Physical Activity – The Sport Journal

Effects of a Token Economy on Exercise Intensity and Intrinsic Motivation

Author: Andrew E. Alstot, Ph.D.

Department of Kinesiology, Azusa Pacific University, Azusa, CA
Orcid.org/0000-0003-0247-5600

Correspondence:
Andrew E. Alstot, Ph.D.
Department of Kinesiology
Azusa Pacific University
Physical Address: 701 E. Foothill Blvd.
Mailing Address: PO Box 7000
Azusa, CA 91702-7000
(P) 626-815-6075
aalstot@apu.edu

Andrew Alstot is an associate professor in the department of Kinesiology at Azusa Pacific University, primarily teaching in the Graduate Physical Education program. His research focus is on the use of the principles of applied behavior analysis in physical activity settings to improve exercise, skill, motivation, and social behavior. His teaching goals are to help to develop quality teachers, coaches, administrators, and other physical activity professionals to deliver research-based physical activity instruction and administration.

Effects of a Token Economy on Exercise Intensity and Intrinsic Motivation

Abstract

Purpose – Token economies, systems that use a variety of rewards to target behavior, have been shown useful in improving several physical activity-related behaviors. Yet, there is conflicting research on rewards-based systems’ impact on intrinsic motivation. When using rewards to improve behavior, it is recommended they be systematically withdrawn as time progresses. However, the effects of systems that withdraw rewards on exercise behavior and intrinsic motivation is unknown. Therefore, the purpose of the study was to examine the use of a token economy targeting exercise behavior and its impact on intrinsic motivation.

Methods – Participants rode a stationary bike for several baseline sessions where no rewards were administered; mean revolutions per minute (RPM) were calculated for each session. Then, participants were provided performance-based rewards on one of two schedules of reinforcement: (1) rewards were provided consistently across all token sessions or (2) rewards were systematically withdrawn with each subsequent token session. Intrinsic motivation was measured before the study and at the end of the last token session.

Results – Both rewards systems were effective in improving exercise intensity, with both groups showing distinct improvement in mean RPM during token sessions. Further, the system that withdrew rewards indicated no detriment to intrinsic motivation and for some, an improvement.

Conclusions and Applications in Sport – Fitness professionals, coaches, and educators may be able to use extrinsic rewards to improve exercise behavior and, if implemented properly, have no negative impact on their clients’, athletes’, and students’ intrinsic motivation for engaging in exercise.

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U.S. Sports Academy2022-08-23T11:24:59-05:00September 2nd, 2022|Research, Sports Health & Fitness|Comments Off

Recreational sport opportunities for youth with disabilities: Perspectives of recreation directors in New England

Authors: James MacGregor¹, Deb Risisky², Kevin McGinniss¹

¹ Department of Recreation, Tourism and Sport Management, Southern Connecticut State University, New Haven, Connecticut, USA.
² Department of Public Health, Southern Connecticut State University, New Haven, Connecticut, USA.

Corresponding Author:
James MacGregor, EdD
Department of Recreation, Tourism, and Sport Management
Southern Connecticut State University
501 Crescent Street
New Haven, CT 06514
Office: 203.392.6385
macgregorj1@southernct.edu

James MacGregor, EdD, is an Associate Professor and Chair of the Department of Recreation, Tourism, and Sport Management. His research areas include inclusion and recreation, disability studies, and sport leadership development.

Deb Risisky, PhD, is an Associate Professor of Public Health. Her research is in evaluation of adolescent health programs, youth violence, and educational success of youth.

Kevin McGinniss, EdD, is an Assistant Professor and Director of Sport Management in the Department of Recreation, Tourism, and Sport Management. His research is in intercollegiate athletics and disability sports.

Recreational Sport Opportunities for Youth with Disabilities

ABSTRACT

Purpose: Inclusive recreation practices are one of the most recognized means of providing recreational sport opportunities for youth with disabilities. Municipal recreation departments are responsible for ensuring opportunities to partake in youth sport programs. This study evaluates the extent to which recreation departments are providing inclusive recreational sport opportunities to individuals with disabilities.

Methods: This study employed a cross-sectional design mail survey to gather data from recreation directors across New England. The two dependent variables for this study are provision of inclusive services and perceived challenges to providing those services. The independent variables include director recreation/sport education, years as a director, and community size. Analysis included univariate, bivariate, and ANOVA for the quantitative data. Qualitative data were reviewed for commonalities.

