Preschool Children’s Level of Proficiency in Motor Skills and the Level of their Physical Fitness as Adolescents

Full Title: A longitudinal study to determine and comprehend the relationship between preschool children’s level of proficiency in motor skills and the level of their physical fitness as adolescents

Abstract

The epidemic of pediatric obesity and associated health-related issues in America is correlated with sedentary behavior and physical inactivity. The purpose of this longitudinal research study was twofold: a) to determine if a relationship existed between the level of motor skill proficiency among children at preschool and the level of physical fitness in adolescence and b) to determine if the embedding of learned motor patterns associated with physical activity correlated with physical fitness longitudinally. In 1988, the Test of Gross Motor Development (TGMD), which assesses locomotor and object control skills, was administered to 140 preschool-aged children, ages 4 to 6 years, who were recruited purposively from two day care centers in a large metropolitan city. In 1999, the American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance (AAHPERD) Fitness test, which has correlational validity with the TGMD (p < 0.01) and assesses cardiorespiratory, muscular/strength, flexibility, and body composition, was administered to 140 of the original subjects, aged 14 to16 years. Data analysis was completed using multivariate statistical procedures. Results indicate that the level of proficiency in motor skills in early childhood is predictive and correlates with the level of physical fitness in adolescence (p < 0.001). Further, embedded motor patterns in the primary motor cortex can be physically assessed and correlate with the presence or absence of the targeted learning physical activity objectives. Physical activity in early childhood is positively correlated with physical fitness in adolescence, supporting the importance of pedagogical practices in physical education that promote the physiological and psychological embedding of behaviors which encourage physical activity. Future research is warranted to determine the relationship between physical fitness and cognitive development in children and adolescents.

Key Words: Adolescent, Childhood, Fitness, Abilities

Introduction

According to the Centers for Disease Control (CDC), in the year 2000, 64% of adults in the United States were overweight, depicting an epidemic of individuals at risk for health-related issues associated with obesity (6). As stated in Healthy People 2010, young citizens are potentially vulnerable for becoming sedentary with progressive age and a goal of the United States is to improve the health, fitness, and quality of lives through participation in daily physical activity (7).

Sedentary behavior is correlated with an increased incidence of cardio respiratory and endocrinologic disorders, including hyperlipedemia and Type II diabetes mellitus in children and adults (5). Immunologic dysfunction has likewise been associated with inactivity, and the reduction in the levels of circulating lymphocytes, particularly CD4 and CD8 cells, essential for the control of the development of malignancy, has been noted in sedentary patients (4). Eosinophilic proliferation, which is critical in the suppression of allergic reactions, has also been correlated with exercise (3). Further, hypokinetic activity is associated with the progression of cognitive and executive function decline in individuals with neurologic disorders such as Alzheimer’s and multi-infarct brain syndrome (2). Minimal human research has been conducted regarding cognition and exercise in normative pediatric cohorts. However, animal research correlates increased neurogenesis and the proliferation of neuronal cells, components associated with increased memory and learning capabilities, with physical activity levels (8).

The embedding of motor patterns in the primary motor cortex occurs in infancy and the repetition of rudimentary movements provides the foundation for the development of progressively more complex motor activities (1). Physiological attributes are associated with primary motor cortex development which naturally occurs throughout the human growth and development cycles (2). The literature is bereft of research which explores the relationship between early childhood physical activities and maintained physical fitness levels. The purpose of this longitudinal research study was twofold: a) to determine if a relationship existed between the level of motor skill proficiency among children at pre-school and the level of physical fitness in adolescence and, b) to determine if the embedding of learned motor patterns associated with physical activity correlated with physical fitness longitudinally.

Methods

In 1988, the Test of Gross Motor Development (TGMD), which assesses locomotor and object control skills, was administered to 140 healthy preschool children, aged 4 to 6 years, who were purposively recruited from two day care centers in a large metropolitan city. In 1999, the AAHPERD fitness test, which has correlational validity with the TGMD (p < 0.01) and assesses cardiorespiratory, muscular/strength, flexibility, and body composition, was administered to 140 of the original subjects, aged 14 to 16 years. Data analysis was completed using multivariate statistical procedures.

Results

Results indicate that the level of proficiency in motor skills in early childhood is predictive and correlates with the level of physical fitness in adolescence (p < 0.001) (Tables 1-5). Specific physical attributes associated with locomotor and manipulative skills measured at baseline and in adolescence by the TGMD and AAHPERD indicate primary motor cortex development, evident in limb and forearm movement, muscle composition, and coordination required to longitudinally perform physical activities, such as running, skipping, galloping, etc. (Table 6). Development and progression of skill acquisition is individualized, requiring assessment and instruction relative to the child. Implications for curriculum development for the training of physical education professionals is suggested in light of the physiological and neurological aspects of skill development.

Table 1
Means of TGMD and AAHPERD Scores

Table 2
Linear Regression: Time To Run 1.5 Miles

Table 3
Linear Regression Number Sit-ups

Table 4
Linear Regression Flexibility / Reach

Table 5
Linear Regression: Triceps Once / Body Composition

Table 6
Physical Assessment and Corresponding Motor Cortex Development

Discussions and Conclusions

Physical activity in early childhood is positively correlated with physical fitness in adolescence, supporting the importance of pedagogical practices in physical education that promote the physiological and psychological embedding of behaviors which encourage physical activity. Further, physical assessment of attributes which correlate with primary motor cortex growth and development supports the presence or absence of embedded motor skills, supporting the need for tailoring specific lesson plans for motor cortex growth and development for individual learners. The development of assessment protocols and recommendations and educator training modules is warranted in light of the results of this research study.

Applications in Sports

Comprehension of the cerebral function in motor skills development is essential for the physical educator. In the acquisition of motor skills which facilitate learning of particular sports, specific and associated movements and patterns correlate with motor cortex growth and development. Therefore, comprehension of the physiology and stage of motor skill is essential for coaches and physical educators to enhance individual and team performance.

References

Fisher, A., Reilly, J. J., Kelly, L. A., Montgomery, C., Williamson, A., Paton J. Y., & Grant, S. (2005). Fundamental movement skills and habitual physical activity in young children. Medicine Science in Sports & Exercise 37(4): 684-688.

Hillman, C., Erickson, K., Kramer, A. (2008). Be smart, exercise your heart: Exercise effects on brain and cognition. Nature Reviews Neuroscience 40 (1): 166-172.

Leppo, M. (1978). Exercise: A facilitator in returning the body to homeostasis following stress as measured by a total white blood cell and eosinphil count. Dissertation Abstracts 39(6).

Maini, M. K., Gilson, N, Chavada, S., Gill, A., Fakoya, E., (2008). Reference ranges and sources of variability of CD4 counts in HIV-seronegative women and men. Genitourinary Medicine 72(1): (27-31).

McCloskey, M., Adamo, D., & Anderson, B. (2001). Exercise increases metabolic capacity in the motor cortex and striatum, but not the hippocampus. Brain Research 891(1): 168-175.

Mokdad, A., Marks, J., Stroup, D., & Gerberding, J. (Centers for Disease Control). (2004). Actual causes of death in the United States, 2000. JAMA 291(1): 1238-1245.

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2000). Healthy People 2010. (2nd Edition). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Zhang, C., Yehusa, H., Weiman, G., Fried, H., & Evans, R. (2008). A role for adult TL4 positive neural cells in learning and behavior. Nature 21(1): 1004-1007.

Corresponding Author

Michelle Reillo, RN, PhD: gasbear@aol.com