Authors: Jiayao Chee Qi1, Marshall J. Magnusen2, Jun Woo Kim3, and Jeffrey C. Petersen2
1Department of Sport and Entertainment Management, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC, USA
2Department of Educational Leadership, Baylor University, Waco, TX, USA
3School of Global Business, Arcadia University, Glenside, PA, USA
Corresponding Author:
Marshall J. Magnusen, PhD
Marrs McLean Science
One Bear Place #97312
Waco, TX 76798
Marshall_Magnusen@baylor.edu
254-710-4019
Jiayao Chee Qi, MSEd, is a doctoral candidate at the University of South Carolina. His advisor is Dr. Sam Todd, the associate dean for faculty, operations, and international partnerships. His current research interests focus on sport organization behavior, realistic job previews, and personnel selection.
Marshall J. Magnusen, PhD, is an associate professor of sport management at Baylor University. Magnusen’s research interests include leadership, recruiting and personnel selection, and wellbeing.
Jun Woo Kim, PhD, is an associate professor of sport management at Arcadia University. His research interests are in the areas of sport consumer behavior, marketing, and sports analytics.
Jeffrey C. Petersen, PhD, is a professor of sport management at Baylor University. He has research interests in the areas of sport consumer behavior as well as facility and event management.
Assessing the Impact of Gender and Expertise in Athletic Product Endorsement in China
ABSTRACT
Product-endorser relationships are critical to the success of marketing campaigns involving the sponsorship of an individual to promote a product or service. The significance of such relationships can be understood in part through the “match-up hypothesis.” This theory suggests endorsers are more effective when “fit” is stronger between a product and the endorser of the product. In this study, Chinese consumers’ perceptions of gender-sport fit, expertise, and endorser-product fit were evaluated. Images of two sets of athletes participating in different sports, with one being mixed martial arts (MMA) and the other one being gymnastics, were compared in a two-part study by 649 sport consumers from Shanghai, China. In Study 1, a 2 (male athlete and female athlete) × 2 (MMA and gymnastics) model compared Chinese consumers’ perceptions of gender-sport fit on endorser-product fit. In Study 2, a 2 (gender-sport fit: high and low) × 2 (expertise: highly skilled and less skilled) model evaluated whether consumers’ perceptions of endorser-product fit were more strongly influenced by athlete gender-sport fit or sport expertise. Gender-sport fit was shown to outperform expertise. Though expertise is important, an endorsement lacking sufficient gender-sport fit may not maximize the effectiveness of the endorsement relationship.
Key Words: consumer behavior; culture; endorsers; international; marketing; MMA; sponsorship; sport management
INTRODUCTION
Product endorsement has been and remains a staple of advertising in numerous settings, ranging from tangible products such as automobiles and fashion apparel to intangible services like attorneys and personal trainers. Though the nuances of what makes an effective product endorsement can be complicated, the underlying idea is straightforward. Consumers want to have confidence in their purchases. Hence, consumers are often attracted to and respect endorsers who are perceived as an appropriate fit for the product being endorsed (22). The higher the correlation between endorser and product (or service) in terms of characteristics and attributes, the greater the adverting effect (9).
An athlete endorsing a product is a popular but not guaranteed strategy for a successful marketing campaign. Though exceptions exist, athlete endorsers must usually possess sufficient levels of congruence (fit) with the products or services they are endorsing for the dynamic to positively influence consumer attitudes and purchase behaviors. To that end, attributes such as gender and perceived expertise may play important roles in the effectiveness of athlete endorsements (15,17, 22).
Gender is an important variable to consider when examining athlete endorsements because men’s and women’s sport have historically been divided along gender lines (11). Consumers have also been socialized toward thinking about and categorizing athletes into different sports based on gender (7). As a result, sport consumers may view certain sports (e.g., gymnastics, synchronized swimming, softball) as more feminine and commonly engaged in by women and other sports (e.g., baseball, boxing, football, rugby) as more masculine and commonly engaged in by men (2, 7, 11). For example, Parker et al. (17) conducted a female athlete endorsement study utilizing a 2 (feminine/masculine characteristics) x 2 (feminine/masculine product) experimental design. They reported that gender impressions (amongst consumers) significantly influenced endorsement effectiveness and that effectiveness dramatically diminished if a mismatch existed.