Results: There were 136 respondents for a response rate of 34.8%. Most (85%) directors noted their agency provided some inclusive recreation. Areas of success included accessible facilities and accommodations/modifications. Areas of needed improvement included staff training and providing transportation for individuals with disabilities. The only significant factor was years as a Director (F=4.315; p=0.016). The multiple comparison test found statistical significance between those with the fewest years of experience (x̄=22.14) and highest experience (x̄=19.57). The top challenges in providing inclusive recreational sport was additional expense, and the lack of training for the provision of these services.

Conclusions: Without director support, inclusive recreation can be difficult to achieve. Director support, including making inclusion an agency priority, reflecting inclusion in the agency’s mission, and hiring practices was imperative to facilitating an inclusive recreation environment and program. Financial concerns and need for staff training are the biggest obstacles to providing inclusive recreational sport programming.

Applications in Sport: Training of recreation and youth sport staff members, including those that aspire to be directors, can have a great impact on opening opportunities for inclusive recreational sports. University academic recreation and sport management programs need to embed the principles and practices of inclusion into their curriculum. In-service training can be an important tool to increase inclusion offerings to the community, increasing the amount of staff members who can facilitate increased opportunities for inclusive recreational sport.

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U.S. Sports Academy2020-11-04T11:00:04-06:00November 17th, 2020|Research, Sports Coaching|Comments Off

The Impact of Gender on Perception of Risk During Exercise

Authors: Dr. Alexia Franzidis and Dr. Lindsey H. Schroeder

Corresponding Author:
Lindsey H. Schroeder Ed.D., LAT, ATC, CES
601 S. College Rd.
Wilmington NC, 28403-5956
schroederl@uncw.edu
910-962-7188

Dr. Franzidis is an associate professor and program coordinator at the University of North Carolina Wilmington for the Recreation, Sport Leadership, and Tourism Management Program.

Dr. Schroeder is an assistant professor at the University of North Carolina Wilmington in the Athletic Training Program. She is a licensed and certified athletic trainer and an alumnus of the United States Sports Academy.

The impact of gender on perception of risk during exercise

ABSTRACT

An individual’s decision to engage in physical activity is driven by perceived benefits and risks. Activities that are considered risky may have limited involvement or participation. As such, understanding risk perceptions of specific physical activities is important, specifically for college students, whose engagement in physical activity decreases during their transition from high school to college. The purpose of this study was to identify college students’ preferred exercise areas within the recreation center, their exercise frequency, and their perceptions of risk and injury. The participants in the study comprised 232 college students enrolled at a mid-sized public university located in southeastern North Carolina. Students completed a survey with three sections, focusing on demographics, workout behavior, and perceived exercise risks, respectively. Data were analyzed using SPSS version 26. Most of the participants were 18 years old (32.8%) and identified as female (56.9%). Significant gender differences were found. Gender influenced the number of hours students spent working out per week, the area of the recreation center utilized, and the exercise activities conducted, the perceptions of how injuries occur, and the number of supervisors present during their workout. The findings indicate a need for further educational programming in recreation centers regarding the proper use of all fitness equipment. Such education could increase usage in all areas, as well as decrease the perceived risks of using specific pieces of equipment, especially amongst women.

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U.S. Sports Academy2020-07-15T09:56:02-05:00September 25th, 2020|Research, Sports Health & Fitness|Comments Off

Sitting Time and Physical Activity Comparison between Student Athletes and Non-Athletes: A Pilot Study

Authors: Adam J. Swartzendruber, Karen A. Croteau

Corresponding Author:
Adam J. Swartzendruber
Saint Joseph’s College of Maine
Department of Sport and Exercise Science
278 Whites Bridge Rd.
Standish, ME 04062
aswartzendruber@sjcme.edu
207-893-7667

Adam J. Swartzendruber is an Assistant Professor of Sport and Exercise Science at Saint Joseph’s College of Maine.

