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The PGA Tour vs. Casey Martin

U.S. Sports Academy2017-08-07T15:30:13-05:00February 14th, 2008|Contemporary Sports Issues|

This paper analyzes the public relations aspects of the case – The PGA Tour vs. Casey Martin. Casey Martin sued the PGA Tour over the right to use a riding cart during PGA events. The recent court rulings are discussed as well as the current appeal by the PGA Tour to the Supreme Court. Also examined are the reasons why Casey Martin took the PGA to court. Opinions of Jack Nicklaus, Arnold Palmer, and PGA Tour Commissioner, Tim Finchem are presented. The positive and negative public relations issues of three famous Stanford golfers are discussed: Casey Martin, Tiger Woods, and Notah Begay III. Finally, the paper concludes by explaining how the PGA Tour and Casey Martin should resolve the case.

The popularity of golf in the United States and the world is at an all time high. Tiger Woods is a household name. He is reaching the same popularity level across the globe that only Michael Jordan has. New golf courses are popping up everywhere. Young boys and girls are now playing golf instead of the other major sports such as baseball, softball, basketball, and football. It is no longer frowned upon to focus on golf in high school. During this boom in popularity, a major public relations issue involving the tradition of the game has come to the forefront. In fact, it is going all the way to the Supreme Court. The issue is the ability to ride a cart in professional PGA tour events. The player in the midst of this huge controversy is Casey Martin.

Casey Martin – History of the Case

Casey Martin was born June 2, 1972, in Eugene, Oregon with a birth defect. The birth defect in his right leg is known as Klippel-Trenaunay-Weber Syndrome. In order to walk, Casey has to wear a strong support stocking to keep the swelling down. The defect is a congenital circulatory condition in his lower right leg. His right leg is two sizes too small and his doctors tell him there is a good chance he will lose the leg in the near future. His orthopedist, Dr. Don Jones said, “He has a grossly abnormal vascular system of the lower extremity and, with that, erosion of the bone and chronic pain.”(Reilly, 1998) The doctor is still hopeful that they can find something that will make Martin more comfortable and prolong the life of the leg. Martin prefers not  to talk about the pain, but admits it is a day to day thing. He continues to encounter sharp pains, aches, and throbs in the leg. Anything could and may happen that could force his balsa tibia to snap. If this happens, his leg will have to come off. “I only have so many steps left in it,” Martin says.(Charles, 1998) This is why Casey Martin has been in a battle with the PGA Tour since 1997. He knows his pro career could come to a grinding halt any day. If he has to walk the course instead of ride, the end could come very quickly.

The debate started in December of 1997. Casey wanted to use a cart in the PGA Tour qualifier in Haines City, Florida. If he finished as one of the top 38 golfers, he would earn his tour card for the coming year. He was granted a temporary injunction that allowed him to ride a cart in the event. Unfortunately, his six round score of 425 was not good enough for him to finish in the top 38.
In 1998, the federal district courts again ruled in favor of Martin. The PGA was ordered to allow him to use a golf cart in its championship tournaments, in contradiction to its existing rules. The PGA Tour appealed that decision as well. In March of 2000, the 9th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals held that the Americans with Disabilities Act requires the tour to make an exception to its walking only rule.(Curtis, 2000) The tour must allow Martin to use a motorized cart during competition. After the 9th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals ruled in favor of Martin, the PGA Tour decided to take the issue to the Supreme Court.

The PGA Tour applied on May 15, 2000 for the U.S. Supreme Court to extend its deadline for its appeal of the lower court decision. The decision has allowed Casey Martin for the time to use a golf cart during tour events. When representatives of the PGA asked for the extension, they went to Justice Sandra Day O’Connor, who pushed back the deadline by thirty days to July 5, 2000. This extension gave the tour extra time to ready its argument in the event the Supreme Court would hear the Martin case. It seems ironic that the PGA Tour chose Justice O’Connor to extend the deadline. O’Connor is an avid golfer and a member of the exclusive Chevy Chase Maryland Club. One of the PGA Tour’s lawyers, Richard Taranto, is also a former clerk of O’Connor.(Reilly, 2000) At the current date, the fate of Casey Martin is still sitting in the hands of the Supreme Court.