Along with gender, another potentially important aspect of the athlete endorsement formula is expertise. To possess exceptional skill or knowledge in a sport is to possess expertise in that sport. As endorsers, athletes are naturally divided into different segments based on their sports and the skills they have mastered. When expertise is a strong fit (e.g., a basketball player endorsing a basketball-related product or service), the effectiveness of the endorser-product relationship is likely to increase and vice-versa (2, 22).
The purpose of this study was to examine the effectiveness of gender and expertise of specific athlete endorsers for a sport-related product. An Eastern Asian context was used instead of a Western cultural context to conduct this study. Examining the influence of endorser gender and expertise attributes in an Eastern Asia context, especially China (given its prominence and powerful role in Asian financial markets), is an important and missing component of the prevailing sport marketing literature. Yoon et al. (25), for example, recommended this line of inquiry be expanded to include gender and contexts outside of North America after studying endorsement effectiveness based on race-sport fit and expertise-sport fit. Complementary research needs to be conducted to better understand the roles of endorser gender and expertise in East Asian sport marketing. Such research is also likely to improve the marketing strategies of sport and non-sport brands looking to use athletes in East Asian advertising and promotional campaigns.
THEORETICAL FOUNDATION
Product-endorser relationships are foundational to the success of marketing campaigns involving the sponsorship of an individual to promote a product or service (20). The significance of such marketing efforts can be understood in part by the “match-up hypothesis” (9) because this perspective focuses on the congruence between the product and the product endorser. Specifically, the physical attractiveness of an endorser that matches with the image of the product will yield a positive return in terms of effective advertisement and marketing (9). However, if there is an incongruence between the product and the endorser, the efficiency and effectiveness will diminish.
The “match-up hypothesis” arose from a need to better explain congruence, especially as it pertains to marketing and advertising. Since the original work of Kamins (9), this approach has been adapted to numerous marketing contexts. Endorser attractiveness, race, and expertise are just several areas that have been examined. Strong support for this theory and its application to marketing research in both sport and non-sport contexts is consistently found across the extant literature (e.g., 8, 10, 16, 17, 22, 25). Therefore, the “match-up hypothesis” represents an appropriate theoretical foundation to use in the current study because gender and expertise are examined as potentially important aspects of athlete endorser-product congruence.
HYPOTHESIS DEVELOPMENT
Endorsements and Gender Typing
Gender differences still may play a role in the effectiveness of product endorsements and sport advertisements in contemporary society. Fink et al. (6) observed in their study that even though gender norms appear to be changing, female athletes in gender “inappropriate” sports were still reported to be less attractive than their counterparts viewed in conventionally held gender “appropriate” sports (i.e., sports deemed more feminine such as gymnastics). Such perceptions of sex-appropriate sports and appropriate athlete-sport endorsements are also unlikely to be limited to Western cultural contexts; they are expected to be present in Eastern cultural contexts (e.g., China) as well (13, 15).
Much like Western countries and societies, many Chinese citizens view athletes as idols and heroes no matter their gender (15). However, gender typing still exists (12, 18). Collectively, despite evidence that China reveres several strong females, such as folk hero Hua Mulan, the social roles and statuses of women have been inferior to men in China and other East Asian countries (15).
Cultural norms of gender amongst Chinese consumers can carry over to how they view sport competition and sport participation. Indeed, Chinese sport consumers may have a strong stereotype toward sex-appropriate and sex-inappropriate sports (15). Just as American consumers often view tennis and volleyball as gender-appropriate sports for women (6), Chinese sports consumers tend to view gymnastics and swimming (regular and synchronized swimming) as more sex-appropriate sports for women. Such perceptions may stem in part from Chinese philosophical beliefs (e.g., Yin and Yang philosophy) as well as historical and current athletic accomplishments (18, 23). For instance, Chinese female athletes have achieved great success in gymnastics and swimming compared to their male counterparts competing in those same sports (15). Female Chinese athletes have won more Olympic gold medals than male Chinese athletes five times in a row since the 1998 Seoul Olympic Games. Several world-leading performances in volleyball, table tennis, diving, and swimming were also achieved by female Chinese athletes. Accomplishments such as these may contribute to a perception among many Chinese consumers that women are more dominant than men in those sports. Thus, the following hypothesis about gender typing and differences in athlete endorsements in China is put forth:
H1: Athletes with a stronger gender-sport fit will have a better endorser-product fit than those with a weaker gender-sport fit.