Karen A. Croteau is Professor and Department Chair of Sport and Exercise Science at Saint Joseph’s College of Maine

Sitting Time and Physical Activity Comparison between Student Athletes and Non-Athletes: A Pilot Study

ABSTRACT

Sitting time among young college athletes may be greater than or equal to individuals considered inactive and not meeting Physical Activity (PA) recommendations. Meeting or exceeding PA guidelines alone may not be enough to overcome the deleterious cardiometabolic effects of high sitting time. In part, this may be made evident by an independent relationship between sitting time and PA. Data from 163 full-time college students aged 18-24 were collected. Mean sitting times and Light PA (LPA) were analyzed for differences between athletes and non-athletes. Correlation analysis was completed to determine the relationship between exercise time and sitting time. Mean daily sitting time was 10.96 ± 2.98 hours, and as a percentage of total wake time, 58.86 ± 0.08% of wake time was spent sitting. No statistically significant difference in mean sitting time, in minutes, was shown between athletes (M = 629.91 min., SD = 171.657) and non-athletes (M = 677.76, SD = 182.506), as the mean difference was M = -47.854, 95% CI [-110.216, 14.508], t(129) = -1.518, p = .131, d = .27. There was no significant correlation between daily sitting time and moderate-to-vigorous PA (MVPA) time, r_s (54) = .195, p = 0.154. Next, there was no significant difference in daily LPA between athletes (M = 102.45, SD = 75.209) and non-athletes (M = 111.87, SD = 100.481) in minutes, as the mean difference was M = -9.414, 95% CI [-41.204, 22.377], t(129) = -.586, p = .541, d = .10. These outcomes support previous studies showing that athletes can be highly active and highly sedentary because of the independent relationship between MPVA time and sitting time. Research must continue with other athletic populations, preferably using accelerometry, and include the collection of cardio-metabolic risk biomarkers to determine the potential for athletes to be at risk despite their high activity level.

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U.S. Sports Academy2020-06-01T08:35:00-05:00July 10th, 2020|Research, Sports Health & Fitness|Comments Off

The Role of Organized Youth Sports in Reducing Trends in Childhood Obesity

Authors: Alysia Cohen, Heidi Wegis, Darren Dutto, Viktor Bovbjerg

Corresponding Author:
Alysia Cohen, PhD, ATC, CSCS
1435 Village Drive
Ogden, UT 84408
alysiacohen@weber.edu
801-626-7115

Alysia Cohen is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Athletic Training at Weber State University.

The Role of Organized Youth Sports in Reducing Trends in Childhood Obesity

Abstract

Purpose: To examine physical activity (PA) levels of children playing youth sports and the relationship of recommended levels of PA to contextual factors of the organized youth sports environment that may boost fitness and health during childhood and adolescence. Methods: Accelerometer-measured PA was obtained from 167 children (85 male, 82 female) aged 7-13 years. Sport contextual factors were recorded via direct observation of 29 coaches. PA levels were examined by age, gender, and between group variability. Direct observation intervals were analyzed by category using the Chi-square statistic for degree of association to moderate-to vigorous-intensity physical activity (MVPA). Results: On average children spent 21.9 ±7.9 minutes in MVPA during sport practices (< 50% of practice time). Proportion of practice time MVPA was lower among females (28.7 ± 7.2%) than males (35.0 ± 9.1%). Proportion of practice time MVPA was higher among children (male and female) aged 7-9 years (32.6 ± 1.4%) compared to children aged 10-13 years (30.66 ±1.25%). Longer practice times were not shown to increase the proportion of time spent in MVPA. The most frequently observed sport activities were sports drills (51.6%), activities involving all players (37.8%), management/general instruction (52.3%), and proximal positioning of the coach (99.5%). Management and general instruction coaching behavior was not significantly associated with MVPA but did consume a prominent proportion of practice time. Health-related fitness activities made up 1.7% of practice time. Conclusions: In comparison with recommendations, youth sports appear active, however, a large portion of practice time is sedentary suggesting room for improvement. Including fun non-specific or specific sport activities that promote participation from all players and increase heart rate. Fun play experiences during sport practices may encourage greater in active play within and outside of sport with behaviors persisting into adolescence and adulthood. Applications in Sport: Training coaches to teach fun sport activities that engage all players would improve within practice active time and enjoyable experiences that may promote future participation in sport or activity outside of sport.

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U.S. Sports Academy2020-06-02T11:25:00-05:00December 27th, 2019|Research, Sports Health & Fitness|Comments Off