Title III of the Americans with Disabilities Act

Casey Martin’s previous cases and current appeal fall under Title III of the Americans with Disabilities Act. Title III prohibits discrimination in “public accommodations,” a term which covers a wide range of facilities, institutions, and organized activities.(Silvers and Wasserman, 2000) One of the main points that was brought up in lower court rulings and will continue to be is the walking rule that the PGA Tour has in place. The PGA rules clearly state that golfers are to walk the course. Many players regard that as a huge challenge in hot and humid conditions, as well as hilly terrain. But, walking has no other part in the competition. Golfers do not receive lower scores for faster walking, and no minimum pace or time is specified. Although, there are occasions where marshals ask players to pick up the pace. In 1998, the federal district courts addressed this important issue under Title III, “Was the proposed exception a reasonable modification, or would it fundamentally alter the nature of the activity in question?”

In enacting the ADA, Congress found that people with disabilities had been denied “the opportunity to compete on an equal basis” by pervasive discrimination, involving not only “outright intentional exclusion,” but also “architectural, transportation, and communication barriers.”(Silvers and Wasserman, 2000a) The Congress also found exclusionary qualification standards and criteria and the failure to make modifications to existing facilities and practices. The ADA treats discrimination against people with disabilities as a sin of omission and failure to remove barriers and make reasonable changes. The interpretation of Title III of the Americans with Disabilities Act by the Supreme Court will play a major role in this landmark case.

The Stance of the PGA Tour

The PGA Tour has taken some hits to its public image during this three-year ordeal, but has not sustained any fatal blows. In 1997, the public outcry was enormous against the tour. Many saw the PGA Tour as being elitist and unsympathetic to a person born with a handicap. Many media and fans followed Casey Martin during his first PGA event in January of 2000, but interest in him and the case have steadily diminished. The main reason seems to be, out of sight, out of mind. Martin’s best finish this year is seventeenth. Therefore, he hasn’t been on television much at all on Saturday or Sunday since he hasn’t been in contention. That appears to be fine with the PGA Tour. The less Casey is out of the public eye, the better for the PGA. The PGA Tour is just hoping the Supreme Court rules in their favor later this year.

The PGA has taken a firm stance on this issue. Tim Finchem, PGA Tour commissioner, says there are two main issues in the Casey Martin case. First, “The Tour should always have the ability to make its own rules and regulations. Second, walking is an integral part of the game and shouldn’t be lost.”(Strange, 1998)  All of today’s top players seem to be in agreement with their commissioner. Even Tiger Woods, who considers Casey Martin a good friend, doesn’t believe Martin should ride a cart. Woods and Martin were on the same team at Stanford University. Tiger’s opinions about Martin haven’t grabbed much attention and nothing seems to be getting in the way of Tiger’s Jordan-like popularity.

Two of the most famous names in golf are also very adamant on this issue. Arnold Palmer has given a deposition on behalf of the PGA saying that using a cart could, under some circumstances, provide a competitive advantage. Yet, Arnie rode a cart in one event on the Senior Tour last year. Jack Nicklaus has also told the PGA Tour that he is willing to speak on its behalf if it would help the cause. Other top golfers seem to avoid the topic at all costs. Davis Love III has made the words “no comment” an art form in his press conferences. Tiger Woods, Nicklaus, and Palmer appear to have images that are untouchable, but the second tier players have more to lose as far as their image and potential endorsements. The second tier players often make as much or more in endorsements than they do from playing the tour itself.

One of the PGA Tour’s most outspoken players is Curtis Strange, who is also a commentator for ABC Sports. Strange contends that we all must rule with our heads in this case and not our hearts. His main contention, like many others, is that golf is a walking game. By allowing Casey to ride a cart would be destroying the traditions of the game. He contends that fitness and stamina are an important part of the game of golf. Strange’s main assertion is that by making an exception to the tour’s walking-only rule, it would change the nature of the game and under certain conditions, give Martin an unfair advantage over the rest of the field.(Strange, 1998) Strange does admit, though, that one of the problems with the tour’s defense is that players on the Senior PGA Tour are allowed to ride carts. Players are also allowed to ride for the first two stages of the qualifying tournament for the PGA Tour.