Endorsements and Expertise
Expertise has a significant role in product endorsement in both Western and Eastern countries (15, 19, 22). Athletes, as endorsers, are logically divided into different markets based on their perceived skill level and sport (21). The muscularity of an endorser, for example, was found to influence consumer perceptions of the endorser’s expertise regarding exercise equipment (16). Expertise is not the only aspect that contributes to congruence (between an endorser and a product) based on the “match-up hypothesis,” (9) but it may be one of the most effective (22).
Expertise is important for creating an effective product endorsement (22), but the extent to which expertise will outperform gender typing in an endorsement setting remains underexplored. Yoon et al. (25) considered the matter of race-sport fit in a study involving martial arts and basketball. By manipulating strong and weak race-sport fit endorsers with expertise attributes (skillful/unskillful), the researchers concluded that race-sport fit was a stronger factor in determining consumers’ attitudes toward a certain sport. That is, race-sport fit mattered more than expertise. It is unknown whether the same sort of result will stem from a study on gender-sport fit and expertise. However, given the results of the Yoon study, as well as the entrenched nature of gender roles in Chinese culture (15, 18, 23), it is reasonable to believe that gender-sport fit may trump expertise. Thus, the following hypothesis is put forth:
H2: Perceived gender-sport fit will outperform expertise in determining endorser-product fit.
METHODS
A quantitative research approach was employed across two studies (i.e., Study 1 and Study 2) to evaluate Chinese consumers’ perceptions of gender-sport fit, expertise, and endorser-product fit. A survey instrument was used to compare two sets of athletes participating in different sports (i.e., mixed martial arts (MMA) and gymnastics). In Study 1, a 2 (male athlete and female athlete) × 2 (MMA and gymnastics) model was used to compare Chinese consumers’ perceptions of gender-sport fit on endorser-product fit, with mixed-martial arts (MMA) being positioned as a male-oriented sport in China and gymnastics being positioned as a female-oriented sport in China. In Study 2, the format of the first study was expanded to include endorser expertise. A 2 (gender-sport fit: high and low) × 2 (expertise: highly skilled and less skilled) model was used to evaluate consumers’ perceptions of whether athlete gender-sport fit is a stronger indicator than sport expertise on endorser-product fit.
Participants
Study 1 was conducted in China. The study contained a quantitative, non-experimental, survey-based research design. The participants represented a non-random sample. A total of 326 Chinese sport consumers in Shanghai who had consumed (watched) Chinese athletes compete in gymnastics and MMA participated in the study. Shanghai was used as the target city for data gathering because it is one of the largest cities in East Asia.
The average age of a participant was 29. Participants were near evenly split between male and female, comprising 48% and 52% of the sample respectively. Almost 70% of the participants had at least a bachelor’s degree or equivalent. Of the participants, 97% reported having an interest in sports (in general), 73% reported an interest in MMA, and 84% reported an interest in gymnastics.
Study 2 was conducted similarly to Study 1. A total of 323 valid data responses were collected from sport consumers in Shanghai. Study 2 also employed a quantitative, non-experimental, survey-based research design. The average age of a participant in Study 2 was 30. Males represented 43% of the participants whereas females represented 57%. In terms of education, 72% of the participants had at least a bachelor’s degree or equivalent. Additionally, 95% reported having an interest in sports (in general), 70% reported an interest in MMA, and 83% reported an interest in gymnastics.
Procedures
After receiving the university Institution Review Board (IRB) permission, a software-based online self-administered mode was used to collect data. Because of the continued government response to the COVID-19 pandemic and the geopolitical circumstances engulfing China at the time of this study, data were collected with the assistance of a well-established Chinese marketing research company, WJX.cn. This organization offers data services similar to Amazon’s Mechanical Turk. This approach to data collection has been shown to be a valid and useful tool for collecting data from diverse consumer populations (3).
Within the survey instrument, gender-sport fit was manipulated via a series of fictional athlete-endorsed sport advertisements. Participants were shown images of fictional athletes. The gender of the endorsers was presented as male and female. The images included: a male MMA fighter, a male gymnast, a female MMA fighter, and a female gymnast. Each athlete endorser image included a photo of a non-celebrity, Chinese male or female competitor. The athlete endorsers in the images wore attire appropriate to their respective sports. The product being endorsed was a hypothetical sports nutrition bar. The bar was not a supplement currently available in China. The sports nutrition bar remained consistent regardless of athlete endorser gender or sport. The male and female athletes in the images were wearing generic, sport-appropriate attire.
