an important aspect of influencing the beliefs and values of those within a sporting organization’s culture. (14, 36). This also lends support to the current recommendations by the NCAA that athletics departments focus on athlete mental well-being in their hiring practices, including hiring those who specialize in sport psychology (30, 31).  

Coaches and peers were also shown to be important stakeholders when it came to athletes’ use and perception of mental training. The role of the coach as an influence on athletes is well established in the literature with Chu and Tang (11) noting coaches are the most important social agent of influence on an athlete’s autonomy. Furthermore, this finding supports past research that has indicated that a coaching staff’s perception of an SPP or mental skills use is crucial in how their athletes perceive them as well (5, 15, 37, 40, 43). In this study, participants noted that their coaches heavily encouraged mental toughness but none of the participants were taught about mental training or what exactly their coach meant, or ways to achieve mental toughness. This lack of support for mental training while expecting athletes to be “mentally tough” indicates athletes are being asked to achieve a psychological level of performance without the necessary support. As we would never expect athletes to “just get fit” without giving them resources to do so, this highlights the need for applied sport psychology to be more accessible to athletes. With this in mind, it is important for both future researchers and applied professionals to focus on how to get the important stakeholders within sport to advocate and promote sport psychology use. Furthermore, these results highlight the lack of access players had and the role this plays in athletes lacking an understanding of what mental training entails and how they could use psychological skills training for their sport performance.    

Hockey culture was a prevalent theme within these interviews. All six participants addressed how much they enjoyed hockey culture, how unique it was to be a part of a hockey team, and that their team was a family. The tight knit community of a hockey team indicates a need for the SPP to be embedded with the team to have the greatest impact. Workshops conducted by Eubank et al. (13) at the 2013 CESP Conference discussed the importance of an SPP fully understanding and being engaged within the team’s culture as a monumental aspect of success. Participants all commented on hockey being seen as a ‘guys sport’, using words like “masculine” and “macho” to describe how they believe the sport is perceived by others.  They noted the stigmas of toughness and hypermasculine culture as being a deterrent to using mental training or seeing an SPP; this supports past research (1-3, 7, 14, 18) that found hypermasculinity as a large component of hockey culture is still prevalent today. Interestingly, female participants discussed the same stigmas, but they were less likely to be a deterrent to using sport psychology services for them, instead noting that these stereotypes and perceptions of others, and those within hockey were more likely to lead to perceptions of female players being seen as masculine, or less feminine. Not the area of focus for this study, but future research should investigate how these perceptions lead to female players continuing in the game and their perceptions of themselves as both hockey players and women.   

Interestingly two of the participants noted they were Canadian, and in both cases, they discussed the culture of hockey being different in America. As we did not explicitly ask questions related to country differences impacting hockey culture for all participants, we did not include it in our results, however it may be an area for future researchers to consider.   

As is the case with all research it is important to note potential limitations in these findings.  First, there was a lack of representation across all divisions among the sample. Furthermore, participants were all competing in Midwest or Eastern regions of the United States indicating that this sample was limited in its breadth across different levels and areas across the United States. 

APPLICATIONS IN SPORT AND FUTURE RESEARCH 

The themes that emerged indicate players lack of knowledge about mental training in hockey could be impacting both the use and perception of mental training.  The interviews made it apparent that the players feel a deep sense of attachment to their view of hockey as a unique culture, and it being a family. Therefore, SPPs interested in working with hockey teams should make sure to be aware of the need to be an immersed part of this family when it comes to getting buy-in with athletes. Additionally, SPP’s will also need to be aware of the lack of education or inaccurate education hockey players may have about PST and how they can be an asset to the players’ experiences. 

 An SPP should become familiar with the unique culture of hockey, including differences in the men’s and women’s game, as well as lack of exposure to mental training that their players have had when beginning a PST program with a team or individual.  Notably, the culture of hockey upholds specific behaviours that may challenge an SPP. Specific language and routines may take time to understand in terms of application of SPP workshops and skills, SPPs should be cognizant of this adjustment period and the significance of these cultural pillars present within hockey and its participants. Additionally, there are meaningful differences between that of men’s hockey and women’s hockey. SPPs need to understand the processes associated with each and with highlighted importance of the expectations and stereotypes that may be present and affect both men’s and women’s hockey players. In addition, the course of career play differs significantly between the two. Men’s hockey has varying paths and opportunities available, with the recent updates between the NCAA and CHL that supports the playing of male players in both of these leagues. However, the opportunities for female hockey players is slowly changing. SPPs should become familiar with the emergence of the Professional Women’s Hockey League (PWHL) and the significance this holds for many aspiring female players and the development of women’s hockey. Lastly, as many participants stated within the current study, not all hockey players may have had exposure to or experience working with a SPP. In that, SPPs need to approach the instruction of mental skills work and provisions of resources that support a breadth of existing knowledge present within the population they are working with. Specifically, in that the understanding of a niche and protected culture of hockey, coupled with a potential lack of experience, may mean that the SPP needs to continuously assess for knowledge and experience while planning specific programming for hockey teams and players.  

Future research should consider interviewing hockey players from other areas and levels. Specifically, since the sample of participants in this study was those in the Midwest and Eastern Regions of the United States, expanding to different geographic regions or countries would potentially lead to additional information. Finally, given the findings of this study, interview questions for future research might explore topics such as the specific mental skills participants use or find valuable, ask for further clarification or examples of hockey culture norms and perspectives.  

CONCLUSIONS 

The purpose of this study was to qualitatively investigate how collegiate hockey players use and perceive mental skills and determine the influence of hockey culture on these perceptions. The findings suggest that level of play, exposure, and hockey culture all play a heavy role in how collegiate hockey players use and perceive mental training. Participants described psychological strategies such as imagery, breathing exercises, and preparation routines. These findings are crucial for sport psychology professionals in understanding how to work effectively within the niche sporting culture of hockey. The uniqueness of hockey culture makes it important to study this group specifically, without making assumptions about their experiences with psychological skills training based on research in other sports.    

REFERENCES