With all this said, the PGA’s policy and stance are not consistent. If walking is essential to the tradition of the game, why are carts allowed on the Senior PGA Tour and the Q school? Even at one of the tour’s most famous courses, the TPC at Sawgrass, golfers are required to ride golf carts. In today’s golf world, many golfers have never walked 18 holes in their life. If walking is such a tradition, why do club professionals not push this aspect of the game more? Carts speed up the game tremendously, and therefore provide more revenue for the courses. The decision to use carts on public and private courses is money driven, pure and simple.

The Stanford Connection

Let’s look at three of the most famous golfers that Stanford has produced, and their public relations impact on the game of golf. Casey Martin and Notah Begay III redshirted during their junior year in 1992-1993, primarily to get the bulk of their schoolwork out of the way, so they would have more time for golf as fifth-year seniors. But their main motivation was getting to play with Tiger Woods if he enrolled in the fall of 1994. The year before Woods arrived, the Stanford team had their best year ever by winning the NCAA Championship. The first year Tiger was there, Stanford didn’t win the championship, but defeated all its opponents during the regular season. According to Coach Wally Goodwin, the Stanford team beat Oklahoma State by 50 strokes during one tournament, but ended up losing the championship to Oklahoma State in a playoff.

Notah Begay III, currently has a very positive image, but has created both good and bad publicity for the tour over the last two years. Notah is the only Native American on tour in the United States, and has been featured in numerous television and magazine articles. On November 12, 1999, he was even honored in his hometown of Albuquerque, with Notah Begay day.(Siderowf, 2000) Notah has been very instrumental in promoting the game of golf to the Native American community. Recently, community leaders and members of neighboring tribes gathered at the Landera Golf Course for golf, prayers, and a presentation for a $20,000 grant from the United States Golf Association. The grant will be used for the Canocito Band of the Navajos for their junior golf program. Begay is also national spokesman for the Native American Sports Council Sport Warrior Program.

For all the positive things that Notah has accomplished, there are also a couple of unforgettable moments. On January 19, 2000, Begay was arrested for his second DWI offense. However, Notah turned a negative point in his life into a positive one. Unlike many athletes today, he accepted total responsibility for his actions. Begay is even more popular with golf fans now, than before the DWI. He spoke to kids at a junior clinic, and told them he was going to jail. He told them that he made a bad decision and must take responsibility for it. Begay had to spend seven days in jail and pay a $1,000 fine. This standup guy mentality has done more to increase his good public image than his tournament wins. Although, the wins definitely help keep him in the spotlight. In 1999, he had two wins that totaled $1.255 million in earnings. In 2000 thus far, he also has two wins and has $1.649 million in earnings.

Another member of that Stanford Connection is Tiger Woods. Tiger’s unparalleled success over the last two years has forged golf into unprecedented growth. More children, women, and minorities are playing the game now than ever before. Television ratings are at an all time high. Talk about positive public relations and image, Tiger has pushed golf into unchartered popularity. Country club memberships are at an all time high. Woods has opened the door for other golfers in terms of endorsements and bigger purses for PGA Tour events. How has Tiger accomplished this public relations feat? Simple, he is winning and continues to win. In 1999, Woods had eight wins that totaled $6.6 million. In 2000 thus far, he has won nine times and has accumulated over $7 million in earnings.

Casey Martin, the third piece of the Stanford Connection, has not had the success of his college teammates. In 1999 on the Nike Tour, he entered 24 events. Martin made the cut only 13 times, and had nine Top 25 finishes. But, due to the small Nike Tour purses compared to the PGA Tour, he only earned $122,742 for his efforts. In 2000, his first year on the PGA Tour, he has entered 20 events and made the cut 11 times, with only one Top 25 finish. He has earned $117,354 so far this year. Due to Martin’s poor performance on the tour thus far, the interest from the media and fans has diminished. Casey wants to be known more for his golf game than his disability, but to accomplish this he must take his game to the next level. Winning is the best public relations tool he has.

The fate of Casey Martin’s future now rests in the hands of the Supreme Court. If the court rules against him, Martin will probably have to forfeit his dream as a professional golfer. He would more than likely end up being a club pro somewhere and that would be a shame. Casey Martin was born with a birth defect and the PGA should not punish him for that. He is simply trying to follow his dream. Any day that dream could end if he steps wrong into a hole or inadvertently damages his leg. The fibia bone in his right leg is that brittle.