Next, to examine gender-sport fit preferences, several items were included respective of each image. Count data was used to measure endorser-product fit. Count data includes non-negative integer values from observations where those integers arise from counting rather than ranking. Using count data with the design of the current study provided a clear presentation of participants’ choices for athlete endorsement based on their preferences. Specifically, with its distribution, count data naturally puts positive probability mass on a single outcome, which provides a clearer and richer set of interesting inferences (24). Further, given the COVID-19 pandemic, using count data was a technically simple and practical approach to conducting non-time-consuming online survey research when face-to-face data collection (with lengthier questionnaires) was not advisable.
In the 2 x 2 factorial design, two sets of three questions were asked, with questions one through three being identical to questions four through six except for the focal athletes (i.e., MMA fighters or gymnasts). For example, three questions used in a single set for MMA were: (1) “Which image better represents your perception of an MMA fighter?” (2) “Which image better represents an authentic MMA fighter?” (3) “Which image is more likely to prompt you to purchase the endorsed product (i.e., energy bar)?”. Three questions used in a single set for gymnastics were: (4) “Which image better represents your perception of a gymnast?” (5) “Which image better represents an authentic gymnast?” (6) “Which image is more likely to prompt you to purchase the endorsed product (i.e., energy bar)?”. Participant responses to these questions determined whether the hypothesis was accepted or rejected. Participant demographic information (e.g., age, education level) was also collected.
Finally, to check the meaning equivalence between the original instrument (English version) and the one employed in this study (Chinese version), a process of back translation was employed. Back translation is the procedure of translating a translated questionnaire back into its original language, which in the case of this study is English. This has been done in previous sport management research (e.g., 26) conducted in an East Asian context. In this study, English-language survey items were translated into a Chinese version of the questionnaire. The survey was then translated into Chinese by a native Chinese-speaking scholar who is also proficient in English. After that, the Chinese version of the survey was back-translated by a different native Chinese-speaking researcher whose primary research language is English. A native English-speaking researcher then performed a double-sided assessment for both the original and back-translated versions to ensure an accurate translation.
The design of Study 1 was expanded in Study 2 to include expertise because of the importance of expertise to the selection of an athlete endorser (5, 22, 25). Study 2 followed a 2 (gender-sport fit: high and low) x 2 (expertise: highly skilled and less skilled) design. The advertisement images used in Study 1 were also used in Study 2, only with slight modifications to indicate expertise by differentiating a generic competitor from a world champion competitor. Expert information was added to the advertisements in textual form. In the case of the champion athlete endorser for a male MMA competitor, the caption “World Champion” was included with the athlete’s image. Two sets of three questions were used in each sport scenario (i.e., MMA and gymnastics); these sets of questions were identical to the questions used in Study 1. The measures used in Study 1 and Study 2 were also the same. Count measures were used for the Chi-Square Goodness of Fit Test along with the collection of demographic information.
Data Analyses
For Study 1, a 2 (gender) x 2 (sport) factorial Chi-Square Goodness of Fit Test was conducted to assess the main effects of gender-sport fit. A validation check for the athlete-endorsed advertisements was also conducted prior to Study 1. A convenience sample of 20 students at a large university in China was recruited to validate the manipulation. The participants were shown four images and asked to match an image with one of four answer options. The four answer options included: (A) a sports nutrition bar with a female gymnast, (B) a sports nutrition bar with a male gymnast, (C) a sports nutrition bar with a female MMA fighter, and (D) a sports nutrition bar with a male MMA fighter. All 20 participants responded appropriately (i.e., correctly matching an image with an answer option). Thus, no changes to the survey images were deemed necessary.
The design of Study 1 was expanded in Study 2 to include expertise. Study 2 followed a 2 (gender-sport fit: high and low) x 2 (expertise: highly skilled and less skilled) design. The advertisement images used in Study 1 were also used in Study 2, only with slight modifications to indicate expertise by differentiating a generic competitor from a world champion competitor. Expert information was added to the advertisements in textual form. The measures used in Study 1 and Study 2 were also the same. Count measures were used for the Chi-Square Goodness of Fit Test along with the collection of demographic information. Chi-Square Goodness of Fit Test was implemented to compare the influence of perceived gender-sport fit and expertise on endorser-product fit in both studies.