The PGA Tour is on an all-time high in popularity. Whatever the court decides, the PGA Tour will continue to flourish. The PGA should drop the suit right now, but it won’t. Jack Nicklaus said the game wouldn’t be the same if Casey wins. But, Jack, wouldn’t that be a change for the better? Casey was born with a handicap. If this were Jack’s son Gary, who is a PGA Tour pro, I wonder if Jack would feel the same way. The PGA Tour and its players need to reevaluate their hearts and their positions on this issue. Casey Martin is a courageous young man, and his success could only enhance and improve the image of the game of golf.

References

Reilly, Rick. (1998, February 9). Give Casey Martin a lift. Sports Illustrated, No. 5(88), 140.

Charles, Nick. (1998, February 9). Fairway or no way. People Weekly, No. 5 (49) 48-49.

Curtis, Ted.(2000, May). Ticket to Ride? ABA Journal, 24.

Reilly, Rick.(2000, June 12). Setting a Sandy Trap? Sports Illustrated, No. 24(92), 28.

Strange, Curtis. (1998, March). Protecting the game. Golf Magazine, 32-33.

Cunneff, Tom. (1998, September). Great golf 101. Golf Magazine, No. 9 (40), 86-87.

Siderowf, Topsy. (2000, April). A bump in the road. Golf Digest, No. 4(51) p. 55.

Slim Enough to Swim? Weight Pressures for Competitive Swimmers and Coaching Implications

U.S. Sports Academy2013-11-26T22:16:12-06:00February 14th, 2008|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|

Swimmers found themselves in the spotlight at the 2000 Sydney Olympics and in the scrutiny of spectators and sport researchers alike. An attempt is often made to determine what the athlete is feeling behind the scenes and this article will focus on body weight concerns among swimmers. While sports such as gymnastics (Conviser, Fitzgibbon, & Kahn, 2000) and figure skating (Smith, 1997; Ryan, 1995) have been consistently labeled “leanness-demand” sports, the weight-related pressures for swimmers have been less clear. Benson and Taub (1993) reported that swimmers feel pressure to drop weight, “Swimmers may be especially vulnerable to disordered eating due to the display of their bodies in a tight and revealing team uniform” (p. 360).

Thompson and Sherman (1993) hypothesized that swimmers face unique pressures to lose weight in their sport. While the revealing team uniform has been reported by cheerleaders (Reel & Gill, 1998), for swimming there is the additional pressure that comes with the perception held by many top swim coaches that lower body weight and body fat improves swimming times. Thorton (1990) demonstrated that Olympic females were told to lose weight and body fat to cut times. “When freestyler Tiffany Cohen won her Olympic medals, her body fat was 22%. That percentage is considerably above the 15% that many coaches routinely advocate as an upper-end cutoff for elite female swimmers” (p. 120).

This study has the following purposes: (1) To identify most frequently reported weight-related stressors in swimming; (2) To examine the prevalence of weight concerns among female swimmers; and (3) To determine whether body concerns/stressors in swimming are related to social physique anxiety.

Method

Participants

Sixty-two female swimmers from 7 college swim teams participated. Swimmers weighed 99 to 190 pounds (M =134.21). Most swimmers reported wanting to lose weight (M=7.56 pounds), with one swimmer wanting to drop 37 pounds.

Measures

The Weight Pressures in Swimming (WPS) inventory was patterned after Reel & Gill’s (1996) CHEER instrument that measured weight pressures in cheerleading. Internal consistency for all 10 items was low, which resulted in dropping detracting items to obtain a stronger and more reliable measure (alpha=.71 )

The Social Physique Anxiety Scale (SPAS), a 12-item self-report measure developed by Hart, Leary and Rejeski (1989), measures one’s degree of social physique anxiety which has been defined as the degree of anxiety one experiences when presenting one’s body to others. Internal consistency for SPAS has been reported (alpha=.90) and validity has been supported by the moderate correlation of SPAS to other measures.