RESULTS
For Study 1, a 2 (male and female) x 2 (MMA fighter and gymnast) factorial Chi-Square Goodness of Fit Test provided the main effect of gender-sport fit for Study 1. Results revealed a significantly higher endorser-product fit with a male MMA fighter than with a female MMA fighter, with support for all three questions being found. For question 1, X2 (1, n = 326) = 110.74, p < .001, for question 2, x2 (1, n = 326) = 113.08, p < .001, and for question 3, x2 (1, n = 283) = 5.94, p = .015. The results also revealed a significantly higher endorser-product fit with a female gymnast than a male gymnast, with support for all three questions being identified. Specifically, for question 4, x2 (1, n = 326) = 151.18, p < .001, for question 5, x2 (1, n = 326) = 143.12, p < .001, and for question 6, x2 (1, n = 290) = 116.74, p < .001. Thus, Hypothesis 1 was supported. A male MMA fighter and female gymnast, perceived as stronger gender-sport fits within their respective sports, possess better endorser-product fit than their counterparts (i.e., female MMA fighter and male gymnast) in terms of perceptual authenticity and endorsed purchase intentions. Table 1 provides the results for perceived gender-sport fit on endorser-product fit.
For Study 2, After comparing the test results for the 2 (gender-sport fit: high and low) x 2 (expertise: highly skilled and less skilled) factorial design with a Chi-Square Goodness of Fit Test, it appears a significantly higher endorser-product fit existed with a male MMA fighter who had no expertise than with a female MMA fighter who had significant expertise. Support was shown for all three questions. Namely, for question 1, x2 (1, n = 323) = 46.84, p < .001, for question 2, x2 (1, n = 323) = 18.36, p < .001, and for question 3, x2 (1, n = 277) = 7.97, p = .005. The result also revealed a significantly higher endorser-product fit with a female gymnast who had no expertise than a male gymnast who had significant expertise. Support was again shown for all three questions. For question 4, x2 (1, n = 323) = 78.27, p < .001, for question 5, x2 (1, n = 323) = 48.38, p < .001, and for question 6, x2 (1, n = 287) = 25.17, p < .001. Thus, Hypothesis 2 was supported. Male MMA fighters and female gymnasts were shown to possess better endorser-product fit, even without expertise, when compared to their counterparts (i.e., female MMA fighter and male gymnast with significant expertise) in terms of perceptual authenticity and endorsed product purchase intentions. Table 2 summarizes the findings for perceived gender-sport fit and expertise on endorser-product fit.
A further Chi-Square Goodness of Fit Test was conducted to determine whether applying expertise to the existing scenarios would affect participants’ preferences. After comparing MMA fighters in Study 1 and Study 2, the results showed that there was not enough evidence presented to conclude that by adding expertise to a female MMA fighter in Study 2, participants’ preferences and purchase intentions were affected, x2 (1, n = 560) = .04, p = .833. Similar analyses were conducted with Study 1 and Study 2’s gymnasts. Results revealed that a significant difference existed when expertise was included with the weaker gender-sport fit figure (a male gymnast). Participants’ preferences on purchase intentions were changed, x2 (1, n = 577) = 20.24, p < .001, suggesting that the addition of expertise did improve consumers’ perceptions and prompt their purchase intentions toward a sport product endorsed by a male gymnast who is an expert (i.e., world champion) but viewed as a relatively weak gender-sport fit.
DISCUSSION
In this study, sport consumers were expected to perceive male athletes as more suitable competitors for MMA fighters and female athletes as more suitable competitors for gymnastics. This result was overwhelmingly supported by the data. Sport consumers in Shanghai reported a significantly higher purchase intention (p < .001) toward a product that was endorsed by a perceived gender-appropriate athlete than a product endorsed by a perceived gender-inappropriate athlete. This result aligns with previous research (e.g., Parker et al., 2018), which has shown that gender-inappropriate athlete endorsers tend to receive a significantly lower rating on endorsement effectiveness and that sport consumers would be less likely to purchase the endorsed product.
This study also accentuates the salience of gender-sport fit, even when paired with expertise. Previous research (e.g, 6, 11, 17, 25) has shown the importance of gender effectiveness on athlete endorsements and some studies (e.g., 15) have even provided an explanation as to why gender-typing exists in the realm of Chinese sports. The present findings support the extant brand endorsement literature and the “match-up hypothesis,” with consideration given to the Yoon et al. (25) study that reported race-sport fit to be a much stronger factor, both evidentially and statistically compared to expertise. This study’s results were similar, only with the variable of gender replacing the variable of race.
In terms of next steps, future brand endorsement research in East Asia might take celebrity sport endorsers into consideration as well. A celebrity sport endorser is a famous sports figure, whether an athlete or a coach, who uses public recognition to endorse or present a product in marketing applications (14). Sport celebrities do not always select endorsement opportunities that are an appropriate fit. Instead, these individuals may use their fame to cash in on the most lucrative opportunities regardless of whether the products they endorse are a strong fit for them. A poor fit may do little to improve sales of a brand and lead to consumer confusion about why the athlete is endorsing the product (which may then also negatively impact an athlete’s personal brand).
The current study used generic, non-celebrity models as product endorsers for both the MMA fighter group and the gymnast group. It was concluded from the results that the gender-sport fit endorser better boosted sport consumers’ purchase intentions when compared to expertise. Though interesting, it is unclear from the results whether a celebrity athlete for a corresponding sport (MMA or gymnastics) would alter the results. For instance, a celebrity athlete endorser, in the case of weak gender-sport fit, may have a different impact on the outcome than was seen with a non-celebrity athlete endorser. Celebrity status, in certain cases, may prevail over the influence of gender-sport fit on sport consumption outcomes. Thus, future studies should consider gender, expertise, and celebrity status when studying athlete brand endorsements.
CONCLUSIONS
Previous studies have shown that athlete gender appears to be an influential component of the endorsement relationship (2, 25). Also important is expertise (21). In the current study, which was conducted in an Eastern Asian context rather than a traditional Western context, the factors of gender and expertise were examined to build upon previous sport research (e.g., 19, 25) and further tested the “match-up hypothesis” in determining effective endorser-product fit. Though expertise is important to the endorser-product relationships, the provided results underscore the importance of utilizing gender as a crucial factor in athlete endorsements, particularly in a cultural context such as China.
APPLICATIONS IN SPORT
Choosing the “right” endorser for corresponding products in a specific market environment is incontrovertibly essential to the success of the endorser-product relationship (4). With that being said, the results of this study hold several important takeaways for sport professionals about identifying the “right” endorsers. Professionals involved with MMA fight promotions such as Bellator, ONE Championship, and the Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC) may especially benefit from the results of this study. The UFC, for example, is the leading American-based MMA promotion company in the world. The organization aims for continued expansion into the East Asian market and recently unveiled a 93,000 square-foot facility in Shanghai, China (1). This facility is nearly three times the size of the original UFC facility in Las Vegas, U.S., and it serves as a hub for fighters from East Asia and Asia-Pacific regions to train and develop.
Along with building a massive facility in one of the largest cities in Asia, the success of Chinese female MMA fighter, Zhang Weili (the current UFC Women’s Strawweight Champion), has increased awareness about the UFC to Chinese sport consumers. However, based upon the results of this study, it is questionable whether Weili, the first ever Chinese and East Asian champion in UFC history, will bring a sufficient marketing effect to facilitate the UFC’s advancement in a key business market such as Shanghai.
Questions remain as to whether a female MMA champion in China will be adequate to grow the popularity of the sport. The present findings point to the benefits of the UFC having a male champion from East Asia if the sport is to gain widespread traction amongst Chinese sport consumers. However, at the time this study was conducted, only one male fighter from an East Asian context in the UFC was ranked in the Top 10. Thus, with the current absence of male Chinese MMA fighters who are in contention to fight for a championship, the UFC should invest in their future by playing the long game. The UFC needs to continue to develop and promote high-level male fighters, such as Li Jingliang and Song Yadong, if the promoter is to secure a strong foothold in the Chinese market. Therefore, the UFC and other sport organizations looking to penetrate and remain a force in Eastern Asian markets, should strongly consider gender-sport fit (while not ignoring expertise) when they are promoting their products and services.
REFERENCES
1. Atkin, N. (2019, June 20). UFC Performance Institute Shanghai: Inside the state-of-the art facility. South China Morning Post. https://www.scmp.com/sport/martial-arts/mixed-martial-arts/article/3015370/ufc-performance-institute-shanghai-take-look
2. Boyd, C., & Shank, D. (2004). Athletes as product endorsers: The effect of gender and product relations. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 13, 82-93.