Results

Over half (51.6%) of swimmers agreed with the statement, “There are weight pressures in swimming.” Most frequently reported weight stressors were as follows: the revealing team uniform (swim suit) – 45.2%; the perception that lower weight helps swim performance (42%); teammates noticing weight (16.1%); crowd scrutinizing body (12.9%); and the feeling that the lightest swimmers have a performance advantage (9.7%). Positive responses to WPS are provided in Table 1.

Table 1. Positive Responses to WPS

Scores on SPAS ranged from very low (16) to very high (58 out of a possible 60). The mean score (M = 33.8, SD = 9.87) for the swimmers fell in the healthy (low SPAS) range. However, 16 female swimmers scored in the high SPAS range. Pearson correlational analyses revealed a moderate correlation (r=.51) between total WPS and SPAS scores, suggesting that weight concerns specific to swimming were related to body image. SPAS was also logically related to some individual items of WPS, including crowd stressor (r=.46), performance stressor (r=.42), teammate stressor (r=.27), and swim suit stressor (r=.26).

Discussion

Clearly, some swimmers are experiencing weight-related stressors in the competitive swimming environment. While the uniform and performance pressures were frequently cited, other stressors (e.g., crowd, teammates) were also reported. Interestingly, although competitive suits are typically one-piece styles, participants reported that suits are ordered in much smaller sizes to encourage a streamlining effect. Therefore, competitive swimmers often wear swimsuits that are 2 or more sizes smaller than their typical size, and in some cases youth sizes are worn to prevent drag. The beliefs that decreased weight and body fat are associated with increased performance are widespread. Unfortunately these beliefs are learned by young swimmers who preach them when they become coaches. Although many swimmers seem able to cope with the pressure to lose weight, some swimmers with high levels of social physique anxiety seemed to be “at-risk” for disordered eating.

Coaching Implications

Coaches may benefit from an awareness of weight-related pressures for competitive swimmers. It is important to understand that while swimmers may become more comfortable than the general public about wearing swim suits, that they may experience the stress associated with wearing very small and revealing suits for competitive purposes. More importantly, swim coaches need to be aware that while many swimmers may have healthy body image, there may be some swimmers that have highly negative feelings toward their body. It is anticipated that their negative self-thoughts may impact swim performance and attitudes toward competitive swim participation. A summary of coaching strategies for preventing weight stressors from occurring among competitive swimmers is provided in Appendix A.

Future research in this area should focus on coaching attitudes about body weight and swim performance. With the advent of the new Fast-skin suits, researchers should observe whether there are changes in weight-related attitudes. Weight-related stressors among male and female swimmers in Division I schools, Olympic swimmers, and youth swimmers should be explored in depth. It is clear that there are pressures related to body weight for collegiate female swimmers as outlined by one swimmer:

I cannot be as competitive because of my heavier bone structure. Going faster is easier for lighter people. Everyone changes in the dressing room together and the dressing room has a scale. Everyone on the team is always prone to gossip if there is anyone who is especially overweight or to compare themselves to the “skinny” people on the team.

References

Benson, R., & Taub, D.E. (1993). Using the PRECEDE model for causal analysis of bulimic tendencies among elite women swimmers. Journal of Health Education, 24(6), 360-368.

Conviser, J., Fitzgibbon, M., & Kahn, S. (2000). NCAA female gymnasts and eating disorders: A coach=s perspective. Paper presented at the Association for the Advancement of Applied Sport Psychology Conference. Nashville, TN.
Hart, E., Leary, M.R., & Rejeski, W.J. (1989). The measurement of social physique anxiety. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 11, 94-104.

Reel, J.J., & Gill, D.L. (1996). Psychosocial factors related to eating disorders among high school and college female cheerleaders. The Sport Psychologist, 10, 195-206.

Reel, J.J., & Gill, D.L. (1998). Weight concerns and disordered eating attitudes among male and female college cheerleaders. Women in Sport & Physical Activity Journal, 7(2), 79-94.

Ryan, J. (1995). Little girls in pretty boxes: The making and breaking of elite gymnasts and figure skaters. New York: Doubleday.
Smith, B. (1997). Behind the scenes of the world=s most glamorous sport: Talking figure skating. Toronto, Ontario: McClelland & Stewart.

Thompson, R.A., & Sherman, R.T. (1993). Helping athletes with eating disorders. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Thorton, J.S. (1990). Feast or Famine: Eating disorders in athletes. The Physician and Sportsmedicine, 18(4), 116-122.

Appendix A

Coaching Strategies

1. Eliminate weight requirements and weight-related goal-setting.
2. Avoid group weigh-ins.
3. Allow team members to choose team suit whenever possible.
4. Educate swimmers about muscle weighing more than fat.
5. Encourage swimmers to meet caloric intake needs.
6. Discourage team members from making weight-related comments to other swimmers.
7. Evaluate your beliefs about weight-performance relationship.
8. Monitor swimmers’ eating behavior/body concerns and look for “at-risk” swimmers.
9. Listen to swimmers’ concerns about weight and body.
10. Encourage “at-risk” swimmers to keep a food log to ensure adequate caloric intake.
11. Develop a referral network at your university or in your community so that
    you can refer an athlete as needed
12. Watch comments that suggest swimmers should drop weight to cut times

Author’s Note:

For editorial correspondence:
Justine Reel, Ph.D.
2312 Woodview Way
Malvern, PA 19355
Phone/Fax: 610-436-2148
jreel@wcupa.edu

The Fundamental Principles of Olympism

U.S. Sports Academy2015-11-08T07:40:40-06:00February 14th, 2008|Sports History|

The
goal of Olympism is to contribute to building a peaceful and better world
by educating youth through sport practised without discrimination of any
kind and in the Olympic spirit, which requires mutual understanding with
a spirit of friendship, solidarity and fair play.

Olympic Charter,
Fundamental Principles

Editorial Comment – Reach out for “Olympism”

U.S. Sports Academy2015-11-08T07:39:22-06:00February 14th, 2008|Sports History, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|

“The important thing in the Olympic Games is not to win, but to take part, just as the important thing in life is not the triumph, but the struggle; the essential thing is not to have conquered, but to have fought well.”
Baron Pierre de Coubertin – founder of the modern Olympic Games.

Olympism is a word foreign to most of us but familiar in its concept. You do not have to be an Olympic athlete to have Olympism. Olympism is about the pride in yourself gained through the glory of participation and the quest for achievement. The five ideals that should guide your life are embodied in the concept of Olympism: Vision, Focus, Commitment, Persistence and Discipline. Olympism is being the best you can be and gaining life’s tools to build self-confidence, self-esteem, personal effectiveness and the spirit of adventure.

We should reach out for Olympism. Embrace those ideals that Olympism represents. These ideals have lapsed from our consciousness and need revival. After over a century of the modern Olympic Games and the associated competition and sportsmanship the United States Olympic Academy is seeking to inspire all of us to accept these ideals.

Life can be difficult and the lessons of Olympism — Vision, Focus, Commitment, Persistence and Discipline — can help us overcome its obstacles. Sport can be a vehicle that instills the timeless values learned from participating and striving for a goal. Today’s youth needs strong values because the obstacles seem to be harder than in earlier times. The choices along the path of life today are many. Olympism can provide guidance and insight to young people to make the right choices with confidence. Olympism is the choice to participate and to make the best effort with the knowledge that you have given everything. We should encourage our young people to participate in life using the ideals learned through Olympism as a model. Whether in sports, music, academics we should instill the lesson that if you participate you win.

Did You Know?

U.S. Sports Academy2013-11-26T22:19:09-06:00February 14th, 2008|Sports History|

The Olympic flag was conceived by Pierre de Coubertin. The flag consists of five colored interlocking rings on a white background. The rings are blue, yellow, black, green, and red. After more than a century the flag still maintains its symbolism.

At least one of the colors is found in all of the flags of the world. The Olympic symbol of the interlocking rings represents the union of the five continents and the meeting of the athletes of the world at the Olympic games.

Beginning in 776 B.C., the Olympic Games were held in the valley of Olympia in Greece every four years for almost 1200 years. Inspired by the ancient Games, Baron Pierre de Coubertin created the modern Olympic Games.

First staged in 1896, they attracted about 245 athletes (all men) in 43 events. At the Sydney 2000 games, more than 10,000 athletes took part in 300 events. The Olympic Movement has survived wars, boycotts, and terrorism to become a symbol of the ability of the people of all nations to come together in peace and friendship.