3. Buhrmester, M., Kwang, T., & Gosling, S. D. (2011). Amazon’s mechanical turk: A new source of inexpensive, yet high-quality, data? Perspectives on Psychological Science, 6, 3-5. DOI: 10.1177/1745691610393980
4. Ducoffe, R. (1996). Advertising value and advertising on the web. Journal of Advertising Research, 36, 21–35.
5. Fink, J. S., Cunningham, G. B., & Kenix, L. J. (2004). Utilizing athletes as endorsers to sell women’s sport: Attractiveness versus expertise. Journal of Sport Management, 18, 350-367.
6. Fink, J., Parker, H., Cunningham, G., & Cuneen, J. (2012). Female athlete endorsers: Determinants of effectiveness. Sport Management Review, 15, 13–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smr.2011.01.003
7. Hardin, M., & Greer, J. D. (2009). The influence of gender-role socialization, media use and sport participation on perceptions of gender-appropriate sports. Journal of Sport Behavior, 32, 207-226.
8. Kahle, L., & Homer, P. (1985). Physical attractiveness of the celebrity endorser: A social adaptation perspective. Journal of Consumer Research, 11, 954-61.
9. Kamins, M. (1990). An investigation into the “match-up” hypothesis in celebrity advertising: When beauty may be only skin deep. Journal of Advertising, 19, 4–13.
10. Kamins, M., & Gupta, K. (1994). Congruence between spokesperson and product type: A matchup hypothesis perspective. Psychology and Marketing, 11, 569–586.
11. Kane, M. (1988). Media coverage of the female athlete before, during, and after Title IX: Sports Illustrated revisited. Journal of Sport Management, 2, 87–99.
12. Laosethakul, K., & Leingpibul, T. (2010). Why females do not choose computing? A lesson learned from China. Multicultural Education & Technology Journal, 4, 173–187. https://doi.org/10.1108/17504971011075174
13. Lau, P. W. C., Cheung, M. W. L., & Ransdell, L. (2007). Sport identity and sport participation: A cultural comparison between collective and individualistic societies. International Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 5, 66-81.
14. Lear, K., Runyan, R., & Whitaker, W. (2009). Sports celebrity endorsements in retail products advertising. International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management, 37, 308–321. https://doi.org/10.1108/09590550910948547
15. Liu, M. T., & Brock, J. L. (2011). Selecting a female athlete endorser in China. European Journal of Marketing, 45, 1214–1235. DOI 10.1108/03090561111137688
16. Lynch, J., & Schuler, D. (1994). The matchup effect of spokesperson and product congruency: A schema theory interpretation. Psychology and Marketing, 11, 417–445.
17. Parker, H., Mudrick, M., & Fink, J. (2018). The impact of gender expression on female athlete endorser effectiveness. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 27, 264–274.
18. Riordan, J., & Jinxia, D. (1996). Chinese women and sport: Success, sexuality and suspicion. The China Quarterly, 145, 130-152.
19. Schaefer, A. D., Parker, R. S., & Kent, J. L. (2010). A comparison of American and Chinese consumers’ attitudes toward athlete celebrity endorsers. Journal of Applied Sport Management, 2(1), 31-39.
20. Seno, D., & Lukas, B. (2007). The equity effect of product endorsement by celebrities: A conceptual framework from a co-branding perspective. European Journal of Marketing, 41, 121–134. DOI 10.1108/03090560710718148
21. Till, B., & Busler, M. (1998). Matching products with endorsers: Attractiveness versus expertise. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 15, 576–586.
22. Till, B., & Busler, M. (2000). The match-up hypothesis: Physical attractiveness, expertise, and the role of fit on brand attitude, purchase intent and brand beliefs. Journal of Advertising, 29, 1-13.
23. Wang, R. (2005). Dong Zhongshu’s transformation of yin-yang theory and contesting of gender identity. Philosophy East and West, 55, 209–231.
24. Winkelmann, R. (2010). Econometric analysis of count data. Springer Berlin.
25. Yoon, Y., Kim, J., Magnusen, M., & Sagas, M. (2018). Fine-tuning brand endorsements: Exploring race-sport fit with athlete endorsers. Journal of Applied Sport Management, 10, 41–50. https://doi.org/10.18666/JASM-2018-V10-I3-8964
26. Yoshida, M., Gordon, B., Heere, B., & James, J. (2015). Fan community identification: An empirical examination of its outcomes in Japanese professional sport. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 24, 105–119.
